The Role of Geology in Reservoir

Simulation Studies
D. G. Harris, SPE-AIME, Exxon Production Research Co.

Introduction
This paper describes the geological activities required for Reservoir Simulation Models
constructing realistic mathematical reservoir models. The Over the past few years, improved technology4,S has made
methods used by a geologist are pointed out and' the it possible to develop detailed and complex computer
typical data provided by these methods are presented. programs for simulating fluid flow in new and in de-
Also, the geological controls on reservoir properties and veloped reservoirs. These dynamic models are based on
the significance of these controls in reservoir performance the Darcy equation for fluid flow and on material-balance
are summarized. The information presented should be calculations. The simulation may be in one, two, or three
helpful to both the engineer and the geologist involved dimensions and may involve one, two, or three fluid
with reserves estimation and performance prediction. phases. Engineering literature contains further informa-
Reservoir simulation models are used increasingly to tion on the variety and historical development of simula-
evaluate both new and mature fields,2,4 and to determine tion models. 4,5,11
the most efficient management scheme. Part of the infor- A common simulation model is the two-dimensional,
mation contained in the model is provided by the multicell cross-section shown in Fig. 1. Such a model is
geologist, based on his studies of the physical framework capable of handling vertical variations in porosity, per-
of the reservoir. To be useful, such studies mustdevelop meability, and capillary properties for a limited (or typi-
quantitative data. The geologist must also understand the cal) area. The variation is represented by assigning values
type of engineering data needed and how the engineer can to the essential parameters (Table 1) characterizing each
aid the quantification of the framework data. cell or element. These and other data are entered into a
In the following discussion, reservoir simulation mod- computer program, and changes in fluid volumes, fluid
els are described briefly. This provides a base for discus- state, etc., are calculated for each cell on a predetermined
sion of the geologist's activities in simulation work and production (or injection) schedule.
the assistance that he requires from the engineer. This The distributions of the reservoir- and nonreservoir-
discussion is restricted to the reservoir-description phase rock types and of the reservoir fluids determine the
of simulation studies. geometry of the model and influence the type of model to
The main topic is demonstration of the geological ac- be used. For example, the number and scale of the shale
tivities used in a study of a pilot-test site. The illustrations (or dense carbonate) breaks in the physical framework
indicate the information that is often required for simula- determine the continuity of the reservoir facies and influ-
tion modeling and demonstrate how geologic data can be ence the vertical and horizontal dimensions of each cell.
synthesized to provide quantified information. The gen- Real variations in reservoir parameters may require sev-
eral application of the methodology is also described. The eral cross-sections or a three-dimensional model. Other
technology required for future studies is discussed. influences on cell dimension include computing cost, well

Reservoir simulation models are becoming increasingly sophisticated, resulting in partfrom the
development ofboth geological and engineering reservoir-description methods. The geologist's'
research usually follows a four-step procedure that is applicable to most exploration and
production operations.

MAY, 1975 625

 TABLE 1-TYPICAl PARAMETERS REQUIRED FOR EACH CELL OF A spacing, fluid-phase distribution, and the purpose of the
TWO..DIMENSIONAL SIMULATION MODEL study.
Midpoint elevation Length, each side Geologists have long recognized that the rock
Thickness Permeabil ity, each side framework of most reservoirs is heterogeneous. 3 With the
Porosity Initial gas, oil, and water saturation
development of complex simulation technology, and as a
result of detailed surface and subsurface studies of reser-
voirs in many areas, these heterogeneities can be recog-
nized early in the life of a field. The scale and character of
the heterogeneity often can be expressed quantitatively.
Thus, the physical model can be incorporated into a de-
tailed mathematical model.
Geologic Activities in Reservoir Description
Both engineering and geological judgment must guide
the development and use of the simulation model. The
geologist usually concentrates on the rock attributes in
Oil - WATER CONTACT
four stages: (1) rock studies establish lithology and deter-
AT TIME itT"
mine depositional environment, and reservoir rock is dis-
tinguished from nonreservoir rock; (2) framework studies
Fig. 1--Example of a multicell, two~dimensional cross-section establish the structural style and determine the three-
model. 10 (See Table 1 for cell parameters.)
dimensional continuity character and gross-thickness
trends of the reservoir rock; (3) reservoir-quality studies
TYPE OF EXAMPLES OF
determine the framework variability of the reservoir rock
GEOLOGIC ACTIVITY INTERPLAY OF EFFORT in terms of porosity, permeability, and capillary proper-
ties (the aquifer surrounding the field is similarly studied);
ROCK STUDIES
and (4) integration studies develop the hydrocarbon
• LITHOLOGY
• DEPOSITIONAL ORIGIN
pore volume and fluid transmissibility patterns in three
• RESERVOIR ROCK TYPES dimensions.
CORE Throughout his work, the geologist requires assistance
ANALYSIS and guidance from the engineer. Examples of this "inter-
FRAMEWORK STUDIES play of effort" are indicated in Fig. 2. Core-analysis mea-
• STRUCTURE surements of samples selected by the geologist provide
• CONTINUITY data for the preliminary identification of reservoir rock
• GROSS THICKNESS TRENDS types. Well-test studies aid in recognizing flow barriers,
WELL fractures, and variations in permeability. Various simula-
TESTING
tion studies can be used to test the physical model against
pressure-production performance; adjustments are made
• QUALITY PROFILES to the model until a match is achieved.
• RESERVOIR ZONAnON
• NET THICKNESS TRENDS PRESSURE Case Study \
PRODUCTION To illustrate some geological methods 3 that might be used
INTEGRATION STUDIES HISTORY MATCH in a simulation study, the work done for a pilot study is
• PORE VOLUME reviewed. The details of the engineering work are con-
• TRANSMISSIBILITY tained in a previously published paper. 7 The purpose of
the test was to evaluate the suitability of a surfactant-
Fig. 2-General geological activities in reservoir description and flooding process as a tertiary recovery method. Prepara-
input from engineering studies. tory to the test, a detailed reservoir-description study was
undertaken.
The pilot site, located in the Loudon field in central
INJECTION
WEll Illinois (Fig. 3), contains five wells drilled on a 0.625-
4 acre, unconfined five-spot pattern and an observation well
\\ t midway between the producer and the northernmost injec-
\ N tor. The compass orientation of the pattern. was rotated to
\ I 6
o lessen the influence of the N7 DOE fracture pattern found in
\ \ I OBSERVATION
I \'v l WEll parts of the field (but not detected in the pilot). The field is
INW 12~ T8N~ R3E 5- located on an anticline with a northeast-southwest axial
PRODUCING
• .1
I WEll trend, a 165-ft closure (Cypress datum), and 1° to 2° flank
dips. Faulting is generally scarce and appears to be absent
1 in the pilot.
o 50
I=EET Rock Studies
2 Cores and well logs provided rock information on all six
Fig. 3-Location and plan of the pilot~test site in the Loudon field, wells in the pilot and on other wells in key locations
Illinois. throughout the field. Typical well logs and core descrip-
626 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
tion data for the pilot are shown in Fig. 4. The interval cate relationships documented from studies of modern
represented is a portion of the Cypress formation of the deltas.
Upper Mississippian (Chester) age. The sandstone inter- As shown in Fig. 6, the pilot is situated within a larger
val is the Weiler sandstone, the major reservoir unit at rock mass, with the vertical sequence of deposits, in depo-
Loudon. sitional order, consisting of prodelta, shale (Lithologic
The core-description graph records (left to right) de- Unit 1), delta- front shale, siltstone and sandstone
positional environment and key rock units, oil staining, (Lithologic Units 2 through 5), and delta-plain marsh
texture (graphic illustration of Wentworth grain-size (Lithologic Unit 6). This vertical sequence demonstrates
classes), lithology (lithologic type and mixtures of the seaward building nature of deltas.
types), sedimentary structures (bedding types), and cal- Reservoir-rock types can be identified in various ways
cite cement of geologic origin. Also determined, but at this stage. The nature of the oil staining (heavy or light,
not included in Fig. 4, were tabulations of fossils iden- even or broken, absent or present) is a valid indicator of
tified in the core material. reservoir-rock character. By comparison with the lithol-
The logs and core-description data show that the cored ogy column, broken stain (diagonal bars) is associated
interval consists of six lithologic units, including shale, with intervals of mixed sandstone, siltstone, and shale.
siltstone, and sandstone. Representative photos of these Ripple-bedded intervals commonly exhibit broken stain.
intervals are shown in Fig. 5. The Weiler interval consists Even, heavy stain is associated with "clean" sandstone
of both fine-grained, clean sandstone, and very fine- intervals characterized by very thin shale breaks (lamina).
grained, shaly to silty sandstone. Unstained intervals are calcite-cemented sandstones,
Recognition of the environment of deposition is a key dirty sandstones, or siltstones .
step in any geologic study because the quality and three- More definitive methods of reservoir-rock identifica-
dimensional distribution of the reservoir rock is usually tion use core analysis data and well logs. The geologist
greatly influenced by depositional conditions. The deposi- should obtain core analysis data on representative
tional conditions are recognized by examining slabbed lithologies and should prepare graphs of porosity vs per-
cores and recording the information shown in Fig. 4, meability, as shown in Fig. 7. The rock type for each plug
along with the fossil data. Based on the vertical sequence value is indicated to aid identification and to assist in
of total data, the depositional origin is established. This selecting samples for additional measurement. In the pilot
information forms the basis for framework studies. area, the fine- grained sandstones are better reservoir rock.
In the pilot area and throughout most of the Loudon
field, the Weiler sandstone formed in a shallow-water Framework Studies
deltaic environment that was influenced by weak tidal Regional subsurface and surface studies demonstrated
activity. The subdivisions of the depositional framework that the Loudon field is located on the flank of a large,
in the pilot are indicated in Fig. 4. The three-dimensional ancient river system feeding a coastal deltaic complex
relationships of the subdivisions illustrated in Fig. 6 indi- (Fig. 8). This and other drainage systems developed an

DEPOSITIONAL S.P.
--.... LL-8
ENVIRONMENTS DEPTH (FT) ~
AND UNITS
z
!!to CORE LOG CAL. ~
_r= TEX.
Z.
LITH. SED. CEM.
<
.... ::I: ..0
STRUC (%)
CL. '" !::z
«
~
40
o
«
....
0 100
.... ~ :::>
LLI
Q

'"
Z a.n
« ....
....
~
z:::>
>< ~ f - -
.....
LLI
~
CL. «
~ I:Q

0 :I:
U ....
:::> !::
~

60~
.... 0 Z
Z
0 ~ :::>
~ a::J.
~

« ....~
........ c.n
1===
f-- I---

~118070 ~
W
Q vi
Z M
<t ....
....
~ z:::>
..i
- N I----

<t ....
.... «
w
* ~ 80~
-
I-
w ::I:
.... \CLAY
Q *DELTA FRONT COARSE
0 '" Z
~ c :::>
SILTSTONE AND
CL.
0..: CLAYSTONE
Fig. 4-Example core-description graph showing results of rock studies.

MAY, 1975 627

 UNIT 6 UNIT 4 UNIT 2

LOWER TRANSITION

Fig. 5-Typical photographs of the six I.ithologic units (the photo for Unit 3 is about 1 ft long),

APPROXIMATE
PILOT LOCATION
UNITS· 3-5 DISTRIBUTARY CHANNEL

CARBONACEOUS SHALE
O SILTY SHALE

F3 LAMINATED. CARBONACEOUS
Ed SANDSTONE

it.
.:..c"1~ INTERBEDDED SANDSTONE
~~.=.~:. AND SILTY CLAYSTONE

r=-----] DARK GRA Y

:=--::::=:-- BLACK SHALE
Fil. 6-Block diagram showingthe vertical and areal distribution of units in a typical modern delta. 6

628 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

extensive sandstone body because individual deltas mak- 100Qr--·-,.---...,----.------,---r-----,...----.
ing up the total deposit built successively southward as
one delta lobe after another was formed and abandoned.
Such is the history of modern deltas, like that formed by
the Mississippi River. The present-day areal extent of the 100
Cypress (Weiler) sandstone is in excess of 30,000 sq
miles.
The riverine deposits of the Cypress formation appear
as linear "thicks" or "belts," and the delta front and

.-
10
related deposits form thinner, discontinuous sheet de-

-
·posits. The discontinuous nature of the delta-front de-
posits is best seen at the 10-acre spacing of the field.
Because the Loudon field is largely north of a sand 1.0
o
thick, only the extreme southern end of the field received
much aquifer support. Most of the field, situated in the • •
SILTSTONE AND SI TSTONE WISH

SANDSTONE, V. F. GRAINED

thinner, discontinuous delta front, produced initially by o SANDSTONE, FINE GRAINED

0.1 ........rr---~1-H--¥+-+-....L.----l..---
solution gas drive. Later, waterflooding operations were o 20
_--1.-_---J-_---J

30
begun to increase oil recovery .
POROSITY - % BULK VOLUME
The Upper Mississippian strata in the Illinois basin Fig. 7-Porosity vs permeabil ity cross-plot for various rock types
consist of several deltaic cycles, each similar to the aids identification of reservoir rocks.
Cypress. Shallow- water carbonate deposits are inter-
spersed with the deltaic clastics. The wide areal extent
of these carbonates render them excellent units for cor-
relation at both the regional and the pilot scale. Three
deltaic cycles (Weiler, Paint Creek, and Bethel) have
been productive at Loudon.
To ascertain the three-dimensional reservoir continuity
in a sedimentary basin, field, or pilot, well logs (and
seismic sections, where appropriate) are systematically
analyzed, using a depositional model as a guide. The
objective of correlation studies is to determine the vertical
and areal limits of fundamental reservoir bodies and the
degree of contact (stacking) of the bodies in time and
space. When cores are lacking, the depositional units
often can be estimated by comparing well-log cUrves in
cored and uncored sections or wells.
o 18
The method used in the case study is shown in Fig. 9. I MILE'S'
For easier representation, the environmental data (shown
in Fig. 4) have been removed. Wells in the pilot and in the • 200-250 FT. @ 50-100 FT.
160-acre area surrounding the pilot were correlated over
the interval extending from the limestone datum to the
e 150-200 FT. 00-50 FT.

limestone marker below the Cypress formation. The sys- o 100-150 FT. ~NO SAND

tem used recognized points of geometric similarity or • OUTCROP LOCALITY

depositional association in various well locations that Fig. a-Regional thickness map of the Chester (Weiler) sandstone
formed a series of "loops" on a map of a 40-acre area. reflects depositional controls on sand distribution.
Key curve points were numbered and, on cross-sections, WELL NO.2
S.P.
lines were drawn to connect these points. L1'RAlOG 8

The pattern of lines in the interval above and below the WELL NO.1
Weiler, together with the depositional units (see Fig. 4), 13~ 13S0
aided in determining the vertical and lateral limits of
S.P.
reservoir units in various wells. The general parallelism of DATUM:

the correlation lines suggested a near-horizontal, tabular TOP OF

CYPRESS FORMA TlON

geometry of reservoir beds; this is further supported by the CORRELATION NUMBER

depositional interpretation.
Shale breaks of two scales were identified in the pilot:
(1) those with radii of at least 200 ft but less than 1,000 ft -~
(see Marker 8, Fig. 9) and (2) those with radii less than.50 ~~:::;<=================~===:;::-~-=:-
~

_ _ === __ ~4~50'0'
ft (see Unit 4, Fig. 4). Tight streaks of carbonate cement
(see Well 2, Fig. 9) occurred in five wells, but were not
correlative between wells. 'WEILER BASE
T.D. 1481 ( LOGGER ) VERTI~:E\ SCALE [~O
On the 160-acre scale, sand developments similar to
NO HORIZONTAL SCALE
Unit 4 in the pilot were found to owe their general con-
T.D. 1498 ( LOGGER)
tinuity to the stacking and overlapping of individual sand Fig. 9-Example of well-log correlation in the pilot indicating detail
"blobs. " This suggested that several distributaries were required for sand continuity studies.

MAY, 1975 629

 than about 10 acres because a measurable response in one
of two well pairs at that spacing was not obtained.
A pilot.. area map (Fig. 10) of the depositional thickness
of Unit 4, the principal reservoir unit, shows a pronounced
northeast-southwest trend. This is an optimistic map be-
cause it includes beds that are shown by core description
and core analysis to be of questionable pay. This "gross"
map is useful for establishing the grain of thickness pat-
terns, but the effective thickness, or net sand, must be
mapped. Net thickness maps and other reservoir maps are
best developed in conjunction with studies of reservoir
quality.
Although no structure map is included in this paper, a
careful interpretation of structural features is mandatory.
Included in this phase are bed attitude (dip and strike),
faults, and fractures. Also, an understanding of the re-
gional tectonic history and structural style is fundamen-
tally important to the interpretation of the field and pilot.
In summary, framework studies are aimed at determin-
t
N
ing the number and the· distribution of reservoir zones.
This is accomplished with core-description graphs, well-
o 50
log·correlations, and structure and gross-thickness maps.
FEET When more than one deposition has occurred, the reser-
CONTOUR INTERVAL: 2 FEET
voir units in each must be evaluated and areas of reservoir
Fig. 10-Thickness map of the reservoir and nonreservoir rocks in overlap must be noted. Interference (well) testing and
Unit 4. pressure-production history studies are important to these
objectives.
active in different areas at different times, and that the
so.. called "sheet sand" 6 ofthis Chester delta.. front deposit Reservoir Quality Studies
had numerous "holes" in it. Pressure.. pulse (interference) For each reservoir zone established during the framework
testing was very helpful in determining the true continuity studies, it is often necessary to establish the vertical and
character because the apparent continuity, as developed lateral distribution of "pay counts" and of porosity and
by correlation work (and shown on cross..sections), can permeability values. Laboratory analysis suggested that
not be quantitative or completely accurate. Indeed, the 10 md was the practical lower limit for effective surfactant
well.. log correlation approach becomes risky in the pilot flooding. Thus, 10 md was used as a cutoff value for
area (in this depositional model) at a well spacing greater determining net sand.

DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS KEROSENE tn DEPTH (FT) BRINE
AND UNITS POROSITY - % B. V.~O CORE LOG CAL. PERMEABILITY - MD
z 20 10~;= TEX. LITH. SED. CEM. 100 10 1.0
<C :E: ..0 1
21 .1' 14'1.7 101'.4 i ---40 STRUC (%0) i II I i
-oJ
Q,. '~
" I- 94.1......-AV. UNIT 4
et: « Z /' ~/ 0 0100 I
I-
-oJ
:E :;:) AV. AV. AV. - I
LLI
Q UNIT 4 UNIT 3 UNIT 5 \ ~_~ PERMEABILlTY I
1\ --~ CUT-OFF~

...- ·1·: - -. --
-
I_T
-;+ --,
II. t
~
- -
:\.
!.\ 60~ I -
:1,
I. •

t
,T
l
_-l -
--
.-
--~-
I -
_: __I .
et:
to-
~~- .-
• -I .. -T-.. -
1. .- - •
.-- .•
Q ~ M
« !::
ar: Z
.... ;:) CORE
/ ·5 · -I
~
~ ---
c(
....i

*~
u.I
ANALYSIS DATA ·1
~
---
80 - -
~ .-
....
-oJ
-oJ
«
w
c :r.: I- *DELTA FRONT
0 '" Z SILTSTONE AN D
ar: ci :l
Q,.
~
CLA YSTONE
Fig. ll-Example reservoir-quality profile showing porosity and permeability relationships to lithology.

630 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

 Net sand counts and preliminary evaluation of varia- Commonly, porosity and permeability maps are also
tions in porosity and permeability were developed using constructed when significant areal variability is present.
graphs such as are shown in Fig. 11. In practice, these Often, porosity and permeability can be related to depo-
data are plotted on the core-description graphs described sitional processes, so maps of these parameters can be
earlier; for clarity, the core-analysis data have replaced constructed by "guiding." Possible underlay maps for
the well-log curves in Fig. 4, but would normally oc- guiding porosity and permeability contours include net-
cur as an overlay to the curves. Also shown in Fig. 11 sand thickness, percent of coarse sand, and other textur-
is the permeability cutoff, a first step in counting pay. ally based maps. Cross plots aid in determining the type of
The profiles can be constructed manually or with sim- underlay map needed.
ple computer programs. The vertical porosity and per-
meability variation can be quantified using statistical zo- Integration Studies
nation techniques. 7 At this stage of the geologic activities, reservoir maps of
When core plugs are widely spaced, the relationship pore volume (and hydrocarbon pore volume) and permea-
shown in Fig. 7 can be used. Each dot in Fig. 11 represents bility capacity (permeability-thickness) may be developed
a plug value. The rock interval between plugs can be if needed. Such maps are important because they repre-
estimated by spreading the plug values to include intervals sent the three-dimensional attributes of certain parame-
with a similar lithology. Conventional log-analysis data, ters defining the physical model. Thus, these maps point
such as porosity or water saturation, can be used, or can be up critical areas that may require careful evaluation during
substituted for core-analysis data. The results from either the construction of a simulation model.
of these methods can be compared with well-test data. In Pore volume and other maps can be constructed by
the pilot, porosity was fairly constant, but permeability cross-contouring a net-sand map with a porosity map (or a
showed some variability. 7 map of another parameter). This long-standing technique
The profiles permit evaluation of the areal variability in is well known to production geologists. Consequently, an
net thickness, porosity, and permeability before begin- illustration of this technique is not included here.
ning statistical studies or constructing maps. In the pilot A final step in the integration studies is checking the
area, porosity was fairly constant between wells, but geologic model against pressure-production history. This
thickness and average permeability showed areal variabil-' can be done by achieving a match between known perfor-
ity and required additional study. mance and simulated performance, with the geologic data
To establish the areal distribution of net sand (Fig. 12), having been incorporated into the mathematical model. In
net-sand values obtained from the profiles were plotted on the case of the pilot, a good match of tracer response was
a transparent base map. This base was overlaid on a achieved when the simulated pore volume was 16,500
combined gross-thickness map of Units 4 and 5. The bbl. The core-analysis data and net-sand map had indi-
net-sand values were contoured, using the combined gross cated a pore volume of 16,250 bbl. Unless a realistic
(depositional) map as a guide (" guiding" method). In this over-all match is achieved, it may be necessary to adjust
way, shaliness was dropped out while the contour pattern the geologic maps, re-examine the reservoir data, or ob-
representing depositional processes was still honored. tain additional data.
Calcite cement in Well 2 was sufficient to require addi-
tional contour adjustment in this southwest quadrant ofthe General Applicability of Methodology
pilot. Even though the pilot site used as the example is a special
type of reservoir-description study, the general methods
described can be applied to most reservoir-description
investigations. Aside from the close well spacing of most
pilots, cores are often more plentiful in pilot studies than
/ ¢1~.8l they are in field-scale projects. Thus, the geologist must
shift his rock studies to cuttings, and the quality and type
of well logs will be even more important to reservoir
18/
description.
6 Whether dealing with a field in the early exploration or
°17.0'
the late development stage, the four steps (rock studies,
framework studies, reservoir quality studies, and integra-
tion studies) can be followed, with certain differences in
the scope of the geologist's role. Geologic input is usually
more necessary in the early exploration stage, when well
control is sparse. In this stage, the geologist needs to use
experience and judgment to guide the work through each
step. When well control is dense, high-speed computers
can be used.
Future Developments in Geologic
I Technology
N
50
, Future activities in reservoir description must be based on
FEET the continued development of new technology and on the
CONTOUR INTERV AL: 2 FEET developnlent of experience from past achievements. In-
Fig. 12-Thickness mapof net reservoir sandstone in Units 4and 5. dustry must continue to publish results of hydrocarbon-
MAY, 1975 631
recovery studies , and both the reservoir description and of Upper Mississippian Age, Illinois Basin," Exxon Co., U.S.A.
the performance data must be made available. In particu- unpublished report (1962).
lar, the geologic data must be reported in greater detail 2. Ghauri, W. K., Osborne, A. F., and Magnuson, W. L.: "Changing
Concepts in Carbonate Waterflooding - West Texas Denver Unit
than in the past. Project - An Illustrative Example," J. Pet. Tech. (June 1974)
The use of high-speed computers in geology has been 595-606.
increasing, but the geologist in production operations can 3. Stratigraphic Oil and Gas Fields Classification, Exploration
make even greater use of this technology. Particularly in Methods and Case Histories, Memoir, AAPG (1972) 16.
4. Reprint Series, No. 11 - Numerical Simulation, Society of Pe-
mature areas, the geologist will find computer mapping a
troleum Engineers of AIME, Dallas (1973).
great aid in keeping up with daily work and in locating 5. Odeh, A. S.: "Reservoir Simulation - What is it?" J. Pet. Tech.
areas where infill drilling is needed to recover by-passed (Nov. 1969) 1383-1388.
oil. 6. Potter, P. E.: "Late Mississippian Sandstones of Illinois," Illinois
Recent advances in recognizing and predicting.deposi- State Geological Survey Circular 340 (1962).
7. Pursley, S. A., Healy, R. N., and Sandvik, E. I.: "A Field Test of
tional environments need to be matched by advances in Surfactant Flooding, Loudon, Illinois," J. Pet. Tech. (July 1973)
predicting heterogeneities resulting from compaction and 793-838.
cementation. More information about the influence of 8. Richardson, J. G. and Stone, H. L.: "A Quarter Century of Prog-
depositional and diagenetic processes on recovery effi- ress in the Application of Reservoir Engineering," J. Pet. Tech.
(Dec. 1973) 1371-1377.
ciency must be developed.
9. Shannon, J. P. and Dahl, A. R.: "Deltaic Stratigraphic Traps in
In both the development of experience files and of new West Tuscola Field, Taylor County, Texas," Bull., AAPG (1971)
technology, the essential factor will be the willingness of 55,1194-1205.
the geologist and the engineer .to support each other in 10. Snyder, L. J.: "Two-Phase Reservoir Flow Calculations," Soc.
finding and recovering hydrocarbons. High costs of ex- Pet. Eng. J. (June 1969) 170-182.
11. Staggs, H. M. and Herbeck, E. F.: "Reservoir Simulation Models
ploration and production activities require constant appli- - An Engineering Overview," J. Pet. Tech. (Dec. 1971)
cation of the. combined technology and judgment of both 1428-1436. JPT
professions.
Original manuscript received in. Society of Petroleum Engineers office July 22,1974.
References Revised manuscript received Feb. 10, 1975. Paper (SPE 5022) was first presented at the
SPE-AIME 49th Annual Fall Meeting, held in Houston, Oct. 6-9, 1974. © Copyright 1975
1. Frund, E. F., Newman, F. G., and Norman, C. E.: "Chester Series American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

632 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY