1.

1 Types of Injection Molds 1

1 Principles of Mold Design as possible. When working on a new problem, the

mold designer can then see how such a mold is to be
designed or was designed in similar cases. He will
Critical analysis of a large number of injection always, however, make an effort to evaluate the
molds for parts from all areas of application leads to previous experience and create something even
the realization that there are certain classes and better instead of simply keeping to what was done
groups that differ from one another in some basic previously. One basic requirement that must be met
manner. Naturally, such a classification cannot con- by every mold that is intended to run on an auto-
tain all possible combinations of the individual classes matic injection molding machine is that the molded
and groups if it is to remain clear. It is conceiv- parts be ejected automatically without the need for
able that new knowledge and experience will require secondary finishing operations (degating, ma-
expansion and reorganization. chining to final dimensions, etc.)
Nevertheless, such a classification fulfills its purpose From a practical standpoint, the classification of
if it conveys the previously collected experience injection molds should be accomplished on the basis
with regard to mold design as clearly and thoroughly of the major features of the design and operation.
These include:
– the type of gating=runner system and means of
separation,
– the type of ejection used for the molded parts,
– the presence or absence of external or internal
undercuts on the part to be molded,
– the manner in which the molded part is released.
Figure 1.1 shows a procedure to methodically plan
and design injection molds.
The finite element method (FEM) along with
computational methods such as Cadform, Cadmold,
Moldflow, etc. are being used increasingly to design
and dimension parts and the associated injection
molds. With these methods, development time and
costs can be saved, while the serviceability of the
molded parts is optimized.
The final mold design can be prepared only after the
part design has been specified and all requirements
affecting the design of the mold have been clarified.

1.1 Types of Injection Molds

Injection and compression molds for molding
compounds are generally classified on the basis of
the following criteria:
– standard molds (two-plate molds),
– split-cavity molds (split-follower molds),
– stripper plate molds,
– three-plate molds,
– stack molds,
– hot-runner molds.
Generally, injection molds are used for processing
– thermoplastics,
– thermosets, and
– elastomers.
There are also cold-runner molds for runnerless
processing of thermosetting resins in analogy to the
hot runner molds used for processing thermoplastic
compounds and elastomers.
If it is not possible to locate runners in the mold
parting line or each of the parts in a multiple-cavity
mold is to be center-gated, a second parting line
Figure 1.1 Flow chart for methodical designing of injection (three-plate mold) is required to remove the solidi-
molds fied runner or melt must be conveyed by means of a
2 1 Principles of Mold Design

hot runner system. In stack molds, two molds are 1.2 Types of Runners and Gates
connected one behind the other for all practical
purposes without the need for doubling the clamp
force. A prerequisite for such molds is a large 1.2.1 Solidifying Systems
number of relatively simple as well as shallow parts.
Low production costs are the particular advantage of A distinction is made between the:
operating such a mold. Today, stack molds are – runner as part of the injection molded shot that
equipped exclusively with hot runner systems that does not belong to the molded part,
must satisfy quite stringent requirements with regard – runner system as the channel through which
to thermal homogeneity in particular. plasticated melt is conveyed from its point of
Ejector pins are used most often to eject the molded entry into the mold up the gate,
parts. They also often serve to vent the cavity. With – gate as the cross-section of the runner system at
electrical discharge machining (EDM) having the location where it feeds into the mold cavity.
become so common, proper venting has become The flow path of the melt into the cavity should be
increasingly important. Whereas cavities were as short as possible in order to minimize pressure
previously built up from several components with and heat losses. The type and location of runner=
the possibility of incorporating effective venting at gate are of importance for:
the respective mating surfaces, it is possible today by – economical production,
means of EDM to produce cavities in a solid block – properties of the molded part,
in many cases. Special care must thus be taken to – tolerances,
ensure that the melt displaces the air completely. – weld lines,
Measures must also be taken to ensure that entrap- – magnitude of molded-in stresses, etc.
ped air is avoided at particularly critical locations. A The following provides an overview of the most
poorly vented cavity can lead to the formation of commonly encountered types of solidifying runner
deposits in the mold, burning (the so-called diesel systems and gates.
effect) and even corrosion problems. The size of a – Sprue (Fig. 1.2)
vent is determined primarily by the melt viscosity. Is generally used for relatively thick walled parts
Vents are generally between 0.01 mm and 0.02 mm or for gentle processing of highly viscous melts.
in size. With extremely easy-flowing resins, vents on The sprue must be removed from the molded
the order of  0.001 mm in size may already be part after ejection.
adequate. It should be noted, however, that effective – Pinpoint (Fig. 1.3)
cooling is generally not possible wherever a vent is In contrast to the sprue, the poinpoint gate is
placed. Vent parts – such as inserts of sintered metal generally separated from the molded part auto-
– need regular maintenance, however, because the matically. If the gate vestige causes problems, the
pores become clogged with material over time. gate ‘‘d’’ can be located in a lens-shaped
Correct positioning of vent parts in the cavity is depression in the surface of the molded part.
therefore important. Commercially available pneumatic nozzles are
Moving mold components must be guided and also used for automatic ejection of a runner with
centered. The guidance provided by the tiebars for pinpoint gate.
the moving platen of an injection molding machine – Diaphragm gate (Fig. 1.4)
should be considered as rough alignment at best. The diaphragm is useful for producing, for
‘‘Internal alignment’’ within the injection mold is instance, bushings with the highest possible
necessary in any case. degree of concentricity while avoiding weld
Tool steels are the preferred material for injection lines. The necessity of having to remove the gate
molds. Selection of the material should be made by means of subsequent machining is a disad-
quite carefully on the basis of the resins to be vantage, as is the support of the core on only one
processed. Requirements that must be met by the side.
tool steels include: – Disk gate (Fig. 1.5)
– high wear resistance, This is used preferably for internal gating of
– high corrosion resistance, cylindrical parts in order to eliminate disturbing
– high dimensional stability, etc. (see also Section weld lines. With fibrous reinforcements such as
1.9). glass fibers, for instance, the disk gate can
Molds of aluminum alloys, such as AlZuMgCu1.5, increase the tendency for distortion. The disk
are gaining in popularity, particularly on account of gate must also be removed subsequent to part
their ejection.
– low weight, – Film gate (Fig. 1.6)
– good machinability (high cutting speed), To obtain flat molded parts with few molded-in
– high corrosion resistance, stresses and little tendency to warp, a film gate
– high thermal conductivity (possibility of cutting over the entire width of the molded part is useful
cycle time), and in providing a uniform flow front. A certain
– ease of erosion. tendency of the melt to advance faster in the
 1.2 Types of Runners and Gates 3

Figure 1.2 Conventional sprue

a ¼ draft, s ¼ wall thickness, d ¼ sprue (diameter), d 5 s, d 5 0.5

Figure 1.6 Flash (film) gate preferred for large-area parts

Figure 1.3 Pinpoint gate, d 4 2=3 s

Figure 1.7 Submarine (tunnel) gate

Figure 1.4 Diaphragm gate

– Submarine gate (Fig. 1.7)
Depending on the arrangement, this gate is
trimmed off the molded part during opening of
the mold or at the moment of ejection by means
of a specified cutting edge. The submarine gate
is especially useful when gating parts from the
side. The lower part of Fig. 1.7 shows a
submarine gating formed as a truncated cone.
This design permits longer holding pressure
times because of its greater cross-section than
Figure 1.5 Disk gate
the conical pointed gating in the upper part and
prevents jetting during injection. With abrasive
vicinity of the sprue can be offset by correcting molded compounds, increased wear of the
the cross-section of the gate. In single-cavity cutting edge in particular is to be expected. This
molds, however, the eccentric location of the gate may lead to problems with automatic degating.
can lead to opening of the mold on one side, with Runner systems should be designed to provide the
subsequent formation of flash. The film gate is shortest possible flow paths and avoid unnecessary
usually trimmed off the part after ejection, but changes in direction while achieving simultaneous
this generally does not impair automatic opera- and uniform filling of cavities regardless of position
tion. in multi-cavity molds (assuming that all cavities are
4 1 Principles of Mold Design

the same) and ensuring that the duration of holding The design principles employed for various hot-
pressure is identical for each cavity. runner systems can differ considerably. This applies
Star- as well as ring-shaped runner systems (see Fig. to both the hot-runner manifold and the hot-runner
1.8) offer the advantage of identical and shortest nozzles, the type and design of which can have a
possible flow paths. They are a disadvantage, considerable influence on the properties of a molded
part (Table 1).

Table 1 Types of hot-runner systems

Component Type
Hot-runner manifold Externally heated
Internally heated
Manner of heating the Externally heated, direct
hot-runner nozzles Externally heated, indirect
Figure 1.8 Star-shaped runner Internally heated, direct
Internally heated, indirect
Internally and externally heated
however, when slides must be employed. In this Type of hot-runner nozzles Open nozzles, with or without
case, in-line runner systems (see Fig. 1.9A) are Torpedo; needle shutoff
useful, but have the disadvantage of unequal flow
path lengths. This deficiency can, however, be offset
The various hot-runner systems are not necessarily
equally well suited for processing of all thermo-
plastics, even though this may be claimed occa-
sionally. Thermally gentle processing of the melt to
the greatest degree possible should be considered a
particular criterion. From a heat transfer standpoint,
Figure 1.9 In-line runners this requires very involved design principles.
A: unequal flow path lengths; B: equal flow path lengths
Accordingly, hot-runner systems satisfying such
requirements are more complex, more sensitive and
to a very high degree by artificially balancing the possibly more prone to malfunction than conven-
runner system with the aid of a Moldflow analysis, tional injection molds. As for the rest, the guidelines
for instance. This is achieved by varying the of precision machining must be observed to a very
diameter of the runner channels, but not the cross- high degree when manufacturing such molds. When
section of the respective gates. A naturally balanced processing abrasive and=or corrosive molding
in-line runner system is shown in Fig. 1.9B. This compounds, the hot-runner system must be suitably
arrangement, however, generally leads to a relatively protected. For instance, it may be necessary to take
unfavorable ratio of molded part volume to runner into consideration the incompatibility of the melt
system volume. with respect to copper and copper alloys, which may
lead to catalytically induced degradation (i.e.
1.2.2 Hot-Runner Systems molding POM). Suitably protected systems are
available from suppliers. For the sake of better
Hot-runner systems are employed for so-called temperature control, hot-runner systems with closed-
‘‘runnerless’’ injection molding of parts from ther- loop should be given preference to those with open-
moplastic resins. It is also advantageous to use loop control.
partial hot-runner systems, i.e. those with secondary In medium-sized and, especially, large molds with
runners. With proper design, lower pressure losses correspondingly large hot-runner manifolds,
can be achieved in hot-runner systems than in ‘‘natural’’ or ‘‘artificial’’ balancing of the runners is
comparable molds with solidifying runner systems. successfully employed with the objective of obtain-
Thus, it is possible to produce extremely large parts ing uniform pressures or pressure losses. With
such as automobile bumpers with suitable hot- ‘‘natural balancing’’, the flow lengths in the runner
runner systems. system are designed to be equally long. With
Economical production of parts in stack molds has ‘‘artificial balancing’’, the same result is achieved by
become possible only through the use of hot-runner varying the diameter of the runner channels as
technology. necessary. Natural balancing has the advantage of
By completely eliminating the solidifying secondary being independent of processing parameters such as
runners, the injection capacity of an injection temperature and injection rate, for example, but
molding machine can be better utilized. This may means that the manifold becomes more complicated,
also result in a reduction in the filling time, which since the melt must generally now be distributed
can lead to a reduction in cycle time. In principle, over several levels. This is done, for example, by
however, hot-runner systems do not reduce the cycle diffusion welding several hot-runner block levels.
time. An optimum hot-runner system must permit
 1.4 Types of Ejectors 5

complete displacement of the melt in the shortest molded parts. The design and type of temperature
possible period of time (color changes), since stag- control system influence:
nant melt can degrade thermally and thus result in – the warping of molded parts. This applies espe-
reduced molded part properties. cially to semi-crystalline resins,
Open hot-runner nozzles may tend to ‘‘drool.’’ After – the level of molded-in stresses in the part and
the mold opens, melt can expand into the cavity thus its susceptibility to failure. With amorphous
through the gate and form a cold slug that is not thermoplastics, the susceptibility to stress
necessarily remelted during the next shot. In addi- cracking can increase,
tion to surface defects, molded part properties can – the cooling time and thus also the cycle time.
also be reduced in this manner as well. In an extreme The economics of a mold can be influenced signif-
case, a cold slug can even plug the gate. icantly in this manner. Molds intended for the
With the aid of melt decompression (pulling back processing of amorphous thermoplastics are not
the screw before opening the mold), which is a necessarily equally well suited for the processing of
standard feature on all modern machines, or with an semi-crystalline materials. The greater degree of
‘‘expansion chamber’’ in the sprue bushing of the processing shrinkage of semi-crystalline thermo-
hot-runner manifold, this problem can be overcome. plastics must be taken into account in most cases by
Care must always be taken, however, that the providing a more uniform and higher-capacity
decompression always be kept to a minimum in temperature control system. This often means
order to avoid sucking air into the sprue, runner separate temperature control circuits in corner
system or region around the gate (avoidance of the regions, for instance, keeping in mind that the
diesel effect). temperature control circuit cannot be interrupted by
Although hot-runner technology has generally the position of ejectors, slides or the like. The
reached a high technical level, the user should be temperature difference between the inlet and outlet
aware that more extensive maintenance by properly of the temperature control medium should not
trained personnel is unavoidable. exceed 5 K. This often prevents series connection of
temperature control circuits. Parallel connection or,
even better, the use of several temperature control
1.2.3 Cold-Runner Systems circuits each with its own temperature control unit is
the preferred alternative in most cases. The magni-
In a manner analogous to the so-called ‘‘runnerless’’ tude of processing shrinkage is a direct function of
processing of thermoplastic resins, thermosets and the cavity wall temperature. Temperature differences
elastomers can be processed in cold-runner molds. in the mold and=or different cooling rates are thus
This is all the more important, because crosslinked, responsible for warpage, etc. If water is employed as
or cured, runners generally cannot be regranulated. the temperature control medium, corrosion and
The objective of a cold-runner is to keep the ther- calcium deposits in the temperature control circuits
moset or elastomer at a temperature level that must be prevented, as otherwise the heat transfer and
precludes the possibility of crosslinking. As a result, thus the effectiveness of the mold temperature
the requirements placed on a cold-runner system are control can be reduced.
very stringent: the temperature gradient in the cold-
runner system must be kept to an absolute minimum
and optimum thermal separation of the mold and 1.4 Types of Ejectors
cold-runner must be provided in order to reliably
prevent crosslinking of the resin. If, nevertheless, As a consequence of the processing shrinkage,
difficulties occur during operation, the mold must be molded parts tend to be retained on mold cores (this
so designed that the difficulty can be corrected does not necessarily hold true for parts molded from
without a great deal of work. Various types of cold- thermosetting resins). Various types of ejectors are
runner molds are described in greater detail in used to release molded parts:
Sections 1.12 and 1.13. – ejector pins,
– ejector sleeves,
– stripper plates, stripper bars, stripper rings,
1.3 Temperature Control in Injection – slides and lifters,
Molds – air ejectors,
– disc or valve ejectors, etc.
Depending on the type of resin to be processed, heat The type of ejector depends on the shape of the
must be introduced into or removed from the molded part. The pressure on the surface of the
injection mold. This task is handled by the mold section of the molded part to be ejected should be as
temperature control system. Water or oil is usually low as possible in order to avoid deformation.
employed to convey heat, while electrical heating of Profiled ejector pins should be prevented from
the mold is generally provided when processing turning.
thermosetting resins. A great deal of importance Usually the mold cores and thus also the ejector
should be given to optimum temperature control. It mechanisms are located on the movable platen of the
has a direct influence on the functionality of the injection molding machine. In certain cases, it may
6 1 Principles of Mold Design

be advantageous to attach the core to the stationary If release of threads is not possible by means of split
platen. In this case, special ejector mechanisms are cavities or slides, or if the witness line is undesir-
required. To release undercuts, slides are generally able, unscrewing molds are employed. These may
needed. Internal undercuts can be released by utilize
collapsible cores or internal slides. Threads may be – replaceable cores that are unscrewed outside the
released by: mold,
– slides, – threaded cores or threaded sleeves that release
– removable inserts, the threads in the molded part as the result of
– collapsible cores, rotation during ejection. Actuation is accom-
– unscrewing cores, etc. plished either through the opening motion of the
Undercuts which are intended to act, for instance, as mold (lead screws, gear racks, etc.) or through
snap fits can also be (forcibly) released directly, i.e. the use of special unscrewing units.
without the use of slides, lifters etc. It must be Release of undercuts for short production runs can
ensured, however, that the ejection temperature is also be accomplished through the use of so-called
considerably above room temperature and that the ‘‘lost cores’’ (see also Section 1.6.1). When threads
material stiffness is correspondingly low. The ejec- intended for fastening are involved, it is often more
tion forces must not lead to stretching of the molded economical to mold throughholes instead of threads
part nor should ejectors be forced into the molded and then use commercially available self-tapping
part. The permissible deformation during such screws.
forced ejection depends on the physical properties of
the particular resin at the ejection temperature and
on the design of the undercuts. A general statement 1.6 Special Designs
with regard to the possibility of using (cost-redu-
cing) forced ejection cannot be made. In principle, 1.6.1 Molds with Fusible Cores
however, forced ejection should be taken into
consideration when laying out a suitable mold. Fusible core technology is employed to produce
Textured or grained surfaces generally act like molded parts with cavities or undercuts that could
undercuts. Unless a certain minimum draft is not otherwise be released. Low melting point,
provided, they can result in visible damage to the reusable alloys on the basis of tin, lead, bismuth,
surface. As an approximate guideline to avoid such cadmium, indium, antimony are employed. De-
damage, the following value applies: per 1=100 mm pending on the composition, very different melting
of texture depth, approximately 1 degree of draft is points result (lowest melting point approx. 50 C)
needed. Ejectors serve not only to release the (120 F). By introducing heat, e.g. inductive heating,
molded parts, but are also needed to vent the cavity. the metallic core can be melted out of the molded
Inadequate venting can lead, for instance, to part, leaving almost no residue.
– incomplete filling of the cavity,
– inadequate welding where flow fronts meet,
– the so-called diesel effect, i.e. thermal degrada- 1.6.2 Prototype Molds of Aluminum
tion (burning) of the molded part, etc.
Problems with venting occur far from the gate and The heat-treatable aluminum-zinc-magnesium-cop-
especially in the vicinity of weld lines. per alloy (material no. 3.4365) has proven useful as a
material for injection molds used to produce proto-
1.5 Types of Undercuts types or small to medium production quantities. The
advantages of this material, such as weight reduc-
Release of undercuts (see Section 1.4) generally tion, ease of machining, good thermal conductivity
requires additional design features in the mold such compared to tool steel, must be compared with the
as opening of the mold along several planes, for lower strength, reduced wear resistance, low stiff-
instance. Additional release surfaces can be provi- ness as a result of the low modulus of elasticity and
ded by slides and split cavities. Molds with slides the relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion.
release external undercuts with the aid of In some cases, the properties of aluminum can be
– angle pins, used to advantage in combination with steel. A
– cams, surface coating (e.g. electroless nickel-plating) can
– hydraulically or pneumatically actuated mecha- substantially increase wear resistance.
nisms.
Release of internal undercuts can be accomplished
through the use of 1.6.3 Prototype Molds of Plastics
– lifters,
– split cores, which are actuated by means of a To largely save on the cost-intensive machining
wedge, needed to produce the part-forming surfaces in
– collapsible cores, which have smaller outside molds, curable casting resins can be employed.
dimensions in the collapsed state than in the When strengthened by metal inserts or when rein-
expanded state. forced with glass fibers, etc., such casting resins can
 1.9 Material Selection 7

also meet more stringent requirements within certain of injection molds (see also Standard Mold Base
limits. The low wear resistance of casting resins with Interchangeable Inserts for the Production of
must always be taken into consideration. Generally, Standardized Specimens, Examples 6 and 124).
such molds are used to produce prototypes or only Only tool steels with good tempering properties
small quantities of parts by means of injection should be used for processing resins whose melting
molding. and mold-wall temperatures are relatively high (see
Section 1.9).

1.7 Standard Mold Components

1.9 Material Selection
In order to produce injection molds economically, a
large number of standard components that have been 1.9.1 General
premachined to near-finished dimensions are avail-
able. These include (replaceable) mold components With the objective of achieving high functionality,
such as different requirements are placed on the materials
– mold plates, clamping plates, used to produce injection molds:
– inserts, – High wear resistance
– guiding and locating elements, In order to increase the stiffness of molded parts,
– ejector pins and sleeves, for instance, reinforcements in the form of glass
– latches, fibers, mineral fillers, etc. are used extensively.
– quick-clamp mechanisms, These, as well as some pigments, promote wear.
– hot-runner manifolds, Selection of suitable materials and=or surface
– hot-runner nozzles, treatment is thus of great importance.
– heating elements, – High corrosion resistance
– positioning cylinders, venting inserts, etc. Aggressive components such as flame retardants
Depending on requirements, some of these compo- or even the melt itself can chemically attack the
nents are also available in different materials. The part-forming surfaces. When combined with
part to be molded as well as the injection mold itself abrasive fillers and reinforcements, cumulative
can be designed with the aid of appropriate mold damage may result. Corrosion-resistant
computer programs such as MOLDFLOW or steels or surface coatings are thus recommended.
CADMOULD. Standard blanks of graphite or elec- – Good dimensional stability
trolytic copper are available to produce molds by The processing of high-temperature plastics, for
means of electrical discharge machining (EDM). instance, requires cavity wall temperatures that
can approach 250 C (482 F). Tool steels with
appropriate tempering properties (so-called hot
1.8 Status of Standardization work steels) are a prerequisite for this. Non-
compliance with this requirement can lead to a
1.8.1 Standard Components change of the microstructure with temperature
and thus to a dimensional change in the mold.
The continued development of molds for the The dimensional changes during heat treatment,
production of molded plastic parts is also reflected e.g. case hardening, of the steel used must be
through standardization. In accordance with German small, but generally cannot be avoided (excep-
standard DIN 16 750, the following mold compo- tion: maraging steels). Heat treatment of molds
nents, among others, are standardized (see Table 2 with large differences in cross-section, for
with Figure). instance, is risky (distortion or cracking upon
hardening, etc). It is thus preferable to utilize
pre-hardened steels that can be machined. Heat
1.8.2 Injection Mold for Producing Test treatment after the machining can then, as a rule,
Specimens of Thermoplastic Resins be dispensed with. The strength and hardness of
such steels however, is generally quite low. If, on
In order to directly compare the physical properties the other hand, molds are produced by means of
– as determined from test specimens – of thermo- conventional electrical discharge machining,
plastic resins from different material suppliers, the steels that have been tempered to the highest
plastics database CAMPUS was developed in 1988. possible hardness can be employed.
As a supplement, a corresponding standard for an – Good thermal conductivity
injection mold to produce test specimens in a Good mold temperature control is of great
uniform manner is being prepared by the Plastics importance when processing semicrystalline
Technical Standards Committee 304.2. As a sup- thermoplastics in particular. In order to affect the
plement, the Plastics Technical Standards Commit- heat transport in a particular manner, variously
tee 304.2 has prepared German Standard DIN E alloyed steels may be employed. The effect of
16770 Part 2 for the uniform production of speci- this measure on the thermal conductivity,
mens that also makes basic proposals for the design however, is relatively modest. The noticeably
8 1 Principles of Mold Design

Table 2 Standard components as per ISO

Pos.* Designation Standard

1 Clamping plate –
2 Cavity plate –
3 Backing plate –
4 Riser –
5 Ejector retainer plate –
6 Ejector base plate –
7 Locating guide pillar ISO 8017
8 Locating guide bush ISO 8018
9 Centering sleeve ISO 9449
10 Guide pillar, angle pin ISO=CD 8404
11 Ejector pin, cylindrical head ISO 6751
12 Ejector sleeve ISO 8405
13 Shouldered ejector pin, cylindrical head ISO 8694
14 Ejector pin, conical head –
15 Sprue bushing ISO 10072
16 Sprue puller insert ISO=CD 16915
17 Socket head cap screw ISO 4762
18 Dowel pin ISO 8734
19 Locating unit, round ISO 8406
20 Locating ring ISO 10907-1
21 Coupling –
22 Connecting nipple –
23 Hose clip –
24 Lifting eye bolt –
25 Support pillar ISO 10073
26 Thermal insulating sheet ISO 15600
– Plain plate ISO 6753-2
– Designation and symbols ISO 12165
– Specification sheets for injection molds ISO 16916
*See Figure

higher thermal conductivity of copper, wrought ments, the materials must furthermore exhibit
copper alloys, etc. must be judged in light of the good machineability, high purity and good
relatively low modulus of elasticity, relatively polishability, etc.
low hardness and low wear resistance. Depend-
ing on the type and quantity of alloying
components, the mechanical properties can, 1.9.2 Tool Steels
however, be varied within certain limits. With
each change, however, the thermal conductivity The stiffness of a mold is independent of the steel
is also affected. The wear resistance can be selected, since the modulus of elasticity is practically
improved noticeably with surface coatings, e.g. identical for all common tool steels. Nevertheless,
electroless nickel plating. It must not be forgot- depending on the importance given to the various
ten, however, that in the event of surface or requirements, different materials may meet parti-
Hertzian pressure a hard surface layer may be cular requirements better than others:
penetrated as a result of inadequate support from – case-hardened steels,
the (soft) substrate. In addition to these require- – prehardened steels,
 1.10 Surface Treatment Methods 9

– through-hardening steels, Table 4 Heat-treatable steels

– corrosion-resistant steels,
– special materials, but also aluminum-alloys. Abbreviation Material No. Surface Hardness
Rockwell C
40CrMnMo7 1.2311 55
1.9.2.1 Case-Hardening Steels 40CrMnMoS8 1.2312 54
54NiCrMoV6 1.2711 54
These are low-carbon steels (C 4 0.3%) that are
given a hard, wear-resistant surface through case
hardening (Table 3).
During the case hardening or carburizing (treatment 1.9.2.4 Corrosion-Resistant Steels (Table 6)
temperature approx. 900 to 1000 C) (1652 to
1832 F), carbon diffuses into the near-surface To protect against corrosive plastics or additives,
regions of the material. The hardening depth is a there is always the possibility of electroplating the
function of temperature and time. After case hard- molds. One possible disadvantage, however, is that
ening for a lengthy period of time (several days), a the deposited layer may delaminate on shutoff
carburizing depth of approx. 2 mm can be achieved. edges, for example, as the result of high surface
A hard, wear-resistant surface is achieved by pressure. The use of corrosion-resistant steels is thus
quenching the carburized workpiece, while the core recommended in such cases. Nitriding of corrosion-
– assuming adequate workpiece thickness – in resistant steels is not recommended because of the
general remains tough. resulting decrease in corrosion resistance.

1.9.2.2 Heat-Treatable Steels 1.10 Surface Treatment Methods

Quenching and tempering is a heat treatment used to The surface treatment of a mold component has a
achieve increased toughness at a certain tensile significant effect on its functionality. In mold
strength. The treatment involves hardening with making, surface treatments are employed to achieve
subsequent tempering at temperatures between certain properties such as
300 C (572 F) and 700 C (1292 F) depending on – increased surface hardness,
the material and requirements. The available steels – increased compressive strength,
that have been treated in this manner (Table 4) are – increased wear resistance,
machined in the pre-hardened state. There is no – improved corrosion resistance,
subsequent hardening of the mold components. In – improved sliding properties,
this way, the risk of cracks and distortion caused by – improved de-molding.
heat treating is avoided. The following surface treatment methods have
proven useful in mold making in particular:
– nitriding,
1.9.2.3 Through-Hardening Steels (Table 5) – carburizing,
– hard chrome plating,
In order to achieve a uniform microstructure – hard nickel plating,
throughout even larger cross-sections, through- – hardcoating.
hardening (alloyed) steels are used, the hard-
ness=strength and toughness of which can be 1.10.1 Nitriding
matched to the particular requirements through heat
treating (quenching and tempering). By selecting the Of the nitriding methods, bath nitriding (e.g. the
temperature at which tempering takes place, these Tenifer method from Degussa) has become quite
properties can be optimized. The through-hardening common. Through nitriding, an extremely high
steels have proved to be very well suited for (surface) hardness with excellent dimensional
processing of abrasive molding compounds, e.g. stability is attained as the result of a chemical
those with glass fibers as a filler. change in the surface layers. This considerably

Table 3 Case-hardening steels

Abbreviation Material No. Surface Hardness Rockwell C Remarks

CK 15 1.1141 62–64 For parts subjected to low loads
21 MnCr5 1.2162 58–62 Standard case-hardening steel, good polishability
X6CrMo4 1.2341 58–62 Preferred for hobbing
X19NiCrMo4 1.2764 60–62 Very good polishability, ideal for high requirements on surface
quality
10 1 Principles of Mold Design

Table 5 Through-hardening steels

Abbreviation Material No. Surface Hardness Remarks

Rockwell C
X38CrMoV51 1.2343 48–54 Standard hot work tool steel
X45NiCrMo4 1.2767 50–57 Very good polishability, high toughness
90MnCrV8 1.2842 56–63 Normal wear resistance

X155CrVMo121 1.2379 58–65 Good wear resistance, good toughness

X210Cr12 1.2080 60–65 High wear resistance

X165CrMoV12 1.2601 61–65 Highly wear resistant steel
Note: For components subject to minimal requirements, the plain tool steel C45W3, Material No. 1.1730
is used in an unhardened state.

Table 6 Corrosion-resistant steels

Abbreviation Material No. Surface Hardness Remarks

Rockwell C
X42Cr13 1.2083 54–59 Corrosion-resistant only when polished
X36CrMo17 1.2316 48–52 Machining after heat treatment, high corrosion resistance
X105CrMo17 1.4125 57–60 Rust- and acid-resistant steel, wear-resistant

improves the wear resistance and fatigue strengths. 1.10.4 Hard Nickel Plating
Since nitriding takes place at a temperature of 570 C
(1058 F), a reduction of the core strength is usually During the chemical hard nickel plating process,
to be expected in accordance with the tempering nickel layers are deposited without the use of an
diagram of the particular steel. imposed electric current. With this method, the
Nearly all steels commonly encountered in mold formation of different film thicknesses along edges
making can be nitrided. Nitriding of corrosion- in particular (bead formation), which is character-
resistant steels is not recommended because of the istic of electrolytic methods, does not occur. This
reduction in corrosion resistance. means that through holes, openings, profiled sur-
faces, etc. can generally be nickel plated without
problem.
1.10.2 Carburizing The film thickness usually employed is approx.
Carburizing is employed with steels having a low 40 mm. Nickel-phosphorus-silicon carbide disper-
carbon content (C 4 0.3%). With this method, sion coatings known by the name Kanisil have also
carbon diffuses into the near-surface region. proven useful for electroless deposition of coatings
A (case-hardened) steel produced by such a treat- on surfaces to be protected. The above-mentioned
ment exhibits a significant increase in hardness of its methods are characterized especially by their good
surface while the core generally remains ductile. performance with regard to providing protection
against corrosion and wear and can also be
employed with nonferrous metals such as copper. It
1.10.3 Hard Chrome Plating must not be forgotten, however, that the nickel layer,
which is much harder than the substrate material,
The electrolytic deposition of hard chrome layers is can be damaged under a compressive load and tends
used especially to achieve hard and wear-resistant to delaminate.
surfaces that have proven effective for mold
components used for processing abrasive plastics.
Moreover, the hard chrome layer serves to reduce
the tendency to gall and considerably improves
corrosion resistance (multi-layer chrome plating). 1.10.5 Hardcoating
Hard chrome plating also finds application for the
repair of worn surfaces. In the event of repeated To achieve high wear resistance along with very
plating and deplating, hydrogen embrittlement of the good corrosion resistance, coatings based on tita-
near-surface regions must not be overlooked. nium nitride and other similar materials have proven
Along edges and the like, the formation of a raised especially useful. To improve the corrosion resis-
bead and the possibility of delamination of the tance, it is advisable, for example, to chrome plate
chrome layer are to be expected. the surface before hardcoating.
 1.12 Molds for Processing Thermosets 11

1.11 Special Materials – aluminum alloys,

– molybdenum alloys.
1.11.1 High-Temperature Molybdenum Alloy have proven useful. These materials generally have a
thermal conductivity several times that of tool steels,
To attain special property combinations, powder but without reaching their hardness, wear resistance,
metallurgical alloys are being used more and more. compressive strength or fatigue strength. A suitable
Thus, a high temperature molybdenum alloy TZM surface coating is often a necessary prerequisite for
(trade name of Metallwerk Plansee GmbH, Reutte, the successful use of these materials.
Austria) and composed of roughly 99.2% Mo, 0.5%
Ti, 0.08% Zr and 0.01 to 0.04% C) is notable for:
– low thermal expansion, 1.12 Molds for Processing
– high thermal conductivity, Thermosets
– high corrosion resistance,
– high heat resistance, and Molds for processing of thermosetting molding
– high abrasion resistance. compounds are in principle comparable with those
A typical application of this material is for hot used for processing of thermoplastics, bearing in
runner nozzles that are subject to wear and corro- mind, however, that peculiarities specific to these
sion. molding compounds must be taken into considera-
tion. The basic principles and nomenclature of these
molds are specified in German standard DIN 16 750.
1.11.2 Metal-Carbide (Table 7) Examples 62 to 66 show thermoset injection molds.

Metal-carbide (sintered metals) with a high carbide

content are employed to advantage especially for 1.12.1 Mold Construction
molds and sections of molds, e.g. the gate region,
that are subject to high abrasive wear when proces- Molds for processing of thermosetting molding
sing reinforced plastics. These materials are char- compounds are generally heated electrically. The
acterized by: heat needed for the crosslinking reaction is drawn
– machinability in the as-delivered state, from the mold. Once in contact with the cavity
– hardenable to approx. 72 Rockwell C, practically surface, the viscosity of the melt passes through a
without distortion, minimum, i.e. the melt becomes so low in viscosity
– good polishability, that it can penetrate into very narrow gaps and
– very high resistance to wear and corrosion. produce flash. The molds must thus exhibit very
Polishing to a mirror finish is possible to only a tight fits, while at the same time providing for
limited extent with this material. adequate venting of the cavity. These largely
opposing requirements are the reason that formation
of flash cannot be completely eliminated. Molds
1.11.3 Materials with High-Thermal should be designed to be extremely stiff so that
Conductivity ‘‘breathing’’ and thus deformation that promotes the
formation of flash are avoided. The use of pressure
Optimum temperature control in a mold is of great sensors to determine and monitor the injection
importance. This essentially determines the cooling pressures, on the basis of which the mechanical
and thus the cycle time and for semicrystalline properties of the mold are calculated, is recom-
thermoplastics in particular has a great effect on the mended. The pressure actually required depends on
tendency for distortion as well as the dimensional the size and geometry of the molded parts. Material
stability, and thus on the quality of the molded parts. selection is of great importance with regard to the
In order to improve the heat transport, i.e. the ther- life expectancy of the molds, a subject which must
mal conductivity, of not only small regions, but also already be addressed during the quoting phase.
entire sections of a mold, nonferrous metals such as What was said in this regard for thermoplastics
– copper, applies analogously here. Through-hardening steels
– beryllium-copper, are to be preferred for the part-forming surfaces and
– beryllium-copper-cobalt, must exhibit a resistance to tempering consistent
– zirconium-copper-chrome, with the relatively high operating temperatures of
the molds. For molding compounds that tend to
Table 7 Hard metal alloy stick, e.g. unsaturated polyester resins, steels with
513% chrome content have proven useful, e.g. tool
Trade Name Surface Hardness steel no. 1.2083. Since the thermosetting molding
Rockwell C
compounds are sometimes modified with abrasive
Ferro-Titanit WFN* Max. 72, hardness as annealed 48–50 fillers, special attention must be given to the result-
Note: Hardness approx. 68 Rockwell C at normal plastics
ing wear. Fillers such as stone flour, mica, glass
processing temperatures; high wear resistance fibers and the like, for instance, promote wear. In
* Trade name of Thyssen wear-prone regions of the mold such as the gate, for
12 1 Principles of Mold Design

example, metal carbide inserts should be provided. approx. 0.01 to 0.03 mm and be highly polished, so
Other wear-prone mold components should gener- that the flash that forms there is readily removed
ally be designed as easily replaceable inserts. upon ejection.

1.12.2 Part-Forming Surfaces 1.12.4 Heating=Insulation

Both the appearance of the molded parts and the life Combination heating utilizing heater cartridges for
expectancy of the mold are determined largely by the mold plates in conjunction with frame heaters
the part-forming surfaces. Often, textured surfaces has proven useful in achieving satisfactory homo-
on the molded parts are requested. In this case, geneity. The bulk of the heat is provided by the
adequate draft for part release must be provided; see cartridge heaters, while the heated frame serves as a
also Section 1.4. Texturing of mold areas particu- heat shield against the surroundings. Depending on
larly prone to wear should be avoided, since rework the mold size, 30 to 40 W=kg of mold weight have
of such areas is difficult. Hard chrome plating has been found to be adequate for the required heating
proven useful as a means of increasing the wear capacity. This heating capacity should be installed
resistance of part-forming surfaces. At the same uniformly throughout the mold by using a number of
time, a certain corrosion protection is achieved. heating elements. Each heating circuit should be
Titanium nitride coatings increase the service life of provided with its own thermocouple, which should
molds noticeably. Improvements by a factor of 5 be placed between the heating element and the part-
have been reported. In addition to improved wear forming surface.
and corrosion resistance, the few microns thick layer As a general principle, molds should be provided
facilitates part release and mold cleaning. Stainless with insulating plates to prevent heat losses and the
steels with more than 18% chrome are also suitable resulting temperature differences. Besides being
for corrosion protection, but are limited in terms of placed between the mold clamping plates and
achievable hardness. machine platens, such insulating plates can also be
positioned between mold plates and possibly even
other areas of the mold. It is further possible with the
1.12.3 Ejection=Venting aid of computer programs to simulate heating of
molds and thus specify the location of heating
Depending on the geometry of the molded part and elements. It has also proven helpful to determine the
type of molding compound, different amounts of mold temperature during operation by means of
draft for part release must be provided, usually thermophotography and then to use this information
between 1 and 3 . At the time of ejection, thermoset to make any necessary changes in new molds.
parts exhibit very little shrinkage because of the
relatively high temperature (e.g. 170 C; 338 F). As 1.12.5 Runner=Gate Design
a result, parts are not necessarily retained on the
mold cores, but rather may be held in the cavity by a Various aspects must be taken into consideration
vacuum. To avoid problems during production, when designing runners for thermoset processing. In
measures must be taken to ensure that the parts can general, thermoset molding compounds are not
always be ejected from the same half of the mold. As regranulated. Accordingly, an attempt should be
a rule, thermoset parts are not yet fully cured at the made to keep the size of the runner system small in
time of ejection and are thus relatively brittle. relation to that of the molded parts. The gate should
Accordingly, an adequate number of ejector pins or be located such that it can be easily removed without
a suitably large surface area for other ejection means damaging the part. All of the gate types commonly
should be provided to avoid damaging the parts used in thermoplastics processing can, in principle,
during ejection. In addition to ejection, the ejector be employed. As with thermoplastic molding
pins must also provide for venting of the cavity compounds, the type and location of gates will affect
during filling. For this reason, but not only, ejectors the physical properties of the molded parts. In
should be located behind ribs and other deep contrast to gates for thermoplastic injection molding,
sections where air entrapment could be expected. which have to be as large as possible in order to
Forced ejection of undercuts should be avoided avoid material degradation as the result of shear and
because of the generally inadequate toughness of friction, gates for thermoset processing are intended
thermoset molding compounds. Undercuts should to increase the melt temperature via friction. Thus,
be released by means of movable cores or slides, the appropriate gate size and number of gates must
which, in addition to being designed for long-term be established on the basis of the type of part to be
operation, should permit easy removal of any cured molded and the type of molding compound to be
resin that might possibly collect. For complicated processed.
parts with internal undercuts, fusible core technol- As a rule, the molding compounds are modified by
ogy is employed. This involves the use of low the supplier to meet the set criteria, which means
melting point alloys for cores that are inserted into that joint discussions early in the planning phase for
the mold and then subsequently melted out of the a mold are advisable. In multiple-cavity molds, the
mold parts. The vent channels should have a size of runner channels must always be equal in length and
 1.12 Molds for Processing Thermosets 13

Figure 1.12 Multiple-cavity injection compression mold with

Figure 1.10 Improperly designed runner system for a 24-cavity runner pinch-off
mold A: during injection; B: closed mold

generate equal pressure drops in order to ensure called HTM process (High-Temperature Molding=
identical filling conditions and uniform molded part Bakelite) represents a development in which condi-
quality. This means that attention must also be given tions in the cavity similar to those for injection
to the direction of melt flow in the cavities. Figure molding of thermoplastic resins are achieved during
1.10 shows an improperly designed runner system injection of thermosetting resins. While the resin in
for a 24-cavity mold in which the cavities fill at the cavity briefly becomes more fluid through
different times and thus cannot fill uniformly. To contact with the heated mold (e.g. 170 C (338 F))
achieve uniform part quality, it would have been and thus flows into the smallest gaps and creates
better to design the mold with only 16 cavities and a flash during conventional thermoset processing, with
runner system as shown in Fig. 1.11. Even though the HTM process the resin is overheated in the
injection molding may be the most economical runner system so that it cures immediately upon
means of producing thermoset molded parts, there is entering the cavity. With this type of runner system,
still interest in process variations such as injection also known as the hot-cone method, very dimen-
compression, for instance, which can be employed sionally accurate, almost flash-free parts can be
to produce very high-quality parts automatically. produced in multiple-cavity molds. A significant
Injection compression combines the advantages of reduction in cycle time is one major advantage of
compression molding and those of injection mold- this technique. Figure 1.15 shows finished parts
ing. Example 64 shows a single-cavity mold used to molded using the HTM process along with the
produce plates. Figure 1.12 shows a multiple-cavity runner system. The HTM runner system is illu-
mold with runner pinch-off. With appropriate design strated schematically in Fig. 1.16.
of the runner system, runners are pinched off during In a manner analogous to the use of hot-runner
compression. Multiple-cavity molds with a common systems employed for processing of thermoplastic
filling chamber (Common Pocket System=Bakelite) resins, so-called cold-runner systems are used to
as shown in Fig. 1.13 represent relatively simple-to- process thermoset resins. Whereas the mold plates
build, proven designs where the molded parts have and part-forming inserts of thermoset molds have,
minimal flash, which is ejected along with the parts, for instance, an operating temperature of 170 C
and the sprue bushing is designed to function as a (338 F), which initiates curing of the material, the
cold runner. The three-plate design (Bucher-Guyer sprue bushing and runner channels in a cold-runner
System; Fig. 1.14) is a relatively involved design, system are kept at a lower temperature by means of a
but does permit center gating of parts, which is circulating fluid. The temperature is set such that the
particularly advantageous for round parts. The so- material does not cure, yet still has a viscosity

Figure 1.13 Injection compression mold (Common Pocket

System=Bakelite)
Figure 1.11 Runner system for a 16-cavity injection mold for A: during injection; B: closed mold
parts as in Fig. 1.10 a: flow divider; b: sprue bushing; c: common pocket
14 1 Principles of Mold Design

Figure 1.14 Three-plate two-cavity injection compression mold

(Bucher-Guyer System)
Figure 1.16 Schematic illustration of the HTM runner system
A: during injection; B: closed mold
1: sprue bushing; 2: spiral cartridge heaters; 3: cone; 4: heater
cartridge with thermocouple; 5: locating ring; 6: ejector pin; 7=8:
suitable for processing. For example, the tempera- mold plates; 9: runner channel
ture set in a cold-runner system may be 4100 C
(212 F). Figure 1.13 shows a sprue bushing the manifold block. A short sprue is required on the
designed to operate on the cold-runner principle. molded parts to connect the cold-runner system to
The cold-runner system does not necessarily have to the cavities. The gate dimension must be specified
be part of the mold. It is often practical to design the on the basis of the material to be processed. A
machine nozzle to function as the cold runner. In smooth gate mark on the molded part would require
this way, excellent thermal separation of the mold use of pneumatically or hydraulically operated
from the cold runner is ensured. This relatively needle shutoff nozzles (valve gates), which entails
inexpensive solution provides a well-defined break- not a few problems, however. How the material in
off location and is furthermore easy to maintain. the sprue can be saved through such a cold-runner
This principle is illustrated schematically in Fig. bushing is shown in Fig. 1.19 for a multiple-cavity
1.17, where it can be seen how the nozzle extends mold. The contact area between the cold-runner
into the mold, which must be suitably enlarged. With bushing and mold should be kept as small as
single-cavity molds, quasi-runnerless injection possible in order to reduce heat transfer to a mini-
molding of thermoset parts is possible via this mum. Likewise, the face of the sprue bushing should
technique. In multiple-cavity molds, the cold-runner not be in contact with the movable mold half; an air
system is usually incorporated into the mold itself in gap of approximately 0.3 mm should be provided for
a manner similar to that employed for hot-runner thermal separation. Sprue bushings with an integral
systems for thermoplastic injection molding. Figure temperature-control jacket of the above type are also
1.18 illustrates a multiple-cavity mold with a cold- suitable for processing thermoplastics. By cooling
runner system located at the secondary mold parting the relatively thick sprue, which often determines
line (2), which can be released and opened to service the cycle time, it is possible to improve molding
efficiency in a relatively simple manner.

1.13 Molds for Processing Elastomers

Processing of elastomers is in principle comparable
to processing of thermoset plastics. Both differ from
processing of thermoplastics primarily in that the

Figure 1.15 Molded parts and runner system for the HTM Figure 1.17 Thermoset injection mold with jacketed (cold
(High-Temperature Molding=Bakelite) system; shot weight 96 g, runner) machine nozzle (1) that extends into the stationary
runner 12 g, part size 45
70 mm mold half (2); (3) inlet=outlet for temperature control
 1.13 Molds for Processing Elastomers 15

design of elastomer injection molds are described in

[1]. Standardized cold-runner systems (CRS) are
preferred on account of the risk distribution, better
availability, far superior quality and the fastest
possible amortization (Figs. 1.20 and 1.21). For the
purposes of costing, these may be assigned either to
the injection mold or, where there are several part-
shaping sections (PSS) with different molded parts
and small batch sizes, to the machine [7]. To change
the complete part-forming section (PFS) (1), the
mold is disassembled in the mold parting line (MPL)
Figure 1.18 Multiple-cavity mold with a cold-runner system (1) with the aid of quick-clamp elements (2) [8]. Ther-
(Bucher-Guyer System) located at the secondary mold parting mal insulation between the part-shaping section and
line (2), (3) sprue, (4) molded part cold-runner system is achieved with the insulating
plate (3).
material is brought into heated molds, undergoes The various designs available provide for mold
crosslinking (cures) and cannot be reprocessed. The systems that are flexible and easy to use. Pneumatic
statements made in Section 1.12 for thermoset needle-valve nozzles (4) offer many economic,
molds thus also apply in general to molds for elas- qualitative and production advantages over open
tomer processing. nozzle systems. Large cross-sectional areas in gate
Nevertheless, the design details of elastomer molds regions (6) that can be sealed by needles place
differ according to whether rubber or silicone is to minimum stress on the melt and lead to parts of
be processed [1]. For economic reasons, runnerless consistent quality. Closing the gate orifice prevents
or almost runnerless automatic molding of largely the material from crosslinking in the nozzle despite
flash-free parts with a perfect surface is expected the high temperature of the part-shaping section.
here as well. The gating techniques and the design of The throttles (5) for the feed channels ensure opti-
the mold are critically important and require a great mum balancing of the multiple cold runners by
deal of experience. To avoid the formation of flash regulating the melt flow in each cavity.
during processing of elastomers, which become very This cold-runner system is ideal for processing
fluid upon injection into the cavity, molds must be liquid silicone rubber (LSR). Under certain condi-
built extremely rigid and tight with clearances of less tions, solid silicone rubber and natural rubber may
than 0.01 mm. To vent the cavities, connections for also be processed with the aid of standardized cold-
vacuum pumps or overflow channels need to be
provided at all locations where material flows to-
gether. Computer-aided design of molds [2] offers
significant advantages since the items that are
important for optimum process management can
already be taken into consideration during the
design stage [3]. Just as with molds for thermo-
plastics and thermosets, the runner system has to be
balanced in multiple-cavity molds. The cold-runner
principle as well as important details relating to the

Figure 1.20 Cold runner system (CRS), mold- and=or machine-

side, with needle shutoff valves, pneumatically controlled and
Figure 1.19 Example of the use of standard jacketed sprue baffles for balanced mold filling, and featuring different exchang-
bushing in a multiple-cavity thermoset injection mold able part shaping sections (PSS)
1: molded part; 2: runner system Company illustration: EOC, Lüdenscheid, Germany
16 1 Principles of Mold Design

processed as well as on release of the molded parts,

depending on the part geometry and specific elas-
tomeric material. A slightly roughened part-forming
surface is often advantageous. Demolding of elas-
tomeric parts is not without its problems, since such
parts are very flexible and often have undercuts. If
positive demolding by means of ejector pins and air
assist is not possible, the molded parts can also be
removed from the cavity by an auxiliary device (e.g.
brushes) or robotic part extractors. The special
nature of elastomers requires specific measures with
regard to flow properties, temperature control and
part demolding, so that elastomer processing still
remains a case for specialists. With improved
machine technology, optimization of material char-
acteristics, availability of trial molds [9], substantial
user support from system suppliers for filling
Figure 1.21 Standard cold runner system (CRS), 16-fold, custom elements (cold runners) and the increased use of
design, with needle shutoff valves and baffles computers, designing of molds for elastomers and
Company illustration: EOC, Lüdenscheid, Germany processing of elastomers into precision parts pose no
difficulties today. Examples of molds mentioned in
runner systems (9). While rubber materials generally this section (1.13) are numbers 68, 114 and 126.
require very high pressure because of their high
viscosity in the cold runner and injection unit,
processing of silicone materials, especially the Literature References for Section 1.13
addition-crosslinking two-component liquid sili-
cones, can be accomplished at relatively low pres- 1. Hofmann, W.: Kunststoffe 77 (1987) 12, p. 1211–1226
sure (100–300 bar). The low injection pressure is 2. Benfer, W.: Thesis, Aachen, 1985
3. Janke, W.: Thesis, Aachen, 1985
essential for minimizing flash formation. In addition, 4. Stegemann, U.: Kunststoffe 73 (1983) 6, p. 295–296
the molds must be built extremely precisely and 5. Merkt, L.: Plastverarbeiter 34 (1983) 3, p. 227–230
leak-proof. Silicones cure very quickly, so that the 6. Steinbichler, G.: Maschinenmarkt 91 (1985) 77, 1508–1511
7. Emmerichs, H.: Conference, Silikonkautschuk, Eigenschaften und
cycle time is considerably shorter than for other Verarbeitung, SKZ Würzburg 1995
types of rubber. 8. Emmerichs, H., Giesler, D.: Kunststoffe 87 (1997) 9, p. 1150 und
The part-forming sections (PFS) of the molds are 1191 and example 114
best heated electrically, with the various mold 9. Emmerichs, H.: Conference, 7. Würzburger Werkzeugtage, SKZ
Würzburg=Germany 1996
sections divided into several heating circuits. Insu-
lating plates (3) should be provided between the
mold and the machine platens as well as in the mold
itself in order to keep the temperature within narrow Further Reading
limits. The mold steel must also be selected for the Menges, G., Michaeli, W., Mohren, P.: How to Make Injection Molds.
relatively high operating temperature of 170 to Hanser Publishers, Munich, 2001
Rees, H.: Mold Engineering. Hanser Publishers, Munich, Vienna, New
220 C (338 to 428 F). Chrome-alloy steels are used York, 1995
for part-forming sections and often are given an Kennedy, P.: Flow Analysis of Injection Molds. Hanser Publishers,
additional hard and=or soft surface coating, such as Munich, Vienna, New York, 1995
chrome plating, nickel plating, TiN, CrN or Pye, R.G.W.: Injection Mold Design. Longman Scientific & Technical,
New York, 1989
Lamcoat1 (WS2) finish. The surface finish has an Stoeckhert, K., Mennig, G.: Mold-Making Handbook. Hanser Publish-
effect on the flow properties of the material ers, Munich, 1998