Failures of Pigtails: Why They Happen

and How to Avoid Them.

The steam reformer is a major and critical component in the production of ammonia. Much attention
is paid to the reliability and inspection of catalyst tubes but equally important in ensuring reliable op-
eration are the pigtails carrying the reformed gas from the catalyst tubes to the collection manifold.
The pigtail design is based on protecting against creep due to exposure to high temperature and pres-
sure in the same way as the catalyst tubes, using a code such as API 530. There are however, a number
of mechanisms by which pigtails may ultimately fail and these include: Creep rupture (the basis of de-
sign); thermal movement of the manifold relative to the catalyst and/or manifold tube causing bending
at the terminal weld; mid-wall cracking at bends; and environmental attack e.g. nitriding. This paper
describes case studies that illustrate the range of damage mechanisms which are active in outlet pig-
tails and attempts to identify common factors that have contributed to the failures associated with such
systems. For each case, appropriate inspection methods and reliability strategies are presented. In par-
ticular, the way in which material is processed at the time of pigtail manufacture has been found to re-
sult in material properties that contributes to some of these failures. The behaviour of Alloy 800H/HT,
by far the most common material of construction, may be directly influenced by these processing meth-
ods. Methods for avoiding such pitfalls are presented and alternative material procurement require-
ments are described.

C. W. Thomas
Quest Integrity Group

M. J. Smillie
Quest Integrity Group

lyst tubes and the outlet manifolds is accommo-

Introduction dated by tubes known as pigtails or hairpins, due
to their often convoluted geometry.

T he catalyst tubes in a steam methane re-

former (SMR) have had extensive devel-
opment of materials and inspection tools
to improve their reliability of operation. Equally
Failure of these outlet pigtails represent a
common cause of downtime and potential risk to
plant personnel, where SMR’s are used: in oil
important in the reliable and safe operation of a
refineries, hydrogen plants, methanol plants, and
SMR is the outlet system. In most SMR designs,
ammonia plants.
the relative thermal expansions between the cata-

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 This paper discusses the causes of damage to and grain sizes between common 800H/HT
outlet pigtails, methods of inspection and variants.
strategies to help ensure reliability and safety of
outlet pigtail systems, based on the authors own Alloy 800 was originally developed as a high
experience with failures of SMR outlet pigtails temperature alloy for less demanding
and review of published literature. applications (e.g. sheathes for stovetop
elements). It used scrap Nimonic (nickel-
chromium alloys with additions of aluminium
Outlet Pigtails – Materials and and/or titanium) material, diluted with iron to
Design reduce the expense of the final material [1].

Pigtail Material More demanding engineering applications (e.g.

in the nuclear power and petrochemical
Older plants may utilise austenitic stainless steels
industries) came later, when high temperature
(e.g. AISI 321), but the current industry standard
performance (strength, corrosion resistance)
for steam reformer pigtails is Alloy 800H/HT
greater than the conventional 300-series
(UNS 08810/08811) or proprietary equivalents,
austenitic stainless steels was desired at a lower
e.g. 800AT, Sanicro 31HT, Nicrofer 3220H/HP.
cost than the nickel-based 600-series alloys.
These are iron-nickel-chromium alloys with
additions of aluminium and titanium. Based on
The Alloy 800H/HT and equivalent grades are
Alloy 800, the H and HT grades have tighter
basically solid solution strengthened alloys. The
compositional limits on carbon, aluminium and
presence of minor amounts of aluminium and
titanium, plus a requirement for the grain size to
titanium do impart a modest age hardening effect
be ASTM 5 or coarser. Other proprietary
at temperatures between 500 and 750 °C (932 to
versions (e.g. Nicrofer 3220HP and Sanicro
1382 °F). At temperatures above this, the
31HT) may have slightly different compositional
strengthening γ’ phase, Ni3(Al,Ti), dissolves
and grain size limits, but are still within the UNS
back into solution. Some minor carbide
N08810 and UNS N08811 specifications. Table
strengthening can occur, although the carbon
1 shows the variations in chemical composition
contents of the Alloy 800 variants are reasonably
low, at 0.05% to 0.10% by weight.

Common or
Nicrofer Nicrofer
Proprietary Alloy 800 Alloy 800H Alloy 800HT Sanicro 31HT
3220H 3220HP
Names
UNS designation N08800 N08810 N08811 N08810 N08811 N08810/N08811
Nickel, % 30.0-35.0 30.0-35.0 30.0-35.0 30.0-32.0 30.0-32.0 30.0-35.0
Chromium, % 19.0-23.0 19.0-23.0 19.0-23.0 19.0-22.0 19.0-22.0 19.0-23.0
Iron, % 39.5 min. 39.5 min. 39.5 min. Balance Balance Balance
Carbon, % 0.10 max. 0.05-0.10 0.06-0.10 0.06-0.08 0.06-0.10 0.05-0.10 (a)
0.06-0.10 (b)
Aluminium, % 0.15-0.60 0.15-0.60 0.25-0.60 0.20-0.40 0.30-0.60 0.15-0.60
Titanium, % 0.15-0.60 0.15-0.60 0.25-0.60 0.20-0.50 0.30-0.60 0.15-0.60
Aluminium + Ti- 0.30-1.20 0.30-1.20 0.85-1.20 0.70 max. 1.20 max. 0.85-1.20 (b)
tanium, % 0.70 max. (c)
ASTM grain size Not specified 5 or coarser 5 or coarser 2 to 4 2 to 4 Not stated
Notes : (a) N08810 (b) N08811 (c) On request
Sources [2, 3] [2, 3] [2, 3] [4] [4] [5, 6]
Table 1. Alloy 800 variants commonly used in outlet pigtails.

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 Reformer
Tube

Outlet
Manifold

Figure 1: Example pigtail geometries.

Design and Manufacture of Pigtails

Pigtails are generally designed on the basis of
creep rupture, e.g. using API530 [7]. The
physical geometry of the pigtails depends on the
locations and methods of connection to and from Extrados
the reformer tubes and manifolds. Figure 1 shows
a number of typical pigtail geometries. It should Neutral Axis
be noted that the connections are not necessarily Intrados
in the same plane, i.e. the pigtails can have 3D
geometry. Pigtails can either be external to the
reformer, with individual insulation on each
pigtail, or mounted inside an insulated box
containing all the pigtails, with no individual ID
tube insulation. OD
Figure 2: Sketch of dimensional features of a pigtail
Pigtails are normally bent from seamless tube to bend.
the required geometry, and then welded to
connections (generally sock-olets or weld-olets) In this paper, the features of a bent tube will be
on the reformer tube and manifolds on site. discussed, and these are defined in Figure 2 and
Depending on the outlet system design, the below:
pigtails may only be supported at the
connections, or have mid-span support in the
Intrados. The inner radius of the tube
form of hangers, to help prevent sagging when in around the bend
service at high temperature.

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Extrados. The outer radius of the tube
around the bend

Neutral axis. The centreline of the tube
around the bend.

Inside diameter (ID). The internal
diameter of the tube.

Outside diameter (OD). The outside
diameter of the tube.

Pigtail Damage Mechanisms

Experience with Alloy 800H/HT pigtails has
demonstrated a range of failure modes. These
can be grouped into 4 main categories:

Creep

Creep Fatigue Figure 3: Differential swelling between pup-piece

Environmental Attack and pigtail due to different grain sizes.

Relaxation Cracking

Creep due to Internal Pressure

Due to their operating environment of internal
pressure at high temperatures, the principle
damage mechanism against which pigtail design
is based, is creep. Using design codes such as
API 530, along with conservative design Figure 4: Differential grain size between pup piece
temperatures and internal pressures, a minimum (left) and pigtail (right).
tube thickness for a design life of, say, 100 000
hours can be specified. The H and HT grades of In this case, the short pup-piece (a small section
Alloy 800 have a minimum grain size (ASTM 5) of tube, shop welded to the reformer tube, to
help ensure a minimum creep strength, as creep facilitate a field weld during installation) had a
resistance is, in simple terms, normally finer grain structure than the rest of the pigtail,
associated with a coarse grain structure. although still within specification (Figure 4).
This resulted in differential swelling between the
Classical creep damage in pigtails manifests as pup-piece and the pigtail during high-
swelling of the pigtail, followed by longitudinal temperature service, with swelling of the pup-
cracking and rupture. Such damage can be piece at up to 12 % of the original diameter,
associated with a finer than specified grain compared to less than 1 % for the pigtail.
structure resulting in lower than expected creep
resistance, although the root cause is generally It is important to realised that creep can occur as
due to higher than expected temperatures of cracking, as well as bulk deformation. At certain
operation. An example of creep swelling is material conditions, significant creep cracks can
shown in Figure 3. occur at low diametrical expansions, e.g. 0.5 %.
In such cases, deformation is not well spread in

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 the bulk material, and is concentrated at or along the bend, there will have been little to no cold
grain boundaries associated with very large work applied. This region will potentially
grains. These regions creep, and subsequently undergo grain growth during the annealing heat
form creep cracks when the overall deformation treatment, leading to an in-homogenous grain
of the pigtail section is relatively low. Although structure and hence creep response. Figure 6
large grain sizes can be beneficial to lowering shows one example of concentrated creep
creep rates, the “creep ductility” can be affected damage in a fine grained region between two
– some material conditions can lead to a “creep coarse grain regions at the neutral axis of a
brittle” behaviour. Figure 5 shows extensive pigtail.
creep cracking between large grains at the OD of
a pigtail, but little voiding in relatively fine
regions further in the wall of the pigtail. The
coarse grained region could not deform without
voiding/cracking, whereas the fine grain region
could deform, with little or no voiding. This is
somewhat counter-intuitive, as coarse grains are
associated with being “strong” in creep and
therefore desirable.

Figure 6: Concentration of creep voids observed at

neutral axis of bend. Processing to highlight grain
structure shows local variation in grain structure.

Another effect of the bending process is that the

cross section at the bend often becomes out of
round: it flattens at the intrados and extrados, and
is elongated at the neutral axis. This has two
Figure 5: Creep cracks associated with coarse grain important consequences:
structure at OD of pigtail.
1. The hoop stress due to internal pressure
Creep at Bends increases at the elongated end (the neutral
axis).
A particular expression of creep damage has
been noted at the neutral axis of bends in pigtails 2. Measurement of tube diameter, to gauge
[8-11]. Manifesting as either localised creep creep expansion, is no longer valid at the
voiding or cracking, it is a result of the thermo- bend
mechanical processing undergone by the pigtail
during manufacture. Pigtails are generally bent As an example of the former, Figure 7 shows the
cold, and then exposed to an annealing heat modelled stress redistribution in a 1 ½ inch
treatment to remove the deleterious effects of schedule 160 pigtail (42.2 mm OD, 6.35 mm
cold work at the intrados and extrados of the thickness) operating at an internal pressure of
tube, where maximum deformation has occurred. after a ±1 mm (0.040 inches) change in outside
During heat treatment, these regions undergo diameter across the major (now 43.2 mm or 1.70
recrystallisation. However, at the neutral axis of inches) and minor axes (now 41.2 mm or 1.62

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 inches). This degree of ovalisation is typical of Creep-Fatigue
that seen at pigtail bends. It can be noted that Internal pressures stresses are not the only
both the stress re-distribution and the maximum
stresses that can cause creep. Bending stresses
stress values changes significantly when
induced by thermal expansion can result in creep
compared to a fully circular cross section.
cracking due to relaxation of the bending
Localised creep voiding has been noted in the
stresses. This is normally associated with
regions of maximum stress (the bend neutral
thermal cycles (repeated application of the
axis) in a number of pigtails from various plants,
bending loads), and could be considered creep-
with an example given in Figure 8.
fatigue. Figure 9 shows creep cracks revealed by
dye penetrant inspection due to bending stresses
near a right-angle connection to a reformer tube.
Similar cracking can be at the pigtail-to-manifold
terminal weld (Figure 10).

Figure 7: Stress redistribution due to measured

ovality and internal pressure. Stress concentration
at neutral axis visible. Figure 9: Creep fatigue cracking revealed by dye
penetrant adjacent to terminal weld.

Figure 8: Bulk creep damage associated with ovality

at neutral axis. Figure 10: Cross section of creep at a terminal weld
due to thermally induced repeated bending.

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 Stress Relaxation Cracking
Alloy 800H/HT can be prone to stress relaxation
cracking at temperatures between 500 °C and
750 °C (932 °F to 1382 °F). This is generally
associated with thick wall Alloy 800/H/HT
components after welding, or in-service exposure
to the above temperature range [12, 13]. The
appearance of cracks are intergranular, with a
Fe-Ni rich layer sandwiched between
chromium/oxide layers (Figure 11). Such
cracking can occur during post weld heat
treatment (not normally performed on Alloy Figure 11. Circumferential cracks, typical of stress
800H/HT pigtails) or during service. Residual relaxation cracking, in a Alloy 800HT pigtail. Note
stresses from welds and/or cold work cause relationship to grain size, and extensive precipita-
cracking at these intermediate temperatures. It tion revealed by etching. The initial stress came
should be noted that the temperatures are from system thermal stresses rather than internal
generally below the normal operating range of pressure.
SMR outlet pigtails, and would not normally be
of concern. It has been noted that the ductility Environmental Attack
loss associated with stress relaxation cracking is Pigtails are exposed to two environments during
also of a concern during nipping operations service:
which can occur at these temperatures[14]. The
ductility loss can be mitigated by the following 1. High temperature syngas at the ID.
methods: 2. High temperature air at the OD.
1. Specify (Al+Ti) content to be less than
The ID surface is exposed to hydrogen, carbon
0.7%, to reduce the formation of γ’
monoxide, and small amounts of methane and
precipitates, and maximise creep
steam. This surface has been reported to be
ductility. Such modifications to the alloy
prone to carburisation. The authors have noted
specification are available from suppliers.
intergranular oxidation at the surface and de-
2. Use a finer grain material. carburisation as well (Figure 12).
3. Perform a post weld heat treatment (for
stress relief) at a minimum of 885 °C
(1625 °F) and check for cracking
afterwards, as per Part UNF 56 (e) of the
ASME code [15].

It should be noted that stress relaxation cracking

and creep fatigue may be related, depending on
the actual relationship between time dependant
stresses, strains and temperatures applied to the
pigtail. Both damage mechanisms ultimately
relate to the inability of the material to deform by
a creep mechanism at high temperature, forming Figure 12: Intergranular oxidation and de-
cracks instead. carburisation at ID of pigtail.

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 When pigtails are nipped, the level of pigtail wall can considerable, up to 1/3 of the
carburisation should be assessed. This is wall thickness. Subsequent welding and nipping
because high levels of carburisation have been of nitrided pigtails can be problematic due to
associated with reduced ductility, and an their reduced ductility, e.g. Figure 15.
inability to be nipped successfully/safely e.g.
[14].

Metal dusting is unlikely in outlet pigtails, as the

normal temperatures of operation are generally
too high for this damage mechanism to occur.
However, it has been noted when the pigtail has
been locally cooled to temperatures where such
attack is possible, generally between 500 to 700
°C (932 to 1292 °F). Metal dusting is also a
function of the chemical composition and
velocity of the process fluid plus alloy content,
surface finish and grain size of the material [16]. Figure 13: Ti(C,N) precipitates in Alloy 800HT pig-
tail. Note associated creep voiding.
Nitridation, or the formation of aluminium
and/or titanium carbo-nitrides is universal in
Alloy 800H/HT pigtails. Titanium carbo-
nitrides, Ti(C,N) are usually formed during
manufacture of the pigtail material and are
generally seen as gold to pink chunky
precipitates within the microstructure (Figure
13). Aluminium nitrides, AlN, form in service,
near the outer diameter as fine, or needle-like
precipitates. Halos of AlN are often seen around
cracks, e.g. Figure 14. However, the formation
of the cracks may not be due to the formation of
the nitride particles, rather the formation of
surface breaking cracks increase the diffusion of Figure 14. Needle-like AlN precipitates forming a
nitrogen into the surrounding bulk material, and dense halo around a surface breaking crack.
increasing the rate of formation of the nitrides.

These nitride precipitates do affect the

mechanical properties of the alloy: Hardness and
strength increase, but ductility decreases, to the
point of embrittlement. As the formation of the
carbo-nitrides is simply a function of the
exposure of the pigtail material to air at high
temperature, it cannot be avoided. The
degradation in properties caused by such
precipitation can in fact be a life-limiting factor
for pigtails operated at modest temperatures with
respect to creep damage. As the pigtails age in
service, the depth of nitride precipitation into the Figure 15: Failed nip of pigtail due to embrittled
pigtail material.

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 Inspection Strategies operation. This has the advantage of avoiding
conflicts between radiography and other
The inspection strategies for pigtails need to be inspection/maintenance tasks during outages.
related to damage mechanisms described
previously and selected based on plant design, Creep Fatigue and Stress Relaxation
experience and review of the original pigtail
specifications. The industry standard approaches Inspection of creep-fatigue damage is usually
to inspection of pigtails are as follows: performed using conventional dye penetrant
testing. The creep-fatigue cracks initiate at the
Uniaxial Creep surface of the pigtail tube, due to the thermal
bending stresses at the connections, and are
Diametral expansion due to creep is often readily detectable when surface breaking. Such
measure, either directly (e.g. using pi tapes, inspection requires removal of any insulation and
verniers) or indirectly, using go-no-go gauges, careful preparation of the surface. The
set at certain expansion limits, e.g. 1 %, 3 %, inspection should also be concentrated on
5%. Diametral checks normally have to be done connections to the outlet manifold where the
during outages, as access to the tube surface is thermal expansion effects are expected to be
required, but some plants utilise methods that highest, e.g. at the end of manifold arms.
allow on-line gauging. If online gauging is
performed, correction for thermal expansion Environmental Attack
across the tube diameter is required.
Through wall environmental attack is best
Pigtails that are swollen due to creep are a very examined by conventional metallographic
good indicator of distressed catalyst tubes if they techniques on sampled pigtails. The presence
are within specification with respect to grain and depth of nitrides, carbides and/or
size. Over-temperature operation of the catalyst decarburisation can be easily quantified using
tube would be the most likely cause of such visual and electron microscopy. This approach
damage. Rapid creep at normal operating does entail a requirement to cut out and replace
temperatures generally indicates an out of sections of pigtails, or whole pigtails.
specification material (i.e. a too fine grain size). Examination for other damage mechanisms e.g.
bulk creep damage can also be performed at the
Creep at Bends same time.
Detection of creep cracking at the bends of Surface replication techniques can be used to
pigtails is dependant on the stage of cracking. identify the surface condition, but provide little
Through wall cracks should be picked up during information on the condition of the bulk of the
operation by inspection methods such as tube material.
thermography due to leaking of the hot process
fluid. Surface breaking cracks can be detected
by dye penetrant inspection during outages, after Procurement Strategies
removal of any insulation. However, cracking
at the bends has been noted to being more likely Awareness of the in-service degradation
at the inner diameter of the pigtail, and not mechanisms and associated fabrication
detectable by surface methods. characteristics allows the specification of
replacement pigtail material and fabrication
Radiography techniques have been used to detect techniques to minimise damage during future
creep cracking at bends. It is not unheard of this service. Procurement of new or replacement
to be done online and through insulation, if there pigtails should consider the following items:
is sufficient and safe access to pigtails during

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2011 [109] AMMONIA TECHNICAL MANUAL

Control the grain size of the pigtail microstructure of the pigtail, can help mitigate
material to ensure the best compromise these common pigtail failure mechanisms.
between creep strength and creep Specifically, the use of pigtail material without
ductility. In effect this would be ensuring excessively coarse grains. Inspection for the
that the grain size is no finer than ASTM applicable damage mechanisms and condition at
No. 5, but also not excessively large (e.g. the damage specific locations in a pigtail can
no larger than ASTM No. 1) and with the reduce the likelihood of failure and improve
maximum variability in grain size no safety and reliability of steam methane
more than 2 or 3 ASTM grain size reformers.
numbers.

Limit or exclude cold working during
fabrication to help control grain size References
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Limit the amount of bending required in North-Holland Publishing, Amsterdam
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AMMONIA TECHNICAL MANUAL 112 2011