Chapter 3

Solar Cell I-V Characteristics

It is well known that the behaviour of a PhotoVoltaic (PV) System is greatly

influenced by factors such as the solar irradiance availability and distribution
and temperature. Before analysing the PV generator behaviour under non-ideal
condition, i.e., with partial shading, an accurate model of the solar cell is required
to study it under ideal conditions.

3.1 Single diode model for solar cell

The PhotoVoltaic (PV) effect [45] is the physical basis for the conversion of the so-
lar radiation absorbed by a solar cell to the resulting generated current. Avoiding
the particulars, beyond the aim of this dissertation, a silicon (Si) semiconduc-
tor mono-junction solar cell is basically a large1 p-n junction, obtained with an
n-type Si region (doped with atoms of donor elements for Si), typically the emit-
ter, and a p-type Si region (doped with atoms of acceptors elements for Si). If
this structure is exposed to a radiation whose quantum energy is higher than
the Si energy gap (1.12 eV), then the photo-generated electron-hole pairs can be
separated by the electric field present in the junction and reach the metallic elec-
trode, if this is within the charge carrier diffusion length or if other recombination
mechanisms don’t occur. The charge carrier generation has the same effect of a
direct polarization on the p-n junction, so the potential barrier decreases and
1
Large compared with other electronic devises, i.e., with a 15.6 x 15.6 cm2 surface for a
typical polycrystalline silicon cell.
54 Chapter 3.

more diffusion of minority carrier occurs in both the p-type and n-type regions,
until another equilibrium state is reached. The generated current by a solar cell is
therefore dependent mainly on the incident solar irradiance, the medium spectral
response, which comprehends its External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) and, so,
the generation-recombination effects, and its illuminated area. Thus a solar cell
can be modelled as a current source, whose generated photocurrent is indepen-
dent from the load and can be expressed as [46]

Iph = Ks · G · A (3.1)

where

Ks is the Effective Responsivity in (A/W), defined as

Z
g(λ)S(λ)dλ
Ks = Z (3.2)
g(λ)dλ

where S(λ) is the absolute spectral response of a silicon cell (A/W) and
g(λ) the irradiance spectrum (W/m2 µm);

G is the solar irradiance (W/m2 );

A is the irradiated active surface of the cell.

While the Spectral Response of the silicon is constant, the irradiance spectrum
changes with the weather conditions and the day of the year. As an example,
Figure 3.1 shows the quantities S(λ), g1(λ) and g2(λ) at 12.00 of a clear day in
winter and summer, respectively. Figure 3.2 shows the quantities S(λ) · g1(λ)
and S(λ)· g2(λ), named spectral current density δI1 e δI2 , which have units of
A/(m2 µm).
When the solar cell is not illuminated it behaves like a diode, so its current
in dark conditions, named as dark current, is a function of the cell’s voltage and
3.1 Single diode model for solar cell 55

Figure 3.1: Comparison of solar spectra in winter and summer.

Figure 3.2: Comparison of spectral current density in winter and summer.

56 Chapter 3.

it is given by Shockley equation [47]

!
qV
 
kT
ID = I0 e −1 (3.3)

where

e is electron charge;

k is Boltzmann constant;

T is the temperature in K;

I0 is the inverse saturation current of the diode.

The term kT /q is equal to the thermal voltage. As a first conclusion, in its basic
form, the solar cell can be modelled by a current generator with a diode in par-
allel, as illustrated in Figure 3.3.
Therefore, the behavior of the solar cell can be described, in first approxima-

Figure 3.3: Single diode model for ideal solar cell.

tion, with the diode current-voltage (I-V) curve, offset from the origin by the
photogenerated current Iph , as illustrated in Figure 3.4 and reported in the 3.4
equation !
qV
 
mkT
I = Iph − I0 e −1 (3.4)

where m is the ideality factor which is defined as how closely a diode follows
its ideal characteristic. The value of m depends on recombination effects and it
3.1 Single diode model for solar cell 57

can vary from 1 to 5 for different kinds of cell, even if a value between 1 and 2
is typical in practical cases for high and low voltages respectively [48]. In short

Figure 3.4: Ideal I-V curve of a solar cell: a) as a load in two quadrants; b) as
generator only in the first quadrant.

circuit conditions (SC), the solar cell generates its maximum current ISC , equal
to Iph , while in open circuit conditions the highest voltage VOC is obtained. The
VOC is defined as the voltage at which the short circuit current equals the forward
bias diffusion current with opposite polarity. According to Eq. 3.4 VOC can be
computed as
mkT Iph
 
VOC = ln +1 (3.5)
q I0
The Maximum Power Point (MPP), at which the product of V and I is at a max-
imum Pm , is the optimal operating point of the solar cell. Voltage and current
at Pm are Vm and Im , respectively. It is obvious that the ideal solar cell has a
characteristic that approaches a rectangle. The fill factor F F = Im Vm /ISC VOC
should be close to one. In real devices, for very good crystalline silicon solar cells,
58 Chapter 3.

the fill factors are above 0.8 or 80%.

The solar cell current-voltage characteristic is highly dependent on the cell’s tem-
perature and solar irradiance level on its surface. The photogenerated current
is linearly dependent on the solar irradiance G and increases slightly when the
cell temperature Tc raises, while the open-circuit voltage highly changes with the
temperature, with a opposite dependence respect to the solar cell current. As
reference conditions for the PV generators, the Standard Test Conditions (STC)
are defined as those where the solar irradiance GST C is equal to 1000 W/m2 , the
cell temperature TST C is 25 ℃ and the Air Mass (AM) is 1.5. Equations 3.6 and
3.7 describe the Iph and VOC variation respect to the STC conditions

G
 
Iph = Iph,ST C 1 + α(Tc − TST C ) (3.6)
GST C
 
VOC = VOC,ST C 1 + β(Tc − TST C ) (3.7)

where

α is the positive thermal coefficient of Iph at STC (in %/K);

β is the negative thermal coefficient of VOC at STC (in %/K).

As an illustrative example of the solar cell I-V and P-V curves modifications at
different conditions respect to STC, Figures 3.5– 3.8 show the behaviour of a
solar cell with Iph,ST C =5 A, VOC,ST C =0.6 V, α=0.06 %/K and β=−0.34 %/K at
various temperatures and solar irradiance values.
The non-ideal nature of the solar cell imposes to modify the equivalent circuit
adding other lumped components in order to consider some loss mechanisms. A
parallel resistance Rsh , also called the shunt resistance, can be added in parallel
to the dark current diode, with the aim to consider the current leakage due to
dislocations, grain boundaries or microfractures in the base material, or metallic
bridges formed by impurities introduces during diffusion processes in impure at-
mosphere or high temperature contact metallizations. These impurities decrease
the resistance between p-type and n-type silicon in the area of the space charge,
causing a drop in the photovoltage and the presence of a leakage current.
A series resistance Rs can represent the sum of the resistances of particular com-
3.1 Single diode model for solar cell 59

Figure 3.5: Effect of temperature on a solar cell I-V curve.

Figure 3.6: Effect of temperature on a solar cell P-V curve.

60 Chapter 3.

Figure 3.7: Effect of solar irradiance on a solar cell I-V curve.

Figure 3.8: Effect of solar irradiance on a solar cell P-V curve.

3.2 Parameters of the solar cell model 61

ponents of the cell, such as the base material’s contact to the rear electrode, the
bulk material, the emitter material, the emitter’s contact to the front electrode
and the front electrode. The resistance of the rear contact, made of full metallic
layer, should be considered as negligibly small.
If these components are incorporated in the model, the equivalent circuit in Fig-
ure 3.9 is obtained and the static characteristic of the solar cell becomes
" #
q(V + IRs )
V + IRs
 
I = Iph − I0 e mkT −1 − (3.8)
Rsh

The effect of the Rsh and Rs on the I-V characteristic of the solar cell considered

Figure 3.9: Single diode with series and parallel resistance equivalent circuit.

above, at STC, is illustrated in the Figures 3.10 and 3.11 respectively.

3.2 Parameters of the solar cell model

The circuit parameters Iph , Rs , Rsh , I0 and m at a certain solar irradiance and
air temperature can be obtained by solving the governing equations of the so-
lar cell [49] for the parameters values of VOC , ISC , Vm and Im , which can be
experimentally measured, and Rsh0 and Rs0 , which are defined as
!
dV
Rs0 = − (3.9)
dI V =VOC
!
dV
Rsh0 = − (3.10)
dI I=ISC
62 Chapter 3.

Figure 3.10: Effect of Rsh on a solar cell I-V curve (Rsh0 =17 Ω).

Figure 3.11: Effect of Rs on a solar cell I-V curve (Rs0 =10 mΩ).
3.2 Parameters of the solar cell model 63

The five governing equations of the solar cell can be derived by 3.8 as described in
the following. At the open circuit point on the experimental I-V curve V = VOC
and I = 0, so substituting these conditions in 3.8 the first equation is

qVOC
 
VOC
 
0 = Iph − I0 e mkT −1 − (3.11)
Rsh

At the short circuit point V = 0 and I = ISC . With these substitutions in 3.8
the second needed equation is
!
qRs (ISC )
ISC Rs
 
ISC = Iph − I0 e mkT −1 − (3.12)
Rsh

If the derivative of 3.8 with respect to V is used

" #
q(V + IRs )
dI q dI 1 dI
     
= −I0 1+ Rs e mkT − 1+ Rs (3.13)
dV mkT dV Rsh dV

At the open circuit point on the I-V curve,

!
dI dI 1
 
= = − (3.14)
dV dV V =VOC ,I=0
Rs0

With this substitution in 3.13 the third needed equation is

qVOC 
 
1 q Rs 1 Rs
    
− = −I0 1− e mkT − 1− (3.15)
Rs0 mkT Rs0 Rsh Rs0

At the short circuit point on the I-V curve,

!
dI dI 1
 
= = − (3.16)
dV dV V =0,I=ISC
Rsh0

With this substitution in 3.13 the fourth needed equation is

qRs ISC 
 
1 q Rs 1 Rs
    
− = −I0 1− e mkT − 1− (3.17)
Rsh0 mkT Rsh0 Rsh Rsh0
64 Chapter 3.

Finally, at any point on th I-V curve,

P = V I. (3.18)

By differentiating 3.18 with respect to V ,

!
dP dI
= V +I (3.19)
dV dV

At the maximum power point I = Im , V = Vm and this derivative is zero, so

dI Im
=− (3.20)
dV Vm

Substituting 3.18 in 3.13 the fifth needed equation is defined

" #
q(Vm + Rs Im
Im q Im 1 Im
     
− = −I0 1− Rs e mkT − 1− Rs . (3.21)
Vm mkT Vm Rsh Vm

The equation system presented above can be resolved with the Newton-Raphson
technique, but in literature other ways to obtain a solution are proposed, for ex-
ample an alternative way to compute the equivalent parameters of the solar cell
is through the following analytical expressions [50] derived from 3.11, 3.12, 3.15,
3.17 and 3.21

Rsh = Rsh0 (3.22)

Vm + Rs0 Im − VOC
m = kT
h 
Vm
 
VOC

Im
i (3.23)
q
ln ISC − Rsh
− Im − ln ISC − Rsh
+ ISC −(VOC /Rsh )
qVOC
 

VOC
 −
I0 = ISC − e mkT (3.24)
Rsh
qVOC
 
mkT −
Rs = Rs0 − e mkT (3.25)
qI0

qISC Rs 

Rs

−
Iph = ISC 1 + + I0 
e mkT − 1 (3.26)
Rsh

3.3 Parameters’ evaluation from experimental measurements 65

Other authors [51] have prosed some analytical manipulations in order to obtain
an explicit form for the current in function of the voltage and to compute Rs and
Rsh , using the LambertW [52] function.
In the next section the experimental method used in this dissertation to de-
termine the solar cell’s equivalent circuit parameters from the I-V curve of a PV
generator is exposed.

3.3 Parameters’ evaluation from experimental

measurements
The I-V characteristic of a PV generator, either a solar cell, a panel or a com-
plex array can be reconstructed experimentally acquiring the current and voltage
across its terminals while it is energizing a variable load, such as an electronic
load. In all the experimental work for this thesis it has been used the method of
the external capacitor charging [53], in which all the points of the PV generator
I-V characteristic are sweeped from short circuit conditions to open circuit ones,
during the charge of a capacitor used as load.

3.3.1 Experimental setup and measurements

In Figure 3.12 is illustrated the layout of the measuring circuit. When the switch
is closed, the voltage signal is acquired by a differential probe, while for the
current a probe based on Hall effect is used. The signal conditioning and Data
Acquisition (DAQ) are performed by a dedicated board connected to the PC via
USB interface. On the computer custom LabVIEW™virtual instruments run to
perform the functions of oscilloscope and recording data.
In particular, the list of instruments necessary for this kind of measure is reported
below

• Acer TravelMate 5720 PC laptop.

• National Instruments NI USB-6251 BNC Board, with a 16-bit analog/digital

converter and a maximum sampling rate of 1.25 MSa/s.
66 Chapter 3.

Figure 3.12: I-V curve measuring circuit.

• TiePie SI-9002 differential probe, characterizated by: two attenuation rates

(1:20 for a maximum voltage of 140 Vrms or 1:200 for 1400 Vrms maximum
voltage); DC to 25 MHz bandwidth; ±2% accuracy.

• 2 Lem PR30 DC/AC current probe, based on Hall effect, characterizated

by: 20 Arms maximum current (± 30 A of peak value); DC to 100 kHz
bandwidth; ±1% accuracy.

• Tritec Energie Spektron 100 mono-crystalline silicon solar irradiance sensor,

calibrated by JRC ESTI1 Lab in Ispra (Varese, Italy), with traceability to
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE) in Freiburg (Germany).

• IKS Photovoltaik ISET poly-crystalline silicon solar irradiance sensor, with

traceability to Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (IWES) in
Kassel (Germany).

• 10 mF capacitor.
1
Joint Research Centre (JRC) European Solar Test Installation
3.3 Parameters’ evaluation from experimental measurements 67

• Thermometer based on thermistor.

It is worth noting that the final uncertainties of voltage, current and power are
improved by repetitive calibration in laboratory. As an example, a 240 Wp poly-
cristalline silicon (p-Si) PV module, made of 60 cells, is considered. In Figure 3.13
the settings of the virtual instrument are illustrated, while in Figure 3.14 the
physical quantities acquired are represented, together with the resulting I-V curve
at the experimental conditions (G=764 W/m2 and Tair =28 ℃).

Figure 3.13: Settings of the virtual instrument.

Figure 3.14: (a) Voltage (blue curve) and current (red curve) generated by the
240 Wp p-Si module during the capacitor charging. (b) Current-voltage and
power-voltage curve of the 240 Wp p-Si module at experimental conditions.
68 Chapter 3.

3.3.2 Post-processing and parameter evaluation

From the I-V curve in Figure 3.14(b), applying the definitions 3.9 and 3.10, the
parameters Rs0 and Rsh0 can be determined from the angular coefficients of the
tangent lines of the I-V curve at the open circuit and short circuit points respec-
tively, as illustrated in Figure 3.15. The tangent line at the short circuit point
gives also the value of the ISC , while the open circuit voltage VOC is determined
from the voltage values before the trigger of the measurement. Vm and Im at the
MPP are extracted directly from the data.

Figure 3.15: (a) Rs0 computation and (b) Rsh0 and ISC extrapolation.

The Table 3.1 reports the parameters extracted from the I-V curve at the
experimental conditions (G=764 W/m2 and Tc =53.7 ℃)
The values of Rs0 and Rsh0 are used as initial guess for Rs and Rsh , while for
the ideality factor m an suitable initial hypothesis is assumed in the range 1–1.3.
Therefore, the initial values of I0 and Iph are computed from Eq. 3.11 and 3.12
respectively, as reported below
VOC
ISC −
I0 =  Rsh (3.27)
qVOC
mkT
e −1
3.3 Parameters’ evaluation from experimental measurements 69

Parameter Value
ISC 6.49 A
VOC 32.85 V
Pm 152.51 W
Im 5.94 A
Vm 25.68 V
Rs0 0.74 Ω
Rsh0 868. Ω

Table 3.1: PV module’s experimental parameters.

imposing at this stage that Iph =ISC ,

  qRs ISC 
Rs
  
mkT
Iph = ISC 1+ + I0 e −1 (3.28)
Rsh

At this point, the values of m and I0 are refined through the formula 3.5 and
3.27, to impose the passage of the modelled I-V characteristic for VOC . Thus, the
values of Rs and then Rsh are adjusted to satisfy 3.15 and 3.17
 
qVOC
1 1 qI0 mkT
Rsh0
− Rs0
+ mkT
e
Rs = 
qVOC
 (3.29)
qI0 mkT 1
mkT Rs0
e + Rsh0 Rs0

Rs
1− Rsh0
Rsh =     qRs ISC   (3.30)
1 q Rs mkT
Rsh0
− I0 mkT 1− Rsh0
e

Finally also the Iph can be re-computed with 3.28 using the new values for Rs ,
Rsh , m and I0 . The Table 3.2 reports the parameters of the single diode model
for a solar cell as computed from the experimental measurement on a 240 Wp PV
module at the experimental conditions (G=764 W/m2 and Tc =53.7 ℃)
Once the solar cell parameters are known, the I-V characteristic of any PV gen-
erator composed by a number of those series connected cells can be reconstructed
and compared to that from experimental data to evaluate the goodness of the
70 Chapter 3.

Parameter Value
Iph 6.50 A
I0 1.35 x 10− 7 A
m 1.10 W
Rsh 14.38 Ω
Rs 7.48 mΩ

Table 3.2: Solar cell single diode model parameters at experimental conditions.

model. The Fig. 3.16 illustrates the current-voltage and power-voltage curves of
the model together with the experimental data for the I-V characteristic and the
ideal diode model I-V curve (without Rs and Rsh ), for the case described above.
The RMSD1 results to be equal to 0.028 A, which is a good fitting of the real

Figure 3.16: I-V curves comparison.

1
Root Mean Square Deviation
3.3 Parameters’ evaluation from experimental measurements 71

curve, as can be seen from the figure.

These results allow some considerations about the influence of Rs and Rsh on the
deviation of the I-V curve from the ideal shape. According to [54] it is possible
to reconstruct the Fill Factor of a resistance-free cell, expressing the voltage and
current at MPP of a solar cell as

Vmpp = V0 − Impp Rs (3.31)

Impp = I0 − (Vmpp + Impp Rs )/Rsh (3.32)

and finding the product V0 I0 , normalized with VOC ISC

2
Impp Rs (Vmpp + Impp Rs )2
F F0 = F F + + = F F + ∆F FRs + ∆F FRsh (3.33)
VOC ISC Rsh VOC ISC

This supposes the approximation that V0 and I0 are the MPP of the resistance-
free cell, meaning that Rs only shifts Vmpp and Rsh only shifts Impp . This is
acceptable if the relative errors in ∆F FRs and ∆F FRsh are less than 5%, which
can be obtained for Rs <4Ωcm2 and Rsh >50Ωcm2 , as in the case discussed. From
the cell parameters computed it is obtained a ∆F FRs equal to 0.074 and a ∆F FRsh
of 0.004, which summed to the FF (0.71) from the values of Table 3.1 give a F F0
equal to 0.79, the same obtained from the I-V curve of the ideal model of Fig. 3.16.
It can be stated, in this case, that for a PV module totally irradiated, without
shade or other degradation phenomena, the main contribution to the Fill Factor
losses is given by the Rs .
In order to be able to compare different characteristics acquired in whatever
experimental conditions, it is possible to translate the I-V curve at the Standard
Test Condition (STC), according to EN 60891 [55]

GST C
 
IST C = Imeasured + ISC − 1 + α∆T (3.34)
G
VST C = Vmeasured − Rs (IST C − Imeasured ) − KIST C ∆T + β∆T (3.35)

where

∆T is equal to 25 ℃ - Tc ;
72 Chapter 3.

K is a parameter equal to 2 mΩ/℃.

The Table 3.3 reports the parameters extracted from the I-V curve at the STC
conditions

Parameter Value
ISC 8.35 A
VOC 36.06 V
Pm 215.17 W
Im 7.64 A
Vm 28.19 V

Table 3.3: PV module’s parameters at STC.