Research Methodology Assignment

Farhad Bharucha

Roll No: 18

MMM Semester-1
What is Research?

Research is a common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define
research as a scientific and systematic search for information. Infact research is an art of
scientific investigation. Some people consider research as a movement from the known to the
unknown. It is a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for
when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and
attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all
knowledge and the method which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the
unknown can be termed as research.

Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to the Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; at the last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

In Short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solutions to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the
formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term research refers to the systematic
method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis ,collecting the facts
or data analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions
towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisation for some theoretical formulation.
Characteristics Of A Good Research:-

 An interesting, open-ended question

 Complex subjects/participants
 Conclusions that beg new questions
 A good guiding question that focuses the research's perspective and data collection
 Fair, balanced acknowledgment of prior research on the topic
 New answers to old questions
 Answers to new questions
 Conclusions must be sound
 As a result of good research, old questions should be subsumed by new questions that
go beyond the original scope of the problem the research must be presented in a
compelling way - good research is useless if it causes drowsiness
Describe The Process of Research?

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps mentioned as follows:

1. Formulating The Research Problem:

There are 2 types of research problems. Those which relate to states of nature and
those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset, the
researcher must single out the problem he wants to study. Initially the problem may
be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities if any relating to the
problem be resolved. Then the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered
before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a
general topic into a specific research problem thus constitutes the first step in a
scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research
problem i.e. understanding the problem thoroughly and rephrasing the same into
meaningful term from an analytical point of view

The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues
or with those having some expertise in the matter. In private business units or in
government organisations, the problem is usually marked by the administrative
agencies with which the researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came
about and what considerations are involved in its possible solutions.

The researcher must at the same time, examine all available literature to get himself
acquainted with the selected problem. He may review 2 types of literature. The
conceptual literature concerning the concepts of theories and the empirical literature
consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed. This task of
formulating or defining a research problem is a step of greatest importance in the
entire research process.

2. Extensive Literature Survey:

Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is
compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a PHD degree to write a synopsis
of the topic and submit it to the necessary committee of the research board. At this
 juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the
problem. For this purpose, abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to look. Academic journals, govt reports,
books, etc. Must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. A good library will
be of great help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Development of Working Hypothesis:

After extensive literature survey, researchers should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and
test its logical consequences. The development of research hypothesis in a particular
manner is important as they provide focal point for the research. Hypothesis should be
very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.
The role of hypothesis is to guide the researcher by de-limiting the area of research and
to keep him on the right track. Working hypothesis is more useful when stated in
precise and clearly defined terms. It may as well be remembered that occasionally we
may encounter a problem where we do not need working hypothesis. But as a general
rule, specifications of working hypothesis is another basic step of the research process
in most research problems.

4. Preparing the Research Design:

The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible
yielding maximum information. In other words, the functions of research design are to
provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure on time,
effort and money. Research purposes may be grouped into 4 categories.
(i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, (iv) Experimentation.
A flexible research design which provides opportunities for considering different
aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is
that of exploration.

The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem

commonly involves the consideration of the following
I. The means of obtaining the information;
II. The availability and skills of the researcher and staff;
 III. Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will
be organised and the reasoning leading to the selection;
IV. The time available for research;
V. The cost factor relating to research i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

5. Determining The Sample Design:

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry, constitute a ‘universe’ or
population. A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as a
census inquiry. it can be presumed that in such an inquiry hen all the items are covered
no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained but in practise this may
not be true even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and
larger as the no. of observations increases, moreover, there is no way of checking the
element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey in use of sample checks.
Besides this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy not only
this, census inquiry is not possible in practise under many circumstances.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known
as a sample design in other words sample design is a definite plan determined before
any data is actually designed for obtaining a sample forma given population. Thus the
plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstore in certain way constitutes a sample design.
Samples can be either probability samples or non probability samples. with probability
samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the
non probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.
Probability samples are those based on the simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, cluster sampling whereas non probability samples are those based on
convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.
A brief mention of the important sample designs is a follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling
(ii) Simple random sampling
(iii) Systematic sampling
(iv) Stratified sampling
(v) Quota sampling
(vi) Cluster sampling
(vii) Multi-stage sampling
 (viii) Sequential sampling

It may be pointed out here that normally one should resort to random sampling so that bias
can be eliminated and sampling error can be estimated. The sample design to be used must be
decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of inquiry and the other related
factors.

6. Collecting The Data:

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate
and hence it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. there are several
ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. if the
researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or
the data ,with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following
ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of
investigator’s own observations, without interviewing the respondent. the
information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not
complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes o
respondents. It is an expensive method of survey and the information provided
is also very limited.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and
seeks answer to set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews.
The ability of the interviewer plays a big role.
(iii) Through telephonic interviews: this method of collecting information involves
contacting the respondent through telephone. this is not a very widely used
method it is mainly used when the survey has to be completed in a very short
time span.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaire: questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with
a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used
method in various economic and business surveys. The questionnaires to be
 used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in
collecting the relevant information.
(v) Through schedule: under this method the enumerators are appointed and given
training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions.
These enumerators go to respondents with the schedule. Data are collected by
filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by
respondents. Much depends on the capability of enumerators so far as this
method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the
enumerators may ensure sincere work.

7. Execution of Project
Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be
adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time. If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangement should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The
training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the
job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure
that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. A careful
watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much
realistic as possible.

8. Analysis of data:
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through
coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. Thus, researcher should
classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is
usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into
symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the
quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation
is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of
tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of
data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers.
 Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various
percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In
the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with
original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine
with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion.

9. Hypothesis testing:

After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypothesis or
they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while
testing hypothesis. Basis test such as chi square test, t-test, f-test, have been developed
by statisticians for the purpose. Hypothesis may be tested through the use of one or
more such tests. Depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis
testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or rejecting it. If the researcher had
no hypothesis to start with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be
stated as hypothesis to be tested by subsequent researches in time to come.

10. Generalisation and interpretation:

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher
to arrive at generalisation i.e. to build a theory. As method of fact, the real value of
research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations if the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some
theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often
trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
TYPES OF RESEARCH

The basic types of research are as follows:-

 Descriptive Vs Analytical: descriptive research includes surveys and fact finding

inquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is the
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and
business research we often use the terms ex-post facto for descriptive research
studies. The main characteristics of this method are that the researcher has no
control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is
happening. Ex-post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover
causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research
utilised in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds including
comparative and co relational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand,
there researcher as to use facts or resources already available and analyse these to
make a critical evaluation of the material.
 Applied Vs Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental ( to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a
solution for an immediate problem facing a society whereas fundamental research
is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
Research concerning some natural phenomenal or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of fundamental research. Similarly research studies concerning human
behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour
are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain
conclusions ( say a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research. Thus the central aim of applied research is to
discover a solution for some practical problem whereas basic research is directed
towards finding information that has a broad base of application and thus, adds to
already existing organised body of scientific knowledge.
 Quantitative Vs Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement
of quantity or amount. It is applicable to anything that can be expressed in terms
of quantity. Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon that is
involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are investigating human
behaviour, we quite often talk of qualitative research. This type of research aims
 at discovering the underlined motives and desires using in depth interviews for the
purpose. Other techniques are word association test, sentence completion test,
story completion test and similar other projective techniques. Through such
research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in a
particular manner. Practically, qualitative research is relatively a difficult job.
 Conceptual Vs Empirical: Conceptual research is that related some abstract idea
or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone. It is data based research coming up with conclusions which are
capable of being verified by observation or experimentation. It can also be called
experimental kind of research. In such a research it is necessary facts at first hand
at their source and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is
sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence
gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the
most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
 Some Other Types Of Research: All other types of research are variations of
one or more of the above stated approaches based one either time required
purpose of research or environment. From the point of view of time, we can think
of research either as one time research or longitudinal research. Research can be
field setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending
upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can well be
understood as clinical research or diagnostic research. Such research follows case
study methods to reach the basic casual definitions. Historical research is that
which utilises historical sources like documents, names etc. To study events of the
past. Research can also be classified as conclusion oriented and decision oriented.
In conclusion, oriental research, the researcher is free to pick up a problem,
redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualise as he
proceeds. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker
and the researcher is not free to pick up any problem. Operations research is an
example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing
executive departments with a quantitative basis for decision regarding operations
under their control
The Different Steps in Report Writing

Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task
remains incomplete till the report has been presented or written. There are people who do not
consider report writing as an integral part of the research process. Writing of report is the last
step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for
in respect of the earlier stages of research.

Research reports are the products of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual
steps involved in writing report are:-

a) Logical analysis of the subject matter

b) Preparation of the final outline
c) Preparation of the rough draft
d) Writing and polishing
e) Preparation of the final bibliography
f) Writing the final draft.

Though all these steps are self explanatory, yet a brief mention of each one of these will
be appropriate for a better understanding.

a) Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned
with the development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject.
Logically and chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of
mental connections and associations between the one thing and other by means of
analysis. Chronological development is based on a connection or a sequence in time
or occurrence. The directions for doing or making something usually follows the
chronological order.
b) Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report;
outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are
an aid to the logical organisation of the material and a reminder of the points to be
stressed in the report.
c) Preparation of the rough draft: such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher
now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research study. He will
write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study
along with various limitations faced by him. The technique of analysis adopted by
 him, the broad findings and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the
problem concerned.
d) Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This is the most difficult part of formal
writing. This step usually requires a lot of time. While rewriting and polishing, one
should check the report for weakness in logical presentation. The researcher should
also see whether or not the material, as it is presented has unity and cohesion. He
should check the mechanics of writing-grammar, spelling and usage.
e) Preparation of final bibliography: The bibliography which is generally appended to
the research report is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has
been done. It should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted. The
bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and could be divided into two parts.
One being name of books and the other being magazines and newspaper articles.
Generally this pattern of bibliography is considered convenient and satisfactory from
the point of view of the reader.
f) Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written
in a concise and objective style and in simple language. The researcher must avoid
abstract terminology and technical jargons. A research report should not be dull, but
must enthuse people and maintain interest and must show originality. It must be
remembered that every report should be an attempt to resolve some intellectual
problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.
 Different Types of Reports

A) Technical Report:

A Technical report can also be called a Scientific report it is a document that describes

the process, progress, and or results of technical or scientific research or the state of a
technical or scientific research problem. It might also include recommendations and
conclusion of the research. Unlike other scientific literature, such as scientific journals
and the proceedings of some academic conferences, technical reports rarely undergo
comprehensive independent peer review before publication. Where there is a review
process, it is often limited to within the originating organization.

Technical reports are often prepared for sponsors of research projects. Another case
where a technical report may be produced is when more information is produced for an
academic paper than is acceptable or feasible to publish in a peer-reviewed publication;
examples of this include in-depth experimental details, additional results, or the
architecture of a computer model.

The General outline of a technical report can be as follows:

1. Summary of report
2. Nature of the study
3. Methods employed
4. Data
5. Analysis of the data and presentation of findings
6. Conclusion
7. Bibliography
8. Technical appendices
9. Index

The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report,the
order of presentation may not always be the same, this means that the presentation may vary
in different reports.
 B) Popular Report:

The popular report is one which gives importance to simplicity and attractiveness. The
simplicity should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly
mathematical, details and liberal use of chats and diagrams. Attractive layout along with
large print, many sub-headings, even an occasional cartoon now and then is another
characteristic of a popular report.In such reports importance is given to practical aspects
and policy implications.

Given below is a general outline of a popular report;

1. The findings and their implications

2. Recommendations for actions
3. Objective of the study
4. Methods employed
5. Results
6. Technical appendices

There can be several variation of the form in which a popular report can be prepared. The
only important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy
implications from the operational point f view, avoiding he technical details of all sorts to the
extent possible.
Define the Term Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is an idea or a suggestion, often to explain something whose cause is

unknown. In formal science, a hypothesis is a testable statement. Term derives from the
Greek, hyposthenia meaning "to put under" or "to suppose."

Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive

reasoning). It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the
observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction may also invoke statistics and
only talk about probabilities.

Hypothesis is usually considered as the principal instrument in research. Its main

function is to suggest new observations and experiments. In fact many experiments are
carried out with the deliberate objective of finding hypothesis. In social science, where
direct knowledge of population parameters is rare, hypothesis testing is the often used
strategy for deciding whether a sample data offer such support for a hypothesis that
generalisation can be made.

Ordinarily then one speaks about hypothesis, one simply means a mere assumption or
some supposition to be proved or disproved. But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal
question that he intends to resolve. thus a hypothesis may be proposed as a proposition or
a set of proposition set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group
of phenomena either asserted or merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some
investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts.

For example, consider statements like the following ones:

“Students who receive counselling will show a greater increase in the creativity than
students not receiving counselling”

Or

“The automobile ‘A’ is performing as well as automobile ‘B’.

These are hypothesis capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus we may
conclude that a hypotheses states what we are looking for and it is a proposition which
can be put to test to determine its validity.