Calculation of Wind Loads on Structures according to ASCE 7-10

Permitted Procedures
The design wind loads for buildings and other structures, including the Main
Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS) and component and cladding
elements thereof, shall be determined using one of the procedures as
specified in the following section. An outline of the overall process for the
determination of the wind loads, including section references, is provided in
Figure (1).

Main Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS)

Wind loads for MWFRS shall be determined using one of the following
procedures:
(1) Directional Procedure for buildings of all heights as specified in Chapter
27 for buildings meeting the requirements specified therein;
(2) Envelope Procedure for low-rise buildings as specified in Chapter 28 for
buildings meeting the requirements specified therein;
(3) Directional Procedure for Building Appurtenances (rooftop structures
and rooftop equipment) and Other Structures (such as solid freestanding
walls and solid freestanding signs, chimneys, tanks, open signs, lattice
frameworks, and trussed towers) as specified in Chapter 29;
(4) Wind Tunnel Procedure for all buildings and all other structures as
specified in Chapter 31.

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Figure (1): Dtermination of Wind Loads

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 Directional Procedure
Step 1: Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 1.5-
1.

Step 2: Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category,
see Figure 26.5-1A, B or C (United States). Basic wind speed is a three-
second gust speed at 10 m above the ground in Exposure C.

Step 3: Determine wind load parameters:

 Wind directionality factor, 𝐾𝑑 , see Table 26.6.1

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Table 26.6.1: Wind directionality factor, 𝑲𝒅

 Exposure category, for each wind direction considered, the upwind

exposure shall be based on ground surface roughness that is determined
from natural topography, vegetation, and constructed facilities.

Surface Roughness B: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other

terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single-
family dwellings or larger.
Surface Roughness C: Open terrain with scattered obstructions having
heights generally less than 9.1 m. This category includes flat open country
and grasslands.
Surface Roughness D: Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces. This
category includes smooth mud flats, salt flats, and unbroken ice.
 Topographic factor, 𝐾𝑧𝑡 , see Figure 26.8-1.

𝐾𝑧𝑡 = (1 + 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 )2, where 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 and 𝐾3 are given in Fig. 26.8-1. For

flat terrains, 𝑲𝒛𝒕 = . 𝟎 .

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 Gust factor, G:
The gust effect factor for a rigid building is permitted to be taken as 0.85.
 Enclosure classification:
Open Building: A building having each wall at least 80 percent open. This
condition is expressed for each wall by the equation Ao ≥ 0.8 Ag where
Ao = total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure
Ag = the gross area of that wall in which Ao is identified

Partially Enclosed Building: A building that complies with both of the

following conditions:
1. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external
pressure exceeds the sum of the areas of openings in the balance of the
building envelope (walls and roof) by more than 10 percent.
2. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external
pressure exceeds (0.37 m2) or 1 percent of the area of that wall, whichever is
smaller, and the percentage of openings in the balance of the building
envelope does not exceed 20 percent.
Enclosed Building: It is a building that is not classified as open or partially
enclosed.
 Internal pressure coefficient, 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 , see Table 26.11-1.

Table 26.11-1; Internal Pressure Coefficient

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Step 4: Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient, 𝐾𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝐾ℎ , see
Table 27.3-1. Note that 𝐾ℎ is constant and calculated for mean height of the
building, while 𝐾𝑧 varies with heights measured from the base of the
building.

Step 5: Determine velocity pressure, 𝑞𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑞ℎ , see equation below.

𝑞𝑧 = 0.613 𝐾𝑧 𝐾𝑧𝑡 𝐾𝑑 𝑉 2

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where:
𝑞𝑧 = velocity pressure calculated at height z, (N/m2)
𝑞ℎ = velocity pressure calculated at mean roof height h, (N/m2)
𝐾𝑑 = wind directionality factor
𝐾𝑧 = velocity pressure exposure coefficient
𝐾𝑧𝑡 = topographic factor
𝑉 = basic wind speed, in m/s
Step 6: Determine external pressure coefficients, 𝐶𝑝 (Figure 27.4-1)

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Step 7: Determine wind pressure, p, on each building surface (enclosed and
partially enclosed).

𝑝 = 𝑞𝐺 𝐶𝑝 − 𝑞𝑖 (𝐺 𝐶𝑝𝑖 )
Design wind load cases are shown in Figure 27.4-8.

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Example:
It is required to calculate the lateral wind loads acting on the 8-story
building, considering the wind is acting first in the North-South direction.
The building which is used as headquarter for police operation, is 30 m x 15
m in plan as shown in the figure (enclosed), and located right on the Gaza
Beach (flat terrain).
Note: Use a basic wind speed of 100 Km/hr and ASCE 7-10 Directional
Procedure.

Plan

Elevation

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Step 1: Building risk category:
 Based on Table 1.5-1, building risk category is IV.

Step 2: Basic wind speed:

 It is given as 100 km/hr.
Step 3: Building wind load parameters:
 K d  0.85 (wind directionality factored evaluated from Table 26.6.1)
 Exposure category is D
 K zt 1.0 (Topographic factor for flat terrain)
 Gust factor, G , is 0.85 for rigid buildings
 Building is enclosed
 Internal pressure coefficient for enclosed buildings, 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 , is  0.18

Step 4: Velocity pressure coefficients, K h and K z :

 K h 1.384 (Interpolating from Table 27.3-1) and K z varies with
height

Step 5: Determine velocity pressure, qh and qz :

 qh  0.613 Kh K zt Kd V 2
2
 100,000 
 0.613 1.3841.00.85   556.43 N / m2
 60  60 
 qz  0.613 K z K zt K d V 2

2
 100,000 
 0.613 K z 1.00.85   402.05 K z N / m2
 60  60 

Step 6: External pressure coefficients, C p :

15
For L/ B   0. 5 and using Figure 27.4.1, the external pressure
30
coefficients are shown in the figure.

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Step 7: Wind pressure, p :
For the windward walls,
p  qz G C p  qi G C pi 
 qz 0.850.8  556.43 0.85 0.18
 0.68 qz  85.13 N / m2 (max)

For the leeward walls,

p  qh G C p  qi G C pi 
 556.43 0.85 0.5  556.43 0.85 0.18
 321.62 N / m2 (max)

For the side walls,

p  qh G C p  qi G C pi 
 556.43 0.85 0.7  556.43 0.85 0.18
 416.21 N / m2 (max)

Height, meters Kz qz p
0 to 4.6 m 1.03 414.17 366.76
4.6 to 6.1m 1.08 434.17 380.36
6.1 to 7.6 m 1.12 450.28 391.32
7.6 to 9.1 m 1.16 466.39 402.27
9.1 to 12.2 m 1.22 490.56 418.71
12.2 to 15.2 m 1.27 510.56 432.31
15.2 to 18 m 1.31 526.67 443.26
18 to 21.3 m 1.34 538.89 451.57
21.3 to 24.4 m 1.38 554.72 462.34
24.4 to 25 m 1.40 562.78 467.82

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 Requirements for Structural Integrity

A structure is said to have structural integrity if localized damage does not

spread progressively to other parts of the structure. Experience has shown
that the overall integrity of a structure can be substantially enhanced by
minor changes in detailing of reinforcement.
The 1989 ACI Code introduced section 7.13. which provides details to
improve the integrity of joist construction, beams without stirrups and
perimeter beams. These requirements were updated, and shown below.

 In detailing of reinforcement and connections, members of a structure

shall be effectively tied together to improve integrity of the overall
structure.
 In joist construction, at least one bottom bar shall be continuous and
shall be anchored to develop fy at the face of supports..
 Beams along the perimeter of the structure shall have continuous
reinforcement consisting of:
(a) at least 1/6 of the tension reinforcement required for negative
moment at the support, but not less than 2 bars;
(b) at least ¼ of the tension reinforcement required for positive
moment at mid span , but not less than 2 bars.
- The above reinforcement shall be enclosed by close stirrups or hoops
along the clear span of the beam.
- Where splices are needed to provide the required continuity, top
reinforcement shall be spliced at or near mid span and bottom
reinforcement shall be spliced at or near the support. Splices shall be
Class B tension lap splices or mechanical or welded splices.
 In other than perimeter beams, structural integrity reinforcement
shall be in accordance with (a) or (b):
(a) At least 1/4 of the positive moment reinforcement required at
mid span, but not less than 2 bars.
(b) Longitudinal reinforcement shall be enclosed by closed stirrups
or hoops along the clear span of the beam.

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 Diaphragm Key Components

Diaphragm Slab:

It is the component of the diaphragm which acts primarily to resist shear

forced developed in the plane of the diaphragm.

Diaphragm Chords:

They are components along the diaphragm edges with increased longitudinal
and transverse reinforcement, acting primarily to resist tension and
compression forces generated by bending in the diaphragm.

Diaphragm Collectors:

They are components that serve to transmit the internal forces within the
diaphragm to elements of the lateral force resisting system. They shall be
monolithic with the slab, occurring either within the slab thickness or being
thickened.

Diaphragm Struts:

They are components of a structural diaphragm used to provide continuity

around an opening in the diaphragm. They shall be monolithic with the slab,
occurring either within the slab thickness or being thickened.

Distribution of Forces:

For rigid diaphragms the distribution of forces to vertical elements will be

essentially in proportion to their relative stiffness with respect to each other.

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Diaphragm Chord / Beam Analogy
Load

Compression
shearwall

shearwall

Tension

Load

Compressive Stress

Support Support
Tensile Stress

17

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Horizontal Diaphragm Boundaries
Boundaries Boundaries

Boundary

Interior shear
wall

Boundaries

Boundaries

Boundaries

Diaphragm boundaries may not just

occur at the perimeter of the
diaphragm. Interior shear walls and
drag members create diaphragm
boundaries. 12

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 Requirements for Structural Diaphragms

Floor and roof slabs acting as structural diaphragms to transmit design

actions induced by earthquake ground motions shall be designed in
accordance with section 18.12 of ACI Code.

1- Scope:

Diaphragms are used in building construction are structural elements such as

floors and roofs that provide some or all of the following actions:
 Support for building elements such as walls, partitions, and
cladding resisting horizontal forces but not acting as part of the
building vertical lateral force resisting system.
 Transfer of lateral forces from the point of application to the
building vertical lateral force resisting system.
 Connection of various components of the building lateral force
resisting system with appropriate stiffness so the building responds
as intended in the design.

2- Minimum Thickness of Slab:

 Concrete slabs serving as structural diaphragms used to transmit

earthquake forces shall not be less than 5 cm thick.

3- Reinforcement:

 The minimum reinforcement ratio for structural diaphragms shall

not be less than the shrinkage and temperature reinforcement ratio.
Reinforcement spacing each way shall not exceed 45 cm
 Diaphragm chord members and collector elements with
compressive stresses exceeding 0.2 f c at any section shall have
transverse reinforcement over the length of the element as per
special moment resisting frame transverse reinforcement. The
special transverse reinforcement is allowed to be discontinued at a
section where the calculated compressive stress is less than
0.15 f c . Stresses are calculated for the factored forces using a
linearly elastic model and gross-section properties of the elements
considered.

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  All continuous reinforcement in diaphragms, chords and collector
elements shall be anchored and spliced in accordance with the
provisions for tension reinforcement discussed in joints of special
moment frame provisions.

4- Design Forces:

The seismic design forces for structural diaphragms shall be obtained from
the lateral load analysis in accordance with the design load combinations.

5- Shear Strength:

Nominal shear strength Vn of structural diaphragms shall not exceed


Vn  Acv 0.53 f c  n f y   2.12 Acv f c

6- Boundary Elements:

 Boundary elements of structural diaphragms shall be

proportioned to resist the sum of the factored axial forces acting
in the plane of the diaphragm and the force obtained from
dividing the factored moment at the section by the distance
between the boundary elements of the diaphragm at that
section.
 Reinforcement for chord and collectors at splices and anchorage
zones shall have either:
(a) A minimum center-to-center spacing of three longitudinal
bar diameters, but not less than 4 cm, and a minimum
concrete cover of 2.5 d b , but not less than 5 cm;
(b) Transverse reinforcement as required per minimum shear
reinforcement in beams, except where compressive stresses
exceed 0.2 f c .

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