DGUV-Information

Collaborative robot systems

Design of systems with „Power and Force Limiting“ function
Issue 08/2017 Translation of the German version FB HM-080

Collaborative robot systems can be applied in the Table of contents

„Power and Force Limiting“ function without con-
ventional protective devices such as fences and light
curtains. Concerning the requirements of standards, 1 Legal regulations and standards
rules and regulations and the implementation of
research results, there is a need for practical guidance 2 Risk assessment
for manufacturers, system integrators, users, accident
insurance Institutions and certification bodies. 3 Power and Force Limiting / PFL

4 Requirements on robots
__ 5 Robot system (application)

6 Determination of biomechanical loads

(force and pressure)

7 Documentation and marking of

equipment

8 Risk assessment at the workplace

and recurring inspections
__
9 Summary and limits of application

Annex: Biomechanical limit values

Figure 1: “Sign collaborative robot system” developed. In particular, research results will be included in
this technical specification. On completion of ISO TS
15066, its contents will be used for a planned revision of
1 Legal regulations and standards the standards EN ISO 10218-1 and EN ISO 10218-2.
Collaborative robot systems fall within the scope of the EC
In the meantime and beyond that, this information is
Machinery Directive 2006/42/EC [1]. For placing them on
intended to support manufacturers, system integrators and
the market, they have to be provided with an EC
certifiers with the development, construction, certification
Declaration of conformity and a CE mark. Application of the
and assessment of safe collaborative robot systems.
harmonized European standards EN ISO 10218-1 [2] and
__ EN ISO 10218-2 [3] induce the presumption of conformity.
It can thus be assumed that the requirements of the EC 2 Risk assessment
Machinery Directive are complied with. The risk assessment is a procedure required by the
The collaborative robot system comprises the collabo- Machinery Directive. The documentation of the risk
rative robot(s), tools, workpieces and devices, thereby assessment has to be available with the machine
forming machinery according to the EC Machinery manufacturer or the integrator at the time of placing onto
Directive. The individual robot is considered to be partly the market at the latest. The risk assessment procedures
completed machinery. Partly completed machinery has to for collaborative robot systems do not generally differ from
be provided with a declaration of incorporation instead of those for other machines or robot systems. Examples of
an EC declaration of conformity risk assessments are included in [4].

Due to this very new technology, the specific requirements Risk assessments for collaborative robot systems have to
for collaborative robot systems are not yet comprehend- consider in particular the immediate proximity of the human
sively described in EN ISO 10218-1 and EN ISO 10218-2. and the robot system and derive appropriate protective
The same applies to DGUV Information 209-074 „industrial measures. A comprehensive compilation of possible
robots“ [4]. hazards which have to be taken into account on
collaborative robot systems is mentioned in [3] and [5].
Within the scope of the technical specification ISO TS Contact situations between the human and the robot
15066 [5], the requirements are currently being further system have to be limited to a minimum.
.
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Collaborative robot systems - Design of systems with „power and force limiting“ function

The protective measures to be derived from the risk addition to the monitoring on the tool, a monitoring of
assessment may be conventional protective measures individual axes has to be provided as well.
(e. g. light curtains, laser scanners) but also new types of d) mode selection and enabling switch
protective measures (e. g. force limitations, limitations of
the range of motions) or a combination of both. The basic according to EN ISO 10218-1, a lockable mode
requirements are stated in EN ISO 10218-1 and EN ISO selection switch or equal access guarding (e.g. access
10218-2 as well as in ISO TS 15066 and will be explained code) as well as enabling switches are obligatory safety
in the following. functions of industrial robots. For collaborative robot
systems, an enabling switch may be dispensed with
according to ISO TS 15066, if safety limits (e. g. speed,
3 Power and Force Limiting / PFL force, range of motion) ensure that all activities, such
Among the types of collaboration according to ISO TS as servicing, maintenance, repair, setting, program-
15066, ming can be carried out as safely as by the use of an
enabling switch. It must not be possible to deselect or
 hand guiding change the safety limits such that a hazardous situation
 safety-related stop arises. Since the safety limits - except robot systems
 speed and separation monitoring with inherently safe design (miniature robots) - can
normally be parameterized, the absence of mode
 power and force limiting selection switch and enabling switch is normally not
this DGUV-Information does only consider power and force possible. On the first putting into service or subsequent
limiting. This function enables a fenceless operation. The modifications by the user (e. g. new parts program),
robot systems are designed in such a way that in case of a safety limits must be changed. This has to be done by
contact e. g. between persons and robot tool, robot parts or means of an enabling switch.
the workpiece, biomechanical limit values are not
exceeded (force, pressure). The force or pressure
application depends among other factors on the following
protective measures:
 active technical protective measures in the robot
system, e. g. tactile safeguards, torque sensors, force
sensors, speed and range limits (see also Figure 4).
 passive protective measures, e. g. elastic grippers,
padding, shaping of the robot, the tool, the workpiece
and of all other devices involved in the work process.
Robots that are designed for this type of collaboration are
also called lightweight robots. However, no safety
characteristics can be derived solely from the term.
Figure 2: Control architecture according to
EN ISO 13849-1 category 3
4 Requirements on robots
The safety functions shall meet EN ISO 13849-1 [6]
The robots intended for use should be designed and category 3/PLd. In addition, the edges of all robot parts
selected particularly with regard to the safety functions (robot arms, tool holder) should be rounded. Padding
required in the application. If e. g. no adequate safety- enlarges the surfaces and has positive effects. In order to
related control functions are provided by the control keep contact forces low due to inertia, the loads should be
system, they have to be retrofitted. If necessary, an low as well.
alternative robot type has to be selected.
Besides the obligatory safety functions stated in EN ISO 5 Robot system (application)
10218-1, such as e. g. emergency stop, industrial robots
intended for the human-robot collaboration usually have to Besides the robot, the robot system also includes the robot
be provided with the following safety functions in the tools, the workpieces, the handling system as well as all
function power and force limiting: devices and safeguards involved.

a) safe monitoring / limitation of torque or force According to the current state of the art, large, angular and
heavy workpieces are not suited for this kind of
taking into account the edge geometry of the robot collaboration. The inertia of heavy workpieces normally
system surfaces which are involved in the work leads to exceeding the force and pressure limits (see
process, it results from the monitoring of force or torque Annex A).
on the robot that also the pressure is monitored at the
contact surfaces. Due to the proximity to the human, the robot movements
(paths) intended for collaborative operation are decisive
b) safe speed monitoring factors. Normally, the robot travel ranges including tool and
in order to ensure e. g. for force and/or torque workpiece have to be limited by means of the system layout
monitoring, that a stop reaction can take place taking and the function „Safe limitation of range of motion” (safe
into account the system-related reaction time, normally spatial limits), in order to e. g. exclude sensitive body parts
a safe speed monitoring is necessary. such as head and neck from the work area within the scope
c) safe position monitoring of the intended use (Figure 4).
in order to be able to define and limit work areas Any contact with the head has to be generally excluded by
according to the load limits which are assigned to the the system layout even in the scope of the foreseeable
body regions, (e. g. exclusion of neck and head), misuse. If this cannot be fully ensured, such contact
normally, a safely monitored position (safe space limits) situations have to be reduced to a minimum. Measure-
is required. Depending on the hazard exposure, in ments of the biomechanical limit values have to be carried
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Collaborative robot systems - Design of systems with „power and force limiting“ function

out for those contact situations. The sensitive areas at the accessible and provided in sufficient number. Resulting
head or neck (e. g. eyes or larynx), however, must under from the possible direct contact between a person and the
no circumstances become a point of contact. This can be robot system, there shall always be a means available to
achieved by design measures, e. g. free oneself when being trapped, e.g. by means of a
 flat contours switching device for releasing the mechanical holding
brakes. Contact situations may arise by a clamping
 padding incident, e.g. in case of a reflexive intervention into the tool
 defensive path design area. Contact situations between human and robot
 turn away edged contours from the operator during systems have to be generally restricted to a minimum. This
travel applies to contact by bumping and to possible clamping
situations. Clamping situations – if they cannot be entirely
 restriction of robot working ranges (TCP and joints) prevented – should only occur to the upper limbs.
 shifting of large relative movements far away from
sensitive body regions (in case of table applications, 6 Determination of biomechanical loads
e. g. downwards)
(force and pressure)
If risks persist, these areas have to be excluded from
As far as there is no experience available on occurring
access, e. g. by additional guards (even transparent ones)
contact forces and pressures (e. g. simulation tools), the
and provided with complementary instructions to the users
forces and pressures for the contact scenarios which have
(see also section 7).
been selected according to the risk assessment, have to be
measured according to table A.2 (see Annex A). On the
condition of a well-prepared application design and path
planning, the measurements for a typical robot system in
the collaborative mode power and force limiting may be
reduced to a few selected contact scenarios. The limit
values are composed of a limit value for the pressure and
a limit value for the force.
The limit value for the pressure considers the influence of
the geometry of all machine parts involved in the work
process (edges, corners, points). It applies: the smaller the
surfaces, i. e. the more sharp-edged, e. g. the tools are, the
Figure 3: Avoidance of points, sharp edges and shearing higher the pressure. The limit values according to Table A.2
edges or ISO TS 15066 result from the latest research on the
determination of pain thresholds [7].
For selecting the robot movements (paths) which have to
be expected on contact with corresponding body regions, Besides the pressure, the force always needs to be
typically the following foreseeable situations should be considered as well. This is of particular relevance e. g. for
assumed: extensive or padded parts of the robot system. On contact
 manual intervention into the work area, intentionally or with body parts, the measured pressure is thus minimal or
unintentionally, e. g. reflexively insignificant. In this case the force has to be limited, so that
despite a soft impact on the body no overloads are applied
 observation of the working process, e.g. by leaning into to the deeper tissue. Furthermore, the operator must not be
or leaning over knocked-over.
 detection and intervention in case of malfunction
 picking up falling parts
 bumping of the robot arms against the body
 bumping of the tool and the workpiece against the body

Figure 4: Example of limiting the robot work area by

means of safe area limits Figure 5: Pressure distribution on an edged contour
(example).
Moreover, the safety requirements according to EN ISO
10218-2 apply to the robot system. Particular care must be
taken to ensure that emergency stop devices are easily
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Collaborative robot systems - Design of systems with „power and force limiting“ function

As soon as one of the limit values, force or pressure, is

exceeded, the requirements are considered to be not
fulfilled. Normally, the safety limits for the force which are
set at the robot in conjunction with the safely monitored
speed have to be reduced. If, e. g. the pressure values
continue to be exceeded afterwards, the design has to be
modified, e. g. by larger surfaces, padding, elastic grippers
etc. .
Limitations of force, speed and similar which are not
identified as safety functions must not be considered in the
scope of the measurement. The robot system has to offer
an option to switch off such functions for programming and
measuring purposes or Worst-Case-assumptions have to
be taken (maximum possible force, speed, range etc.).
For the body regions selected for the measurement, the
damping materials and spring constants indicated in Table Figure 6: Example of a measuring system for force and
1 may be applied. pressure

Body region Damping Thick- Spring

Practical experience showed that the force measurement
material ness K2 results deviated only slightly after the diverse springs had
K1 [Shore A] [mm] [N/mm] been replaced. Provided that head and neck are excluded
from the work area of the robot system, it may be sufficient
Skull and forehead 150
within the intended use and foreseeable misuse to use only
Face 75 the Worst Case (hardest) spring of 75 N/mm. If it should be
Hand and finger 75 necessary within the scope of the foreseeable misuse to
Neck 70 7 50 assess a contact, e.g. in the area of the forehead, a spring
Lower arm and wrist 40 of 150 N/mm has to be used.
Chest 25 For the measurement of the biomechanical limit values, a
Pelvis 25 measuring system according to Figure 6 should be applied.
Lower leg 60 The measuring device has to be fixed during the
measurement.
Thigh and knee 30 14 50
Back and shoulders 35 The measuring system must either enable simultaneous or
Upper arm and ellbow 30
subsequent measurements of the force and the pressure
for the relevant contact situation. Force and pressure can
Abdomen 10 21 10 be measured by a measuring setup according to Figure 6.
Table 1: Damping material and spring constants for a
measuring setup according to Figure 7

Figure 7: Measurement of pressure or force for clamping and bumping situations

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Collaborative robot systems - Design of systems with „power and force limiting“ function

The measuring signals resulting from the contact – even It would be desirable for the future, if simulation tools of the
from very fast contact situations - normally include robot manufacturers enable the phase out of measure-
frequencies up to 100 Hz. The measuring frequency should ments. For the time being, such simulation tools are not yet
therefore amount to at least 1 kHz. The measuring signals available.
have to be filtered by means of a Butterworth low-pass filter
of a limiting frequency of 100 Hz (at 3 dB) and a slope of 7 Documentation and marking of
24 dB/octave.
equipment
In the majority of cases, clamping situations of the body
regions hands and lower arms are decisive for the design Collaborative robot systems fall within the scope of the
of the system, the tools and workpieces as well as for the EC Machinery Directive. According to the legal provisions,
safety parameter setting (Table 1 quasi-static contact). Due at least the technical documentation or the markings
to the edges of the tools and workpieces, the clamping mentioned in Table 2 have to be provided.
pressure is usually the decisive factor. For collaborative robot systems, further documents have to
In some cases, it may be necessary to measure dynamic be provided in particular. According to ISO TS 15066,
values, e. g. if the risk assessment shows that even clause 7, the biomechanical limit values (force, pressure)
bumping of robot system parts against the body in the free for the relevant contact situation to be expected have to be
space is possible. indicated. This information has to be supplied to the
customer together with the robot system.
In order to achieve reproducible measuring results, the
measuring device has to be fixed for this case as well. An In the scope of the operating instructions even those
example of a measuring arrangement is shown in Figure 7. protective measures have to be indicated which have to be
Difference is made between two contact situations: implemented as instructions to the operators by the user.
For this, it is very important that the instructions are
a) Clamping, e.g. in the area of a device reasonable and understandable to the operators and can
The permanently occurring clamping forces and be applied. Reference points are:
pressures are evaluated. Depending on the clamping  sufficient lighting of the work area, particularly of
situation, additional peaks may occur (see figure 7 possible contact areas
bottom left) They must not exceed the limit values for
short-term applications (see Table A.2).  stability at the workplace, e. g. slip-resistant floor,
suitable standing aid
b) Bumping in free space
 simple procedures for stopping, restarting and retracting
The measured force or pressure maximum is the robot system, e. g. in emergency situations
evaluated. Continuously occurring clamping forces and  prevention of attention restrictions, e. g. avoiding
clamping pressures need not be expected due to the disturbances by adjoining workplaces due to noise
dodge reaction.
 employment of operators with sufficient qualification and
Technical documentation or May remain To be supplied experience.
marking with the with the robot
manu- system or  prevention of presence of a third person in the
facturer indicated on collaborative area, e. g. access only under supervision
(system the robot  design of work processes and protective measures with
integrator) system regard to the avoidance of operator mistakes, e. g. clear
EC Declaration of conformity path design, ergonomic workplace design
for the robot system
X
 regular and special purpose inspections, e. g.
Operating instructions remeasurement of biomechanical limit values after
for the robot system
X
retrofitting or program change.
Technical documentation
according to Directive X  summarized codes of behaviour durably and clearly
2006/42/EC Annex VII visible on the system (operating instructions)
Risk assessment X  information on measures for risk assessment on the
workplace in conjunction with possible contact situations
Type plate with name and
address of system integrator and the operator’s state of health.
(type plate of robot manufacturer X
not sufficient, example see
Figure 8)
CE mark X
Machine designation, e. g.
„Collaborative robot system“
X
Year of construction X
Series or type designation X
Special additional information
acc. to ISO TS 15066 clause 7,
e. g. biomechanical limit values X
(force, pressure) for individual
contact situation Figure 8: Example type plate with CE mark
Table 2: Minimum markings and documents to be
supplied
DGUV-Information, FB HM-080 Issue 08/2017 Page 6 / 8
Collaborative robot systems - Design of systems with „power and force limiting“ function

8 Risk assessment at the workplace and This DGUV-Information replaces the same-titled version,
recurrent inspections published as draft 04/2017. Further DGUV-Information or
information sheets of the expert committee woodworking
According to the Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health and metalworking are available for download on the
[8], risk assessments at the workplace have to be carried internet. [11].
out for workplaces at collaborative robot systems and
As to the aims of the DGUV-Information, refer to DGUV-
protective measures have to be specified. The risk
Information FB HM-001 „Aims of the DGUV-Information,
assessments at the workplace have to be documented.
published by the expert committee woodworking and
Particular hazards which are different from those of other
metalworking“.
machine workplaces are, e. g.:
 being clamped or missing possibility to free oneself Bibliography:
 presence of another person [1] Directive 2006/42/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of
17 May 2006 on machinery, and amending Directive 95/16/EC (recast)
 psychical hazard - Official Journal of the European Union L 157/24
The Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health also [2] DIN EN ISO 10218-1 Robots and robotic devices - Safety requirements
for industrial robots - Part 1: Robots, 2012-01, Beuth Verlag, Berlin
requires regular inspections to be carried out on the
[3] DIN EN ISO 10218-2 Robots and robotic devices - Safety requirements
collaborative robot system. The inspections should at least for industrial robots - Part 2: Robot systems and integration, 2012-03,
include visual inspections and function tests and should be Beuth-Verlag, Berlin
carried out in yearly intervals. In the course of the use of [4] DGUV Information 209-074 “Industrial robots” (DGUV). Issue January
the collaborative robot system, the biomechanical load 2015.
values may change, e.g. due to [5] ISO TS 15066: 2016-02 Robots and robotic devices - Collaborative
robots. Date of issue: 2016-02. Beuth-Verlag, Berlin
 modified application, e.g. due to reconstruction
[6] DIN EN ISO 13849-1 Safety of machinery - Safety-related parts of
 wear of joints and brakes control systems - Part 1: General principles for design, 2008-12, Beuth-
Verlag
 particular incidents (accidents, crashes, repair)
[7] Scientific final report to project FP-0317: „Collaborative robots –
 program change Determination of pain sensitivity at the human-machine interface“ -
University Medical Center - Institute of Occupational, Social and
 parts change Environmental Medicine, Obere Zahlbacher Straße 67, 55131 Mainz
[8] Regulation on safety and health protection in providing work equipment
Inspections of the biomechanical load values have to be (Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health– BetrSichV) of 3 February
included in the measures. In case of wear or repair, internal 2015 (BGBl. I S. 49), last amended by article 1 of the regulation of 13
system tests or reference measurements of biomechanical July 2015 (BGBl. I S. 1187).
load values can be sufficient, depending on the type of [9] BG/IFA- recommendations for risk assessment at the workplace
robot system. according to Machinery Directive - Design of workplaces with colla-
borative robots. U 001/2009 October 2009
[10] VDMA-Position paper "Safety in Human-Robot Collaboration" VDMA
9 Summary and limits of application Robotics and automation 2014.
[11] Internet: www.dguv.de/fb-holzundmetall publications or
This DGUV-Information is based on expert knowledge and www.bghm.de Webcode: <626>
insights from accidents gathered by the expert committee [12] Yamada, Suita, Ikeda, Sugimoto, Miura, Nakamura: Evaluation of Pain
woodworking and metalworking, subcommittee machinery, tolerance based on a biomechanical method for Human-Robot
systems and automation of Deutsche Gesetzliche Coexistence. Transactions of the Japan Society of Mechanical
Unfallversicherung DGUV. Engineers. 1997. Page 2814-1819
[13] D. Mewes, F. Mauser: Safeguarding Crushing Points by limitation of
Presently, there exist only a few practical instruction Forces. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics
guidelines [9, 10]. The aim of this expert information is to (Jose), Vol. 9, No. 2, 177-191
support manufacturers and users, system integrators and
certifiers with the development, construction, certification
and assessment of safe collaborative robot systems Picture credits:
according to the requirements of EC Directives and The pictures mentioned in this DGUV-Information of the expert committee
harmonized standards. woodworking and metalworking (FB HM) have been kindly provided by:

This DGUV-Information only covers industrial robot Figure 1 - 8: FB HM, SG MAF

systems of the collaborative type (Power and Force Publisher:
Limiting). Industrial robot systems of other types as well as Fachbereich Holz und Metall der DGUV
household robots, service robots, medical robots, miniature Sachgebiet Maschinen, Anlagen und Fertigungsautomation
robots and similar are not dealt with. c/o Berufsgenossenschaft Holz und Metall
Postfach 37 80
A further DGUV-Information for the risk assessment at 55027 Mainz
collaborative robot systems is envisaged. Germany

The provisions according to individual laws and regulations

remain unaffected by this DGUV-Information. The
requirements of the legal regulations apply in full.
In order to get complete information, it is necessary to read
the relevant regulation texts and the current standards.
The expert committee woodworking and metalworking is
composed of representatives of the German Social
Accident Insurance Institutions, federal authorities, social
partners, manufacturers and users.
DGUV-Information, FB HM-080 Issue 08/2017 Page 7 / 8
Collaborative robot systems - Design of systems with „power and force limiting“ function
Annex A: Biomechanical limit values

Front side of the body Specific localization Region of the body

1 middle of forehead skull/forehead

2 temple skull/forehead
3 masticatory muscle face
6 shoulder joint back/shoulders
8 sternum chest
9 pectoral muscle chest
10 abdominal muscle abdomen
11 pelvic bone pelvis
16 arm nerve upper arms/elbow joints
17 forefinger pad d hands/fingers
18 forefinger pad nd hands/fingers
21 thenar eminence hands/fingers
22 palm d hands/fingers
23 palm nd hands/fingers
26 thigh muscle thighs/knees
27 kneecap thighs/knees
28 shin lower legs

d dominant side of the body

nd non-dominant side of the body

Back side of the body Specific localization Region of the body

4 neck muscle neck (sides/nape)

5 seventh neck vertebra neck (sides/nape)
7 fifth lumbar vertebra back/shoulders
12 deltoid muscle upper arms/elbow joints
13 humerus upper arms/ellbow joints
14 radial bone lower arms/wrist joints
15 forearm muscle lower arms/wrist joints
19 forefinger end joint d hands/fingers

20 forefinger end joint nd hands/fingers

24 back of the hand d hands/fingers
25 back of the hand nd hands/fingers
29 calf muscle lower legs

d dominant side of the body

nd non-dominant side of the body

Table A.1: body model

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Collaborative robot systems - Design of systems with „power and force limiting“ function
Annex A: Biomechanical limit values

Body localizations Quasi-static contact (clamping) Transient contact (free impact)

Peak pressure Force Peak pressure Force
Specific localization Body region pS [N/cm²] FS [N] PT multiplier FT multiplier
(note 1) (note 2) (note 3) (note 3)
1 middle of forehead 130 130
skull and forehead none none
2 temple 110
3 masticatory muscle face 110 65
4 neck muscle 140
neck 150
5 seventh neck vertebra 210
6 shoulder joint 160
back and shoulders 210
7 fifth lumbar vertebra 210
8 sternum 120
chest 140
9 pectoral muscle 170
10 abdominal muscle abdomen 140 110
11 pelvic bone pelvis 210 180
12 deltoid muscle upper arms and 190
150
13 humerus elbow joints 220
14 radial bone 190
lower arms and
15 forearm muscle 180 160
wrist joints
16 arm nerve 180
2 2
17 forefinger pad d 300
18 forefinger pad nd 270
19 forefinger end joint d 280
20 forefinger end joint nd 220
21 thenar eminence hands and fingers 200 140
22 palm d 260
23 palm nd 260
24 back of the hand d 200
25 back of the hand nd 190
26 thigh muscle 250
thighs and knees 220
27 kneecap 220
28 middle of shin 220
lower legs 130
29 calf muscle 210

Table A.2 — biomechanical limit values

Note 1:
The values indicated for the peak pressure have been determined in the scope of a study carried out by an independent institution [7].
100 subjects from industry and public were experimentally examined. The indicated limit values are thresholds of pain occurrence, i.e. the
point of perception threshold when a perceived pressure sense turns into a beginning pain. The indicated peak pressures correspond to
the third quartile which has been determined in the study. The study applied devices which had been particularly developed for that
purpose. The study was commissioned by Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung (DGUV) including consultative cooperation with ISO
TC 184 SC 2 WG 3 and DIN NAM 60-30-02-AA.
Note 2:
The values indicated for the force have been determined in the scope of a literature study which was carried out by the Institut für
Arbeitsschutz for this purpose [8]. 180 literature sources have been evaluated. The indicated limit values refer to thresholds of the
occurrence of injuries below AIS 1. According to previous experience, the limit values are considered to be sufficiently conservative.
Further research as to the specification of force limit values is in preparation.
Note 3:
The limit values for transient contact have to be used as multiplier (multiplication of the values for quasi-static contact). They are derived
from the literature sources [12, 13]. According to literature references, multipliers of at least two are indicated, however, as a rule, greater
than two. The indicated limit values are considered to be sufficiently conservative. Further research for specifying transient biomechanical
limit values is in preparation.
Note 4
The biomechanical limit values according to Table A.2 have been taken over in ISO TS 15066.