Content

SECTION A - COST & MANAGEMENT

ACCOUNTING
study Note 1 : Cost and Management Accounting - Introduction
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Management Accounting - Definition 2
1.3 Significance of Management Accounting 3
1.4 Role of Management Accounting in Management Process 3
1.5 Functions of Management Accounting 5
1.6 Limitations of Management Accounting 7
1.7 Relationship between Management Accounting and Cost Accounting 7

Study Note 2 : Decision Making Tools

2.1 Marginal Costing 10

2.2 Tools and Techniques of Marginal Costing 13
2.3 Differential Cost Analysis 23
2.4 Differences between Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 25
2.5 Application of Marginal Costing in Decision Making 26
2.6 Transfer Pricing 39
2.7 Objectives of Inter Company Transfer Pricing 40
2.8 Methods of Transfer Pricing 40

SectionStudyNote3 :–TudgetingACOSTand&BudgetaryMANAGEMENTControl

Budgetary Control and Preparation of Functional and Master

3.1 Budgeting 93
3.2 Fixed, Variable, Semi-Variable Budgets 97
3.3 Zero Based Budgeting (ZBB) 99

Study Note 4 : Standard Costing and Variance Analysis

4.1 Introduction 116

Computation of variances for each of the elements of costs, Sales
4.2 Variances 119
4.3 Investigation of variances - & Reporting of variances 132
4.4 Valuation of Stock under Standard Costing 134
4.5 Uniform Costing and Inter-firm comparison 134
Study Note 5 : Learning Curve
 Section - A
Cost & Management
Accounting
(Syllabus - 2016)
STUDY NOTE : 1
COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

THIS STUDY NOTE INCLUDES:

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Management Accounting - Definition
1.3 Significance of Management Accounting
1.4 Role of Management Accounting in Management Process
1.5 Objectives/Functions of Management Accounting
1.6 Limitations of Management Accounting
1.7 Relationship between Management Accounting and Cost Accounting

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Accounting involves collection, recording, classification and presentation of financial

data. The word ‗Accounting‘ can be classified into three categories: (A) Financial
Accounting (B) Management Accounting and (C) Cost Accounting.

Branches of
Accounting

Financial Management Cost

Accounting Accounting Accounting

FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING:
Financial Accounting has come into existence with the development of large-scale
business in the form of joint-stock companies. As public money is involved in share
capital, Companies Act has provided a legal framework to present the operating results
and financial position of the company. Financial Accounting is concerned with the
preparation of Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet to disclose information to the
shareholders. Financial accounting is oriented towards the preparation of financial
statements, which summarises the results of operations for select periods of time and
show the financial position of the business on a particular date. Financial Accounting is
concerned with providing information to the external users. Preparation of financial
statements is a statutory obligation. Financial Accounting is required to be prepared in
accordance with Generally Accepted Accounting Principles and Practices. In fact, the
corporate laws that govern the enterprises not only make it mandatory to prepare such
accounts, but also lay down the format and information to be provided in such accounts.
In sharp contrast, management accounting is entirely optional and there is no standard
format for preparation of the reports. Financial Accounts relate to the business as a
whole, while management accounts focuses on parts or segments of the business .

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 1

CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING:
Management Accounting is a new approach to accounting. The term Management
Accounting is composed of two words — Management and Accounting. It refers to
Accounting for the Management. Management Accounting is a modern tool to
management. Management Accounting provides the techniques for interpretation of
accounting data. Here, accounting should serve the needs of management. Management
is concerned with decision-making. So, the role of management accounting is to facilitate
the process of decision-making by the management. Managers in all types of
organizations need information about business activities to plan, accurately, for the
future and make decisions for achieving the goals of the enterprise. Uncertainty is the
characteristic of the decision-making process. Uncertainty cannot be eliminated,
altogether, but can be reduced. The function of Management Accounting is to reduce the
uncertainty and help the management in the decision making process. Management
accounting is that field of accounting, which deals with providing information including
financial accounting information to managers for their use in planning, decision-making,
performance evaluation, control, management of costs and cost determination for
financial reporting. Managerial accounting contains reports prepared to fulfil the needs of
managements.

1.2 MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING-DEFINITION

Different authorities have provided different definitions for the term ‗Management
Accounting‘. Some of them are as under:

―Management Accounting is concerned with accounting information, which is useful to the

management‖. —Robert N. Anthony

―Management Accounting is concerned with the efficient management of a business

through the presentation to management of such information that will facilitate efficient
planning and control‖. —Brown and Howard

―Any form of Accounting which enables a business to be conducted more efficiently can
be regarded as Management Accounting‖ —The Institute of Chartered Accountants of England
and Wales

The Certified Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) of UK defines the term

‗Management Accounting‘ in the following manner:

―Management Accounting is an integral part of management concerned with identifying, presenting

and interpreting information for:

1. Formulating strategy
2. Planning and controlling activities
3. Decision taking
4. Optimizing the use of resources
5. disclosure to shareholders and others, external to the entity
6. disclosure to employees
7. safeguarding assets

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From the above definitions, it is clear that the management accounting is concerned with
that accounting information, which is useful to the management. The accounting
information is rearranged in such a manner and provided to the top management for
effective control to achieve the goals of business. Thus, management accounting is
concerned with data collection from internal and external sources, analyzing, processing,
interpreting and communicating information for use, within the organization, so that
management can more effectively plan, make decisions and control operations. The
information to be collected and analysed has been extended to its competitors in the
industry. This provides more meaningful clues for proper decision-making in the right
direction.

The information in the management accounting system is used for three different
purposes:
1. Measurement
2. Control and
3. Decision-making

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The various advantages that accrue out of management accounting are enumerated
below:
(1) Delegation of Authority: Now a day the function of management is no longer
personal, management accounting helps the organisation in proper delegation of
authority for the attainment of the vision and mission of the business.
(2) Need of the Management: Management Accounting plays the role in meeting the
need of the management.
(3) Qualitative Information: Management Accounting accumulates the qualitative
information so that management would concentrate on the actual issue to deliberate
and attain the specific conclusion even for the complex problem.
(4) Objective of the Business: Management Accounting provides measure and reports
to the management thereby facilitating in attainment of the objective of the business.

1.4 ROLE OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING IN MANAGEMENT PROCESS

An enterprise would operate, successfully, if it directs all its resources and efforts to
accomplish its specified objective in a planner manner, rather than reacting to events.

Organisation has to be both efficient and effective. Organisation is effective when the
planned objective is achieved. However, the firm is efficient only when the objective is
achieved, with minimum cost and resources, both in physical and monetary terms. The
role of Management Accounting is significant in making the firm both efficient and
effective. Management Accounting has brought out clear shift in the objective of
accounting. From mere recording of transactions, the emphasis is on analyzing and
interpreting to help the management to secure better results. In this way, Management
Accounting eliminates intuition, which is not at all dependable, from the field of business
management to the cause and effect approach.

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It is well known the basic functions of management are:
1. Planning,
2. Organising,
3. Controlling,
4. Decision-making and
5. Staffing

Function of Management

Planning Organising Controlling Decision-making Staffing

Management accounting plays a vital role in the managerial functions performed by the
managers.

1. Planning: Planning is the real beginning of any activity. Planning establishes the
objectives of the firm and decides the course of action to achieve it. It is concerned
with formulating short-term and long-term plans to achieve a particular end. Planning
is a statement of what should be done, how it should be done and when it should be
done. While planning, management accountant uses various techniques such as
budgeting, standard costing, marginal costing etc for fixing targets. For example, if a
firm determines to achieve a particular level of profit, it has to plan how to reach the
target. What products are to be sold and at what prices? The Management
Accountant develops the data that helps managers to identify more profitable
products. What are the different ways to improve the existing profits by 25%?
Management Accounting throws various alternatives to achieve the goal.
2. Organising: Organising is a process of establishing the organizational framework
and assigning responsibility to people working in the organization for achieving
business goals and objectives. The organizational structure may not be the same in
all organizations, some may have centralized, while others may be decentralized
structures. The management accountant may prepare reports on product lines, based
on which managers can decide whether to add or eliminate a product line in the
current product mix.
3. Controlling: Control is the process of monitoring, measuring, evaluating and
correcting actual results to ensure that a firm‘s goals and plans are achieved. Control
is achieved through the process of feedback. Feedback allows the managers to allow
the operations continue as they are or take corrective action, by some rearranging or
correcting at midstream. The use of performance and control reports serve the
function of controlling. For example, a production supervisor may receive weekly or
daily performance reports, comparing actual material cost with planed costs.
Significant variances can be isolated for corrective action. In the normal course,
periodical reports are submitted, appraising the performance against the targets set.
Reports for action are given to the top management, following the principle of
management by exception. Performance and control reports do not tell managers
what to do. These feedback reports identify, where attention is needed to help
managers to determine the required course of action.
4. Decision-making: Decision-making is a process of choosing among competing
alternatives. Decision-making is inherent in all the above three functions of
management-

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 planning, organizing and controlling. There may be different methods or objectives.
The manager can plan or choose only one of the competing plans. Similarly, in
organizing, decision can be made whether the organizational structure should be
centralized or decentralized. In control function, manager can decide whether
variance is worthy to investigate or not.
5. Staffing: Staffing is the process of recruitment, selection, development, training,
compensation and overseeing employee in an organisation. Staffing, like all other
managerial functions, is the duty which is vest on the management to perform. The
role of the management accounting in this regard is manning the entity structure
through proper and effective selection, appraisal, and development of the personnel
to fill the role assigned to the employer. Moreover, the management accountants
have to reduce the labour turnover and to control the overall employee cost.

1.5 FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The primary objective of Management Accounting is to maximize profits or minimize

losses. This is done through the presentation of statements in such a way that the
management is able to take corrective policy or decision. The manner in which the
Management Accountant satisfies the various needs of management is described as
follows:

1. Storehouse of Reliable Data: Management wants reliable data for Planning,

Forecasting and Decision-making. Management accounting collects the data from
various sources and stores the information for appropriate use, as and when needed.
Though the main source of data is financial statements, Management Accounting is
not restricted to the use of monetary data only. While preparing a sales budget, the
management accountant uses the past data of the products sold from the financial
records and makes projections based on the consumer surveys, population figures
and other reliable information to estimate the sales budget. So, management
accounting uses qualitative information, unlike financial accounting, for preparing its
reports, collecting and modifying the data for the specific purpose.
2. Modification and Presentation of Data: Data collected from financial statements
and other sources is not readily understandable to the management. The data is
modified and presented to the management in such a way that it is useful to the
management. If sales data is required, it can be classified according to product,
geographical area, season-wise, type of customers and time taken by them for
making payments. Similarly, if production figures are needed, these can be classified
according to product, quality, and time taken for manufacturing process.
Management Accountant modifies the data according to the requirements of the
management for each specific issue to be resolved.
3. Communication and Coordination: Targets are communicated to the different
departments for their achievement. Coordination among the different departments is
essential for the success of the organisation. The targets and performances of
different departments are communicated to the concerned departments to increase
the efficiency of the various sections, thereby increasing the profitability of the firm.
Variance analysis is an important tool to bring the necessary matters to the attention
of the concerned to exercise control and achieve the desired results.

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4. Financial Analysis and Interpretation: Management accounting helps in strategic
decision making. Top managerial executives may lack technical knowledge. For
example, there are various alternatives to produce. There is always a choice for the
sales mix. Management 344 Accounting for Managers Accountant gives facts and
figures about various policies and evaluates them in monetary terms. He interprets
the data and gives his opinion about various alternative courses of action so that it
becomes easier to the management to take a decision
5. Control: It is absolutely essential that there should be a system of monitoring the
performance of all divisions and departments so that deviations from the desired path
are brought to light, without delay and are corrected then and there. This process is
termed as control. The aim of this function ‗control‘ is to facilitate accomplishment of
the goals in an efficient manner. For the discharge of this important function,
management accounting provides meaningful information in a systematic and
effective manner. However, the role of accountant is misunderstood. Many consider
the accountant as a controller of their performance. Many accountants themselves
misunderstand their own role as controllers. The real role of control is effective
communication and assists the managers in achieving their goals, as efficiently as
possible.
6. Supplying Information to Various Levels of Management: Every level of
management requires information for decision-making and policy execution. Top-level
management takes broad policy decisions, leaving day-to-day decisions to lower
management for execution. Supply of right information, at proper time, increases
efficiency at all levels.
7. Reporting to Management: Reporting is an important function of management
accounting to achieve the targets. The reports are presented in the form of graphs,
diagrams and other statistical techniques so as to make them easily understandable.
These reports may be monthly, quarterly, and half-yearly. These reports are helpful in
giving constant review of the working of the business.

Storehouse of Reliable Data

Modification and Presentation of Data

Communication and Coordination

Financial Analysis and Interpretation

Control

Supplying Information to Various Levels of Management

Reporting to Management

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 6

 1.6 LIMITATIONS OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Despite the development of Management Accounting as an effective discipline to

improve the managerial performance, some of the limitations are as under:
1. Accuracy is not Ensured: Management Accounting is largely based on estimates. It
does not deal with actual, alone, and thus total accuracy is not ensured under
Management Accounting.
2. A Tool in the Hands of Management: Management Accounting is definitely a tool
in the hands of management, but cannot replace management.
3. Strength and Weakness: Management Accounting derives information from
Financial Accounting, Cost Accounting and other records. The strength and weakness
of these basic information providers become the strength and weakness of
Management Accounting too.
4. Costly Affair: The installation of Management Accounting is a costly affair so all the
organizations, in particular, small firms cannot afford.
5. Lack of Knowledge and Understanding: The emergence of Management
Accounting is the fusion of a number of subjects like statistics, economics,
engineering and management theory. Any inadequate grounding in any one or more
of the subjects is bound to have an unfavourable effect on the consideration and
solution of the problems, relating to management performance.
6. Evolutionary Stage: Comparatively, Management Accounting is a new discipline
and is still very much in a stage of evolution. Therefore, it comes across the same
difficulties or obstacles, which a relatively new discipline has to face.
7. Psychological Resistance: Adoption of a system of Management Accounting brings
about a radical change in the established pattern of the activity of the management
personnel. It calls for rearrangement of personnel as well as their activities. This is
bound to encounter opposition from some quarter or other.

1.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND COST

ACCOUNTING

Relationship between Management Accounting and Cost Accounting:

Management Accounting is primarily concerned with the requirements of the
management. It involves application of appropriate techniques and concepts, which help
management in establishing a plan for reasonable economic objective. It helps in making
rational decisions for accomplishment of management objectives. Any workable concept
or techniques whether it is drawn from Cost Accounting, Financial Accounting,
Economics, Mathematics and statistics, can be used in Management Accountancy. The
data used in Management Accountancy should satisfy only one broad test. It should
serve the purpose that it is intended for. A management accountant accumulates,
summarises and analysis the available data and presents it in relation to specific
problems, decisions and day-to-day task of management. A management accountant
reviews all the decisions and analysis from management‘s point of view to determine
how these decisions and analysis contribute to overall organisational objectives. A
management accountant judges the relevance and adequacy of available data from
management‘s point of view.

The scope of Management Accounting is broader than the scope of Cost Accountancy. In Cost
Accounting, primary emphasis is on cost and it deals with its collection, analysis, relevance
interpretation and presentation for various problems of management. Management
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Accountancy utilizes the principles and practices of Financial Accounting and Cost Accounting
in addition to other management techniques for efficient operations of a company. It widely
uses different techniques from various branches of knowledge like Statistics, Mathematics,
Economics, Laws and Psychology to assist the management in its task of maximising profits
or minimizing losses. The main thrust in Management Accountancy is towards determining
policy and formulating plans to achieve desired objective of management. Management
Accountancy makes corporate planning and strategy effective.

From the above discussion we may conclude that the Cost Accounting and Management
Accounting are interdependent, greatly related and inseparable.

Self Learning Questions:

1. Define management accounting and state its significance?

2. Discuss the role of management accounting in management process.
3. Describe the functions of management accounting.
4. List down the limitation of management accounting.
5. State the relationship between management accounting and cost accounting.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Planning and control are done by

A. top management
B. lowest level of management
C. all levels of management
D. None of the above
2. Decision-making concerns the
A. Past
B. Future
C. Past and future both
D. None of the above
3. The comparison of actual results with expected results is referred to as
A. Feedback
B. Controlling
C. None
4. Decision-making is involved in the following function/s of management
A. Planning
B. Organizing
C. Controlling
D. All the above functions
5. This function works like a policeman to ensure the performance of the employees:
A. Controlling
B. Planning
C. Organizing
D. None of these
6. The use of management accounting is
A. Compulsory
B. Optional
C. Mandatory as per the law

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 D. None of the above
7. Management Accounting relates to
A. Collection of data from different sources
B. Modification of data to meet the specific needs
C. Presentation of data
D. All of the above
8. Division of Accounting is divided into
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. None of the above

[Ans: 1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5 (a) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (b)]

Match the followings:

Column A Column B
1 Management Accounting is a tool to. A Effective and efficient
2 Management accounting is composed B Planning, Organising, Controlling and
of. Decision making
3 Organisation has to be both C Maximisation of profit and minimisation
of losses.
4 Objective of management Accounting D Management
5 Function of Management E Management and Accounting

[Ans: D, E, A, C, B]

State whether the following statement is True or False:

1. Any form of accounting, which enables a business to be conducted more efficiently

can be regarded as Management Accounting.
2. Standard formats are used in management accounting for preparation of reports.
3. In Management Accounting, Generally Accepted Accounting Principles and Practices
of Accounting govern the preparation of reports.
4. It is optional for a company to have financial accounting
5. Management Accounting reports are public documents

[Ans: 1. True, 2. False, 3. False, 4.

False, 5. False] Fill in the blanks:

1. Decision-making is a process of choosing among ___________ alternatives.

2. Management Accounting tailors ___________information to meet the specific needs of
management.
3. Management Accounting is ___________in its orientation.
4. The accounting information system for financial accounting and __________accounting
is same.
5. Management accounting a ________ tools to management.
[Ans: Competing, Financial, Futuristic, Management, Modern]

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STUDY NOTE : 2
DECISION MAKING TOOLS

THIS STUDY NOTE INCLUDES:

2.1 Marginal Costing
2.2 Tools and Techniques of Marginal Costing
2.3 Differential Cost Analysis
2.4 Differences between Absorption costing and Marginal Costing
2.5 Application of Marginal Costing in Decision Making
2.6 Transfer Pricing
2.7 Objectives of Inter Company Transfer Pricing
2.8 Methods of Transfer Pricing

GROUP - A

2.1 MARGINAL COSTING

The cost of a product or process can be ascertained using different elements of cost
using any of the following two techniques viz.,
1. Absorption Costing
2. Marginal Costing

Absorption Costing
Under this method, the cost of the product is determined after considering the total cost
i.e., both fixed and variable costs. Thus this technique is also called traditional or total
costing. The variable costs are directly charged to the products where as the fixed costs
are apportioned over different products on a suitable basis, manufactured during a
period. Thus under absorption costing, all costs are identified with the manufactured
products.

Limitations of Absorption Costing:

1. Being dependent on levels of output which vary from period to period, costs are
vitiated due to the existence of fixed overhead. This renders them useless for
purposes of comparison and control. (If, however, overhead recovery rate is based on
normal capacity, this situation will not arise).
2. Carryover of a portion of fixed costs, i.e., period costs to subsequent accounting
periods as part of the cost of inventory is a unsound practice because costs
pertaining to a period should not be allowed to be vitiated by the inclusion of costs
pertaining to the previous period.
3. Profits and losses in the accounts are related not only to sales but also to production,
including the product which is unsold. This is contrary to the principle that profits are
made not at the stage when products are manufactured but only when they are sold.
4. There is no uniformity in the methods of application of overhead in absorption
costing. These problems have, no doubt, to be faced in the case of marginal costing
also but to a less extent of fixed overhead will not arise in the case of marginal
costing.
5. Absorption costing is not always suitable for decision making solution to various types
of problems of management decision making, where the absorption cost method
would be practically ineffective, such as selection of production volume and optimum
capacity

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 utilization, selection of production mix, whether to buy or manufacture, choice of
alternatives and evaluation of performance can be had with the help of marginal cost
analysis. Sometimes, the conclusion drawn from absorption cost data in this regard
may be misleading and lead to losses.

Marginal Costing
Marginal costing is ―the ascertainment of marginal costs and of the effect on profit of
changes in volume or type of output by differentiating between fixed costs and variable
costs.‖ Several other terms in use like direct costing, contributory costing, variable costing,
comparative costing, differential costing and incremental costing are used more or less
synonymously with marginal costing.
It is a process whereby costs are classified into fixed and variable and with such a
division so many managerial decisions are taken. The essential feature of marginal
costing is division of total costs into fixed and variable, without which this could not have
existed. Variable costs vary with volume of production or output, whereas fixed costs
remains unchanged irrespective of changes in the volume of output. It is to be
understood that unit variable cost remains same at different levels of output and total
variable cost changes in direct proportion with the number of units. On the other hand,
total fixed cost remains same disregard of changes in units, while there is inverse
relationship between the fixed cost per unit and the number of units.

Features of Marginal Costing:

The main features of Marginal Costing may be summed up as follows:
1. Appropriate and accurate division of total cost into fixed and variable by picking out
variable portion of semi variable costs also.
2. Valuation of stocks such as finished goods, work-in-progress is valued at variable cost
only.
3. The fixed costs are written off soon after they are incurred and do not find place in
product cost or inventories.
4. Prices are based on Marginal Cost and Marginal Contribution.
5. It combines the techniques of cost recording and cost reporting.

Advantages or Merits or Applications of Marginal Costing:

1. Marginal costing system is simple to operate than absorption costing because they do
not involve the problems of overhead apportionment and recovery.
2. Marginal costing avoids, the difficulties of having to explain the purpose and basis of
overhead absorption to management that accompany absorption costing.
Fluctuations in profit are easier to explain because they result from cost volume
interactions and not from changes in inventory valuation.
3. It is easier to make decisions on the basis of marginal cost presentations, e.g.,
marginal costing shows which products are making a contribution and which are
failing to cover their avoidable (i.e., variable) costs. Under absorption costing the
relevant information is difficult to gather, and there is the added danger that
management may be misled by reliance on unit costs that contain an element of
fixed cost.
4. Marginal costing is essentially useful to management as a technique in cost analysis
and cost presentation. It enables the presentation of data in a manner useful to
different levels of management for the purpose of controlling costs. Therefore, it is an
important technique in cost control.

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5. Future profit planning of the business enterprises can well be carried out by marginal
costing. The contribution ratio and marginal cost ratios are very useful to ascertain
the changes in selling price, variable cost etc. Thus, marginal costing is greatly
helpful in profit planning.
6. When a business concern consists of several units and produces several products and
evaluation of performance of such components can well be made with the help of
marginal costing.
7. It is helpful in forecasting.
8. When there are different products, the determination of number of units of each
product, called Optimum Product Mix, is made with the help of marginal costing.
9. Similarly, optimum sales mix i.e., sales of each and every product to get maximum
profit can also be determined with the help of marginal costing.
10. Apart from the above, numerous managerial decisions can be taken with the help of
marginal costing, some of which, may be as follows:-
a) Make or buy decisions,
b) Exploring foreign markets,
c) Accept an order or not,
d) Determination of selling price in different conditions,
e) Replace one product with some other product,
f) Optimum utilisation of labour or machine hours,
g) Evaluation of alternative choices,
h) Subcontract some of the production processes or not,
i) Expand the business or not,
j) Diversification,
k) Shutdown or continue,

Limitations of Marginal Costing:

(a) The separation of costs into fixed and variable present‘s technical difficulties and no
variable cost is completely variable nor is a fixed cost completely fixed.
(b) Under the marginal cost system, stock of finished goods and work-in-progress are
understated. After all, fixed costs are incurred in order to manufacture products and
as such, these should form a part of the cost of the products. It is, therefore, not
correct to eliminate fixed costs from finished stock and work-in-progress.
(c) The exclusion of fixed overhead from the inventories affects the Profit and Loss
Account and produces an unrealistic and conservative Balance Sheet, unless
adjustments are made in the financial accounts at the end of the period.
(d) In marginal costing system, marginal contribution and profits increase or decrease
with changes in sales volume. Where sales are seasonal, profits fluctuate from period
to period. Monthly operating statements under the marginal costing system will not,
therefore, be as realistic or useful as in absorption costing.
(e) During the earlier stages of a period of recession, the low profits or increase in losses,
as revealed in a magnified way in the marginal costs statements, may unduly create
panic and compel the management to take action that may lead to further depression
of the market.
(f) Marginal costing does not give full information. For example, increased production
and sales may be due to extensive use of existing equipments (by working overtime
or in shifts), or by an expansion of the resources, or by the replacement of labour
force by machines. The marginal contribution fails to reveal these.
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(g) Though for short-term assessment of profitability marginal costs may be useful, long
term profit is correctly determined on full costs basis only.
(h) Although marginal costing eliminates the difficulties involved in the apportionment
and under and over-absorption of fixed overhead, the problem still remains so far as
the variable overhead is concerned.
(i) With increased automation and technological developments, the impact on fixed
costs on products is much more than that of variable costs. A system which ignores
fixed costs is therefore, less effective because a major portion of the cost, such as not
taken care of.
(j) Marginal costing does not provide any standard for the evaluation of performance. A
system of budgetary control and standard costing provides more effective control
than that obtained by marginal costing.

2.2 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF MARGINAL COSTING

1. Contribution:
In common parlance, contribution is the reward for the efforts of the entrepreneur or
owner of a business concern. From this, one can get in his mind that contribution means
profit. But it is not so. Technically or in Costing terminology, contribution means not only
profit but also fixed cost. That is why; it is defined as the amount recovered towards fixed
cost and profit.

Contribution can be computed by subtracting variable cost from sales or by adding fixed
costs and profit.

Symbolically C = S – V → (1)
, Where C = Contribution
S = Selling Price
V = Variable Cost

Also C = F + P → (2)
Where F = Fixed Cost
P = Profit

From (1) and (2) above, we may deduce the following equation called Fundamental
Equation of Marginal Costing i.e.,
S – V = F + P → (3)

Contribution is helpful in determination of profitability of the products and / or priorities

for profitabilities of the products. When there are two or more products, the product
having more contribution is more profitable.

For example: The following are the three products with selling price and cost details:

Particulars A B C
Selling Price (`) 100 150 200
Variable Cost (`) 50 70 100
Contribution (`) 50 80 100

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 13
In the above example, one can say that the product ‗C‘ is more profitable because, it has
more contribution. This proposition of product having more contribution is more
profitable is valid, as long as, there are no limitations on any factor of production. In this
context, factors of production means, the factors that are responsible for producing the
products such as materials, labour, machine hours, demand for sales etc.,

Limiting Factor (or) Key Factor:

In the above example, we find that product having more contribution is more profitable.
However, when there is a limitation on any input factor, the profitability of the product
cannot simply be determined by finding out the contribution of the unit, but it can be
found out by ascertaining the contribution per unit of that factor of production which is
limited in the given situation. Such factor of production which is limited in the question is
called key factor or limiting factor.

Continuing the above example, it may be explained as follows:

The three products take some raw material. A takes 1 kg, B requires 2 kgs, C requires 5
kgs and the raw material is not abundant.

Then profitability of the above products is determined as flows:

Profitability Contributio
= n
Key Factor
A B C
50 / 1 = ` 50 80 / 2 = ` 40 100 / 5 = ` 20

Now, product A is more profitable because it has more contribution per kg of material.

Key factor can also be called as scarce factor or Governing factor or Limiting factor or
Constraining factor etc., whatever may be the name, it indicates the limitation on the
particular factor of production.

From the above, it is essentially understandable that contribution is helpful in

determination of profitability of the products, priorities for profitability of the product and
in particular, profitabilities when there are limitation on any factor.

2. Profit Volume Ratio (P/V Ratio) or contribution Ratio:

First of all, a ratio is a statistical or mathematical tool with the help of which a
relationship can be established between the variables of the same kind. Further, it may
be expressed in different forms such as fractional form, quotient, percentage, decimal
form, and proportional form.
For Example:

Gross Profit Ratio: It may be expressed as follows:

 Gross profit is ¼th of sales

 Sales is 4 times that of gross profit
 Gross profit ratio is 25%
 Gross profit is 0.25 of sales and lastly
 Gross profit and sales are in the ratio of 1 : 4

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 14
So, P/V ratio or contribution ratio is association of two variables. From this, one may
assume that it is the ratio of profit and sales. But it is not so. It is the ratio of Contribution
to Sales.

Symbolically, P/V ratio = Contributio 

 n  × 100 →
 (1)
 Sales 
P/V ratio = C
( × 100)
S
Contribution = Sales × P/V ratio →
 (2)
Contributio
Sales =
  n 
  → (3)

 P / V Ratio 
When cost accounting data is given for two periods, then:
P/V ratio = ( Change in Contribution × 100)or
Change in Sales
Change in Profit
P/V ratio = ( × 100)
Change in Sales

It is to be noted that the above two formulas are valid as long as there are no changes in
prices, means input prices and selling prices.

Usually, Sales = Cost + Profit.

i.e., it can also be written as Sales = Variable Cost + Fixed Cost + Profit and this is called
general sales equation.

Since Sales consists of variable costs and contribution, given the variable cost ratio, P/V
ratio can be found out. Similarly, given the P/V ratio, variable cost ratio can be found out.

For example, P/V ratio is 40%, then variable cost ratio is 60%, given variable cost ratio
is 70%, then P/V ratio is 30%. Such a relationship is called complementary relationship.
Thus P/V ratio and variable cost ratios are said to be complements of each other.

P/V ratio is also useful like contribution for determination of profitabilities of the products
as well as the priorities for profitabilities of the products. In particular, it is useful in
determination of profitabilities of the products in the following two situations:
(i) When sales potential in value is limited.
(ii) When there is a greater demand for the products.

Break Even Analysis:

When someone asks a layman about his business he may reply that it is alright. But a
technical man may reply that it is break even. So, Break Even means the volume of
production or sales where there is no profit or loss. In other words, Break Even Point is
the volume of production or sales where total costs are equal to revenue. It helps in
finding out the relationship of costs and revenues to output. In understanding the
breakeven point, cost, volume and profit are always used. The break even analysis is
used to answer many questions of the management in day to day business.
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 15
The formal break even chart is as follows:

a = Losses b = Profits

When no. of units are expressed on X-axis and costs and revenues are expressed on Y-
axis, three lines are drawn i.e., fixed cost line, total cost line and total sales line. In the
above graph we find there is an intersection point of the total sales line and total cost line
and from that intersection point if a perpendicular is drawn to X-axis, we find break even
units. Similarly, from the same intersection point a parallel line is drawn to X-axis so that
it cuts Y-axis, where we find Break Even point in terms of value. This is how, the formal
pictorial representation of the Break Even chart.

At the intersection point of the total cost line and total sales line, an angle is formed
called
Angle of Incidence, which is explained as follows:

Angle of Incidence:
Angle of Incidence is an angle formed at the intersection point of total sales line and total
cost line in a formal break even chart. If the angle is larger, the rate of growth of profit is
higher and if the angle is lower, the rate of growth of profit is lower. So, growth of profit
or profitability rate is depicted by Angle of Incidence.

Break Even Analysis (or) Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis (CVP analysis):

From the breakeven charts breakeven point and profits at a glance can be found out.
Besides, management makes profit planning with the help of breakeven charts. It can
clearly be understood by way of charts to know the changes in profit due to changes in
costs and output. Such profit planning is made with the variables mainly cost, profit and
volume, such an analysis is called breakeven analysis. Throughout the charts relationship
is established among the cost, volume and profit, it is also called Cost-Volume-Profit
Analysis (CVP analysis).
That is why it is popularly said by S. C. Kuchal in his book ―Financial Management - An
Analytical and Conceptual Approach‖, that Cost-volume-profit analysis, break even
analysis and profit graphs are interchangeable words. The analysis is further
explained as follows:

The change in profit can be studied through Break even charts in different situations in
the following manner:

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 16
i) Increase in No. of Units

Units

‗……‘ line indicates increase in total cost and total sales.

In the above chart, if we clearly observe we find that there is no change in BEP even
if there is increase or decrease in No. of units.

ii) Increase in Sales due to increase in selling price.

NTS = New Total Sales line

‗……‘ line indicates changes in breakeven point and changes in sales.

From the above chart, we observe that profit is increased by increasing the selling
price and also, if there is change in selling price, BEP also changes. If selling price is
increased then BEP decreases.

If selling price is decreased then BEP increases. Thus, we say that there is an inverse
relationship between selling price and BEP.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 17
iii) Decrease in variable cost:

‗……‘ line indicates decrease in total cost and decrease in B.E.P

From the above chart, we observe that when variable costs are decreased, no doubt,
profit is increased. If there is change in variable cost then BEP also changes. If
variable cost is decreased then BEP also decreases. If variable cost is increased then
BEP also increases. Thus there is direct relationship between variable cost and BEP.

iv) Change in fixed cost:

‗……‘ line indicates decrease in fixed cost and total cost and also decrease in BEP.
NTC = New Total Cost Line
NFC = New Fixed Cost Line
From the above chart also we find that there is increase in profit due to decrease in
fixed cost. If fixed cost is increased then BEP also increases. If fixed cost is decreased
then BEP also decreases. Thus there is a direct relationship between fixed cost and
BEP.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 18
Non linear Break Even Chart:

In some cases on account of non-linear behaviour of cost and sales there may be two or
more break even points. In such a case the optimum profit is earned where the difference
between the sales and the total costs is the largest. It is obvious that the business should
produce only upto this level. This is being illustrated in the above chart.

Cash Break-Even Point:

When break-even point is calculated only with those fixed costs which are payable in
cash, such a break-even point is known as cash break-even point. This means that
depreciation and other non-cash fixed costs are excluded from the fixed costs in
computing cash break-even point. Its formula is-
Cash breakeven point = Cash fixed costs / Contribution per unit.

Profit Volume Chart:

Profit-volume chart prominently exhibits the relationship between profit and sales
volume. The normal break-even charts suffer from one limitation. Profit cannot be read
directly from the chart. It is essential to deduct total cost from sale to know the profit
figure. The profit graph overcomes the difficulty by plotting profit directly against an
activity. These charts are easy to understand and their preparation involves drawing
sales curve and profit curve. The point at which profit line cuts the sales line is called
break-even point. Taking the methods and objects under consideration, the profit-volume
chat can be further divided into following categories i.e.,

(a) Simple Profit-Volume Chart:

Its preparation involves the following steps:
 Finding out profit at any two levels of activity.
 Drawing sales line.
 Drawing profit line.

Simple Profit-Volume chart is shown below:

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 19
b. Profit volume chart showing different breakeven point at different price levels is
shown below:

Sequential Profit Graph:

Sometimes, a company manufactures more than one product of varying profitability. A
change in the profitability of one product will lead to a change in the profitability as a
whole. Profit-volume chart can be prepared for a group also. This chart shows relative
profitability of different products. It is also called profit-volume graph for a group of
products, sequential profit graph or profit path chart. Its main advantage is that it
exhibits the relative profitability of different products at a glance. This graph is also
useful to show average slope and marginal slope.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 20
Methods of drawing ‗Profit Path‘:
In sequential profit graph or profit graph for a group of products, a line ―profit plan‖ is drawn in order
to draw total profit line. For drawing profit path, a statement is prepared showing
cumulative sale and cumulative profit. The line ‗Profit path‘ is drawn with the aid of columns for
cumulative same and cumulative profit.

Steps in drawing Profit volume graph (or) sequential profit graph:

 First prepare a marginal cost statement to know the P/V ratios.
 Prepare a statement to find out cumulative sale and cumulative profit.
 Draw a profit path with the help of columns, cumulative sale and cumulative profit.
 Draw total profit line for group of products.

COMPUTATION OF BREAK EVEN

POINT:
F×
Break Even Point in value =S ….. (1)
S-V
= F×S ….. (2)
C
F×
= S ….. (3)
S+P
F
= P. V. Ratio ….. (4)
Or = F
C
S
F
S-
Or = V
S
F
= ….. (5)
V
1 S

Break Even Point (in units) = Fixed Cost / Contribution per unit
 COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 21

Proof for basic breakeven:

Let, V be the variable cost per unit
U be the volume of output i.e., No. of
units P be the Profit
F be the Fixed Cost
Where,
S be the Selling Price
F = Fixed Cost
By substituting the notations in general sales V = Variable Cost
equation: S = Sales
Sales = Fixed cost + Variable cost + Profit P = Profit
SU = F + VU + P C = Contribution
At Break Even, SU = F +VU (Since P = 0)
→ SU – VU = F
→ U(S – V) = F
F
→U=S-V
OR

Fixed Cost
No. of Units Contribution per Contribution Per
Unit Unit
Break even sales
SU (Sales) F×
= S
S-V
Uses and applications of Break even Analysis (Or) Profit Charts (Or) Cost
Volume Profit Analysis:
The important uses to which cost-volume profit analysis or break-even analysis or profit
charts may be put to use are:
(a) Forecasting costs and profits as a result of change in Volume determination of costs,
revenue and variable cost per unit at various levels of output.
(b) Fixation of sales Volume level to earn or cover given revenue, return on capital
employed, or rate of dividend.
(c) Determination of effect of change in Volume due to plant expansion or acceptance of
order, with or without increase in costs or in other words, determination of the
quantum of profit to be obtained with increased or decreased volume of sales.
(d) Determination of comparative profitability of each product line, project or profit plan.
(e) Suggestion for shift in sales mix.
(f) Determination of optimum sales volume.
(g) Evaluating the effect of reduction or increase in price, or price differentiation in
different markets.
(h) Highlighting the impact of increase or decrease in fixed and variable costs on profit.
(i) Studying the effect of costs having a high proportion of fixed costs and low variable
costs and vice-versa.
(j) Inter-firm comparison of profitability.
(k) Determination of sale price which would give a desired profit for break-even.
(l) Determination of the cash requirements as a desired volume of output, with the help
of cash breakeven charts.
(m)Break-even analysis emphasizes the importance of capacity utilization for achieving
economy.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL 22

MANAGEMENT
(n) During severe recession, the comparative effects of a shutdown or continued
operation at a loss are indicated.
(o) The effect on total cost of a change in the fixed overhead is more clearly
demonstrated through break-even charts.

Limitations of Break-even Analysis:

(a) That Costs are either fixed or variable and all costs are clearly segregated into their
fixed and variable elements. This cannot possibly be done accurately and the
difficulties and complications involved in such segregation make the break-even point
inaccurate.
(b) That the behavior of both costs and revenue is not entirely related to changes in
volume.
(c) That costs and revenue patterns are linear over levels of output being considered. In
practice, this is not always so and the linear relationship is true only within a short
run relevant range.
(d) That fixed costs remain constant and variable costs vary in proportion to the volume.
Fixed costs are constant only within a limited range and are liable to change at
varying levels of activity and also over a long period, particularly when additional
plants and equipments are introduced.
(e) That sales mix is constant or only one product is manufactured. A combined analysis
taking all the products of the mix does not reflect the correct position regarding
individual products.
(f) That production and sales figures are identical or the change in opening and closing
stocks of the finished product is not significant.
(g) That the units of production on the various product range are identical. Otherwise, it
is difficult to find a homogeneous factor to represent volume.
(h) That the activities and productivity of the concern remain unchanged during the
period of study.
(i) As output is continuously varied within a limited range, the contribution margin
remains relatively constant. This is possible mainly where the output is more or less
homogeneous as in the case of process industries

2.3 DIFFERENTIAL COST ANALYSIS

Differential Cost is the change in the costs which results from the adoption of an
alternative course of action. The alternative actions may arise due to change in sales
volume, price, product mix (by increasing, reducing or stopping the production of certain
items), or methods of production, sales, or sales promotion, or they may be due to ‗make
or buy‘ or ‗take or refuse‘ decisions. When the change in costs occurs due to change in
the activity from one level to another, differential cost is referred to as incremental cost
or decremental cost, if a decrease in output is being considered, i.e. total increase in cost
divided by the total increase in output. However, accountants generally do not
distinguish between differential cost and incremental cost and the two terms are used to
mean one and the same thing.

The computation of differential cost provides an useful method of analysis for the
management for anticipating the results of any contemplated changes in the level or
nature of activity. When policy decisions have to be taken, differential costs worked out
on the basis of alternative proposals are of great assistance.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 23
The determination of differential cost is simple. Differential cost represents the algebraic
difference between the relevant costs for the alternatives being considered. Thus, when
two levels of activities are being considered, the differential cost is obtained by
subtracting the cost at one level from the cost of another level.

The essential features of differential costs are as follows:-

1) The basis data used for differential cost analysis are costs, revenue and the
investment factors which are relevant in the problem for which the analysis is
undertaken.
2) Total differential costs rather than the costs per unit are considered.
3) Differential cost analysis is made outside the accounting records.
4) As the differences in the costs at two levels are considered, absolute costs at each
level are not as relevant as the difference between the two. Thus, items of costs
which do not change but are identical for the alternatives under consideration, are
ignored.
5) The differentials are measured from a common base point or position.
6) The stage at which the difference between the revenue and the cost is the highest,
measured from the common base point, determines the choice from amongst a
number of alternative actions.
7) In computing differential costs, historical or standard costs may be used but they
should be adjusted to the requirements of future conditions.
8) The elements and items of cost to be considered in differential cost analysis will
depend upon the nature of the problem and the alternatives being considered.

Differential Costs Analysis and Marginal Costing:

Although the techniques of differential costs analysis are similar to those of marginal
costing, the two should not be confused. The points of similarity and difference between
differential costs analysis and marginal costing are summarized below:

Similarity:
(a) Both the techniques of cost analysis and cost presentation.
(b) Both are made use of by the management in decision making and in formulating
policies.
(c) The concepts of differential costs and marginal costs mainly arise out of the difference
in
the behaviour of fixed and variable costs.
(b) Differential costs compare favourably with the economist‘s definition of marginal cost,
viz.
That marginal cost is the amount which at any given volume of output is changed if
output is increased or decreased by one unit.

Difference:
(a) Differential cost analysis can be made in the case of both absorption costing as well
as marginal costing.
(b) While marginal costing excludes the entire fixed costs, some of the fixed costs may
be taken into account as being relevant for the purpose of differential cost analysis.
(c) Marginal costs may be embodied in the accounting system whereas differential costs
are worked out separately as analysis statements.
(d) In marginal costing, margin of contribution and contribution ratio are the main
yardsticks for performance evaluation and for decision making. In differential cost
analysis, differential costs are compared with the incremental or decremental
revenues, as the case may be.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 24
Practical Application of Differential Costs:
They are useful in managerial decisions, which are enumerated below:
(i) Determination of most profitable levels of production and price.
(ii) Acceptance of offer at a lower price or offering a quotation at lower selling price in
order to increase capacity.
(iii) It is used to decide whether it will be more profitable to sell a product as it is or to
process it further into a different product to be sold at an increased price.
(iv) Determining the suitable price at which raw material may be purchased.
(v) Decision of adding a new product or business segment.
(vi) Discontinuing a product or business segment in order to avoid or reduce the
present loss or increase profit.
(vii) Changing the product mix.
(viii) Make or buy decisions.
(ix) Decision regarding alternative capital investment and plant replacement.
(x) Decision regarding change in method of production.

2.4 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ABSORPTION COSTING AND MARGINAL COSTING

Absorption Costing Marginal Costing

1. Both fixed and variable costs are Only variable costs are considered for
considered for product costing and product costing and inventory valuation.
inventory valuation.
2. Fixed costs are charged to the cost of Fixed costs are regarded as period costs.
The profitability of different products
production. Each product bears a is
reasonable share of fixed cost and thus
the judged by their P/V ratio.
profitability of a product is influenced by
the apportionment of fixed costs.
3. Cost data are presented in conventional Cost data are presented to highlight the
pattern. Net profit of each product is total contribution of each product.
determined after subtracting fixed cost
along with their variable cost.
4. The difference in the magnitude of The difference in the magnitude of
opening stock and closing stock affects opening stock and closing stock does
the unit cost of production due to the not affect the unit cost of production.
impact of related fixed cost.
5. In case of absorption costing the cost per In case of marginal costing the cost per
unit remains the same, irrespective of
unit reduces, as the production increases the
as it is fixed cost which reduces, whereas, production as it is valued at variable
the variable cost remains the same
per cost.
unit.

Difference in profit under Marginal and Absorption Costing:

 No opening and closing stock: In this case, profit/loss under absorption and marginal
costing will be equal.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

25
 When opening stock is equal to closing stock: In this case, profit/loss under two
approaches will be equal provided the fixed cost element in both the stocks is same
amount.
 When closing stock is more than opening stock: In other words, when production
during a period is more than sales, then profit as per absorption approach will be
more than that by marginal approach. The reason behind this difference is that a part
of fixed overhead included in closing stock value is carried forward to next accounting
period.
 When opening stock is more than the closing stock: In other words when production is
less than the sales, profit shown by marginal costing will be more than that shown by
absorption costing. This is because a part of fixed cost from the preceding period is
added to the current year‘s cost of goods sold in the form of opening stock.

2.5 APPLICATION OF MARGINAL COSTING IN DECISION MAKING

One of the basic functions of management is to make decisions. Decision making process
generally involves selecting a course of action from among various alternatives. Some of
the important areas where marginal costing techniques are generally applied can be
giving as follows:

1. Selection of a Profitable Sales mix or Profitable Product mix:

In case of a multi-product concern, there may arise a problem of the selection of the
suitable or profitable sales mix i.e., the determination of the ratio in which various
products are produced and sold. For the purpose of determining the profitable sales mix,
the amount of contribution available under each alternative of sales mix is to be
considered and the sales mix giving maximum total contribution will be selected. But the
various problems arising out of change in the sales mix e.g., limiting factors etc., must be
properly considered.

Illustration 1:
Pankaj Ltd., engaged in the manufacture of the two products ‗A‘ and ‗B‘ gives
you the following information:
Product
A Product B
` `
Selling Price per unit 60 100
Direct materials per unit 20 25
Direct wages per unit @ ` 0.50 per hour 10 15
Variable overhead 100% of direct wages
Fixed overhead ` 10,000 per annum
1,000
Maximum capacity units

Show the contribution of each of the products A and B and recommend which
of the following sales mix should be adopted:

(a) 300 units of product A and 600 units of product B;

(b) 450 units of product A and 450 units of product B;
(c) 600 units of product A and 300 units of product B.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 26

Solution:

Statement of Marginal Cost

Product A Product B
` `
Direct Materials 20.00 25.00
Direct Wages 10.00 15.00
Variable Overhead (100% of direct wages) 10.00 15.00
Marginal Cost 40.00 55.00
Selling price 60.00 100.00
Contribution per unit 20.00 45.00

Calculation of Total Contribution:

Sales alternative (a): 300 units of ‗A‘ and 600 units of
‗B‘
Contribution:
`
Product A : 300 units × ` 20 6,000
Product B : 600 units × ` 45 27,000
Total Contribution 33,000
Less: Fixed Overhead 10,000
Profit 23,000
Sales alternative (b): 450 units of ‗A‘ and 450 units of
‗B‘
Contribution:
`
Product A : 450 units × ` 20 9,000
Product B : 450 units × ` 45 20,250
Total Contribution 29,250
Less: Fixed Overhead 10,000
Profit 19,250
Sales alternative (c): 600 units of ‗A‘ and 300 units of
‗B‘
Contribution:
`
Product A : 600 units × ` 20 12,000
Product B : 300 units × ` 45 13,500
Total Contribution 25,500
Less: Fixed Overhead 10,000
Profit 15,500

Hence sales mix under alternative (a) is more profitable as it gives maximum total
contribution and profit.

2. Problem of Limiting Factors:

Limiting factor (also known as 'key factor') is a factor which limits production and/or sales
and thus prevents the manufacturing concern from earning unlimited profits. The limiting
factors or key factors may be shortage of raw material, shortage of skilled labour and
machine

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 27
capacity, market for sales etc. In case of the existence of a key factor, a problem may
arise as to which product should be pushed more in order to maximise profits. Selection
of the profitable product shall be made on the basis of the contribution per unit of
limiting factor. The profitability of a product with reference to limiting factor can be
assessed as follows:

Profitability = Contribution / Limiting Factor per unit

Illustration 2:
In a factory producing two different kinds of articles, the limiting factor is the
availability of labour. From the following information, show which product is
more profitable:

Product A Product B
Cost per unit Cost per unit
` `
Materials 5.00 5.00
Labour:
6 Hours @ ` 0.50 3.00
3 Hours @ ` 0.50 1.50
Overhead:
Fixed (50% of labour) 1.50 0.75
Variable 1.50 1.50
Total Cost 11.00 8.75
Selling Price 14.00 11.00
Profit 3.00 2.25
Total Production for the month
(Units) 500 600

Maximum capacity per month is 4,800 hours.

Give proof in support of your answer.

Solution:

Statement of Profitability
Product A Product B
` `
Materials 5.00 5.00
Labour 3.00 1.50
Variable Overhead 1.50 1.50
Marginal Cost per unit 9.50 8.00
Selling Price per unit 14.00 11.00
Contribution per unit 4.50 3.00
No. Of Labour Hours per unit (Limiting Factor) 6 3
Contribution per Labour Hour ` 4.50 ` 3.00
3
6 Hrs. Hrs.
` 0.75 ` 1.00
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 28
Product B is more profitable as it gives higher contribution per labour hour (limiting
factor).
Proof:
Product A Product B
Maximum capacity per month 4,800 Hrs. 4,800 Hrs.
Maximum capacity (in units) 4,800 Hrs. 4,800 Hrs.
6 Hrs. 3 Hrs.
Total Hours 800 units 1,600 units
Hours Per
Unit

Statement of Cost and Profit

` `
Materials 4,000 8,000
Labour @ ` 0.50 per labour hour for 4,800 hours. 2,400 2,400
Overhead:
Fixed (50% of labour) 1,200 1,200
Variable 1,200 2,400
Total cost 8,800 14,000
Profit 2,400 3,600
Sales 11,200 17,600

3. Make or Buy Decisions:

Sometimes a manufacturer has to decide as to whether a certain component or spare
part should be manufactured in the factory (having unused installed capacity) or bought
from the market. In taking such a 'make or buy ' decision, the marginal cost of the
component or spare part should be compared with the market price. If the marginal cost
is lower than the market price, the component or spare part should be manufactured in
the factory itself. However, the manufacturer must take into consideration any increase
in fixed costs or any Limiting factor which may arise if the production is undertaken in the
factory. If the purchase price is lower than the marginal cost and provided regular supply
and proper quality of the component are guaranteed by outside supplier, it should be
purchased from outside supplier.

Illustration 3:
A mobile manufacturing company finds that while it costs ` 6.25 each to make a
component
X – 2370, the same is available in the market at ` 5.75 with an assurance of
continued supply.
The break-down of cost is:
Direct materials ` 2.75 each
Direct labour ` 1.75 each
Other variables ` 0.50 each
Depreciation and other fixed cost ` 1.25 each
Total ` 6.25 each

(a) Should you make or buy?

(b) What would be your decision if the supplier offers the component at ` 4.85
each?
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 29
Solution:

Calculation of Marginal Cost of Component X – 2370

Per unit
`
Direct Material 2.75
Direct Labour 1.75
Other Variables 0.50
Marginal Cost 5.00

(a) Since the marginal cost per unit of ` 5 is lower than the market price of ` 5.75, it is
recommended to manufacture the component in the factory.
(b) Since the purchase price of ` 4.85 is lower than the marginal cost, the component
should be bought from outside supplier provided proper quality and regular supply
are guaranteed.

4. Diversification of Production:
Sometimes a manufacturer may intend to add a new product to the existing product or
products to utilize the idle capacity, to capture a new market or for some other purpose.
In such a case, the manufacturer or management is interested in knowing the
profitability of the new product before its production can be undertaken. It is advisable e
to undertake the production of the new product if it is capable of contributing something
towards fixed costs and profit after meeting out its variable Cost of sales. Fixed costs are
not to be considered on the assumption that the new product ca n be manufactured by
existing resources without incurring any additional fixed costs. But if the introduction of a
new product involves some specific or identifiable fixed costs (which arise due to the new
product), these should be deducted from the contribution of the new product before
making any decision.
But if the introduction of a new product involves some specific or identifiable fixed costs
(which arise due to the new product), these should be deducted from the contribution of
the new product before making any decision.

Illustration 4:
The following data are available in respect of product ‗A‘ manufactured by
Pankaj Ltd.:
`
Sales 2,50,000
Direct materials 1,00,000
Direct wages 50,000
Variable overhead 25,000
Fixed overhead 50,000
The company now proposes to introduce a new product ‗B‘ so that sales may
be increased by ` 50,000. There will be no increase in fixed costs and the
estimated variable costs of the product ‗B‘ are:
`
Direct materials 24,000
Direct wages 11,000
Overhead 7,000
Advise whether product B will be profitable or not.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 30
Solution:

Calculation of Existing Profitability

Product A (`)
Direct materials 1,00,000
Direct wages 50,000
Variable overhead 25,000
Marginal Cost 1,75,000
Sales 2,50,000
Total Contribution 75,000
Less: Fixed Costs 50,000
Profit 25,000

Statement of Marginal Cost under proposed position

Product A (`) Product B (`) Total (`)
Direct materials 1,00,000 24,000 1,24,000
Direct wages 50,000 11,000 61,000
Variable overhead 25,000 7,000 32,000
Marginal Cost 1,75,000 42,000 2,17,000
Sales 2,50,000 50,000 3,00,000
Contribution 75,000 8,000 83,000
Less: Fixed Overhead 50,000
Profit 25,000

Assuming that spare capacity cannot be used for any other purpose (except for
producing product ‗B‘), it is advisable to undertake the production of product ‗B‘ which
shall give a contribution of ` 8,000 towards fixed costs and profit.

5. Fixation of Selling price:

Marginal costing techniques assist the management in the fixation of the selling price of
different products. Marginal cost of a product is the guiding factor in the fixation of selling
price. Generally, the selling price of a product is fixed at a level which not only covers the
marginal cost but also contributes something towards fixed costs. Hence, under normal
circumstances for a long period, the fixation of selling price is done on the basis of the
total cost of sales (i.e., by adding some margin of profit to the total cost).

But in times of cut-throat competition, trade depression, in accepting additional orders

for utilizing unused capacity and in exploring foreign markets, the manufacturer may be
ready to sell hi s products at a price below total cost but not at a price below marginal
cost. For fixing the price at a level below total cost of sales, the manufacturer shall take
into account the overall profitability or P/V Ratio of the business concern. Thus, the
fixation of selling price becomes easy where marginal cost, overall P/V Ratio and the
level of profits expected, are known. In case of exports to foreign markets, the effect of
various direct and indirect benefits such as cash compensatory assistance, subsidies,
import entitlements and other special favours or benefits from the Government should
also be taken into account.

Further, pricing at or below marginal costs may be considered desirable for a Shorter
period under certain special circumstances given below:

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 31
(i) To introduce a new product in the market or to popularize it.
(ii) To drive out weaker competitors from the market.
(iii) To maintain production in order to avoid retrenchment of employees.
(iv) To keep the plant and machinery in gear.
(v) To avoid the loss of future markets.
(vi) To sell the goods of perishable nature.
(vii) To push up the sales of other conjoined profitable products.
Illustration 5:
P. Co. Ltd., has an overall P/V Ratio of 60%. If the variable cost of a product is `
20, what will be its selling price?
Solution:

Overall P/V Ration of the company = 60%

P/V Ratio = Contribution = Sales - Variable Cost
Sales Sales
If selling price is assumed to be 100.
Contribution = 60
Variable Cost = 100 – 60 = 40
Thus, when variable cost is 40, selling price = 100
100
When variable cost is 1 selling price will be = 40
100
When variable cost is 20, selling price will be = 40 × 20 = ` 50.
Export Market vs. Home Market:
A firm engaged in supplying goods in the home market and having surplus production
capacity, may think of utilising it to meet export orders at a price lower than that
prevailing in the home market. Such a decision is made only when the local sale is
earning a profit i.e., when it fixed costs have already been recovered by the local sales. In
such cases, if the export price is more than the marginal cost, it is advisable to enter the
export market. Any reduction in the selling price in the local market to utilise the surplus
capacity may adversely affect the normal local sales.
However, dumping in the export market at a lower price even below marginal cost in
order to capture future market, has no adverse effect on local sales.
Illustration 6:
Indo-US Company has a capacity to produce 5,000 articles but actually
produced only 2,000
articles for home market at the following costs:
`
Materials 40,000
Wages 36,000
Factory Overheads:
Fixed 12,000
Variable 20,000
Administration overhead (Fixed) 18,000
Selling and Distribution overhead:
Fixed 10,000
Variable 16,000
1,52,000

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 32
The home market can consume only 2,000 articles at a selling price of ` 80 per
article. An additional order for the supply of 3,000 articles is received from a
foreign customer at ` 65 per article. Should this order be accepted or not?

Solution:

Calculation of Present Profitability

Particulars ` `
Sales (2,000 Articles @ ` 80 per article) 1,60,000
Less: Marginal Cost:
Materials 40,000
Wages 36,000
Variable Overheads:
Factory 20,000
Selling and Distribution 16,000 1,12,000
Contribution 48,000
Less: Fixed overheads:
Factory 12,000
Office 18,000
Selling & Distribution 10,000 40,000
Profit 8,000

Since there is a profit of ` 8,000 at the existing level of 2,000 articles sold in the home
market, the fixed costs are fully recovered.

6. Alternative Methods of Manufacture:

Sometimes a manufacturer is faced with the problem of the application of alternative
methods of manufacture i.e., whether machine work or hand work, employment of hand-
driven machine or power-driven machine or employment of one machine or another
machine etc. For the purpose of selecting the method of production to be adopted, a
comparison of the amount of contribution available under different methods of
manufacture shall be made. The alternative providing the maximum contribution per unit
shall be considered to be more profitable. However, the limiting factor. If any, involved in
the method of production, must be given proper consideration.

Illustration 7:
Product ‗A‘ can be manufactured either by Machine No. 1 or by Machine No. 2.
Machine No. 1 can produce 10 units of ‗A‘ per hour and Machine No. 2, 20 units
per hour. Total machine hours available are 3,000 hours per annum. Taking into
account the following comparative costs and selling price, determine the
profitable method of manufacture:

Per unit of Product ‗A‘

Machine No. 1 Machine No. 2
` `
Direct materials 30 30
Direct Wages 15 18
Overhead:
Variable 18 21
Fixed 5 5
Total Cost 68 74
Selling Price 90 90

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 33
Solution:

Statement of Profitability
Machine No. 1 Machine No. 2
Total machine Hours Available 3,000 Per annum 3,000 Per annum
Output per hour 10 units 20 units
30,000 units (3,000 × 60,000 units (3,000 ×
Total Output per annum 10) 20)
` `
Selling Price per unit 90 90
Less: Marginal Cost per unit
No. 1 No. 1
Direct materials 30 30
Direct Wages 15 18
Variable Overhead 18 21 63 69
Contribution per unit 27 21
Hourly Contribution ` 27 × 10 units ` 21 × 20 units
` 270 ` 420
Total Annual Contribution 3,000 hours × ` 270 3,000 hours × ` 420
` 8,10,000 ` 12,60,000
Production by Machine No. 2 shall be more profitable as it gives higher rate of
contribution per hour.

7. Operate or Shut down Decision:

In case of a multi-product concern, it may be found that the production of some of its
products is being carried on at a loss. Under such a position, the production of non-
profitable products shall have to be discontinued. But if the choice is out of two or more
products, the decision shall be taken with reference to the amount of contribution or P/V
Ratio of these products. Production of the product giving the least amount of contribution
or least PN Ratio should be discontinued on the assumption that production capacity thus
freed can be used to produce other profitable products.

Illustration 8:
The following information is supplied to you about products:
Per Unit
X Y Z
` ` `
Materials 10.00 11.00 13.00
Wages 5.00 6.00 8.00
Expenses
Fixed 3.00 3.60 4.80
Variable 2.00 2.50 3.00
Total cost 20.00 23.10 28.80
Profit 2.00 1.90 1.20
Selling price 22.00 25.00 30.00

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 34
(i) The firm wishes to give up one of the products. Which product should be
given up, assuming that the plant and labour thus freed can be used to
produce the other products?
(ii) Will it make any difference to you answer if you are told that the time
required to produce the three products is 4 hours, 6 hours, and 8 hours
respectively.

Solution:

Statement of Profitability
Per Unit
Product X Product Y Product Z
` ` `
Materials 10.00 11.00 13.00
Wages 5.00 6.00 8.00
Variable
Expenses 2.00 2.50 3.00
Variable cost per unit 17.00 19.50 24.00
Selling price per unit 22.00 25.00 30.00
Contribution per unit 5.00 5.50 6.00
5.5
P/V Ratio 5 100 0 100 6 100
22 25 30

Contribution 10  22.7% 22% 20%
 0 
 Sales 

Since the selling prices of three products are not equal, the decision regarding giving up
the production of one of the products is to be taken with reference to the P/V Ratio
available. Since product Z shows the least P/V Ratio, it is advisable to give up its
production.

(ii) Since the time required to produce the products is given, it shall be treated as limiting
factor and the decision is to be taken with reference to the amount of contribution per
unit f limiting factor (i.e., per hour).

Product X Product Y Product Z

Contribution per unit ` 5.00 ` 5.50 ` 6.00
4 6 8
Time required per unit hrs. hrs. hrs.
Contribution per hour `5 ` 5.50 `6
4 8
hrs. 6 hrs. hrs.
` 1.25 ` 0.916 ` 0.75

Production of product ‗C‘ should be discontinued as it gives least amount of contribution

per hour.
8. Maintaining a Desired Level of Profit:
Sometimes the management may be interested in maintaining a desired level of profits
under the conditions of a change in the sales price. The volume of sales required to earn
a desired level of profits can be ascertained by applying marginal costing techniques. For
ascertaining the sales required earning a desired level of profits, the following formulae
are applied:
Number of Units to be sold to earn Desired Total Fixed Cost + Desired
(i) Profits = Profits
Contribution Per Unit
 Sales value required to earn Desired Profits Total Fixed Cost + Desired
(ii) = Profits
P/ V Ratios

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 35
Illustration 9:
A company produces and markets industrial containers and packing cases. Due
to competition, the company proposes to reduce the selling price. If the
present level of profit is to be maintained, indicate the number of units to be
sold if the proposed reduction in selling price is:
(a) 5%; (b) 10%; (c) 15%.
The following additional information is
available:

` `
Present Sales Turnover (30,000
units) 3,00,000
Variable Cost (30,000
units) 1,80,000
Fixed
Cost 70,000 2,50,000
Net Profit 50,000

Solution:

Calculation of Contribution
Anticipated Conditions (Reduction in Selling
Present Conditions Price)
5% Reduction 10% Reduction 15% Reduction
` ` ` `
Selling price per unit 10.00 9.50 9.00 8.50
Less: Variable cost per 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00
 `1,80,000 
unit  
30,000 units
 
Contribution per unit 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50

Total Fixed Cost + Desired

Number of units to be sold to earn desired profits =
Profits
Contribution Per
Unit
`70,000 + `50,000
(i) Under Present Conditions = = 30,000 units
`4
`70,000 + `50,000
(ii) At a Price Reduction of 5% = = 34,286 units
`3.50
`70,000 + `50,000
(iii) At a Price Reduction of 10% = = 40,000 units
`3
`70,000 + `50,000
(iv) At a Price Reduction of 15% = = 48,000 units
`2.50

9. Alternate Courses of Action:

Sometimes the management has to select a course of action from amongst various
alternative courses. Each course of action has its own merits and limitations. The course
of action to be selected should ensure maximum profit to the business concern. The
appraisal of the various courses of action available is possible through the analysis of
contribution. The course of action ensuring highest contribution is generally adopted by
the management.
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 36
Illustration 10:
Excel Ltd. manufactures and markets a single product. The following data are
available:
` Per unit
Materials 16
Conversion costs (variable) 12
Dealer‘s Margin 4
Selling Price 40
Fixed cost : ` 5 lakhs
Present Sales: 90,000 units
Capacity untilisation: 60 per cent
There is acute competition. Extra efforts are necessary to sell. Suggestions
have been made for increasing sales:
(a) By reducing the sales price by 5 per cent.
(b) By increasing dealer‘s margin by 25 per cent on the existing rate.
Which of these two suggestions you would recommend if the company desires
to maintain the present product. Give reasons.
Solution:

Statement of Profitability (90,000 units)

Per unit Total
Marginal Cost: ` `
Materials 16 14,40,000
Conversion Cost 12 10,80,000
Dealer‘s Margin 4 3,60,000
Total Marginal Cost 32 28,80,000
Sales 40 36,00,000
Contribution 8 7,20,000
Less: Total Fixed Cost 5,00,000
Total Profit 2,20,000

Ascertainment of the effect of various suggestions:

Suggestion (a)
`
Revised Selling Price (` 40 – 5% of ` 40) 38
Dealer‘s Margin at existing rate of 10% on sales (since it is variable) 3.80

Suggestion (b)
`
Selling Price (no change) 40
Dealer‘s Margin (Existing rate ` 4 + 25% of ` 4) 5

Statement of Revised Profitability

Suggestion (a) Suggestion (b)
` `
Materials 16.00 16.00
Conversion Cost 12.00 12.00
Dealer‘s Margin 3.80 5.00
Variable Cost per unit 31.80 33.00
Selling price per unit 38.00 40.00
Contribution per unit 6.20 7.00

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 37
Sales (in units) to maintain the existing profitability of ` 2,20,000:
Required Sales (in units) = Total Fixed Cost + Desired Profits
Contribution Per Unit
As per suggestion (a) ` 5,00,000 +` = unit
= 2,20,000 1,16,129 s
` 6.20
As per suggestion (b) ` 5,00,000 +` = unit
= 2,20,000 1,02,857 s
`7

The company should adopt suggestion (b) since it ensures the present profitability of `
2,20,000 at a lower level of production activity of 1,02,857 units as compared to
1,16,129 units under suggestion (a). It is given that competition is acute.

10. Profit Planning:

Profit planning is one of the important functions of management. It relates to the
attainment of maximum profit. Profit planning requires the management to have the
proper knowledge of the inter relationship of selling prices, sales volume, variable cost,
and fixed costs. Marginal costing helps the management in ascertaining the profit
position at the various levels of operation through the technique of cost volume profit
analysis. Thus, the management can plan its operations at the optimum level where
profits are maximum.

Illustration 11:
Ambitious Enterprises is currently working at 50% capacity and produces
10,000 units.
At 60% working, raw material cost increases by 2% and selling price fall by 2%.
At 80% working, raw material cost increases by 5% and selling price fall by 5%.
At 50% capacity working, the product costs ` 180 per unit and is sold at ` 200
per unit.
The cost of ` 180 is made up as follows:
`
Material 100
Wages 30
Factory overheads 30 (40% Fixed)
Administration overheads 20 (50% Fixed)

Prepare a Marginal cost Statement showing the estimated profit of the

business when it is operated at 60 per cent and 80 per cent capacity.

Solution:

Statement of Marginal Cost

50% Capacity 60% Capacity 80% Capacity
10,000 units 12,000 units 16,000 units
` ` `
Materials 10,00,000 12,24,000 16,80,000
Wages 3,00,000 3,60,000 4,80,000
Variable Overheads
Factory 1,80,000 2,16,000 2,88,000
Administration 1,00,000 1,20,000 1,60,000
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 38
 Total Marginal cost 15,80,000 19,20,000 26,08,000
Sales 20,00,000 23,52,000 30,40,000
(10,000 × ` 200) (12,000 × ` 196) (16,000 × ` 190)
Total contribution 4,20,000 4,32,000 4,32,000
Less: Fixed Cost 2,20,000 2,20,000 2,20,000
Profit 2,00,000 2,12,000 2,12,000

Calculation of Variable and Fixed Overhead at 50 per cent capacity

Factory Overhead Administration Overhead
` `
Total Overhead (10,000 units) 3,00,000 2,00,000
Less: Fixed Overhead 1,20,000 1,00,000
(40%) (50%)
Variable Overhead 1,80,000 1,00,000
Variable Overhead per unit `1,80,000 `1,00,000
10,000 10,000
units units
` 18 ` 10

GROUP - B
2.6 TRANSFER PRICING

Introduction and Meaning:

In the modern days, production is on the mass scale due to technological advancement
and upgradation. Organisations grow in course of time and for such growing
organisations, decentralization becomes absolutely necessary. It becomes inevitable for
such organisations to establish separate divisions and departments to ensure smooth
working. Transfer pricing has become necessary in highly decentralized companies where
number of divisions/ departments are created as a part and parcel of the decentralized
organisation. Transfer pricing is one of the tools in the hands of management for
measuring the performance of divisions or departments.

A ‗Transfer Price‘ is that notional value at which goods and services are transferred
between divisions in a decentralized organisation. Transfer prices are normally set for
intermediate products, which are goods, and services that are supplied by the selling
division to the buying division. In large organisations, each division is treated as a ‗profit
center‘ as a part and parcel of decentralization. Their profitability is measured by fixation
of ‗transfer price‘ for inter divisional transfers.
The transfer price can have impact on the division‘s performance and hence lot of care is
to be taken in fixation of the same. The following factors should be taken into
consideration before fixing the transfer prices.

(1) Transfer price should help in the accurate measurement of divisional performance.
(2) It should motivate the divisional managers to maximize the profitability of their
divisions.
(3) Autonomy and authority of a division should be ensured.
(4) Transfer Price should allow ‗Goal Congruence‘ which means that the objectives of
divisional managers match with those of the organisation.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 39
 2.7 OBJECTIVES OF INTER COMPANY TRANSFER PRICING

The following are the main objectives of intercompany transfer pricing scheme:
1. To evaluate the current performance and profitability of each individual
unit: This is necessary in order to determine whether a particular unit is competitive
and can stand on its working. When the goods are transferred from one department
to another, the revenue of one department becomes the cost of another and such
inter transfer price affects the reported profits.
2. To improve the profit position: Intercompany transfer price will make the unit
competitive so that it may maximize its profits and contribute to the overall profits of
the organisation.
3. To assist in decision making: Correct intercompany transfer price will make the
costs of both the units realistic in order to take decisions relating to such problems as
make or buy, sell or process further, choice between alternative methods of
production.
4. For accurate estimation of earnings on proposed investment decisions:
When finance is scarce and it is required to determine the allocation of scarce
resources between various divisions of the concern taking into consideration their
competing claims, then this technique is useful.
2.8 METHODS OF TRANSFER PRICING

It is the notional value of goods and services transferred from one division to other
division. In other words, when internal exchange of goods and services take place
between the different divisions of a firm, they have to be expressed in monetary terms.
The monetary amount for those inter divisional exchanges is called as ‗transfer price‘.
The determination of transfer prices is an extremely difficult and delicate task as lot of
complicated issues are involved in the same. Inter division conflicts are also possible.
There are several methods of fixation of ‗Transfer Price‘. They are discussed below.

1. Pricing based on cost.

a) Actual cost
b) Cost plus
c) Standard cost
d) Marginal cost
2. Market price as transfer price.
3. Negotiated pricing.
4. Pricing based on Opportunity cost.

1. Pricing based on cost: - In these methods, ‗cost‘ is the base and the following
methods fall under this category.
(a) Actual Cost: - Under this method the actual cost of production is taken as transfer
price for inter divisional transfrers. Such actual cost may consist of variable cost
or sometimes total costs including fixed costs.
(b) Cost Plus: - Under this method, transfer price is fixed by adding a reasonable
return on capital employed to the total cost. Thereby the measurement of profit
becomes easy.
(c) Standard Cost: - Under this method, transfer price is fixed on the basis of standard
cost. The difference between the standard cost and the actual cost being variance is

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 40
 absorbed by transferring division. This method is simple and easy to follow, but
the constant revision of standards is necessary at regular intervals.
(d) Marginal Cost: - Under this method, the transfer price is determined on the basis
of marginal cost. The reason being fixed cost is in any case unavoidable and
hence should not be charged to the buying division. That is why only marginal
cost will be taken as transfer price

2. Market price as transfer price: - Under this method, the transfer price will be
determined according to the market price prevailing in the market. It acts as a good
incentive for efficient production to the selling division and any inefficiency in
production and abnormal costs will not be borne by the buying division. The logic
used in this method is that if the buying division would have purchased the
goods/services from the open market, they would have paid the market price and
hence the same price should be paid to the selling division. One of the variation of
this method is that from the market price, selling and distribution overheads should
be deducted and price thus arrived should be charged as transfer price. The reason
behind this is that no selling efforts are required to sale the goods/services to the
buying division and therefore these costs should not be charged to the buying
division. Market price based transfer price has the following advantages:
1. Actual costs are fluctuating and hence difficult to ascertain. On the other hand
market prices can be easily ascertained.
2. Profits resulting from market price based transfer prices are good parameters for
performance evaluation of selling and buying divisions.
3. It avoids extensive arbitration system in fixing the transfer prices between the
divisions.

However, the market price based transfer pricing has the following limitations:
1. There may be resistance from the buying division. They may question buying from
the selling division if in any way they have to pay the market prices.
2. Like cost based prices, market prices may also be fluctuating and hence there
may be difficulties in fixation of these prices.
3. Market price is a rather vague term as such prices may be ex-factory price,
wholesale price, retail price etc.
4. Market prices may not be available for intermediate products, as these products
may not have any market.
5. This method may be difficult to operate if the intermediate product is for captive
consumption.
6. Market price may change frequently.
7. Market prices may not be ascertained easily.

3. Negotiated Pricing: - Under this method, the transfer prices may be fixed through
negotiations between the selling and the buying division. Sometimes it may happen
that the concerned product may be available in the market at a cheaper price than
charged by the selling division. In this situation the buying division may be tempted
to purchase the product from outside sellers rather than the selling division.
Alternatively the selling division may notice that in the outside market, the product is
sold at a higher price but the buying division is not ready to pay the market price.
Here, the selling division may be reluctant to sell the product to the buying division at
a price, which is less than the

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 41
 market price. In all these conflicts, the overall profitability of the firm may be affected
adversely. Therefore it becomes beneficial for both the divisions to negotiate the
prices and arrive at a price, which is mutually beneficial to both the divisions. Such
prices are called as ‗Negotiated Prices‘. In order to make these prices effective care
should be taken that both, the buyers and sellers should have access to the available
data including about the alternatives available if any. Similarly buyers and sellers
should be free to deal outside the company, but care should be taken that the overall
interest of the organisation is not affected.
• The main limitation of this method is that lot of time is spent by both the
negotiating parties in fixation of the negotiated prices.
• Negotiating skills are required for the managers for arriving at a mutually
acceptable price, otherwise there is a possibility of conflicts between the
divisions.

4. Pricing based on opportunity cost: - This pricing recognizes the minimum price
that the selling division is ready to accept and the maximum price that the buying
division is ready to pay. The final transfer price may be based on these minimum
expectations of both the divisions. The most ideal situation will be when the minimum
price expected by the selling division is less than the maximum price accepted by the
buying division. However in practice, it may happen very rarely and there is
possibility of conflicts over the opportunity cost.

It is very clear that fixation of transfer prices is a very delicate decision. There might
be clash of interests between the selling and buying division and hence while fixing
the transfer price, overall interests of the organisation should be taken into
consideration and overall ‗Goal Congruence‘ should be given utmost importance
rather than interests of the selling or buying division.

Illustration 12:
The following information relates to budgeted operations of Division P of a
manufacturing company.
Particulars Amount in `
Sales – 50,000 units @ ` 8 4,00,000
Less: Variable Costs @ ` 6 per unit 3,00,000
Contribution margin 1,00,000
Less: Fixed Costs 75,000
Divisional Profits 25,000

The amount of divisional investment is `1, 50,000 and the minimum desired
rate of return on the investment is the cost of capital of 20%.
Calculate
(i) Divisional expected ROI and
(ii) Divisional expected RI

Solution:
(i) ROI = ` 25,000 / 1,50,000 × 100 = 16.7%
(ii) RI = Divisional Profits – Minimum desired rate of return = 25,000 – 20% of 1,50,000 =
(` 5,000)

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MANAGEMENT 42
Illustration 13:
A company has two divisions, X and Y. Division X manufactures a component
which is used by Division Y to produce a finished product. For the next period,
output and costs have been budgeted as follows.
Particulars Division X Division Y
Component units 50,000 ---
Finished units --- 50,000
Total variable costs – Rupees 2,50,000 6,00,000
Fixed Costs Rupees 1,50,000 2,00,000
The fixed costs are separable for each division. You are required to advise on
the transfer price to be fixed for Division X‘s component under the following
circumstances.
A. Division A can sell the component in a competitive market for ` 10 per unit.
Division Y can also purchase the component from the open market at that
price.
B. As per the situation mentioned in (A) above, and further assume that
Division Y currently buys the component from an external supplier at the
market price of ` 10 and there is reciprocal agreement between the external
supplier and another Division Z, within the same group. Under this
agreement, the external supplier agrees to buy one product unit from
Division Z at a profit of ` 4 per unit to that division, for every component
which Division B buys from the sup.
Solution:

Transfer price decisions can be taken on the following basis.

A. Transfer Price: - Marginal Cost + Opportunity Cost i.e. ` (5 + 5) = ` 10
Note: Marginal Cost = ` 2, 50,000 / 50,000 units = ` 5
Opportunity cost ` 5 are computed on the basis that the Division X will sacrifice ` 5 if
they sell the product to Division Y.
B. In this situation, the transfer price will be worked out as under:
Transfer price = Marginal Cost + Contribution + Profit foregone by
Division Z = ` (5 + 5 + 4) = ` 14
In situation (B), if Division Y purchases from Division X, it will not purchase from
external supplier. Hence, the supplier will stop purchasing from Division Z, which will
result in a loss of profit to Division Z @ ` 4 per unit, and therefore this amount will be
recovered from the transfer price.
Illustration 14:
A company fixes the inter-divisional transfer prices for its products on the
basis of cost plus an estimated return on investment in its divisions. The
relevant portion of the budget for the Division X for the year 2015 -16 is given
below:
Particulars Amount in (`)
Fixed Assets 5,00,000
Current Assets (other than debtors) 3,00,000
Debtors 2,00,000
Annual fixed cost for the division 8,00,000
Variable cost per unit of product 10
Budgeted volume of production per year (units) 4,00,000
Desired Return on Investment 28%
You are required to determine the transfer price for Division X.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL 43

MANAGEMENT
Solution:

Computation of Transfer Price per unit for division X

Particulars Amount in (`)
Variable cost 10.00
Fixed cost (8,00,000 / 4,00,000) 2.00
Total Cost 12.00
Add: Desired return (10,00,000 × 28%) ÷ 4,00,000 0.70
Transfer Price 12.70

Illustration 15:
XYZ Ltd which has a system of assessment of Divisional Performance on the
basis of residual income has two Divisions, Alfa and Beta. Alfa has annual
capacity to manufacture 15,00,000 numbers of a special component that it
sells to outside customers, but has idle capacity. The budgeted residual income
of Beta is `1,20,00,000 while that of Alfa is `1,00,00,000. Other relevant details
extracted from the budget of Alfa for the current years were as follows:
Particulars
12,00,000 units @ ` 180 per
Sale (outside customers) unit
Variable cost per unit ` 160
Divisional fixed cost ` 80,00,000
Capital employed ` 7,50,00,000
Cost of Capital 12%

Beta has just received a special order for which it requires components similar
to the ones made by Alfa. Fully aware of the idle capacity of Alfa, beta has
asked Alfa to quote for manufacture and supply of 3,00,000 numbers of the
components with a slight modification during final processing. Alfa and Beta
agree that this will involve an extra variable cost of ` 5 per unit.

You are required to calculate,

The transfer price which Alfa should quote to Beta to achieve its budgeted
residual income.

Solution:

(i) Contribution required at Budgeted Residual Income

`
Fixed cost 80,00,000
Profit on 7,50,00,000 × 12% 90,00,000
Residual Income 1,00,00,000
Total Contribution required 2,70,00,000

Contribution derived from existing units = 12,00,000 × 20 = ` 2,40,00,000

Contribution required on 3,00,000 units = 2,70,00,000 – 2,40,00,000 = ` 30,00,000
Contribution per unit = 30,00,000 / 3,00,000 = ` 10
Increase in Variable cost = ` 5
∴ Transfer price = V.C + Desired Residual Income + Increase in VC
=160 + 10 + 5
=` 175
(ii) If Beta can buy from outside at less than the Variable cost of manufacture, i.e. ` 165,
then only the decision to transfer price of ` 175, will be sub-optimal for the group as
whole.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL 44

MANAGEMENT
Illustration 16:
Transferor Ltd. has two processes – Preparing and Finishing. The normal output
per week is 7,500 units (completed) at a capacity of 75%.

Transferee Ltd. had production problems in preparing and require 2,000 units
per week of prepared material for their finishing process.

The existing cost structure of one prepared unit of Transferor Ltd. at the
existing capacity is as follows.
Material: ` 2.00 (variable 100%)
Labour: ` 2.00 (variable 50%)
Overheads: ` 4.00 (variable 25%)
The sale price of a completed unit of Transferor Ltd. is ` 16 with a profit of ` 4
per unit. Contrast the effect on the profits of Transferor Ltd. for 6 months (25
weeks) of supplying units to Transferor Ltd. with the following alternative
transfer prices per unit.
(i) Marginal Cost
(ii) Marginal Cost + 25%
(iii) Marginal cost + 15% return on capital employed. (Assume capital
employed ` 20 lakhs)
(iv) Existing Cost
(v) Existing Cost + a portion of profit on the basis of preparing cost / total cost
× unit profit
(vi) At an agreed market price of ` 8.50.
Assume no increase in the fixed costs.

Solution:

Transferred units (25 × 2,000) = 50,000

Existing profit (7500 × 25 × 4) = ` 7,50,000

Effect on profit if transfer price is:

(i) Marginal cost
`
Material 2.00
Labour 1.00
Overheads 1.00
4.00
At this transfer price there is no effect on profit of transferor Ltd.
(ii) Increase of Profit ` 50,000
(iii) Profit per unit = 4 + {(2000000 x 15% x 0.5)/50000} = ` 7
Under this price profit of transferor Ltd is increases by ` 1,50,000 i.e., 50,000 x (7-4)
(iv) Profit increases by 50,000 x (8-4) = ` 2,00,000
(v) Transfer price:
`
{8 + (8/12)4} 10.67
(-) profit 4.00
6.67

(vi) Transfer price = 8.50

Profit increase by 4.5 x 50000 = ` 2,25,000

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 45
Illustration 17:
Division A is a profit centre that produces three products X, Y and Z and each
product has an external market.

The relevant data is as:

X Y Z
External market price per unit (`) 48 46 40
Variable cost of production (division A)
(`) 33 24 28
Labour hours per unit (division A) 3 4 2
Maximum external sales units 800 500 300

Up to 300 units of Y can be transferred to an internal division B.

Division B has also the option of purchasing externally at a price of ` 45 per
unit.
Determine the transfer price for Y the total labour hours available in division A
is:
(a) 3800 hours
(b)5600 hours

Solution:

Computation of contribution per labour hour from external sales:

X Y Z
Market price (`) 48 46 40
Variable cost (`) 33 24 28
Contribution (`) 15 22 12
Labour hours required 3 4 2
Contribution per labour hour (`) 5 5.50 6
Priority III II I

Computation of transfer price when

(a) The capacity is 3800 hours:

Hours required for Z = 300 x 2 = 600
=
Y = 500 x 4 2000
=
X = 800 x 3 2400
500
0

The existing capacity is not sufficient to produce the units to meet the external sales.
In order to transfer 300 units of Y, 1200 hours are required in which division A will
give up the production of X to this extent.
`
Variable cost of Y 24
( contribution lost by giving up production of X to the extent of 1200
hours = 1200 x 5 = ` 6,000
∴ Opportunity cost per unit = (6000/300) 20
Required transfer price 44

(b) If the capacity is 5600 hours:

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 46
 `
Variable cost 24
Contribution lost by giving up X to the extent of 600 hours (being
opportunity
cost) = 600 x 5 = 3000
Opportunity cost per unit = (6000/300) 10
Required transfer price 34

Illustration 18:
Rana manufactures a product by a series of mixing of ingredients. The product
is packed in company‘s made bottles and put into an attractive carton. One
division of company manufactures the bottles while another division prepares
the mix that does the packing.

The user division obtained the bottle from the bottle manufacturing division.
The bottle manufacturing division has obtained the following quotations from
an external source for supply of empty bottles.

Volume no of bottles For 8,00,000 bottles For 12,00,000 bottles

Total price offer (`) 14,00,000 20,00,000

The estimated cost is:

Volume no of bottles For 8,00,000 bottles For 12,00,000 bottles
Total Cost (`) 10,40,000 14,40,000
The sales value and the end cost in the mixing/packing
division are:
Volume no of bottles For 8,00,000 bottles For 12,00,000 bottles
Total sales value (`) 91,20,000 1,27,80,000
Total Cost **(`) 10,40,000 96,80,000
** Excluding cost of
bottles

There is a considerable discussion as to the proper transfer price from the

bottle division to the marketing division.

The divisional managers salary is an incentive bonus based on profits of the

centres.

You are required to show for the given two levels of activity the profitability of
the two divisions and the total organisation based on appropriate transfer
price determined on the basis of:
(i) Shared profit related to the cost
(ii) Market price

Solution:

Statement showing Computation of transfer price on the basis of profit shared on cost
basis:
Output
Particulars Output (8,00,000) (12,00,000)
(`) (`)
Sales 91,20,000 1,27,80,000
Costs:
Product manufacturing division 64,80,000 96,80,000
Bottle manufacturing division 10,40,000 14,40,000
 75,20,000 1,11,20,000
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 47
 Profit 16,00,000 16,60,000
Share of bottle manufacturing division 2,21,276 2,14,964
Product manufacturing division 13,78,724 14,45,036
Transfer price 12,61,276 16,54,964
Transfer price per bottle 1.5777 1.379

Profitability on the basis of market price:

Particulars Output (8,00,000) Output (12,00,000)
(`) (`) (`) (`)
Bottle manufacturing division
Sale value 14,00,000 20,00,000
(-)cost 10,40,000 14,40,000
Profit 3,60,000 5,60,000
Product manufacturing division
Sale value 91,20,000 1,27,80,000
(-)cost of product 64,80,000 96,80,000
Cost of bottle 14,00,000 78,80,000 20,00,000 1,16,80,000
Profit 12,40,000 11,00,000
Total profit 16,00,000 16,60,000
Transfer price 1.75 1.67

Illustration 19:
PH Ltd. manufactures and sells two products, namely BXE and DXE. The
company‘s investment in fixed assets is `2 lakh. The working capital
investment is equivalent to three months‘ cost of sales of both the products.
The fixed capital has been financed by term loan lending institutions at an
interest of 11% p.a. Half of the working capital is financed through bank
borrowing carrying interest at the rate of 19.4%, the other half of the working
capital being generated through internal resources.

The operating data anticipated for 2015-16 is as under:

Product BXE Product DXE
Production per annum (in units) 5,000 10,000
Direct Material/unit:
Material A (Price ` 4 per kg) 1 Kg 0.75 Kg
Material B (Price ` 2 per kg) 1 Kg 1 Kg
Direct labour hours 5 3

Direct wage rate `2 per hour. Factory overheads are recovered at 50% of direct
wages. Administrative overheads are recovered at 40% of factory cost. Selling
and distribution expenses are `2 and `3 per unit respectively of BXE and DXE.
The company expects to earn an after tax profit of 12% on capital employed.
The income tax rate is 50%.
Required:
(i) Prepare a cost sheet showing the element wise cost, total cost profit and
selling price per unit of both the products.
(ii) Prepare a statement showing the net profit of the company after taxes for
the 2013-14.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL 48

MANAGEMENT
Solution:

(a) Cost sheet

BX
E DXE Total
Units Total Units Total
` ` ` ` `
Direct material 6 30,000 5 50,000 80,000
Direct wages 10 50,000 6 60,000 1,10,000
Prime Cost 16 80,000 11 1,10,000 1,90,000
Factory Overheads 5 25,000 3 30,000 55,000
Factory cost 21 1,05,000 14 1,40,000 2,45,000
Office Overheads 8.40 42,000 5.60 56,000 98,000
Cost of production 29.40 1,47,000 19.60 1,96,000 3,43,000
Selling & Distribution
overheads 2.00 10,000 3.00 30,000 40,000
Cost of sales 31.40 1,57,000 22.60 2,26,000 3,83,000
Profit as % on
Fixed capital 21,818 26,182 48,000
Working capital 9,420 13,560 22,980
Sales/S.P. 37.6476 1,88,238 26.5742 2,65,742 4,53,980

Working notes
`
[{383000 x 0.25} + 2,00,000]
Return after tax 12% 35,490
3,83,000 + 35,490 x
∴ Sales
(1/50%) 4,53,980

(b) Statement showing net profit:

`
Sales 4,53,980
(-) Cost of Sales (3,83,000)
Gross Profit 70,980
{22000 + (95750/2)
(-) Interest 19.4%} (31,288)
Profit Before Tax 39,692
(-) Tax @ 50% (19,846)
Profit After Tax 19,846
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 49
 Practical Problems
Illustration 1:
The sports material manufacturing company budgeted the following data for the coming
year.
`
Sales (1,00,000 units) 1,00,000
Variable cost 40,000
Fixed cost 50,000

Find out
(a) P/V Ratio, B.E.P and Margin of Safety
(b) E valuate the effect of
(i) 20% increase in physical sales volume
(ii) 20% decrease in physical sales volume
(iii) 5% increase in variable costs
(iv) 5% decrease in variable costs
(v) 10% increase in fixed costs
(vi) 10% decrease in fixed costs
(vii) 10% decreases in selling price and 10% increase in sales volume
(viii) 10% increase in selling price and 10% decrease in sales volume
(ix) ` 5,000 variable cost decrease accompanied by ` 15,000 increase in fixed costs.
Solution:
(a) P/V ratio, B.E.P and Margin of Safety
Contribution = Sales – Variable cost
=1,00,000 – 40,000
=` 60,000
P/V Ratio = (Contribution / Sales) x 100
=(60,000 / 1,00,000) x 100
=60%
B.E.P sales = Fixed cost / PV ratio
=50,000 /
60% =`
83,333
Margin of Safety = Total sales – B.E.P sales
=1,00,000 – 83,333
=`16,667

(b)
Margin of
Contribution P/V ratio BE Sales safety
(`) (`) (`)
1,20,000 – (72,000 / (50,00 / 1,20,000 –
(i) Increase in volume by 48,000 1,20,000) 0 60%) 83,333
20% = 72,000 x 100 = 60% = 83,333 = 36,667
80,000 – (48,000 / 80,000) (50,00 / 80,000 –
(ii) Decrease in volume 32,000 x 0 60%) 83,333
by
20% = 48,000 100 = 60% = 83,333 = (3,333)
1,00,000 – (58,000 / (50,00 / 1,00,000 –
(iii) 5% increase in 42,000 1,00,000) 0 58%) 86,207
variable cost = 58,000 x 100 = 58% = 86,207 = 13,793
1,00,000 – (62,000 / (50,00 / 1,00,000 –
(iv) 5% decrease in 38,000 1,00,000) 0 62%) 80,645
variable cost = 62,000 x100 = 62% = 80,645 = 19,355

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 50

 10% increase 1,00,000 – (60,000 / (55,000 / 1,00,000 –
(v) in fixed 40,000 1,00,000) 60%) 91,667
cost = 60,000 x 100 = 60% = 91,667 = 8,333
1,00,000 – (60,000 / (45,000 / 1,00,000 –
(vi) 10% decrease in fixed 40,000 1,00,000) 60%) 75,000
costs = 60,000 x 100 = 60% = 75,000 = 25,000
99,000 – (55,000 / 99,000) 99,000 –
(vii) 10% decreases in 44,000 x (50,000 / 90,009
sellin
g price and 10% = 55,000 100 = 55.55% 55.55%) = 8,991
increase in sales = 90,009
volume
(viii 99,000 – (63,000 / 99,000) 99,000 –
) 10% increase in selling 36,000 x (50,000 / 78,579
price and 10% decrease = 63,000 100 63.63%) = 20,421
in sales volume = 63.63% = 78,579
1,00,000 – (65,000/1,00,000 x(65,000 /
(ix) `5,000 variable cost 35,000 ) 65%) 1,00,000 –
decrease accompanied = 65,000 100 = 1,00,000 1,00,000
by `15,000 increase in = 65% =0
fixed costs.

Illustration 2:
Two businesses AB Ltd and CD Ltd sell the same type of product in the same market.
Their budgeted profits and loss accounts for the year ending 30th June, 2016 are as
follows:
AB Ltd (`) CD Ltd (`)
Sales 1,50,000 1,50,000
Less: Variable costs 1,20,000 1,00,000
Fixed Cost 15,000 1,35,000 35,000 1,35,000
Profit 15,000 15,000
You are required to calculate the B.E.P of each business and state which business is likely
to earn greater profits in conditions.
(a) Heavy demand for the product
(b) Low demand for the product.

Solution:

Statement Showing Computation of P/V ratio, BEP and Determination of

Profitability in
Different conditions:
Particulars AB Ltd CD Ltd
(i) Sales 1,50,000 1,50,000
(ii) Variable cost 1,20,000 1,00,000
(iii) Contribution 30,000 50,000
(iv) P/V ratio [(30,000/1,50,000) x 100] 20% 331/3%
[(50,000/1.50,000) x 100]
(v) Fixed cost 15,000 35,000
(vi) Profit 15,000 15,000
(vii) Breakeven sales (V/IV) 75,000 1,05,000

From the above computation, it was found that the product produced by CD Ltd is more
profitable in conditions of heavy demand because its P/V ratio is higher. On the other
hand, in the condition of low demand, the product produced by AB Ltd is more profitable
because its BEP is low.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 51
Illustration 3:
A factory is currently working to 40% capacity and produces 10,000 units. At 50% the
selling price falls by 3%. At 90% capacity the selling price falls by 5% accompanied by
similar fall in prices of raw material. Estimate the profit of the company at 50% and 90%
capacity production.
The cost at present per unit is:
`
Material 10
Labour 3
Overheads 5 (60% fixed)

The selling price per unit is ` 20/- per unit.

Solution:

Statement Showing Computation of Profit at 50% and 90% Capacity as well as at Current
Capacity:
Particulars 40% 50% 90%
` ` `
Unit Total Unit Total Unit Total
(i) Selling Price 20.00 2,00,000 19.40 2,42,500 19.00 4,27,500
(ii) Variable Cost
Material 10.00 1,00,000 10.00 1,25,000 9.50 2,13,750
Labour 3.00 30,000 3.00 37,500 3.00 67,500
Variable OH 2.00 20,000 2.00 25,000 2.00 45,000
15.00 1,50,000 15.00 1,87,500 14.50 3,26,250
(iii) Contribution 5.00 50,000 4.40 55,000 4.50 1,01,250
(iv) Fixed Cost 3.00 30,000 30,000 30,000
(v) Profit 20,000 25,000 71,250
(vi)  F×S  1,20,000 1,32,273 1,26,667
B.E. Sales  
C 
Illustratio
n 4:
The sales turnover and profit during two periods were as
follows:
Sales
Period (`) Profit (`)
1 2,00,000 20,000
2 3,00,000 40,000

What would be probable trading results with sales of `1,80,000? What amount of sales
will yield a profit of ` 50,000?
Solution
: = (Change in profit / Change in sales) x 100
P/V ratio = (20,000 / 1,00,000) x 100 = 20%
= (Sales x P/V ratio) – Profit
Fixed cost = (2,00,000 x 0.2) – 20,000 = ` 20,000
Sales required to earn desired profit Fixed Cost + Desired
= Profit
P/ V Ratio
= (20,000 + 50,000) / 20% = ` 3,50,000

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 52

Illustration 5:
The following figures for profit and sales obtained from the accounts of X Co. Ltd.
Period Sales (`) Profit (`)
2014 20,000 2,000
2015 30,000 4,000

Calculate:
(a) P/V Ratio
(b) Fixed cost
(c) B.E. Sales
(d) Profit at sales `40,000 and
(e) Sales to earn a profit of `5,000.

Solution:

(a) P/V ratio = (Change in profit / Change in sales) x 100

= (2,000 / 10,000) x 100 = 20%
(b) Fixed cost = (Sales x P/V ratio) – Profit
= (20,000 x 0.2) – 2,000 = ` 2,000
(c) Break even sales = Fixed cost / PV ratio
=2,000 / 20% = ` 10,000
(d) Profit at sales ` 40,000= (Sales x P/V ratio) – Fixed cost
=(40,000 x 20%) – 2,000 = ` 6,000
Fixed Cost + Desired
(e) Sales required to earn desired profit of ` 5,000 =
Profit
P/ V Ratio
=(2,000 + 5,000) / 20% = ` 35,000

Illustration 6:
The following results of a company for the last two years are as follows:

Period Sales (`) Profit (`)

2014 1,50,000 20,000
2015 1,70,000 25,000

You are required to calculate:

(i) P/V Ratio
(ii)B.E.P
(iii) The sales required to earn a profit of ` 40,000
(iv) Profit when sales are ` 2,50,000
(v) Margin of safety at a profit of ` 50,000 and
(vi) Variable costs of the two periods.

Solution:
(i) P/V ratio = (Change in profit / Change in sales) x 100
= (5,000 / 20,000) x 100 = 25%
Fixed cost = (Sales x P/V ratio) – Profit
= (1,50,000 x 25%) – 20,000 = ` 17,500

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 53
(ii) Break even sales = Fixed cost / PV ratio
=17,500 / 25% = ` 70,000
Fixed Cost + Desired
(iii) Sales required to earn a profit of ` 40,000 =
Profit
P/ V Ratio
=`
= (17,500 + 40,000) / 25% 2,30,000
(iv) Profit at sales ` 2,50,000 = (Sales x P/V ratio) – Fixed cost
= (2,50,000 x 25%) – =`
17,500 45,000
(v) Margin of safety at profit of ` 50,000 = Profit / PV
ratio
=`
= 50,000 / 25% 2,00,000
(vi) Variable cost for = 1,50,000 x
2011 75% = ` 1,12,500
Variable cost for
2012 = 1,70,000 x 75% = ` 1,27,500

Illustration 7:
The Reliable Battery Co. furnishes you the following income
information:
Year 2015
First Half (`) Second Half (`)
Sales 8,10,000 10,26,000
Profit earned 21,600 64,800

From the above you are required to compute the following assuming that the fixed cost
remains the same in both periods.
1. P/V Ratio
2. Fixed cost
3. The amount of profit or loss where sales are ` 6,48,000
4. The amount of sales required to earn a profit of ` 1,08,000

Solution:

P/V ratio = [(64,800 – 21,600) / (10,26,000 – 8,10,000)] x

1. 100 = 20%
Fixed cost = (Sales x P/V ratio) – = (8,10,000 x 20%) – =`
2. Profit 21,600 1,40,400
= (Sales x P/V ratio) –
3. Profit/Loss when sales are ` 6,48,000 1,40,400
=(6,48,000 x 20%) – 1,40,400 = 1,29,600 –
1,40,400
=` 10,800 (loss)
4. Amount of sales to earn profit of ` 1,08,000 = (1,40,400 + 1,08,000) / 20%
=2,48,400 / 20% = ` 12,42,000

Illustration 8:
The following figures relate to a company manufacturing a varied range of products:
Total Sales (`) Total Cost(`)
Year ended 31-12-2014 22,23,000 19,83,600
Year ended 31-12-2015 24,51,000 21,43,200
Assuming stability in prices, with variable cost carefully controlled to reflect pre-
determined relation.
(a) The profit volume ratio to reflect the rates of growth for profit and sales and
(b) Any other cost figures to be deduced from the data.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 54
Solution:

31-12-2014 (`) 31-12-2015 (`)

22,23,00
Sales 0 24,51,000
19,83,60
(-) cost 0 21,43,200
Profit 2,39,400 3,07,800

Change in profit = 3,07,800 – 2,39,400 = ` 68,400

Change in sales = 24,51,000 – 22,23,000 = ` 2,28,000
= (68,400 / 2,28,000) x 100 =
(a) P/V ratio 30%
=`
(b) Fixed cost = (22,23,000 x 30%) – 2,39,400 4,27,500
=`
(c) Break even sales = 4,27,500 / 30% 14,25,000
=`
(d) M/S for 2014 = 22,23,000 – 14,25,000 7,98,000
=`
M/S for 2015 = 24,51,000 – 14,25,000 10,26,000
=`
(e) Variable cost for 2014 = 22,23,000 x 70% 15,56,100
=`
Variable cost for 2015 = 24,51,000 x 70% 17,15,700
(f) % of fixed cost in 2014 = (4,27,500 / 22,23,000) x
100 = 19.23%
% of fixed cost in 2015 = (4,27,500 / 24,51,000) x
100 = 17.44%

Illustration 9:
SV Ltd a multi product company furnishes you the following data relating to the year
2015:
First Half of the year (`) Second Half of the year (`)
Sales 45,000 50,000
Total cost 40,000 43,000

Assuming that there is no change in prices and variable cost and that the fixed expenses
are incurred equally in the two half year period, calculate for the year, 2015
(i) The P/V Ratio,
(ii) Fixed Expenses
(iii) Break-even sales
(iv) Percentage of Margin of safety.

Solution:
P/V ratio = [(7,000 – 5,000) / (50,000 – 45,000)] x
(i) 100 = 40%
Fixed expenses for first half
(ii) year = (Sales x PV ratio) – Profit
= (45,000 x 0.4) –
5,000 = ` 13,000
Fixed expenses for the year = 13,000 + 13,000 = ` 26,000
(iii) Break even sales = 26,000 /
40% = ` 65,000
(iv) Margin of safety = (50,000 + 45,000) –
65,000 = ` 30,000
Margin of safety ratio = [30,000 / (50,000 + 45,000)]
x 100 = 31.58%
Illustration 10:
S Ltd. furnishes you the following information relating to the half year ended 30th June,
2015.
(`)
Fixed expenses 45,000
Sales value 1,50,000
Profit 30,000
During the second half the year the company has projected a loss of `10,000.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 55
Calculate:
(1) The B.E.P and M/S for six months ending 30th June, 2015.
(2) Expected sales volume for the second half of the year assuming that the P/V Ratio
and Fixed expenses remain constant in the second half year also.
(3) The B.E.P and M/S for the whole year for 2015.

Solution:

(1) P/V ratio : = [(45,000 + 30,000) / 1,50,000] x 100 =

50% BE sales for I half year = 45,000 / 50% = `
90,000
Margin of safety for I half year = 1,50,000 – 90,000 = ` 60,000

For II half year:

(2) P/V ratio = (Fixed cost + Profit) /
Sales 0.5 = [45,000 + (-) 10,000] /
Sales
0.5 sales = 35,000 ⇒ Sales = `
70,000

(3) BE sales for 2012 = (45,000 + 45,000) x

50% = 1,80,000
Margin of safety for 2012 = (1,50,000 + 70,000) – 1,80,000 = ` 40,000

Illustration 11:
The following is the statement of a Radical Co. for the month of June.

Products Total
L (`) M (`) (`)
Sales 60,000 60,000 1,20,000
Variable costs 42,000 30,000 72,000
Contribution 18,000 30,000 48,000
Fixed cost 36,000
Net Income 12,000

You are required to compute the P/V ratio for each product and then compute the P/V
Ratio, Breakeven Point and net profit for the following assumption.
(i) Sales revenue divided 60% to Product L & 40% to Product M.
(ii) Sales revenue divided 40% to Product L & 60% to Product M.

Also calculate the profit estimated on sales upto `1,80,000/- p.m. for each of the sales
mix provided above.

Solution:

Computation of P/V ratio

Particulars L M Total
P/V ratio (C/S) x 100 30% 50% 40%

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 56
(i) For Assumption I:

Statement showing computation of P/V ratio, Breakeven point and profit:

Sr. No. Particulars L M Total
(i) Sales 72,000 48,000 1,20,000
(ii) Variable cost (L - 70%); (M – 50%) 50,400 24,000 74,400
(iii) Contribution (L – 30%); (M – 50%) 21,600 24,000 45,600
(iv) Fixed cost 36,000
(v) Profit 9,600
P/V ratio (45,600 x 1,20,000) / 100 = 38% 30% 50% 38%
Break even sales = 36,000 / 38% = `
94,737

(ii) For Assumption II:

Statement showing computation of P/V ratio, Breakeven point and profit:

Sr. No. Particulars L M Total

(i) Sales 48,000 72,000 1,20,000
(ii) Variable cost (L - 70%); (M – 50%) 33,600 36,000 69,600
(iii) Contribution (L – 30%); (M – 50%) 14,400 36,000 50,400
(iv) Fixed cost 36,000
(v) Profit 14,400
P/V ratio (50,400 x 1,20,000) / 100 = 42% 30% 50% 42%
Break even sales = 36,000 / 42% = `
85,714

Illustration 12:
Accelerate Co. Ltd., manufactures and sells four types of products under the brand
1 2 2
names of A, B, C and D. The sales Mix in value comprises 33 3 %, 41 3 %, 16 3 %,
1
and 8 3 % of
products A, B, C & D respectively. The total budgeted sales (100% are `60,000
p.m.).
Operating costs are:
Variable Costs:
Product A 60% of selling price
Product B 68% of selling price
Product C 80% of selling price
Product D 40% of selling price
Fixed Costs: ` 14,700 p.m.
(a) Calculate the break - even - point for the products on overall basis and
(b) Also calculate break-even-point, if the sales mix is changed as follows the total sales
per month remaining the same. Mix: A - 25% : B - 40% : C - 30% : D - 5%.
Solution:

Particulars A (`) B (`) C (`) D (`) Total (`)

(i) Sales 20,000 25,000 10,000 5,000 60,000
(ii) Variable cost 12,000 17,000 8,000 2,000 39,000
(iii) Contribution 8,000 8,000 2,000 3,000 21,000
(iv) Fixed cost 14,700
(v) Profit 6,300
P/V ratio (C/S) x 100 40% 32% 20% 60% 35%
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 57
(a) Break even sales
Break even sales = 14,700 / 35% = ` 42,000

(b)
Particulars A (`) B (`) C (`) D (`) Total (`)
(i) Sales 15,000 24,000 18,000 3,000 60,000
(ii) Variable cost 9,000 16,320 14,400 1,200 39,000
(iii) Contribution 6,000 7,680 3,600 1,800 21,000
(iv) Fixed cost 14,700
(v) Profit 4,380
P/V ratio (C/S) x 100 40% 32% 20% 60% 31.8%

Break even sales = 14,700 / 31.8% = ` 46,226

Illustration 13:
Present the following information to show to management:
(i) The marginal product cost and the contribution p.u.
(ii) The total contribution and profits resulting from each of the following sales mix results.

Particular
s Product Per unit (`)
Direct Materials A 10
Direct Materials B 9
Direct wages A 3
Direct wages B 2
Fixed Expenses – `
800
(Variable expenses are allotted to products at 100% Direct
Wages)
Sales Price ----- A `
20
Sales Price ----- B `15
100 units of Product A and 200 of
Sales Mixtures: a) B.
b) 150 units of Product A and 150 of
B.
c) 200 units of Product A and 100 of
B.

Solutio
n:

(i) Statement of Marginal Product cost

Particulars A (`) B (`)
(i) Selling Price 20.00 15.00
(ii) Variable cost
Direct Materials 10.00 9.00
Direct wages 3.00 2.00
Variable OHs (100% of direct wages) 3.00 2.00
16.00 13.00
(iii) Contribution (i – ii) 4.00 2.00
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 58
(ii) Profit at Mix (a):
Sr. No. Particulars A (`) B (`) Total (`)
(i) No. of units 100 200
(ii) ‗C‘ per unit 4 2
(iii) Total contribution (ii x i) 400 400 800
(iv) Fixed cost 800
(v) Profit (iii - iv) Nil

Profit at Mix (b):

Sr. No. Particulars A (`) B (`) Total (`)
(i) No. of units 150 150
(ii) ‗C‘ per unit 4 2
(iii) Total contribution (ii x i) 600 300 900
(iv) Fixed cost 800
(v) Profit (iii - iv) 100

Profit at Mix (c):

Sr. No. Particulars A (`) B (`) Total (`)
(i) No. of units 200 100
(ii) ‗C‘ per unit 4 2
(iii) Total contribution (i x ii) 800 200 1000
(iv) Fixed cost 800
(v) Profit (iii - iv) 200
here ‗ C ‗ means ‗ Contribution‘ .

Illustration 14:
The following particulars are extracted from the records of a company:

PER UNIT
PRODUCT A PRODUCT B
Sales (`) 100 120
Consumption of material 2 Kg 3 Kg
Material cost (`) 10 15
Direct wages cost (`) 15 10
Direct expenses (`) 5 6
Machine hours used 3 Hrs 2 Hrs
Overhead expenses:
Fixed (`) 5 10
Variable (`) 15 20
Direct wages per hour is `5
(a) Comment on profitability of each product (both use the same raw material) when:
1) Total sales potential in units is limited;
2) Total sales potential in value is limited;
3) Raw material is in short supply;
4) Production capacity (in terms of machine hours) is the limiting factor.
(b) Assuming raw material as the key factor, availability of which is 10,000 Kgs. and each
product cannot be sold more than 3,500 units find out the product mix which will
yield the maximum profit.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 59
Solution:

(a) Statement showing computation of contribution per unit of different factors of

production and determination of profitability
Particulars A (`) B (`)
(i) Sales 100 120
(ii) Variable cost
Materials 10 15
Labour 15 10
Direct expenses 5 6
Variable OH 15 20
45 51
(iii) Contribution (i – ii) 55 69
(iv) P/V ratio (iii – i) 55% 57.5%
(v) Contribution per kg of material 55/2 = 27.5 69/3 = 23
(vi) Contribution per machine hour 55/3 = 181/3 69/2 = 34.5

From the above computations, we may comment upon the profitability in the following
manner.
1. If total sales potential in units is limited, product B is more profitable, it has more
contribution per unit.
2. When total sales in value is limited, product B is more profitable because it has higher
P/V ratio.
3. If the raw material is in short supply, Product A is more profitable because it has more
contribution per Kg of material.
4. If the production capacity is limited, product B is more profitable, because it has more
contribution per machine hour.

(b) Statement showing optimum mix under given conditions and computation of profit at
that mix:
Particular
Sr. No. s A (`) B (`) Total (`)
(i) No. of units 3,500 1,000
(ii) Contribution per unit 55 69
(iii) Total contribution 1,92,500 69,000 2,61,500
(iv) Fixed cost (3500 × 5) (3500 × 100) 17,500 35,000 52,500
(v) Profit 2,09,000

* Fixed cost is taken at maximum capacity (3,500 x 10)

Working Notes: Kg.
=
Available material 10,000
(-) utilized for A (3,500 x 2) = 7,000
= 3,000
Units of B = 3,000 / 3 = 1,000

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 60
Illustration 15:
A company has a capacity of producing 1 lakh units of a certain product in a month. The
sales department reports that the following schedule of sales prices is possible.

VOLUME OF PRODUCTION SELLING PRICE PER UNIT

% (`)
60 0.90
70 0.80
80 0.75
90 0.67
100 0.61

The variable cost of manufacture between these levels is 15 paise per unit and fixed cost
` 40,000. Prepare a statement showing incremental revenue and differential cost at each
stage. At which volume of production will the profit be maximum?

Solution:

Statement showing computation of differential cost, incremental revenue

and determination of capacity at which profit is maximum:
Capacity Units Sales V. Cost @ Fixed Cost Total cost Differential Incremental
` 0.15 Cost Revenue
% (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
60% 60,000 54,000 9,000 40,000 49,000 --- ---
70% 70,000 56,000 10,500 40,000 50,500 1,500 2,000
80% 80,000 60,000 12,000 40,000 52,000 1,500 4,000
90% 90,000 60,300 13,500 40,000 53,500 1,500 300
100% 1,00,000 61,000 15,000 40,000 55,000 1,500 700

From the above computation, it was found that the incremental revenue is more than the
differential cost up to 80% capacity, the profit is maximum at that capacity.

Illustration 16:
The operating statement of a company is as follows:
` `
Sales (80,000 @ `15 each) 12,00,000
Costs:
Variable:
Material 2,40,000
Labour 3,20,000
Overheads 1,60,000
7,20,000
Fixed Cost 3,20,000 10,40,000
PROFIT 1,60,000

The capacity of the plant is 1 lakh units. A customer from U.S.A. is desirous of buying
20,000 units at a net price of ` 10 per unit. Advice the producer whether or not offer
should be accepted. Will your advice be different, if the customer is local one.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 61
Solution:

Statement showing computation of profit before and after accepting the order:
Sr. Particulars Present Position (Before Order Value Total (After accepting
No. accepting) 80,000 (`) (20,000) (`) 1,00,000) (`)
(i) Sales 12,00,000 2,00,000 14,00,000
(ii) Variable cost
Materials 2,40,000 60,000 3,00,000
Labour 3,20,000 80,000 4,00,000
Variable OH 1,60,000 40,000 2,00,000
7,20,000 1,80,000 9,00,000
(iii) Contribution (i – ii) 4,80,000 20,000 5,00,000
(iv) Fixed Cost 3,20,000 3,20,000
(v) Profit (iii – iv) 1,60,000 20,000 1,80,000

As the profit is increased by ` 20,000 by accepting the order, it is advised to accept the
same. If the order is from local one, it should not be accepted because it will adversely
affect the present market.

Illustration 17:
A company manufactures scooters and sells it at `3,000 each. An increase of 17% in cost
of materials and of 20% of labour cost is anticipated. The increased cost in relation to the
present sales price would cause at 25% decrease in the amount of the present gross
profit per unit.
At present, material cost is 50%, wages 20% and overhead is 30% of cost of sales.
You are required to:
(a) Prepare a statement of profit and loss per unit at present and;
(b) Compute the new selling price to produce the same percentage of profit to cost of
sales as before.

Solution:
Let X and Y be the cost and profit respectively.
X + Y = 3,000 → (1)
Material = X x 50/100 = 0.5X
Labour = X x 20/100 = 0.2X
Overheads = X x 30/100 = 0.3X

After increase of cost:

= 0.585
Material = 0.5 X x 117/100 X
= 0.240
Labour = 0.2X x 120/100 X
= 0.300
Overheads X
= 1.125
X
Profit = Y x 75/100 = 0.75Y
∴ New Equation 1.125X + 0.75Y = 3,000 → (2)

Multiplying Eq. (1) by 0.75 0.75X + 0.75Y =

2,250 0.375X = 750
X = 750/0.375 = ` 2,000
Y = 3,000 – 2,000 = ` 1,000

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 62
Statement of cost & profit per unit at present:
(`)
Material = 2,000 x 50% 1,000
Labour = 2,000 x 20% 400
Overheads = 2,000 x 30% 600
2,000
(+) profit @ 50% of cost 1,000
3,000

Computation of new selling price to get same percentage

of profit:
(`)
Material = 1,000 x 117/100 1,170
Labour = 400 x 120/100 480
Overheads 600
Cost 2,250
(+) Profit @ 50% 1,125
New selling price 3,375

Illustration 18:
An umbrella manufacturer marks an average net profit of ` 2.50 per piece on a selling
price of `14.30 by producing and selling 6,000 pieces or 60% of the capacity. His cost of
sales is
(`)
Direct material 3.50
Direct wages 1.25
Works overheads (50% fixed) 6.25
Sales overheads (25% variable) 0.80

During the current year, he intends to produce the same number but anticipates that
fixed charges will go up by 10% which direct labour rate and material will increase by 8%
and 6% respectively but he has no option of increasing the selling price. Under this
situation, he obtains an offer for further 20% of the capacity. What minimum price you
will recommend for acceptance to ensure the manufacturer an overall profit of `16,730.
Solution:
Computation of profit at present after increase in cost:
Sr. No. Particulars (`)
(i) Selling price 14.30
(ii) Variable cost
Material (3.5 x 106/100) 3.710
Labour (1.25 x 108/100) 1.350
Works overhead 3.125
Sales overhead 0.200
8.385
(iii) Contribution per unit (I-II) 5.915
(iv) Total contribution (6,000 x 5.915) 35,490
(v) Fixed cost
Works OH 3.125 24,585
Sales OH 0.600 (3.725 x 6,000 = 22,350 x 110/100)
(vi) Profit (iv - v) 10,905

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 63
Computation of selling price of the order:
`
Variable cost of order (2,000 x 8.385) 16,770
(+) required profit (16,730 – 10,905) 5,825
Sales required 22,595
Selling price of order = 22,595/2,000 = 11.2975 (or) ` 11.30

Illustration 19:
The Dynamic company has three divisions. Each of which makes a different product. The
budgeted data for the coming year are as follows:
A (`) B (`) C (`)
Sales 1,12,000 56,000 84,000
Direct Material 14,000 7,000 14,000
Direct Labour 5,600 7,000 22,400
Direct Expenses 14,000 7,000 28,000
Fixed Cost 28,000 14,000 28,000
61,600 35,000 93,400

The Management is considering to close down the division C‘. There is no possibility of
reducing fixed cost. Advise whether or not division C‘ should be closed down.

Solution:

Statement showing computation of profit before closing down of division C:

Sr. No. Particulars A (`) B (`) C (`) Total (`)
(i) Sales 1,12,000 56,000 84,000 2,52,000
(ii) Variable cost
Direct Materials 14,000 7,000 14,000 35,000
Direct Labour 5,600 7,000 22,400 35,000
Direct Expenses 14,000 7,000 28,000 49,000
(iii) Total Variable Cost 33,600 21,000 64,400 1,19,000
(iv) Contribution (i – iii) 78,400 35,000 19,600 1,33,000
(v) Fixed Cost 70,000
(vi) Profit (iv – v) 63,000

Statement showing computation of profit after closing ‗C‘:

Sr. No. Particulars A (`) B (`) Total (`)
(i) Sales 1,12,000 56,000 1,68,000
(ii) Variable cost
Direct Materials 14,000 7,000 21,000
Direct Labour 5,600 7,000 12,600
Direct Expenses 14,000 7,000 21,000
(iii) Total Variable Cost 33,600 21,000 54,600
(iv) Contribution (i – iii) 78,400 35,000 1,13,400
(v) Fixed Cost 70,000
(vi) Profit (iv – v) 43,400

From the above computations, it was found that profit is decreased by ` 19,600 by closing
down division ‗C‘, it should not be closed down. In other words, as long as if there is a
contribution of ` 1, from division ‗C‘, it should not be closed down.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 64
Illustration 20:
Mr. Young has ` 1,50,000 investment in a business. He wants a 15% profit on his money.
From an analysis of recent cost figures he finds that his variable cost of operating is 60%
of sales; his fixed costs are `75,000 per year. Show supporting computations for each
answer.
a) What sales volume must be obtained to break-even?
b) What sales volume must be obtained to his 15% return on investment?
c) Mr. Young estimates that even if he closed the doors of his business he would incur
`25,000 expenses per year. At what sales would be better off by locking his sales up?

Solution:

P/V ratio (V. cost ratio 60%) = 40%

a) Break even sales = 75,000 / 40% = ` 1,87,500
b) Required sales to get desired income = (75,000 + 22,500) / 40% = ` 2,43,750 =`
2,43,750
c) Shut down sales = Fixed cost – shut down cost= P/V Ratio = (75,000 – 25,000) / 40%
= ` 1,25,000

Illustration 21:
The manager of a Co. provides you with the following information:
`
Sales 4,00,000
Costs: Variable (60% of sales)
Fixed cost 80,000
Profit before tax 80,000
Income-tax
Net profit 32,000

The company is thinking of expanding the plant. The increased fixed cost with plant
expansion will be `40,000. It is estimated that the maximum production in new plant will
be worth `2,40,000. The company also wants to earn additional income `3,200 on
investment. On the basis of computations give your opinion on plant expansion.

Solution:

Statement showing computation of profit before and after plant expansion:

Sr. Particulars Present (Before Expansion Total (After
No. expansion)(`) Value (`) expansion) (`)
(i) Sales 4,00,000 2,40,000 6,40,000
(ii) Variable cost (60%) 2,40,000 1,44,000 3,84,000
(iii) Contribution (i – ii) 1,60,000 96,000 2,56,000
(iv) Fixed Cost 80,000 40,000 1,20,000
(v) Profit before tax (iii – iv) 80,000 56,000 1,36,000
(VI) Profit after tax (V × 0.40) 32,000 22,400 54,400

From the above computations, it was found that the profit is increased by ` 22,400 by
expanding the plant, which is much higher than the expected income of ` 3,200, one‘s
opinion should be in favour of plant expansion.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 65
Illustration 22:
A manufacturer with overall (interchangeable among the products) capacity of 1,00,000
machine hours has been so far producing a standard mix of 15,000 units of product A,
10,000 units of product B and C each. On experience, the total expenditure exclusive of
his fixed charges is found to be ` 2.09 lakhs and the cost ratio among the product
approximately 1, 1.5, 1.75 respectively per unit. The fixed charges comes to ` 2 per unit.
When the unit selling prices are ` 6.25 for A, ` 7.5 for B and `10.5 for C. He incurs a loss.

Mix-I Mix-II Mix-III

A 18,000 15,000 22,000
B 12,000 6,000 8,000
C 7,000 13,000 8,000

As a management accountant what mix will you recommend?

Solution:

Let variable cost per unit of A, B, C be ` X, ` 1.5X and ` 1.75X

respectively.
= 15,000
A = 15,000 x X X
= 15,000
B = 10,000 x 1.5X X
= 17,500
C = 10,000 x 1.75X X
= 47,500
Total variable cost X
So, we can say,
47,500 X = 2,09,000
X=
or, 4.4
Variable cost per unit of A = X = ` 4.4
Variable cost per unit of B = 1.5 (4.4) = ` 6.6
Variable cost per unit of C = 1.75 (4.4) = ` 7.7
Statement showing computation of loss at present
mix
Particulars A (`) B (`) C (`) Total (`)
(i) Selling price 6.25 7.50 10.50
(ii) Variable Cost 4.40 6.60 7.70
(iii) Contribution 1.85 0.90 2.80
(iv) No. of units at present mix 15,000 10,000 10,000
(v) Total contribution 27,750 9,000 28,000 64,750
Fixed cost (35,000 ×
(vi) 2) 70,000
(vii) Loss 5,250

Computation of Profit/(loss) at Mix I:

Particulars A (`) B (`) C (`) Total (`)
(i) No. of units 18,000 12,000 7,000
(ii) Contribution per unit 1.85 0.90 2.80
19,60
(iii) Total contribution 33,300 10.800 0 63,700
Fixed Cost (15,000 + 10,000 + 10,000)
(iv) ×2 70,000
(v) Loss 6,300

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

66
 Computation of Profit/(loss) at Mix II:
Particulars A (`) B (`) C (`) Total (`)
(i) No. of units 15,000 6,000 13,000
(ii) Contribution per unit 1.85 0.90 2.80
(iii) Total contribution 27,750 5,400 36,400 69,550
Fixed Cost (15,000 + 10,000 + 10,000) ×
(iv) 2 70,000
(v) Loss 450
Computation of Profit/(loss) at Mix
III:
Particulars A (`) B (`) C (`) Total (`)
(i) No. of units 22,000 8,000 8,000
(ii) Contribution per unit 1.85 0.90 2.80
(iii) Total contribution 40,700 7,200 22,400 70,300
Fixed Cost (15,000 + 10,000 + 10,000) ×
(iv) 2 70,000
(v) Profit 300

As management accountant, one should recommend Mix III because there is profit of `
300 against loss at other mixes including present mix.

Illustration 23:
A Co. has annual fixed costs of ` 1,40,000. In 2015 sales amounted to `6,00,000, as
compared with ` 4,50,000 in 2014, and profit in 2015 was ` 42,000 higher than that in
2014.
(i) At what level of sales does the company break-even?
(ii) Determine profit or loss on a forecast sales volume of ` 8,00,000
(iii)If there is a reduction in selling price by 10% in 2016 and the company desires to earn
the same amount of profit as in 2015, what would be the required sales volume?

Solution:
= (Change in profit / Change in sales) x
P/V ratio 100
= (42,000 / 1,50,000) x 100
= 28%
(i) Break even sales = Fixed cost / PV ratio
= 1,40,000 / 28%
= ` 5,00,000
(ii) Profit = (8,00,000 x 0.28) – 1,40,000
=2,24,000 – 1,40,000
=` 84,000

(3) Profit in 2015 being desired profit = (6,00,000 x 0.28) – 1,40,000

=1,68,000 – 1,40,000
=` 28,000

Assuming same quantity of sales as in 2015 is also made in 2016, then sales would be `
6,00,000 x 90/100 = ` 5,40,000
Consequently contribution is ` 1,08,000 (1,68,000 – 60,000)
New P/V ratio = (1,08,000 / 5,40,000) x 100 = 20%

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL 67

MANAGEMENT
Required sales to get the same profit as in 2012 = (1,40,000 + 28,000) / 20% =
8,40,000 (or)
2015 2016
SP 100 SP 90
C 28 V 72
V 72 C 18

P/V ratio = (18/90) x 100 = 20%.

Illustration 24:
A Co. currently operating at 80% capacity has the following; profitability particulars:

` `
Sales 12,80,000
Costs:
Direct Materials 4,00,000
Direct labour 1,60,000
Variable Overheads 80,000
Fixed Overheads 5,20,000 11,60,000
Profit: 1,20,000

An export order has been received that would utilise half the capacity of the factory. The
order has either to be taken in full and executed at 10% below the normal domestic
prices, or rejected totally.
The alternatives available to the management are given below:
a) Reject order and Continue with the domestic sales only, as at present;
b) Accept order, split capacity equally between overseas and domestic sales and turn
away excess domestic demand;
c) Increase capacity so as to accept the export order and maintain the present domestic
sales by:
i) buying an equipment that will increase capacity by 10% and fixed cost by `40,000
and
ii) Work overtime a time and a half to meet balance of required capacity.
Prepare comparative statements of profitability and suggest the best alternative.

Solution:

Statement showing computation of profit at present and at proposed two

alternatives;
Foreign 50% Domestic
Sr. Particulars Present 80% 50% 50% Foreign + 80%
No. = 100% Domestic = 130%
(i) Sales 12,80,000 15,20,000 20,00,000
(ii) Variable cost
Direct material 4,00,000 5,00,000 6,50,000
Direct wages 1,60,000 2,00,000 2,60,000
Variable OH 80,000 1,00,000 1,30,000
Addl. OT cost --- --- 20,000
(iii) Total Variable cost 6,40,000 8,00,000 10,60,000
(iv) Contribution (i – ii) 6,40,000 7,20,000 9,40,000
(v) Fixed Cost 5,20,000 5,20,000 5,60,000
(VI) Profit (iv – v) 1,20,000 2,00,000 3,80,000

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 68
As the profit is more at the Alternative III, i.e. accepting foreign order fully and
maintaining present domestic sales fully, it is the best alternative to be suggested.
20%
Overtime cost = (80,000 × 80% ) = ` 20,000.

Illustration 25:
A Company has just been incorporated and plan to produce a product that will sell for `
10 per unit. Preliminary market surveys show that demand will be around 10,000 units
per year.

The company has the choice of buying one of the two machines ‗A‘ would have fixed
costs of ` 30,000 per year and would yield a profit of ` 30,000 per year on the sale of
10,000 units. Machine `B‘ would have fixed costs `18,000 per year and would yield a
profit of ` 22,000 per year on the sale of 10,000 units. Variable costs behave linearly for
both machines.
Required to:
a) Break-even sales for each machine
b) Sales level where both machines are equally profitable
c) Range of sales where one machine is more profitable than the other.

Solution:

Statement showing computation of Break Even sales for each machine and other
required information:
Sr. No. Particulars A B
(i) Selling price (`) 10 10
(ii) No. of units (`) 10,000 10,000
(iii) Sales (`) (i × ii) 1,00,000 1,00,000
(iv) Fixed cost (`) 30,000 18,000
(v) Profit (`) 30,000 22,000
(vi) Contribution (`) 60,000 40,000
(vii) Variable cost (S – C) (`) 40,000 60,000
(vii) Variable cost per unit (`) (vii / ii) 4 6
(ix) Contribution per unit (`) (vi / ii) 6 4

1. Break even sales:

A = 30,000 / 6 = 5,000 units (or) `
50,000 B = 18,000 / 4 = 4,500 units
(or) ` 45,000
2. Sales level where both machines are equally profitable (or) Breakeven level (or)
indifference level
=difference in Fixed cost / difference in VC per unit.
=(30,000 – 18,000) / (6 – 4)
=12,000 / 2
=6,000 units
3. For sales level of 6,000 and above units, Machine A would be more profitable because
its variable cost per unit is less. For sales level below 6,000 units, Machine B would be
more profitable because its fixed cost is less than the fixed cost of Machine A

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL 69

MANAGEMENT
Illustration 26:
A practicing Cost Accountant now spends ` 0.90 per k.m. on taxi fares for his client‘s
work. He is considering to other alternatives the purchase of a new small car or an old
bigger car.

Item New Small Car Old bigger Car

Purchase price (`) 35,000 20,000
Sale price after 5 years (`) 19,000 12,000
Repairs and servicing per annum (`) 1,000 1,200
Taxes and insurance p.a. (`) 1,700 700
Petrol consumption per liter (K.m.) 10 7
Petrol price per liter (`) 3.5 3.5

He estimates that he does 10,000 K.m. annually. Which of the three alternatives will be
cheaper? If his practice expands he has to do 19,000 Km p.a. which is cheaper? Will cost
of the two cars break even and why? Ignore interest and Income-tax.

Solution:

Statement showing computation of comparative cost of three alternatives

Taxi (`) New Small car (`) Old Bigger Car (`)
Fixed Costs:
Depreciation (1,35,000 –
19,000/5); --- 3,200 1,600
(2,00,000 –
12,000/5)
Repairs & Servicing --- 1,000 1,200
Taxes & Insurance --- 1,700 700
5,900 3,500
Variable cost:
Petrol per km. 0.90 0.35 0.5
Cost at 10,000 kms. 9,000 9,400 8,500
(10,000 × [5,900+(10,000×0.3 [3,500+(10,000×0.
0.9) 5)] 5)]
Cost at 19,000 kms. 17,100 12,550 13,000
(19,000 × [5,900+(19,000×0.3 [3,500+(19,000×0.
0.9) 5) 5)]

(i) At 10,000 kms, old bigger car is cheaper.

(ii) At 19,000 kms, new smaller car is cheaper.

The distance at which cost of two cars is equal is = (5,900 – 3,500) / (0.5 – 0.35) =
16,000 Kms Indifference point for firm‘s old bigger car and taxi = 3500 / 0.4 = 8,750 kms
Indifference point for firm‘s new small car and taxi = 5,900 / 0.55 = 10,727 kms

Illustration 27:
There are two plants manufacturing the same products under one corporate
management which decides to merge them.

PLANT - I PLANT - II
Capacity operation 100% 60%
Sales (`) 6,00,00,000 2,40,00,000
Variable costs (`) 4,40,00,000 1,80,00,000
Fixed Costs (`) 80,00,000 40,00,000
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 70
You are required to calculated for the consideration of the Board of Directors
a) What would be the capacity of the merged plant to be operated for the purpose of
break-even?
b) What would be the profitability on working at 75% of the merged capacity.

Solution:

Statement showing computation of Breakeven of merged plant and other required

information:
(` in lakhs)
Sr. Particulars Plant I Plant II Merged Plant
Before After
No. (100%) (100%) Before (60%)After (100%) (100%)
(i) Sales 600 600 240 400 1000
(ii) Variable cost 440 440 180 300 740
(iii) Contribution (i – ii) 160 160 60 100 260
(iv) Fixed Cost 80 80 40 40 120
(v) Profit (iii – iv) 80 80 20 60 140

(a) Breakeven sales of merged plant = (120 x 1,000) / 260

=461.5384615 lakhs
For 1,000 - 100%
For 461.5384615 -
?
=(100 / 1000) x 461.5384615
=46.15384615%
(b) Sales at 75% capacity = 1,000 x (75/100) = 750 lakhs
Profit = (750 x 0.26) – 120 = 75 Lakhs

Illustration 28:
The particulars of two plants producing an identical product with the same selling price
are as under:

PLANT - A PLANT - B
Capacity utilisation 70% 60%
(` in lakhs) (` in lakhs)
Sales 150 90
Variable Costs 105 75
Fixed costs 30 20

It has been decided to merge plant B with Plant A. The additional fixed expenses involved
in the merger amount to is ` 2 lakhs.
Required:
1) Find the break-even-point of plant A and plant B before merger and the break-even
point of the merged plant.
2) Find the capacity utilisationsation of the integrated plant required to earn a profit of `
18 lakhs.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 71
Solution:

Statement showing computation of profit before and after merger and other required
information:
(` in lakhs)
Sr. Particulars Plant A Plant B Merged (100%)
Before After Before After
No. (70%) (100%) (60%) (100%)
(i) Sales 150 214.2857 90 150 364.2857
(ii) Variable cost 105 150.0000 75 125 275.0000
(iii) Contribution 45 64.2857 15 25 89.2857
(iv) Fixed Cost 30 30.0000 20 20 52.0000
(v) Profit / (Loss) 15 34.2857 (5) 5 37.2857
(30×150)/45 = 100 52 ×
Break even lakhs (20×90)/15)=120 lakhs 364.2857/89.2857
before merger = 212.16 lakhs
P/V Ratio = (89.2857 / 364.2857) x = 24.5098
100 %
Required sales = (52 + 18) / 0.245098 = 285.6
For 364.2857 - 100
For 285.6 - ?
Capacity = (100 / 364.2857) x 285.6 = 78.4%

Illustration 29:
A company engaged in plantation activities has 200 hectors of virgin land which can be
used for growing jointly or individually tea, coffee and cardamom, the yield per hector of
the different crops and their selling prices per Kg. are as under:

Selling price per Kg.

Yield in Kgs. (`)
Tea 2,000 20
Coffee 500 40
Cardamom 100 250

The relevant data are given below:

Tea Coffee Cardamom

Labour charges ` 8 10 120
Packing materials ` 2 2 10
Other costs ` 4 1 20
14 13 150

b) Fixed costs per annum:

`
Cultivation and growing cost 10,00,000
Administrative cost 2,00,000
Land Revenue 50,000
Repairs and maintenance 2,50,000
Other costs 3,00,000
Total Cost 18,00,000

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 72

The policy of the company is to produce and sell all three kinds of products and the
maximum and minimum area to be cultivated per product is as follows:

Hectors
Maximum Minimum
Tea 160 120
Coffee 50 30
Cardamom 30 10

Calculate the most profitable product mix and the maximum profit which can be achieved.

Solution:

Statement showing computation of contribution per hectare and determination

of priority for profitability:
Tea (`) Coffee (`) Cardamom (`)
(i) Sales realisation per hectare 40,000 20,000 25,000
(ii) Variable cost 28,000 6,500 15,000
(iii) Contribution 12,000 13,500 10,000
(iv) Priority II I III

Statement showing optimum mix under given conditions and computation of

profit at that mix:
Particulars Tea (`) Coffee (`) Cardamom (`) Total (`)
Minimum area to be produced (hectars) 120 30 10 160
Remaining land (hectars) 20 (ii) 20 (i) 40
(i) No. of hectares 140 50 10 200
(ii) Contribution per hectares (`) 12,000 13,500 10,000
16,80,00
(iii) Total Contribution (`) 0 6,75,000 1,00,000 24,55,000
(iv) Fixed Cost (`) 18,00,000
(v) Profit (`) 6,55,000

Illustration 30:
A Co. running an adequate supply of labour presents the following data requests your
advice about the area to be allotted for the cultivation of various types of fruits which
would result in the maximization of profits. The company contemplates growing Apples
Lemons Oranges and Peaches.
APPLES LEMONS ORANGES PEACHES
Selling price per box (`) 15 15 30 45
Seasons yield box per acre 500 150 100 200
Cost in Rupees:
Material per acre 270 105 90 150
Growing per acre labour 300 225 150 195
Picking & Packing per box 1.5 1.5 3 4.5
Transport per box 3.00 3.00 1.5 4.5

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 73

The fixed costs in each season would be:
Cultivation & Growing `56,000: Picking `42,000
Transport - `10,000: Administration-`84,000
Land Revenue - `18,000
The following limitations are also placed before you:
a) The area available is 450 acres, but out of this 300 acres are suitable for growing only
Oranges and Lemons .The balance of 150 acres is suitable for growing for any of the
four fruits viz., Apples, Lemons, Oranges and Peaches.
b) As the products may be hypothecated to banks, area allotted for any fruit should be
demarcated in complete acres and not in fractions of an acre.
c) The marketing strategy of the company requires the compulsory production of all the
four types of fruits in a season and the minimum quantity of any type to be 18,000
boxes.

Calculate the total profits that would accrue if your advice is accepted.

Solution:

Statement showing computation of contribution per acre and determination of priority for
profitability:
Sr. No. Particulars APPLES (`) LEMONS (`) ORANGES (`) PEACHES (`)
(i) Sales value per acre (`) 7,500 2,250 3,000 9,000
(ii) Variable cost
Material 270 105 90 150
Growing labour 300 225 150 195
Pickings & Packing labour 750 225 300 900
Transport 1,500 450 150 900
2,820 1,005 690 2,145
(iii) Contribution 4,680 1,245 2,310 6,855
Priority II IV III I

Statement showing optimum mix under given conditions and computation of profit at
that mix:
Particulars Apples (`) Lemons (`) Oranges Peaches (`) Total
(`) (`)
Minimum production in boxes 18,000 18,000 18,000 18,000
Area utilized for these
minimum 36 120 180 90 426
Remaining area 24 24
(i) No. of area 36 120 180 114 450
(ii) Contribution per acre 4,680 1,245 2,310 6,855
(iii) Total contribution 1,68,480 1,49,400 7,15,800 7,81,470 15,15,150
(iv) Fixed cost 2,10,000
(v) Profit 13,05,150

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 74
Illustration 31:
A market gardener is planning his production for next season and he asked you, as a cost
consultant, to recommend the optimum mix of vegetable production for the coming year.
He has given you the following data relating to the current year:
POTATOES TOMATOES PEAS CARROTS
Area occupied in acres 25 20 30 25
Yield per acre in tons 10 8 90 12
Selling Price per ton (`) 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,350
Variable Cost per acre:
Fertilizer 300 250 450 400
Seeds 150 200 300 250
Pesticides 250 150 200 250
Direct Wages 4,000 4,500 5,000 5,700

Fixed Overhead per annum: `5,40,000

The land which is being used for the production of carrots and peas can be used for
either crop but not for potatoes and tomatoes. The land being used for potatoes and
tomatoes can be used for either crops but not carrots and peas. In order to provide an
adequate market service, the gardener must produce each year at least 40 tons of each
of potatoes and tomatoes and 36 tons of each peas and carrots .You are required to
present a statement to show :
(a) (1) The profit for the current year:
(2) The profit for the production mix you would recommend;
(b) Assuming that the land could be cultivated in such a way that any of the above crops
could be produced and there was no market commitment. You are required to:
(1) Advice the market gardener on which crop he should concentrate his production.
(2) Calculate the profit if he were to do so, and
(3) Calculate in rupees the breakeven - point of sales.

Solution:

Statement showing computation of contribution and determination of priority for

profitability:
Potato
Particulars es Tomatoes Peas Carrots
(i) Sales per acre (`) 10,000 10,000 13,500 16,200
(ii) Variable cost (`) 4,700 5,100 5,950 6,600
(iii) Contribution (`) 5,300 4,900 7,550 9,600
(iv) Priority III IV II I

(a)
(1) Statement showing computation of profit for current year:

Sl. No. Particulars Potatoes Tomatoes Peas Carrots Total

I No. of acres 25 20 30 25 100
II Contribution per acre (`) 5,300 4,900 7,550 9,600
2,26,50
III Total contribution (`) 1,32,500 98,000 0 2,40,000 6,97,000
IV Fixed cost (`) 5,40,000
V Profit (`) 1,57,000

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 75
(2) Statement showing optimum mix under given conditions and computation of profit at
that mix:
Sl. No. Particulars Potatoes Tomatoes Peas Carrots Total
Minimum production in
tons 40 40 36 36 100
Area required for this (acre) 4 5 4 3 16
Remaining area (acre) 36 --- --- 48 84
I No. of acres 40 5 4 51
II Contribution per acre (`) 5,300 4,900 7,550 9,600
III Total contribution (`) 2,12,000 24,500 30,200 4,89,600 7,56,300
IV Fixed cost (`) 5,40,000
V Profit (`) 2,16,300

(b) (1) If the land is suitable for growing any of the crops and there is no market
commitment, the gardener is advised to concentrate his production on carrots.
(2) & (3):
Sl. No. Particulars `
I Sales (16,200 x 100) 16,20,000
II Contribution (9,600 x 100) 9,60,000
III Fixed cost 5,40,000
IV Profit 4,20,000
Break even sales = (5,40,000 x 16,20,000) /
9,60,000 = ` 9,11,250
Illustration 32:
Small Tools Factory has a plant capacity adequate to provide 19,800 hours of machine
use. The plant can produce all A type tools or all B type tools or a mixture of these two
type. The following information is relevant
A B
Selling price (`) 10 15
Variable cost (`) 8 12
Hours required to produce 3 4

Market conditions are such that not more than 4,000 A type tools and 3,000 B type tools
can be sold in a year. Annual fixed costs are ` 9,900.
Compute the product mix that will maximise the net income to the company and find
that maximum net income.

Solution:

Statement showing computation of contribution per machine hour and

determination of priority for profitability:

Sl. No. Particulars A B

I Selling price (`) 10 15
II Variable cost (`) 8 12
III Contribution (`) 2 3
IV Contribution per machine hour (`) 2/3 = 0.67 3/4 = 0.75
Priority II I

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 76
Statement showing optimum mix under given conditions and computation of
profit at that mix:

Sl. No. Particulars A B Total

I No. of units 2,600 3,000
II Contribution per unit (`) 2 3
III Total contribution (`) 5,200 9,000 14,200
IV Fixed cost (`) 9,900
V Profit 4,300
Available hours 19,800
(-) Hours for B (3,000 x 12,00
4) 0
7,800
Units of A = 7,800 / 3 = 2,600

Illustration 33:
Taurus Ltd. produces three products A, B and C from the same manufacturing facilities.
The cost and other details of the three products are as follows:

A B C
Selling price per unit (`) 200 160 100
Variable cost per unit (`) 120 120 40
Fixed expenses/month (`) 2,76,000
Maximum production per month (units) 5,000 8,000 6,000
Total hours available for the month 200
Maximum demand per month (units) 2,000 4,000 2,400

The processing hour cannot be increased beyond 200 hrs per month.
You are required to:
(a) Compute the most profitable product-mix.
(b) Compute the overall break-even sales of the co., for the month based in the mix
calculated in (a) above.

Solution:

(a) Statement showing computation of contribution per hour and determination

of priority for profitability:
Sl. No. Particulars A B C
I Selling price (`) 200 160 100
II Variable cost (`) 120 120 40
III Contribution (`) 80 40 60
No. of units per hour assuming only
IV one 5,000/200 8,000/200 6,000 / 200
product is made during the month = 25 = 40 = 30
25×80 = 40×40 30×60
V Contribution per hour (`) 2,000 =1,600 =1,800
Priority I III II

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL 77

MANAGEMENT
Statement showing optimum mix under the given conditions and computation
of profit at that mix:
Sl. No. Particulars A B C Total
I No. of units 2,000 1,600 2,400
II Sales (`) 4,00,000 2,56,000 2,40,000 8,96,000
III Total contribution (`) 1,60,000 64,000 1,44,000 3,68,000
IV Fixed Cost (`) 2,76,000
V Profit (`) 92,000
(b) Break even sales = (2,76,000 x 8,96,000) / 3,68,000 = `
6,72,000

Notes:
Available hours 200
(-) Hours for A (2,000/25) 80
120
(-) Hours for C (2,400/30) 80
40
Units of B = 40 x 40 = 1,600

Illustration 34:
A factory budget for a production of 1,50,000 units. The variable cost per unit is ` 14 and
fixed cost is ` 2 per unit. The company fixes its selling price to fetch a profit of 15% on
cost.
(a) What is the breakeven point?
(b) What is the profit volume ratio?
(c) If it reduces its selling price by 5% how does the revised selling price affect the BEP
and the profit volume ratio?
(d) If a profit increase of 10% is desired more than the budget what should be the sale at
the reduced prices?

Solutio
n:

`
Variable cost 14
Fixed cost 2
Total cost 16
(+) Profit @ 15% 2.40
Selling price 18.40

Sl. No. Particulars `

I Selling price 18.40
II Variable cost 14.00
III Contribution 4.40
IV Total contribution (1,50,000 x 4.4) 6,60,000
V Fixed cost (1,50,000 x 2) 3,00,000
VI Profit 3,60,000

(a) BEP = 3,00,000 / 4.4 = 68,182 units

(b) P/V ratio = (4.4 / 18.4) x 100 = 23.91%

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 78
(c)
Sl. No. Particulars `
I Selling price (18.4 × 95%) 17.48
II Variable cost 14.00
III Contribution 3.48
IV P/V ratio (3.48 / 17.48) × 100 19.908%
V Breakeven point = 3,00,000 / 3.48 86,207 units
(d) Desired profit = 3,60,000 x (110/100) = `
3,96,000
Sales required = (3,00,000 + 3,96,000) / 3.48 x
17.48 = ` 34,96,000.

Illustration 35:
VINAYAK LTD. which produces three products furnishes you the following information for
2015-16:
PRODUCTS
A B C
Selling price per unit (`) 100 75 50
Profit volume ratio % 10 20 40
Maximum sales potential units 40,000 25,000 10,000
Raw Material content as % of variable cost 50 50 50

The expenses - fixed are estimated at `6,80,000. The company uses a single raw material
in all the three products. Raw material is in short supply and the company has a quota for
the supply of raw materials of the value of ` 18,00,000 for the year 2011-12 for the
manufacture of its products to meet its sales demand.

You are required to:-

a. Set a product mix which will give a maximum overall profit keeping the short supply
of raw material in view.
b. Compute that maximum profit.

Solution:

Statement showing computation of contribution per rupee of material and

determination of priority for profitability:

Sl. No. Particulars A B C

I Selling price (`) 100 75 50
II Contribution (`) 10 15 20
III Variable cost (`) 90 60 30
IV Raw material cost (`) 45 30 15
V Contribution per rupee of material (`) (10/45)=0.22 (15/30)=0.50 (20/15)=1.33
Priority III II I

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 79
Statement showing optimum mix under given conditions and computation of
profit at that mix:
Sl. No. Particulars A B C Total
I No. of units 20,000 25,000 10,000
II Contribution per unit (`) 10 15 20,000
III Total contribution (`) 2,00,000 3,75,000 2,00,000 7,75,000
IV Fixed Cost (`) 6,80,000
V Profit (`) 95,000

Available material 18,00,000

(-) Material for C (10,000 x 15) 1,50,000
16,50,000
(-) Material for B (25,000 x 30) 7,50,000
9,00,000

No. of units of A = 9,00,000 / 45 = 20,000 units

Illustration 36:
A review, made by the top management of Sweet and Struggle Ltd. which makes only
one product, of the result of two first quarters of the year revealed the following:

Sales in units 10,000

Loss (`) ` 10,000
Fixed Cost (for the year `1,20,000) 30,000 Quarter
Variable cost per unit `8

The finance Manager who feels perturbed suggests that the company should at least
break-even in the second quarter with a drive for increased sales. Towards this the
company should introduce a better packing which will increase the cost by ` 0.50 per
unit.
The Sales Manager has an alternate proposal. For the second quarter additional sales
promotion expenses can be increased to the extent of ` 5,000 and a profit of `5,000 can
be aimed at for the period with increased sales.
The production manager feels otherwise. To improve the; demand the selling price per
unit has to be reduced by 3%. As a result the sales volume can be increased to attain a
profit level of ` 4,000 for the quarter.
The Managing Director asks for as a Cost Accountant to evaluate these three proposals
and calculate the additional units required to reach their respective targets help him to
make a decision.

Solution:

Computation of selling price:

Particulars `
Variable cost (10,000 x 8) 80,000
Fixed cost 30,000
Total cost 1,10,000
(+) Profit / (loss) (10,000)
Sales 1,00,000

Selling price = 1,00,000 / 10,000 = `10/-

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 80
Statement showing computation of additional units required to attain the
target of respective managers:
Sl. No. Particulars FM SM PM
I Selling price 10.00 10.00 9.70
II Variable cost 8.50 8.00 8.00
III Contribution 1.50 2.00 1.70
IV Fixed cost 30,000 35,000 30,000
V Target BE sales Profit of ` 5,000 Profit of ` 4,000
(30,000+4,000)/1.7
VI No. of units (30,000/1.5) (35,000+5,000)/2 0
= 20,000 = 20,000 = 20,000
VII Additional Units 10,000 10,000 10,000

Illustration 37:
A limited company manufactures three different products and the following information
has been collected from the books of accounts.
PRODUCTS
S T Y
Sales Mix 35% 35% 30%
Selling price (`) 30 40% 20
Variable Cost (`) 15 20% 12
Total fixed cost (`) 1,80,000
Total Sales (`) 6,00,000

The company has currently under discussion, a proposal to discontinue the manufacture
of product Y and replace it with product M, when the following results are anticipated.

PRODUCTS
S T M
Sales Mix 50% 25% 25%
Selling price (`) 30 40% 30
Variable Cost (`) 15 20% 15
Total fixed cost (`) 1,80,000
Total Sales (`) 6,40,000
Will you advise the company to changeover to production of M? Give reasons for your
answer.

Solution:

Statement showing computation of profit before replacing product Y with M

Sl. No. Particulars S (35%) T (35%) Y (30%) Total
6,00,00
I Sales (`) 2,10,000 2,10,000 1,80,000 0
3,18,00
II Variable cost (`) 1,05,000 1,05,000 1,08,000 0
2,82,00
III Contribution (`) 1,05,000 1,05,000 72,000 0
1,80,00
IV Fixed cost (`) 0
1,02,00
V Profit (`) 0
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL 8
MANAGEMENT 1
Statement showing computation of profit after replacing product Y with M:
Sl. No. Particulars S (50%) T (25%) M (25%) Total
I Sales (`) 3,20,000 1,60,000 1,60,000 6,40,000
II Variable cost (`) 1,60,000 80,000 80,000 3,20,000
III Contribution (`) 1,60,000 80,000 80,000 3,20,000
IV Fixed cost (`) 1,80,000
V Profit (`) 1,40,000

As the profit is increased by ` 38,000 by replacing Product ‗Y‘ with ‗M‘, it is advisable to
changeover to the production of M.

Illustration 38:
The following figures have been extracted from the accounts of manufacturing
undertaking, which produces a single product for the previous (base) year.

Units produced and sold 10,000

Fixed overhead (`) 20,000

Variable overhead cost per unit:

Labour `4
Material `2
Overheads ` 0.8
`10 per
Selling Price unit

In preparing the budget for the current (budget) year the undernoted changes have been
envisaged:

Units to be produced and sold 15,000

Fixed overheads increased by ` 5,000
Fall in labour efficiency 20%
Special additional discount for Bulk purchased of
material 2½ %
Variable overheads percentage reduced by 1¼ %
Fall in selling price per unit 10%

Calculate:
(i) the no. of units which must be sold to break even in each of the two years
(ii) the no. of units which would have to be sold to double the profit of the base year
under base year conditions
(iii) the no. of units which will have to be sold in the budget year to maintain the profit
level of preceding year.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 82
Solution:

(i) Statement showing computation of break even units in two years and other required
information:
(Amount in
`)
Base/Previous Year Current/Budget Year
I Selling price 10.00 9.00
II Variable cost
Material 2.00 (2×97.5 / 100) 1.95
Labour 4.00 (4 / 0.8) 5.00
Variable Overhead 0.80 (0.8 × 98.75%) 0.79
6.80 7.74
III Contribution 3.20 1.26
IV Total contribution (10,000 × 3.2) 32,000 (15,000 × 1.26) 18,900
V Fixed cost 20,000 25,000
Profit 12,000 (6,100)
(20,000/3.2) = 6,250 (25,000/1.26) = 19,841
Break Even units units units
(ii) No. of units required to double the profit of base year
under
base year conditions = 20,000 + 24,000 / = 13,750
3.2 units

(iii) No. of units required in current year to get base year

Profit = (25,000 + 12,000) /
1.26 = 29,365 units

Illustration 39:
VINAK Ltd. operating at 75% level of activity produces and sells two products A and B.
The cost sheets of these two products are as under:-

Product A Product B
Units produced and sold 600 400
Direct materials (`) 2.00 4.00
Direct labour (`) 4.00 4.00
Factory overheads (40% fixed) (`) 5.00 3.00
Selling and administration overheads (60% fixed) (`) 8.00 5.00
Total cost (`) 19.00 16.00
Selling price per unit (`) 23.00 19.00

Factory overheads are absorbed on the basis of machine hour which is the limiting factor.
The machine hour rate is `2 per hour. The company receives an offer from Canada for the
purchase of Product A at a price of `17.50 per unit.
Alternatively the company has another offer from the Middle East for the purchase of
Product B at a price of `15.50 p.u.
In both cases, a special packing charge of fifty paise per unit has to be borne by the
company.
The company can accept either of the two export orders and in the either case the
company can supply such quantities as may be possible to produce by utilising the
balance of 25% of its capacity.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL 83

MANAGEMENT
You are required to prepare:
(1) A statement showing the economics of the two export proposals giving your
recommendation as to which the proposal should be accepted, and
(2) A statement showing the overall profitability of the company after incorporating the
export proposal recommended by you.

Solution:
(1) Statement showing economics of two products:
(Amount in
`)
Sr. No. Particulars A B
I Selling price 17.5 15.5
II Variable cost
Direct Materials 2.00 4.00
Direct Labour 4.00 4.00
Factory OH 3.00 1.80
Selling & Distribution OH 3.20 2.00
Packing cost 0.50 0.50
12.70 12.30
III Contribution 4.80 3.20
IV Contribution per hour (4.8/2.5) = 1.92 (3.2/1.5) = 2.13

The order from middle east for product B is to be accepted because it has more
contribution
per machine hour.
Machine hours at present capacity (75%) = (600 x 2.5) + (400 x = 2,100 hrs
1.5)
Machine hours at 100% capacity = 2,100 x 100/75 = 2,800
hrs
Hours of balance capacity (25%) = 2,800 – 2,100 = 700 hours
No. of units of B that can be manufactured in those 700 hrs = 700/1.5 = 467 units.

(2) Statement showing computation of profit after incorporating the export order:
A B
Home Export Total Total
I No. of units 600 400 467 867
II Contribution per unit (`) 23-12.2=10.80 19-11.8=7.2 =3.2
III Total contribution (`) 6,480 2,880 1,494.4 4,374.4 10,854.4
(2+4.8)×600=4,0 4.2×400=1,68
IV Fixed cost (`) 80 0 --- 1,680 5,760.0
V Profit (`) 2,400 1,200 1,494.4 2,694.4 5,094.4

Illustration 40:
Your company has a production capacity of 2,00,000 units per year. Normal capacity
utilisation is reckoned at 90%. Standard Variable Production costs are ` 11p.u. The fixed
costs are ` 3,60,000 per year. Variable selling costs are ` 3p.u. and fixed selling costs are
`2,70,000 per year. The unit selling price is `20. In the year just ended on 30th June,
2012, the production was 1,60,000 units and sales were 1,50,000 units. The closing
inventory on 30-6-2012 was 20,000 units. The actual variable production costs for the
year was ` 35,000 higher than the standard.
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 84
Calculate:
(1) The profit for the year
(a) by absorption costing method
(b) by the marginal cost method.
(2) Explain the difference in profits.

Solution:

(1) (a) Statement showing computation of profit under absorption costing

Particulars Amount (`)
Standard variable production = 1,60,000 x 11 17,60,000
(+) Variance 35,000
Actual variable production costs 17,95,000
Fixed production cost recovered (1,60,000 x ` 2*) 3,20,000
21,15,000
(+) Under recovery of fixed production overheads (3,60,000 – 3,20,000) 40,000
Production cost of goods manufactured 21,55,000
(+) Opening Stock (10,000 x 13)
* 1,30,000
(-) Closing stock (21,55,000/1,60,000 x 20,000) 2,69,375
(+) Selling
expenses
Variable 1,50,000 x 3 =
4,50,000
Fixed = 2,70,000 7,20,000
27,35,625
Profit 2,64,375
Sales (1,50,000 x
20) 30,00,000

Variable cost = 11.00

(+) Fixed production cost per unit
=
(3,60,000/2,00,000 x 90%) *2.00
=13.00

(b)Statement showing computation of profit under marginal costing

Particulars ` `
I Sales 30,00,000
II Variable cost
Production (17,60,000 + 35,000) 17,95,000
(+) Opening (10,000 x 11) 1,10,000
19,05,000
(-) Closing stock (17,95,000/1,60,000 x 20,000) 2,24,375 16,80,625
Selling expenses (1,50,000 x 3) 4,50,000
21,30,625
III Contribution (I-II) 8,69,375
IV Fixed cost (3,60,000 + 2,70,000) 6,30,000
V Profit (III-IV) 2,39,375
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 85
(2) The difference in profit shown by absorption costing and marginal costing is due to
valuation of costs i.e., stocks are valued at total production cost in absorption costing
and at variable production cost in marginal costing.

The difference in profits can be explained as follows:

Profit is (less)/more in absorption
Absorption Costing Marginal Costing costing
Opening stock 1,30,000 1,10,000 (-) 20,000
Closing stock 2,69,375 2,24,375 (+) 45,000

Illustration 41:
From the following data calculate:
(1) B.E.P expressed in amount of sales in rupees.
(2) Number of units that must be sold to earn a profit of `60,000 per year
(3) How many units must be sold to earn a net income of 10% of sales.
Sales price ` 20 per unit; variable manufacturing costs ` 11 p.u.; fixed factory overheads `
5,40,000 p.a.; variable selling costs ` 3 p.u. Fixed selling costs ` 2,52,000 per year.

Solution:

Particulars `
I Selling price 20.00
II Variable cost (11+3) 14.00
III Contribution per unit (i - ii) 6.00

BEP in units = (2,52,000 + 5,40,000) / 6 = 1,32,000

a) BEP sales = 1,32,000 x 20 = 26,40,000
b) No. of units = (7,92,000 + 60,000) / 6 = 1,42,000
c) Let ‗S‘ be the no. of units
required Sales = S x 20 = 20S
Desired profit = 20S x 10% = 2S
F.C + Desired Profit
Required units Contribution per
= unit
S = (7,92,000 + 2S) / 6
4S = 7,92,000
S = 1,98,000

Illustration 42:
The Board of Directors of KE Ltd. manufacturers of three products A, B and C have asked
for advice on the production mixture of the company.
(a) You are required to present a statement to advice the directors of the most profitable
mixture of the products to be made and sold.
The statement should show:
i) The profit expected on the current budgeted production, and
ii) The profit which could be expected if the most profitable mixture was produced.

(b) You are also required to direct the director‘s attention to any problem which is likely
to arise if the mixture in (a) (ii) above were to be produced.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 86
 The following information is given:-
Data for standard Costs, per unit:

Product A Product B Product C

Direct material (`) 10 30 20
Variable overhead (`) 3 2 5

Direct Labour:
Department Rate per hour Hours Hours Hours
1 0.5 28 16 30
2 1.0 5 6 10
3 0.5 16 8 30
Data from current budget production
in thousands of units per year: 10 5 6
Selling price per unit: (`) 50 68 90
Fixed cost per year ` 2,00,000
Maximum sales forecast by the 12 7 9
Sales director for the year 2013 in
thousands of units

However the type of labour required by Dept 2 is in short supply and it is not possible to
increase the manpower of this dept. beyond its present level.
Solution:

(a) Statement showing computation of contribution per hour in Dept. 2 and

determination of priority for profitability
Sr. No. Particulars A (`) B (`) C (RS.)
I Selling price 50 68 90
II Variable cost
Direct Material 10 30 20
Variable OH 3 2 5
Direct labour in
Dept 1 14 8 15
Dept 2 5 6 10
Dept 3 8 4 15
III Total Variable Cost 40 50 65
IV Contribution (i - iii) 10 18 25
25/10 =
V Contribution per hour in Dept. 2 10/5 = 2 18/6 = 3 2.5
Priority III I II
Statement showing computation of profit at current budgeted
production
Sr. No. Particulars A (`) B (`) C (RS.) Total
I No. of units 10,000 5,000 6,000
II Contribution per unit (`) 10 18 25
III Total contribution (`) 1,00,000 90,000 1,50,000 3,40,000
IV Fixed cost (`) 2,00,000
V Profit (`) 1,40,000
No. of hours in Dept. 2 = (10,000 x 5) + (5,000 x 6) + (6,000 x = 1,40,000
10) hours

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MANAGEMENT 87
Statement showing optimum mix under given conditions and computation of
profit at that mix
Sr. No. Particulars A (`) B (`) C (RS.) Total
I No. of units 1,600 7,000 9,000
II Contribution per unit (`) 10 18 25
III Total contribution (`) 16,000 1,26,000 2,25,000 3,67,000
IV Fixed cost (`) 2,00,000
V Profit (`) 1,67,000

Available hours = 1,40,000

(-) hours used for B (7,000 x 6) = 42,000
= 98,000
(-) hours for C (9,000 x 10) = 90,000
= 8,000
Units of A = 8,000/5 = 1,600
units
(b) The directors are to pay attention on the point that the sales of less no. of units of ‗A‘
will adversely affect the sales of product ‗B‘ and ‗C‘ (or) not.
Illustration 43:
An engineering company receives in enquiry for the manufacture of certain products,
where costs estimated as follows per product. Direct materials ` 3.10; Direct labour (5
hours) ` 2.05; Direct expenses ` 0.05 Variable overheads 20 paise per hour.

The manufacture of these products will necessitate the provision of special tooling
costing approximately ` 4,500. The price per unit is ` 8.00. For an order to be considered
profitable it is necessary for it to yield a target contribution at the rate of ` 0.30 per
Labour Hour (after tooling cost).

Find out:
a. The sales level at which contribution to profit commences.
b. The sales at which the contribution exceeds the target.
Solution:

Statement Showing Computation of Contribution

Sr. No. Particulars Amount (`)
I Selling Price 8.00
II Variable Cost
Direct material 3.10
Direct Labour 2.05
Direct expenses 0.05
Variable OH (5 × 0.2) 1.00
III Total Variable Cost 6.20
Contribution (i – iii) 1.80

Break even units = 4,500 / 1.8 = 2,500 units.

Break even sales = 2,500 x 8 = ` 20,000
Target profit = ` 0.3 per hour i.e. ` 1.5 per unit (5 x 0.3)
Let ‗S‘ be the required units.
Desired profit = 1.5 x S = 1.5S

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 88
Required units = 4,500 + 1.5S / 1.8
⇒ S = 4,500 + 1.5S / 1.8
⇒ S = 15,000 units

Required sales = 15,000 x 8 = ` 1,20,000.

Illustration 44:
The present output details of a manufacturing department are as follows:
Average output per week - 48,000 units from 160 employees.
`
Saleable value of the output 1,50,000
Contribution made by output towards fixed expenses and profit 60,000

The board of directors plan to introduce more mechanisation into the department at a
capital cost of ` 40,000. The effect of this will be to reduce the number of employees to
120, but to increase the output per individual employees by 40%. To provide the
necessary incentive to achieve the increased output, the board intends to offer a 1%
increase on the piece of work price of 25 paise per article for every 2% increase in
average individual output achieved. To sell the increased output, it will be necessary to
decrease the selling price by 4%. Calculate the extra weekly contribution resulting from
the proposed change and evaluate for the board‘s consideration, the worth of the project.

Solution:

Statement Showing the Computation of Selling Price Per Unit

Sr. No. Particulars Amount (`)
I Sales 1,50,000
II Contribution 60,000
III Variable cost 90,000
IV Direct Labour (48,000 x 0.25) 12,000
V Variable cost other than labour 78,000
VI Variable cost other than labour per unit (78,000/48,000) 1.625
VII Output per employee (48,000/160)(units) 300
VIII Selling price (1,50,000 / 48,000) 3.125
Statement showing computation of contribution after introduction of
mechanization:
Sr. No. Particulars Amount (`)
I No. of employees 120
II Output per employee (300 x 140/100) 420
III Total output 50,400
IV Selling Price (3.125 x 96/100) 3
V Sales 1,51,200
VI Variable cost
V.C other than labour (50,400 x 1.625)
Labour cost (50,400 x 0.25 x 120/100) 97,020
VII Contribution 54,180

From the above computation, it was found that there is no extra contribution due to
increase of mechanization and in fact contribution decreased by ` 5,820. There is no
worth of project.

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MANAGEMENT 89
Self Learning Questions:

1. Distinguish between Marginal Costing and Absorption costing.

2. Discuss the importance of the following
a. Key factor
b. Breakeven point
c. Margin of safety
3. State the utility of marginal costing in price fixation during trade depression and for
export purposes.
4. Define marginal costing and state the features of marginal costing
5. State the benefits accrue out of application of Marginal Costing
6. Discuss the overcomes of Marginal costing in brief.
7. What do you mean by Transfer pricing. State the objects in brief.
8. Explain the various methods of Transfer pricing
9. State the objective of Inter Company Transfer Pricing
10. What do you mean by Differential Cost Analysis. State its silent features.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The breakeven point is the point at which,

A. There is no profit, no loss
B. Contribution margin is equal to total fixed cost
C. Total fixed cost is equal to total revenue
D. All of the above.
2. A large margin of safety indicates
A. Over capitalization
B. The soundness of business
C. Overproduction
D. None of the above
3. The selling price is `20 per unit, variable cost `12 per unit, and fixed cost `16,000, the
breakeven-point in units will be
A. 800 units
B. 2000 units
C. 3000 units
D. None of these
4. The P/V ratio of a product is 0.4 and the selling price is `40 per unit. The marginal cost
of the product would be,
A. `8
B. `24
C. `20
D. `25
5. Fixed cost per unit decreases when,
A. Production volume increases
B. Production volume decreases
C. Variable cost per unit decreases
D. Variable cost per unit increases.
6. Each of the following would affect the breakeven point except a change in the,
A. Number of units sold.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 90
 B. Variable cost per unit
C. Total fixed cost
D. Sales price per unit.
7. A decrease in sales price,
A. Does not affect the break-even-sales.
B. Lowers the net profit
C. Increases the break-even-point.
D. Lowers the break-even-point
8. Under the marginal costing system, the contribution margin discloses the excess of,
A. Revenue over fixed cost
B. Projected revenue over the break-even-point
C. Revenues over variable costs
D. Variable costs over fixed costs.
9. Cost volume-profit analysis allows management to determine the relative
profitability of product by,
A. Highlighting potential bottlenecks in the production process
B. Keeping fixed costs to an obsolete minimum
C. Determine contribution margin per unit and projected profits at various levels
production
D. Assigning costs to a product in a manner that maximizes the contribution margin.
10. Contribution margin is known as,
A. Marginal income
B. Gross profit
C. Net income
D. Net profit.

Match the following:

Column A Column B
1 Differential cost is adopted. A Contribution / Sales X 100
2 Contribution B Decision Making
3 P/V ratio C Profit/ Pv ratio
4 Differential costing D Differential Cost
5 Shut down point E To ascertain Pv ratio.
6 Marginal costing helps in the measuring of. F Fixed cost / Pv ratio
7 Margin of Safety G Fixed per unit
8 Difference between the costs of two alternatives is H Divisional performance
known as.
9 Variable cost remain I Marginal Costing
10 Breakeven point J Avoidable fixed cost / Pv ratio

State the following statement is true or false:

1. Marginal cost includes prime cost plus fixed overheads.

2. Contribution is the difference between the selling price and the total costs.
3. An increase in the volume of the production will result in reduction in unit variable
cost.
4. The amount of profit under absorption costing and marginal costing is one and the
same.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 91
5. All variable costs are included in the marginal cost.
6. Margin of safety is the difference between actual sales and the sales and the break
even point.
7. The difference between the budgeted output and the actual output is known as
margin of safety.
8. The breakeven point will be lower if the selling price is increased but the amount of
cost does not change.
9. At breakeven point margin of safety is nil.
10. When fixed cost is deducted from total cost, we get marginal cost.

Fill in the blanks:

1. In cost accounting, marginal cost does not include .

2. In absorption costing, ____________ cost is added to inventory.
3. Sales minus variable cost = fixed costs plus ____________ .
4. Profit volume ratio is contribution / ______________ X 100
5. At breakeven point total revenue is equal to costs.
6. In marginal costing, fixed costs are charged to ____ __________.
7. Margin of safety is the difference between ____ and ________________ .
8. In marginal costing, stock is valued at ___________.
9. When the production volume is nil, the loss will be equal to_________.
10. Constraint on various resources is also known as _____________ .

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MANAGEMENT 92
STUDY NOTE : 3
BUDGETING AND BUDGETARY CONTROL

THIS STUDY NOTE INCLUDES:

3.1 Budgetary Control and Preparation of Functional and Master Budgeting
3.2 Fixed, Variable, Semi-Variable Budgets
3.3 Zero Based Budgeting (ZBB)

3.1 BUDGETARY CONTROL AND PREPARATION OF FUNCTIONAL AND MASTER

BUDGETING

BUDGETARY CONTROL

Budgetary control is defined as ―the establishment of budgets relating the

responsibilities of executives to the requirements of a policy and the continuous
comparison of actual with budgeted results, either to secure by individual action the
objective of that policy or to provide a basis for its revision.‖

From the above definition, the steps for Budgetary Control can be drawn as
follows: - (i) Establishment of Budgets:
Budgetary control primarily aims at preparation of various budgets such as sales Budget,
production budget, overhead expenses budget, cash budget etc.,
(ii) Responsibilities of executives:
The budgetary control system is designed to fix responsibilities on executives
through
preparation of budgets.
(iii) Policy making:
The established policies of the organisation are designed as budgets so as to fix
responsibility on executives.
(iv) Comparison of actuals with budgets:
After establishing the budgets, the actuals are compared with them and any deviations, if
any are called variances.
(v) Achieving the desired result:
The desired result of the budgetary control system is comparison of actuals with the
budgeted results and the causes of variances, if any, are analysed.
(vi) Reporting to Top Management:
After the causes of Variances are analysed, the variances and their causes are reported
to top management so that the remedial action can be taken.

Advantages of Budgetary Control:

(i) Budgetary control aims at maximisation of profits through optimum utilisation of
resources.
(ii) It is a technique for continuous monitoring of policies and objectives of the
organisation.
(iii) It helps in reducing the costs, thereby helps in better utilisation of funds of the
organisation.
(iv) All the departments of the organisation are closely coordinated through
establishment of plans resulting in smooth functioning of the organisation.
(v) Since budgets fix the responsibilities of the executives, they act as a plan of action for
them there by reducing some of their work.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL 93

MANAGEMENT
 (vi) It facilitates analysis of variances, thereby identifying the areas where deficiencies
occur and proper remedial action can be taken.
(vii) It facilitates the management by exception.
(viii) Budgets act as a motivating force to achieve the desired objective of the organisation.
(ix) It assists delegation of authority and is a powerful tool of responsibility accounting.
(x) It helps in stabilizing the conditions in industries which face seasonal fluctuations.
(xi) It helps as a basis for internal audit.
(xii) It provides a suitable basis for introducing the payment by results system.
(xiii) It ensures adequacy of working capital to the organisation.
(xiv) It aids in performance analysis and performance reporting system.
(xv) It aids in obtaining bank credit.
(xvi)Budgets are forerunners of standard costs in the sense that they create necessary
conditions to suit setting up of standard costs.

Preliminaries for the Adoption of a System of Budgetary Control:

For the successful implementation of a system of budgetary control certain pre-requisites
are to be fulfilled. These are enumerated below:
(i) There should be an organization chart laying out in clear terms the responsibilities
and duties of each level of executives, and the delegation of authority to the various
levels. For complete success, a solid foundation in this regard should be laid at the
outset.
(ii) The objectives, plans and policies of the business should be defined in clear cut and
unambiguous terms.
(iii) The output level for which budgets are fixed, i.e., the budgeted output, should be
stated.
(iv) The particular budget factor which will be the starting point of the preparation of the
various budgets should be indicated.
(v) There should be an efficient system of accounting to record and provide data in line
with the budgetary control system.
(vi) For the establishment and efficient execution of the plan, a Budget Committee should
be set up.
(vii) There should be a proper system of communication and reporting between the
various levels of management.
(viii)There should be a charter of programme. This is usually in the form of a budget
manual.
(ix) The budgets should primarily be prepared by those who are responsible for
performance.
(x) The budgets should be complete, continuous and realistic.
(xi) There should be an assurance from the top management executives of co-operation
and acceptance of the budgetary system.

Functional Budget:
If budgets are prepared of a business concern for a certain period taking each and every
function separately such budgets are called functional budgets.
Example: Production, Sales, purchases, cost of production, cash, materials etc.

The following are the various functional budgets, some of which are briefly explained
here under:
(i) Sales Budget: The sales budget is a forecast of total sales, expressed in terms of money
or quantity or both. The first step in the preparation of the sales budget is to forecast as
accurately as possible, the sales anticipated during the budget period. Sales forecasts
are usually prepared by the sales manager assisted by the market research personnel.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 94
 Factors to be considered in preparing Sales Budget:-
As business existence depends upon the sales it is going to make and therefore it is an
important one to be prepared meticulously. It is the forecast of what it can reasonably sell
to its customers during the period for which budget is prepared. The company‘s profit
mostly depends upon the ability to sell its products to customers. In the present era it is
indispensable to establish the demand for the product even before it is produced. It is the
sales order book that the company‘s continuity depends upon. Also, a reasonable degree
of accuracy must be there in preparing a sales budget unless its sales are accurately
forecast, production estimates will also become erroneous. A good amount of experience
must be necessary to prepare the sales budget. Yet the following factors must be
considered in preparing the sales budget:
(a) The locality of the market i.e., domestic or export
(b) The target customers i.e., industry or trade or a section or group of general public
etc.,
(c) The product portfolio i.e., the number of products offered and their popularity among
the target customers.
(d) The market share of each product and its influence on the product portfolio and the
total market
(e) The effectiveness of existing marketing policy on the current sales volume and value.
(f) The market share of competitor‘s products and their effect on the company‘s sales.
(g) Seasonal fluctuation in sales.
(h) Expenditure on advertisement and its impact on sales.

(ii) Production Budget: The production budget is a forecast of the production for the
budget period. Production budget is prepared in two parts, viz. production volume budget
for the physical units of the products to be manufactured and the cost of production or
manufacturing budget detailing the budgeted cost under material, labour, and factory
overhead in respect of the products.

Factors to be considered in Production Budget:

Next to the sales budget, the main function of a business concern is the production and
for this, a budget is prepared simultaneously with the sales budget. It is the forecast of
production during the period for which the budget is prepared. It can also be prepared in
two parts viz., production volume budget for the physical units i.e., the number of units,
the tonnes of production etc., and the cost of production or manufacture showing details
of all elements of the manufacture. While preparing the production budget, the following
factors must be taken into consideration:-

(a) Production plan:-

Production planning is an important part of the preparation of the production budget.
Optimum utilisation of plant capacity is taken by eliminating or reducing the limiting
factors and thereby effective production planning is made.

(a) The capacity of the business concern:-

It is to be ensured that the capacity of the organisation will coincide the budgeted
production or not. For this purpose, plant utilisation budget will also be necessary. The
production budget must be based on normal capacity likely to be achieved and it
should not be too high or too low.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 95
(c) Inventory Policy:-
While preparing the production budget it is also necessary to see to what extent
materials are available for producing the budgeted production. For that purpose, a
purchase budget or a purchase plan must also be studied. Similarly, on the other
hand, it is also necessary to verify the extent to which the inventory of finished goods
is to be carried.
(d) Sales budgets must also be considered before preparing production budget because
it may so happen that the entire production of the concern may not be sold. In such a
case the production budget must be in line with the sales budget.
(e) A plan of the sequence of operations of production for effective preparation of a
production budget should always be there.
(f) Last, but not the least, the policy of the management should also be considered
before preparing the production budget.
Objectives and Advantages of Production budget:
 Optimum utilisation of the productive resources of the organisation;
 Maintaining low inventory which results in risk of deterioration and fall in prices;
 Focus on the factors that are necessary to frame policies and plan sequence of
operations;
 Projection of policies framed, on the basis of past performance, into the future to get
the desired results;
 To see that right materials are provided at right place and at right time;
 Helps in scheduling of production so that delivery dates are met and customer
satisfaction is gained;
 Helpful in preparation of projected profit and loss statement, which is useful in
evaluation of performance and profitability.
(iii) Materials Budget: The material budget includes quantities of direct materials;
the quantities of each raw material needed for each finished product in the budget
period is specified. The input data for this budget is obtained by applying standard
material usage rates by each type of material to the volume of output budgeted.
(iv) Purchase Budget: The purchase budget establishes the quantity and value of
the various items of materials to be purchased for delivery at specified points of time
during the budget period taking into account the production schedule of the concern
and the inventory requirements. It takes into account the requirements for the entire
budget plan as per the sales, materials, maintenance, research and development,
and capital budgets. Purchases may be required to be made in respect of direct and
indirect materials, finished goods for resale, components and parts, and purchased
services. Before incorporation in the purchase budget, these purchase requirements
should be suitably ascertained. Purchase budget also includes material procurement
budget.
(v) Cash Budget: Cash Budget is estimated receipts and expenses for a definite period,
which usually are cash sales, collection from debtors and other receipts and expenses
and payment to suppliers, payment of wages, payment of other expenses etc.
(vi) Direct Labour Budget.
(vii)Human Resources Budget.
(viii)Selling and distribution cost budget.
(ix) Administration Cost Budget.
(x) Research and development Cost Budget etc.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 96
Master Budget: Master budget is the budget prepared to cover all the functions of the
business organisation. It can be taken as the integrated budget of business concern, that
means, it shows the profit or loss and financial position of the business concern such as
Budgeted Profit and Loss Account, Budgeted Balance Sheet etc. Master budget, also
known as summary budget or finalized profit plan, combines all the budgets for a period
into one harmonious unit and thus, it shows the overall budget plan. The master budget
incorporates all the subsidiary functional budgets and the budgeted Profit and Loss
Account and Balance Sheet. Before the budget plan is put into operation, the master
budget is considered by the top management and revised if the position of profit
disclosed therein is not found to be satisfactory. After suitable revision is made, the
master budget is finally approved and put into action. Another view regards the
budgeted Profit and Loss Account and the Balance Sheet as the master budget.

3.2 FIXED, VARIABLE, SEMI-VARIABLE BUDGETS

Fixed or Rigid Budget:

When budgets are prepared for a fixed or standard volume of activity, they are called
static or rigid or fixed budgets. They do not change with the changes in the volume of the
output. These are prepared normally 3 months in advance of the year. However these will
not be much helpful in comparing the actual activity, as these are prepared at a fixed
volume of output. It, however, does not mean that the fixed budget is a rigid one, not to
be changed at all. Though not adjusted to the actual volume attained, a fixed budget is
liable to revision if due to business conditions undergoing a basic change or due to other
reasons, actual operations differ widely from those planned in the fixed budget.

Fixed budgets are most suited for fixed expenses. In case of discretionary costs situations
where the expenditure is optional and has no relation with the output, e.g. expenditure
on research and development, advertising, and new projects. A fixed budget has only a
limited application and is ineffective as a tool for cost control. Fixed budgets are useful
where the plan permits maximum stabilization of production, as for example, for
concerns which manufacture to build up inventories of finished products and
components.
Flexible Budget:
A flexible budget is a budget that is prepared for different levels of activity or capacity
utilization or volume of output. If the budgets are prepared in such a way so as to change
in accordance with the volume of output, they are called flexible budgets. These can be
prepared from fixed budget which are also called revised budgets. These are much
helpful in comparison with actual because the exact deviations are found for which timely
corrective action can be taken. The basic idea of a flexible budget is that there shall be
some standard of cost and expenditures. Thus, a budget prepared in a manner to give
budgeted costs for any level of activity is known as flexible budget. Such budget is
prepared after considering the variable and fixed elements of costs and the changes,
which may be expected for each item at various levels of operations. Thus a flexible
budget recognises the difference in behaviour between fixed and variable costs in
relation to fluctuations in production or sales and is designed to change appropriately
with such fluctuations. In flexible budget, data relating to costs, expenditures may
progressively be changed in any month in accordance with actual output achieved. While
preparing flexible budgets, estimates of costs and expenditures on the basis of standards
determined are made from minimum to maximum level of operations.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 97
Difference between Fixed and Flexible Budgets:
Fixed Flexible
Budget Budget
(i) It does not change with actual volume of It can be recasted on the basis of activity
activity achieved. Thus it is known as rigid level to be achieved. Thus it is not
or rigid.
inflexible budget.
It operates on one level of activity
(ii) and It consists of various budgets for different
under one set of conditions. It assumes levels of
that activity.
there will be no change in the prevailing
conditions, which is unrealistic.
Here analysis
(iii) Here as all costs like – fixed, variable and of variance provides useful
semi-variable are related to only one level information as each cost is analysed
of activity so variance analysis does notaccording to its behaviour.
give
useful information.
(iv) If the budgeted and actual activity levels Flexible budgeting at different levels of
differ significantly, then the aspects like
cost activity facilitates the ascertainment of
ascertainment and price fixation
do notcost, fixation of selling price and tendering
give a correct picture. of quotations.
(v) Comparison of actual performance withIt provides a meaningful basis of
target
budgeted s will be meaninglesscomparison of the actual performance
specially when there is a difference with the budgeted targets.
between the two activity levels.

Principal Budget Factor:

Budgets cover all the functional areas of the organisation. For the effective
implementation of the budgetary system, all the functional areas are to be considered
which are interlinked. Because of these interlinks, certain factors have the ability to
affect all other budgets. Such factor is known as principle budget factor.

Principal Budget factor is the factor the extent of influence of which must first be
assessed in order to ensure that the functional budgets are reasonably capable of
fulfilment. A principal budget factor may be lack of demand, scarcity of raw material,
non-availability of skilled labour, inadequate working capital etc. If for example, the
organisation has the capacity to produce 2500 units per annum. But the production
department is able to produce only 1800 units due to non-availability of raw materials. In
this case, non-availability of raw materials is the principal budget factor (limiting factor).
If the sales manger estimates that he can sell only 1500 units due to lack of demand.
Then lack of demand is the principal budget factor. This concept is also known as key
factor, or governing factor. This factor highlights the constraints with in which the
organisation functions.

Responsibility Accounting:
One of the recent developments in the field of management accounting is the
responsibility accounting, which is helpful in exercising cost control. ‗Responsibility
Accounting is a system of accounting that recognizes various responsibility centers
throughout the organization and reflects the plans and actions of each of these centers
by assigning particular revenues and costs to the one having the pertinent responsibility.
It is also called profitability accounting and activity accounting.

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 98
It is a system in which the person holding the supervisory posts as president, function
head, foreman, etc are given a report showing the performance of the company or
department or section as the case may be. The report will show the data relating to
operational results of the area and the items of which he is responsible for control.
Responsibility accounting follows the basic principles of any system of cost control like
budgetary control and standard costing. It differs only in the sense that it lays emphasis
on human beings and fixes responsibilities for individuals. It is based on the belief that
control can be exercised by human beings, so responsibilities should be fixed for
individuals.

Principles of responsibility accounting are as follows:

(a) A target is fixed for each department or responsibility center.
(b) Actual performance is compared with the target.
(c) The variances from plan are analysed so as to fix the responsibility.
(d) Corrective action is taken by higher management and is communicated.

Performance Budgeting:
Performance Budgeting is synonymous with Responsibility Accounting which means thus
the responsibility of various levels of management is predetermined in terms of output or
result keeping in view the authority vested with them. The main concepts of such a
system are enumerated below:
(a) It is based on a classification of managerial level for the purpose of establishing a
budget for each level. The individual in charge of that level should be made
responsible and held accountable for its performance over a given period of time.
(b) The starting point of the performance budgeting system rests with the organisation
chart in which the spheres of jurisdiction have been determined. Authority leads to
the responsibility for certain costs and expenses which are forecast or present in the
budget with the knowledge of the manager concerned.
(c) The costs in each individual‘s or department‘s budget should be limited to the cost
controllable by him.
(d) The person concerned should have the authority to bear the responsibility.

3.3 Zero Based Budgeting (ZBB)

It differs from the conventional system of budgeting mainly it starts from scratch or zero
and not on the basis of trends or historical levels of expenditure. In the customary
budgeting system, the last year‘s figures are accepted as they are, or cut back or
increases are granted. Zero based budgeting on the other hand, starts with the premise
that the budget for next period is zero so long the demand for a function, process, project
or activity is not justified for each rupee from the first rupee spent. The assumptions are
that without such a justification no spending will be allowed. The burden of proof thus
shifts to each manager to justify why the money should be spent at all and to indicate
what would happen if the proposed activity is not carried out and no money is spent.

The first step in the process of zero base budgeting is to develop an operational plan or
decision package. A decision package identifies and describes a particular activity with a
view to:
(i) Evaluate and allotted ranking the activity against other activities competing for the
same scarce resources, and

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 99
(ii) Decide whether to accept or reject or amend the activity.

For this purpose, each package should give details of costs, returns, purpose, expected
results, the alternatives available and a statement of the consequences if the activity is
reduced or not performed at all.

The advantages of Zero based budgeting are:

(a) Out of date and inefficient operations are identified.
(b) Allows managers to promptly respond to changes in the business environment.
(c) Instead of accepting the current practice, it creates a challenging and questioning
attitude.
(d) Allocation of resources is made according to needs and the benefits derived.
(e) It has a psychological impact on all levels of management which makes each
manager to ‗pay his way‘.

Areas where zero-base budgeting is applicable

Zero-base Budgeting is more suitably applicable to discretionary cost areas. These costs
may have no relation to volume or activity and generally arise as a result of management
policies. Where standards are determinable, those costs associated with the inputs
should be controlled through the use of standard costing. On the other hand, if output as
a function of input cannot be specified. Zero-base Budgeting may be more suitably
applied. Thus, service or support-type activities are more suitable for Z.B.B.

PROCESS OF ZERO-BASE BUDGETING OR STEPS INVOLVED IN ZERO-

BASE BUDGETING The process of Zero-Base Budgeting involves the
following steps:
1. Identification of 'Decision units‘
2. Preparation and development of decision packages.
3. Ranking of priority.
4. Approval and Funding

Identification of 'Decision units‘- A decision unit refers to a tangible activity or group

of activities for which a single manager has the responsibility for successful performance.
Thus, decision unit is a programme or a project or a segment of the organisation for
which separate budgets are to be prepared.

Preparation of Decision Packages: Preparation of decision packages is a set of

documents which identify and describe activities of the unit in such a way that the
management can evaluate and rank them against others competing for resources
(limited) and decide whether to approve or disapprove.

Ranking of Priority: The third step involved in Z.B.B. is the ranking of proposed
alternatives included in decision packages for various decision units or of various
decision packages for the same decision unit.

Funding: Funding involves the allocation of available resources of the organisation to

various decision units keeping in mind the alternative which has been selected and
approved through ranking process.

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MANAGEMENT 100
Illustration 1:
From the following figures prepare the raw material purchase budget for January, 2015:
Material
s
A B C d e F
estimated Stock on Jan 1 16,000 6,000 24,000 2,000 14,000 28,000
estimated Stock on Jan 31 20,000 8,000 28,000 4,000 16,000 32,000
1,20,00
estimated Consumption 0 44,000 1,32,000 36,000 88,000 1,72,000
Standard Price per unit 25 p. 5 p. 15 p. 10 p. 20 p. 30 p.

Solution:
Raw Materials Purchase Budget For January
2013
Type A B C D E F Total
Estimated Consumption 1,20,00 1,32,00 36,00 1,72,00
(units) 0 44,000 0 0 88,000 0
Add: estimated stock on Jan 20,000 8,000 28,000 4,000 16,000 32,000
31, 2015 (units)
1,40,00 1,60,00 40,00 1,04,00 2,04,00
0 52,000 0 0 0 0
Less: estimated stock on
Jan1, 16,000 6,000 24,000 2,000 14,000 28,000
2015 (units)
1,24,00 1,36,00 38,00 1,76,00
estimated purchase (units) 0 46,000 0 0 90,000 0 6,10,000
Rate per unit (`) 0.25 0.05 0.15 0.10 0.20 0.30
estimated purchases (`) 31,000 2,300 20,400 3,800 18,000 52,800 1,28,300

Illustration 2:
A company manufactures product - A and product -B during the year ending 31 st
December 2015, it is expected to sell 15,000 kg. of product A and 75,000 kg. of product B
at `30 and `16 per kg. respectively. The direct materials P, Q and R are mixed in the
proportion of 3: 5: 2 in the manufacture of product A, Materials Q and R are mixed in the
proportion of 1:2 in the manufacture of product B. The actual and budget inventories for
the year are given below:
Opening Stock Expected Closing stock Anticipated cost per Kg.
Kg. Kg. `
Material – P 4,000 3,000 12
Material –Q 3,000 6,000 10
Material – R 30,000 9,000 8
Product - A 3,000 1,500 —
B 4,000 4,500 —
Prepare the Production Budget and Materials Budget showing the expenditure on
purchase of materials for the year ending 31-12-2015.
Solution:
Production Budget for the Products A & B
Particulars Product A Product B
Sales 15,000 75,000
Add: Closing Stock 1,500 4,500
16,500 79,500
Less: opening Stock 3,000 4,000
Production 13,500 75,500

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

101
 Material Purchase Budget for the Year ending Dec 31st 2015
Particulars P Q R Total
Material required for product A in the ratio of 3:5:2 4,050 6,750 2,700 13,500
Material required for product B in the ratio of 1:2 --- 25,167 50,333 75,500
Total requirement 4,050 31,917 53,033
Add: Closing Stock 3,000 6,000 9,000
7,050 37,917 62,033
Less: opening Stock 4,000 3,000 30,000
Purchases (in units) 3,050 34,917 32,033
Cost per Kg. 12 10 8
3,49,17 6,42,03
Total Purchase cost (`) 36,600 0 2,56,264 4

Illustration 3:
The following details apply to an annual budget for a manufacturing
company.
Quarter 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Working days 65 60 55 60
Production (units per working day) 100 110 120 105
Raw material purchases (% by weight of
annual total) 30% 50% 20% —
Budgeted purchase price/Kg.(`) 1 1.05 1.125 —

Quantity of raw material per unit of production 2 kg. Budgeted closing stock of
raw material 2,000 kg. Budgeted opening stock of raw material 4,000 kg. (Cost
` 4,000)

Issues are priced on FIFO Basis. Calculate the following budgeted figures.
(a) Quarterly and annual purchase of raw material by weight and value.
(b) Closing quarterly stocks by weight and value.

Solution:

Material Purchase Budget

Particulars Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4 Total
Production 6,500 6,600 6,600 6,300 26,000
(65 × (60 × (120 × (60 ×
100) 110) 55) 105)
Material Required (Production x 2) 13,000 13,200 13,200 12,600 52,000
Closing Stock 2,000
54,000
Less: Opening Stock 4,000
Purchases by Weight 15,000 25,000 10,000 --- 50,000

Computation of Purchases by Value

Particulars Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4 Total
Purchases (Weight) 15,000 25,000 10,000 ---
(50,000 × (50,000 ×
30%) 50%) (50,000 × 20%)
1.0
Cost per Kg. 1 5 1.125 ---
Purchases (`) 15,000 26,250 11,250 --- 52,500
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

102
 Budget Showing Closing Quarterly Stocks by Weight and Value
Particulars Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4
opening Stock 4,000 6,000 17,800 14,600
Purchases 15,000 25,000 10,000 -
19,000 31,000 27,800 14,600
Material consumed 13,000 13,200 13,200 12,600
Closing Stock by Weight 6,000 17,800 14,600 2,000
Closing Stock by Value (`) 6,000 18,690 16,080 2,250
(17,800 x {(10,000 x (2,000 x
(6,000 x 1) 1.05) 1.125)+ 1.125)
(4,600 x 1.05)}

Illustration 4:
You are required to prepare a Selling overhead Budget from the estimates given below:
Particulars `
Advertisement 1,000
Salaries of the Sales dept. 1,000
Expenses of the Sales dept.(Fixed) 750
Salesmen‘s remuneration 3,000

Salesmen‘s and dearness Allowance - Commission @ 1% on sales affected

Carriage outwards: estimated @ 5% on sales
Agents Commission: 7½% on sales
The sales during the period were estimated as follows:
(a) `80,000 including Agent‘s Sales `8,000
(b) `90,000 including Agent‘s Sales `10,000
(c) `1,00,000 including Agent‘s Sales `10,500

Solution:

Selling Overhead Budget

Sales 80,000 90,000 1,00,000
(A) Fixed overhead:
Advertisement 1,000 1,000 1,000
Salaries of the sales dept. 1,000 1,000 1,000
expenses of the sales dept. 750 750 750
Salesmen remuneration 3,000 3,000 3,000
Total (A) 5,750 5,750 5,750
(B) Variable overhead:
Commission 720 800 895
(72,000 x 1%) 80,000 x 1%) (89,500 x 1%)
Carriage outwards 4,000 4,500 5,000
Agents Commission 600 750 788
(8,000 x 7.5%) (10,000 x 7.5%) (10,500 x 7.5%)
Total (B) 5,320 6,050 6,683
grand Total (A+B) 11,070 11,800 12,433

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

103
Illustration 5:
ABC Ltd. a newly started company wishes to prepare Cash Budget from January. Prepare
a cash budget for the first six months from the following estimated revenue and
expenses.
Total Sales
Month (`)Materials (`) Wages (`) Overheads
Selling &
Production (`) Distribution (`)
January 20,000 20,000 4,000 3,200 800
February 22,000 14,000 4,400 3,300 900
March 28,000 14,000 4,600 3,400 900
April 36,000 22,000 4,600 3,500 1,000
May 30,000 20,000 4,000 3,200 900
June 40,000 25,000 5,000 3,600 1,200

Cash balance on 1st January was `10,000. A new machinery is to be installed at `20,000
on credit, to be repaid by two equal instalments in March and April, sales commission
@5% on total sales is to be paid within a month following actual sales.

`10,000 being the amount of 2nd call may be received in March. Share premium
amounting to `2,000 is also obtained with the 2nd call. Period of credit allowed by
suppliers — 2months; period of credit allowed to customers — 1month, delay in payment
of overheads 1 month. delay in payment of wages ½ month. Assume cash sales to be
50% of total sales.

Solution:

Cash Budget for the First 6 Months

Particulars Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
opening Balance (A) 10,000 18,000 29,800 27,000 24,70033,100
Add: Receipts (B)
Cash Sales (50%) 10,000 11,000 14,000 18,000 15,00020,000
Collection from debtors --- 10,000 11,000 14,000 18,00015,000
Share call money (including share
premium) --- --- 12,000 --- --- ---
Total (A+B) 20,000 39,000 66,800 59,000 57,70068,100
Less: Payments
Materials --- --- 20,000 14,000 14,00022,000
Wages 2,000 4,200 4,500 4,600 4,300 4,500
overheads --- 4,000 4,200 4,300 4,500 4,100
Sales Commission --- 1,000 1,100 1,400 1,800 1,500
Instalment of Machinery purchase --- --- 10000 10000 --- ---
Total Payments(C) 2,000 9,200 39,800 34,300 24,60032,100
Closing Balance (A+B-C) 18,000 29,800 27,000 24,700 33,10036,000
Note: According to credit terms wages to be taken at half of the current month plus half
of the previous month.

Illustration 6:
Prepare a Cash Budget for the three months ending 30th June, 2016 from the information
given below:
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 104
(a)
MONTH SALES (`) MATERIALS (`) WAGES (`) OVERHEADS (`)
February 14,000 9,600 3,000 1,700
March 15,000 9,000 3,000 1,900
April 16,000 9,200 3,200 2,000
May 17,000 10,000 3,600 2,200
June 18,000 10,400 4,000 2,300

(b) Credit terms are:

Sales/debtors: 10% sales are on cash, 50% of the credit sales are collected next month
and
the balance in the following month.
Creditors: Materials 2 months
Wages 1/4 month
Overheads 1/2 month.
(c) Cash and bank balance on 1st April, 2016 is expected to be ` 6,000.
(d) other relevant information are:
(i) Plant and machinery will be installed in February 2016 at a cost of `96,000. The
monthly instalment of `2,000 is payable from April onwards.
(ii) Dividend @ 5% on preference share capital of `2,00,000 will be paid on 1st June.
(iii) Advance to be received for sale of vehicles `9,000 in June.
(iv) Dividends from investments amounting to `1,000 are expected to be received in
June.

Solution:

Cash Budget for the 3 Months Ending 30th June 2016

(Amount in
`)
Particulars April May June
opening Balance 6,000 3,950 3,000
Add: Receipts :
Cash Sales 1,600 1,700 1,800
Collection from debtors [see note(1)] 13,050 13,950 14,850
Advance for sale of vehicles - - 9,000
Dividends from Investments - - 1,000
Total (A+B) 20,650 19,600 29,650
Less: Payments
Materials 9,600 9,000 9,200
Wages (see note2) 3,150 3,500 3,900
overheads 1,950 2,100 2,250
Instalment of Plant & Machinery 2,000 - 2,000 - 2,000
Preference dividend 10,000
Total (C) 16,700 16,600 27,350
Closing Balance (A+B-C) 3,950 3,000 2,300

Working Notes:
(i)
Computation of Collection from
Debtors
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 105
 (Amount in
`)
Total Credit
Month Sales Sales Feb Mar Apr May June
Feb 14,000 12,600 --- 6,300 6,300 --- ---
Mar 15,000 13,500 --- --- 6,750 6,750 ---
Apr 16,000 14,400 --- --- --- 7,200 7,200
May 17,000 15,300 --- --- --- --- 7,650
13,050 13,950 14,850

(ii) Wages payment in each month is to be taken as three-fourths of the current month
plus one-fourth of the previous month.

Illustration 7:
Draw up a flexible budget for overhead expenses on the basis of the following data and
determine the overhead rates at 70%, 80% and 90%
Plant Capacity At 80% capacity (`)
Variable Overheads:
Indirect labour 12,000
Stores including spares 4,000
Semi Variable:
Power (30% - Fixed: 70% -Variable) 20,000
Repairs (60%- Fixed: 40% -Variable) 2,000
Fixed Overheads:
depreciation 11,000
Insurance 3,000
Salaries 10,000
Total overheads 62,000
Estimated Direct Labour Hours 1,24,000

Solution:

Flexible Budget at Different Capacities and Determination of Overhead Rates

Particulars 70% (`) 80% (`) 90% (`)
(A) Variable overheads:
Indirect labour 10,500 12,000 13,500
Stores including spares 3,500 4,000 4,500
Total (A) 14,000 16,000 18,000
(B) Semi Variable overheads:
Power (See note) 18,250 20,000 21,750
Repairs (See note) 1,900 2,000 2,100
Total (B) 20,150 22,000 23,850
(C) Fixed overheads:
Depreciation 11,000 11,000 11,000
Insurance 3,000 3,000 3,000
Salaries 10,000 10,000 10,000
Total (C) 24,000 24,000 24,000
Grand Total (A+B+C) 58,150 62,000 65,850

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 106
 10,8,50 1,39,50
Labour Hours 0 1,24,000 0
  
 1,24,000× 7   1,24,000× 9 


 8  8 
= = =
overhead rate per hour (`) 58,150 0.536 62,000 0.50 65,850 0.472
1,08,500 1,24,000 1,39,500

Working notes: Semi Variable overheads:

70
% 90%
Power:
Variable   =   =
  12,250   15,750
   
Fixed 6,000 6,000
Total 18,250 21,750
Repairs:
Variable    
  = 700   = 900
   
Fixed 1,200 1,200
Total 1,900 2,100

Illustration 8:
The profit for the year of Push On Ltd. works out to 12.5% of the capital employed and
the relevant figures are as under:

`
Sales 5,00,000
direct Materials 2,50,000
direct Labour 1,00,000
Variable overheads 40,000
Capital employed 4,00,000

The new sales manager who has joined the company recently estimates for the next year
a profit of about 23% on capital employed, provided the volume of sales is increased by
10% and simultaneously there is an increase in selling price of 4% and an overall cost
reduction in all the elements of cost by 2%.

Find out by computing in detail the cost and profit for next year, whether the proposal of
sales manager can be adopted.

Solution:

Computation of Fixed Expenses

Particulars `
Sales 5,00,000
Less: Profit [4,00,000 x (12.5/100)] 50,000
Total Cost 4,50,000
Less: All costs other than Fixed Cost 3,90,000
Fixed Cost 60,000
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 107
 Statement Showing Computation of Profit
If Salesman‘s Proposal is Adopted
Particulars `
(i) Sales [500000 x 110% x 104%] 5,72,000
(ii) Variable Cost:
Direct Material [250000 x 110% x 98%] 2,69,500
Direct Labour [100000 x 110% x 98%] 1,07,800
Variable overheads [40000 x 110% x 98%] 43,120
4,20,420
(iii) Contribution [i - ii] 1,51,580
(iv) Fixed Cost [60000 x 98%] 58,800
(v) Profit [iii - iv] 92,780
 92,780 
%of profit on Capital Employed =  4,00,000 100  = 23.195%
 
From the above computation, it was found that the percentage of profit is 23.195% on
Capital Employed by adopting the sales manager‘s proposal which is just more than 23%
of expected, therefore the proposal can be adopted.

Illustration 9:
A glass Manufacturing company requires you to calculate and present the budget for the
next year from the following information.
Sales: Toughened glass ` 3,00,000
Bent toughened glass ` 5,00,000
direct Material cost 60% of sales
direct Wages 20 workers @ `150 p.m.
Factory Overheads:
Indirect Labour: Works Manager `500 per month
Foreman `400 per month
Stores and spares 2½% on sales
depreciation on machinery `12,000
Light and power 5,600
Repairs and maintenance 8,000
other sundries 10% on direct wages
Administration, selling and distribution expenses `14,000 per year.

Solution:

Master Budget Showing Profit for Next Year

` `
Sales:
Toughened glass 3,00,000
Bent Toughened glass 5,00,000 8,00,000
Less: Cost:
Material @ 60% 4,80,000
direct Wages (20 x 150 x 12) 36,000 5,16,000
Gross Profit 2,84,000

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Less: Factory Overheads:
Indirect Labour: Works Manager‘s Salary [500 x 12] = 6,000
Foreman‘s Salary [400 x 12] = 4,800 10,800
Stores & Spares 20,000
depreciation 12,000
Light & Power 5,600
Repairs & Maintenance 8,000
other Sundries 3,600
Administration & Selling expenses 14,000 74,000
Profit 2,10,000

Illustration 10:
Three Articles X, Y and Z are produced in a factory. They pass through two cost centers A
and B. From the data furnished compile a statement for budgeted machine utilization in
both the centers.

(a) Sales budget for the year

Closing
Product Annual Budgeted Opening stock of finished stock
Sales (units) products (units)
X 4800 600 equivalent to 2 months sales
Y 2400 300 --do--
Z 2400 800 --do--

(b) Machine hours per unit of product

Cost centers
Product A B
X 30 70
Y 200 100
Z 30 20

(c) Total number of machines

Cost Centre:
A 284
B 256
Total 540

(d) Total working hours during the year: estimated 2500 hours per machine.

Solution:

Calculation of Units of Production of Different Products

Particulars Product X Product Y Product Z
Sales 4800 2400 2400
Add: Closing Stock 800 400 400
5600 2800 2800
Less: opening stock 600 300 800
Production 5000 2500 2000

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MACHINE UTILISATION BUDGET
Particulars A B
X Y Z Total X Y Z Total
(i) Production (units) 5000 2500 2000 5000 2500 2000
(ii) Hours per unit 30 200 30 70 100 20
1,50,00 5,00,00 60,00 7,10,00 3,50,00 6,40,00
(iii) Total Machine Hours 0 0 0 0 02,50,000 40,000 0
(iv) Number of Machines 60 200 24 284 140 100 16 256
Required

Illustration 11:

The monthly budgets for manufacturing overhead of a concern for two levels of activity
were as follows:
Capacity 60% 100%
Budgeted production (units) 600 1,000
` `
Wages 1,200 2,000
Consumable stores 900 1,500
Maintenance 1,100 1,500
Power and fuel 1,600 2,000
depreciation 4,000 4,000
Insurance 1,000 1,000
9,800 12,000
You are required to:
(i) Indicate which of the items are fixed, variable and semi-variable;
(ii) Prepare a budget for 80% capacity and
(iii) Find the total cost, both fixed and variable per unit of output at 60%, 80% and
100%capacity.

Solution:

(i)
Fixed → Depreciation and insurance.
Variable → Wages and consumables stores.
Semi-variable Costs → Maintenance, Power and fuel.
Segregation of Semi Variable Costs
1,500

Maintenance =  -1,100  = ` 1 per unit variable and
 400 
` 500 fixed (i.e., 1,100-600)
Power and fuel = 2,000
 -1,600 = ` 1 per unit variable

  and
 400 
`1,000 (i.e.,1,600 - 600) is fixed.

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MANAGEMENT
(ii) Budget for 80% capacity(output 800 units):
`
Wages @`2 per unit 1,600
Consumables stores @ ` 1.50 per
unit 1,200
Maintenance: ` 500+` 1.50 per unit 1,300
Power & fuel ` 1,000+ `1 per unit 1,800
depreciation 4,000
Insurance 1,000
Total cost: 10,900

(iii)
Capacity 60% 80% 100%
Units 600 800 1000
Total (`) Per unit Total (`) Per unit Total (`) Per unit
Fixed Costs:
Depreciation 4,000 4,000 4,000
Insurance 1,000 1,000 1,000
Maintenance 500 500 500
Power and fuel 1,000 1,000 1,000
6,500 10.83 6,500 8.125 6,500 6.50
Variable costs:
Wages @ `2 per unit 1,200 1,600 2,000
Consumable stores @ ` 1.50 per unit 900 1,200 1,500
Maintenance @ `1 Per unit 600 800 1,000
Power and fuel @ `1 per unit 600 800 1,000
3,300 5.50 4,400 5.500 5,500 5.50
16.33 13.625 12.00

Illustration 12:
X Chemical Ltd. manufacture two products AB and CD by making the raw material in the
proportion shown:
Raw Material Product AB Product CD
A 80%
B 20%
C 50%
d 50%

The finished weight of products AB and CD are equal in the weight of in gradients. During
the month of June, it is expected that 60 tons of AB and 200 tons of CD will be sold.

Actual and budgeted inventories for the month of June as follows:

Actual Inventory (1st June) Budgeted Inventory (30th June)
Quantity (Tons) Quantity (Tons)
A 15 20
B 10 40
C 200 300
D 250 200
Product AB 10 5
Product CD 50 60

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The purchase price of materials for June is expected to be as follows:
Material Cost per ton
`
A 500
B 400
C 100
D 200

All materials will be purchased on 3rd of June, Prepare:

(a) The Production Budget for the month of June,
(b) The Material Requirement budget for June,
(c) The Material Purchase Budget indicating the expenditure for material for the month
of June.
Solution:

(a)
Production
Budget
Particula
rs AB CD
Sales 60 200
Add: Closing stock 5 60
65 260
Less: opening stock 10 50
Production 55 210

(b)
Material Requirement Budget
Particulars A B C D
Product AB 44 11 - -
Product CD - - 105 105
Material Required 44 11 105 105

(c) Purchase
Budget
Particulars A B C D
Material Required 44 11 105 105
Add: Closing stock 20 40 300 200
64 51 405 305
Less: opening stock 15 10 200 250
Purchases (By weight) 49 41 205 55
Cost per ton 500 400 100 200
Purchases (By Rupees) 24500 16400 20500 11000

Total Purchases = ` 24500+16400+20500+11000 = ` 72400.

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Self Learning Questions:

1. What do you mean by Budgetary control? State its advantages.

2. Discuss the preliminaries for the adoption of a system of Budgetary Control.
3. Discuss the factors to be considered on production budget.
4. Distinguish between flexible budget and fixed budget.
5. Write a short note as responsibility accounting and performance budgeting.
6. Write a short note on ―Zero based budgeting‖.
7. List down the steps involved in zero based budgeting.
8. Explain the various types of budget.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Budget period depends upon…

A. The type of budget
B. The nature of business
C. The length of trade cycles
D. All of these
2. A key factor is one which restricts…
A. The volume of production
B. The volume of sales
C. The volume of purchase
D. All of the above
3. Budget relating to the key factor is prepared…
A. After other budgets
B. With other budgets
C. Before other budgets
D. None
4. The budgets are classified on the basis of…
A. Time
B. Function
C. Flexibility
D. All
5. An example of long period budget is…
A. R& D budget
B. Master budget
C. Sales budget
D. Personnel budget
6. Sales budget shows the sales details as…
A. Month wise
B. Product wise
C. Area wise
D. All of the above
7. The main objective of budgetary control is…
A. To define the goal of the firm
B. To coordinate different departments
C. To plan to achieve its goals
D. All of the above

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8. Fixed budget is useless for comparison when the level of activity…
A. Increases
B. Fluctuates both ways
C. Decreases
D. Constant
9. Usually the production budget is stated in terms of…
A. Money
B. Quantity
C. Both
D. None
10. Revision of budgets is
A. Unnecessary
B. Can‘t determine
C. Necessary
D. Inadequate data

[Ans: D,A,C,D,A,A,C,B,C,C]

Match the following:

Column A Column B
1 A budget is a plan of action expressed in… A Definite period
2 A budget is tool which helps the management in planning B Management
and control of…
3 Budgetary control system acts as a friend, philosopher and C Financial terms &
guide to the… Non‐financial terms
4 Budget is prepared for a… D Decision making
All business
5 Zero based Budgeting E activities
[Ans: E,C,B,A,D]

State whether the following statement is True or False:

1. Zero Based Budgeting cannot be used for Decision making.

2. There is necessity to revise the budget.
3. A budget is expressed in financial or Quantitative terms.
4. A budget is prepared for a specified period.
5. A flexible budget takes into account only fixed costs.
6. The master budget is prepared first and all other budgets are sub ordinate to it
7. The key factor should not be taken into account while preparing budgets.
8. A budget is a summary of all functional budgets.
9. A flexible budget is prepared for more than one level of activity.
10. Cash budget shows the expected sources and utilisation of cash.

[Ans: 1.False, 2.True, 3.True, 4.True, 5.False, 6.False, 7.False, 8.False, 9.True,
10.True]

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Fill in the Blanks:

1. Budgetary control system facilitates centralized control with ___________.

2. Budgetary control facilitates easy introduction of the ____________.
3. Budgetary control helps the management in ______________.
4. Budgetary control system helps the management to eliminate
________________________.
5. Budgetary control provides a basis for ______________.
6. Budgetary control helps to introduce a suitable incentive and remuneration based on
__.
7. Budgetary control __________ replace management in decision‐making.
8. The success of budgetary control system depends upon the willing cooperation of
______.
9. Recording of actual performance is __________________.
10. Revision of budgets is ___________________.

[Ans: 1. Centralised & Decentralised Activity, 2. Standard Costing, 3. Obtaining

Bank Credit, 4. Under and Over Capitalisation, 5. Remuneration Plans, 6.
Inflationary Conditions, 7. Cannot, 8. All functional area of Management, 9. A
step in Budgetary Control, 10. Necessary]
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115
STUDY NOTE : 4
STANDARD COSTING & VARIANCE ANALYSIS

THIS STUDY NOTE INCLUDES:

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Computation of variances for each of the elements of costs, Sales Variances
4.3 Investigation of variances – & Reporting of variances
4.4 Valuation of Stock under Standard Costing
4.5 Uniform Costing and Inter-firm comparison

4.1 INTRODUCTION

During the first stages of development of cost accounting, historical costing was the only
method available for ascertaining and presenting costs. Historical costs have, however,
the following limitations:
a) Historical cost is valid only for one accounting period, during which the particular
manufacturing operation took place.
b) Data is obtained too late for price quotations and production planning.
c) Historical cost relating to one batch or lot of production is not a true guide for fixing
price.
d) Past actual are affected by the level of working efficiencies.
e) Historical costing is comparatively expensive as it involves the maintenance of a
large volume of records and forms.

The limitations and disadvantages attached to historical costing system led to further
thinking on the subject and resulted in the emergence of standard costing which makes
use of scientifically predetermined standard costs under each element.

Definition:
Standard Costing is defined as ―the preparation and use of standard cost, their comparison
with actual costs and the measurement and analysis of variances to their causes and
points of incidence.‖

General Principles of Standard Costing:

1. Predetermination of technical data related to production. i.e., details of materials and
labour operations required for each product, the quantum of inevitable losses,
efficiencies expected, level of activity, etc.
2. Predetermination of standard costs in full details under each element of cost, viz.,
labour, material and overhead.
3. Comparison of the actual performance and costs with the standards and working out
the variances, i.e., the differences between the actuals and the standards.
4. Analysis of the variances in order to determine the reasons for deviations of actuals
from the standards.
5. Presentation of information to the appropriate level of management to enable
suitable action (remedial measures or revision of the standards) being taken.

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Difference between Standard Costing and Budgetary Control:
Like Budgetary Control, Standard Costing assume that costs are controllable along
definite lines of supervision and responsibility and it aims at managerial control by
comparison of actual performances with suitable predetermined yardsticks. The basic
principles of cost control, viz., setting up of targets or standards, measurement of
performance, comparison of actual with the targets and analysis and reporting of
variances are common to both standard costing and budgetary control systems. Both
techniques are of importance in their respective fields are complementary to each other.
Thus, conceptually there is not much of a difference between standard costs and
budgeted and the terms budgeted performance and standard performance mean, for
many concerns one and the same thing.

Budgets are usually based on past costs adjusted for anticipated future changes but
standard costs are of help in the preparation of production costs budgets. In fact,
standards are often indispensable in the establishment of budgets. On the other hand,
while setting standard overhead rates of standard costing purposes, the budgets framed
for the overhead costs may be made use of with modifications, if necessary. Thus,
standard costs and budgets are interrelated but not inter-dependent.

Despite the similarity in the basic principles of Standard Costing and Budgetary Control,
the two systems vary in scope and in the matter of detailed techniques. The difference
may be summarized as follows:
1. A system of Budgetary Control may be operated even if no Standard Costing system
is in use in the concern.
2. While standard is an unit concept, budget is a total concept.
3. Budgets are the ceilings or limits of expenses above which the actual expenditure
should not normally rise; if it does, the planned profits will be reduced. Standards are
minimum targets to be attained by actual performance at specified efficiency.
4. 4. Budgets are complete in as much as they are framed for all the activities and
functions of a concern such as production, purchase, selling and distribution, research
and development, capital utilisation, etc. Standard Costing relates mainly to the
function of production and the related manufacturing costs.
5. A more searching analysis of the variances from standards is necessary than in the
case of variations from the budget.
6. Budgets are indices, adherence to which keeps a business out of difficulties.
Standards are pointers to further possible improvements.

Advantages of Standard Costing:

The advantages derived from a system of standard costing are tabulated below:
1. Standard Costing system establishes yard-sticks against which the efficiency of actual
performances is measured.
2. The standards provide incentive and motivation to work with greater effort and
vigilance for achieving the standard. This increase efficiency and productivity all
round.
3. At the very stage of setting the standards, simplification and standardisation of
products, methods, and operations are effected and waste of time and materials is
eliminated. This assists in managerial planning for efficient operation and benefits all
the divisions of the concern.

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4. Costing procedure is simplified. There is a reduction in paper work in accounting and
less number of forms and records are required.
5. Cost are available with promptitude for various purposes like fixation of selling prices,
pricing of interdepartmental transfers, ascertaining the value of costing stocks of
work-in-progress and finished stock and determining idle capacity.
6. Standard Costing is an exercise in planning - it can be very easily fitted into and used
for budgetary planning.
7. Standard Costing system facilities delegation of authority and fixation of
responsibility for each department or individual. This also tones up the general
organisation of the concern.
8. Variance analysis and reporting is based on the principles of management by
exception. The top management may not be interested in details of actual
performance but only in the variances form the standards, so that corrective
measures may be taken in time.
9. When constantly reviewed, the standards provide means for achieving cost reduction.
10. Standard costs assist in performance analysis by providing ready means for
preparation of information.
11. Production and pricing policies may be formulated in advance before production
starts. This helps in prompt decision-making.
12. Standard costing facilitates the integration of accounts so that reconciliation between
cost accounts and financial accounts may be eliminated.
13. Standard Costing optimizes the use of plant capacities, current assets and working
capital.

Limitations of standard costing:

1. Establishment of standard costs is difficult in practice.
2. In course of time, sometimes even in a short period the standards become rigid.
3. Inaccurate, unreliable and out of date standards do more harm than benefit.
4. Sometimes, standards create adverse psychological effects. If the standard is set at
high level, its non achievement would result in frustration and build-up of resistance.
5. Due to the play of random factors, variances cannot sometimes be properly
explained, and it is difficult to distinguish between controllable and non-controllable
expenses.
6. Standard costing may not sometimes be suitable for some small concerns. Where
production cannot be carefully scheduled, frequent changes in production conditions
result in variances. Detailed analysis of all of which would be meaningless,
superfluous and costly.
7. Standard costing may not, sometimes, be suitable and costly in the case of industries
dealing with non-standardized products and for repair jobs which keep on changing in
accordance with customer‘s specifications.
8. Lack of interest in standard costing on the part of the management makes the system
practically ineffective. This limitation, of course, applies equally in the case of any
other system which the management does not accept wholeheartedly.

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 4.2 COMPUTATION OF VARIANCES FOR EACH OF THE ELEMENTS OF COSTS,
SALES VARIANCES

Variance Analysis
Variance Analysis is nothing but the differences between Standard Cost and Actual Cost.
of course, in ordinary language we call it difference; in statistics we call it deviations and
in costing terminology we call it as variances. When Standard Costing is adopted, the
standards are set for all the costs, revenue and profit, and if the difference in case of cost
is more than the standard we call it adverse variance, symbolized (A) and if the
difference is less than the standard, we call it favourable variance, symbolized (F).
However, in case of sales and profit, if the standard is more than the actual it is adverse
variance and if the standard is less than the actual it is favourable variance. From this we
understand that variances can be calculated in all the elements of costs, sales and profit
too.

An overview of Variance Analysis is shown as follows:

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COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
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I. Direct Materials Cost Variance: Direct materials cost variance is the difference
between the actual direct material cost incurred and the standard direct material cost
specified for the production achieved.

1. Direct Materials Price Variance: The difference between the actual and standard price
per unit of the material applied to the actual quantity of material purchased or used.

Direct materials price variance = (Standard Price minus Actual Price) x Actual Quantity, or
=(SP-AP) AQ
=(Standard Price x Actual Quantity) minus (Actual Price x Actual Quantity)
=(AQSP-AQAP)

Causes of Material Price Variance:

a. Change in basic purchase price of material.
b. Change in quantity of purchase or uneconomical size of purchase order.
c. Rush order to meet shortage of supply, or purchase in less or more favourable market.
d. Failure to take advantage of off-season price, or failure to purchase when price is
cheaper.
e. Failure to obtain (or availability of) cash and trade discounts or change in the discount
rates.
f. Weak purchase organisation.
g. Payment of excess or less freight.
h. Transit losses and discrepancies, if purchase price is inflated to include the loss.
i. Change in quality or specification of material purchased.
j. Use of substitute material having a higher or lower unit price.
k. Change in materials purchase, upkeep, and store-keeping cost. (This is applicable
only when such changes are allocated to direct material costs on a predetermined or
standard cost basis.)
l. Change in the pattern or amounts of taxes and duties.

2. Direct Materials Usage Variance: The difference between the actual quantity used
and the amount which should have been used, valued at standard price.
Direct materials usage variance = (Standard Quantity for actual output x Standard Price)
minus (Standard Price x Actual Quantity)
= SQSP-AQSP or
= Standard Price x (Standard Quantity for actual output minus Actual
Quantity) = SP (SQ-AQ)

Causes of Materials Usage Variance:

a. Variation in usage of materials due to inefficient or careless use, or economic use of
materials.
b. Change in specification or design of product.
c. Inefficient and inadequate inspection of raw materials.
d. Purchase of inferior materials or change in quality of materials
e. Rigid technical specifications and strict inspection leading to more rejections which
require more materials for rectification.
f. Inefficiency in production resulting in wastages

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g. Use of substitute materials.
h. Theft or pilferage of materials.
i. Inefficient labour force leading to excessive utilisation of materials.
j. Defective machines, tools, and equipments, and bad or improper maintenance
leading to breakdowns and more usage of materials.
k. Yield from materials in excess of or less than that provided as the standard yield.
l. Faulty materials processing. Timber, for example, if not properly seasoned may be
wasted while being used in subsequent processes.
m. Accounting errors, e.g. when materials returned from shop or transferred from one job
to another are not properly accounted for.
n. Inaccurate standards
o. Change in composition of a mixture of materials for a specified output.

(i) Direct Materials Mix Variance: one of the reasons for materials usage variance is
the change in the composition of the materials mix. The difference between the
actual quantity of material used and the standard proportion, priced at standard
price.

Mix variance = (Revised Standard Quantity minus Actual Quantity) x Standard Price.
= RSQSP-AQSP
(ii) Direct Materials Yield Variance: yield variance is the difference between the
standard
cost of production achieved and the actual total quantity of materials used, multiplied
by the standard weighted average price per unit.
Material yield variance = (Standard yield for Actual Mix minus Actual yield) x
Standard yield Price
(Standard yield price is obtained by dividing the total cost of the standard units by
the total cost of the standard mixture by the total quantity (number of physical units).

Where
SQ = Standard Quantity for Actual Production or output
SP = Standard Price
AQ = Actual Quantity of Materials Consumed
AP = Actual Price
RSQ = Revised Standard Quantity

1. SQSP = Standard Cost of Standard Material

2. RSQSP = Revised Standard Cost of Standard Material
3. AQSP = Standard cost of Actual Material
4. AQAP = Actual Cost of Actual Material

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 (a) Material Sub-usage or yield Variance = 1-2
(b) Material Mix Variance = 2-3
(c) Material usage Variance = 1-3
(d) Material Price Variance = 3-4
(e) Material Cost Variance = 1-4

II. Direct Labour Cost Variance: Direct Labour Cost Variance (also termed Direct Wage
Variance) is the difference between the actual direct wages incurred and the standard
direct wages specified for the activity achieved.

1. Direct Labour Rate Variance (Wage Rate Variance): The difference between the
actual and standard wage rate per hour applied to the total hours worked.
Wages rate variance = (Standard Rate minus Actual Rate) x Actual Hours
=(SR-AR) x AH
= SRAH-ARAH

Causes of Direct Labour Rate Variances:

a. Change in basic wage structure or change in piece-work rate. These will give rise to a
variance till such time the standards are not revised.
b. Employment of workers of grades and rates of pay different from those specified, due
to shortage of labour of the proper category, or through mistake, or due to retention
of surplus labour.
c. Payment of guaranteed wages to workers who are unable to earn their normal wages
if such guaranteed wages form part of direct labour cost.
d. Use of a different method of payment, e.g. payment at day-rates while standards are
based on piece-work method of remuneration.
e. Higher or lower rates paid to casual and temporary workers employed to meet
seasonal demands, or urgent or special work.
f. New workers not being allowed full normal wage rates.
g. Overtime and night shift work in excess of or less than the standard, or where no
provision has been made in the standard. This will be applicable only if overtime and
shift differential payments form part of the direct labour cost.
h. The composition of a gang as regards the skill and rates of wages being different from
that laid down in the standard.

2. Direct Labour Efficiency Variance (also termed Labour Time Variance): The
difference between the standard hours which should have been worked and the hours
actually worked, valued at the standard wage rate.
Direct Labour efficiency Variance = (Standard Hours for Actual Production minus
Actual

= (SH-AH) x SR
= SRSH-SRAH

Causes for Labour Efficiency Variance:

a. Lack of proper supervision or strict supervision than specified.
b. Poor working conditions.

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 c. Delays due to waiting for materials, tools, instructions, etc. if not treated as idle time.
d. Defective machines, tools and other equipments.
e. Machine break-down, if not booked to idle time.
f. Work on new machines requiring less time than provided for, till such time standard is
not revised.
g. Basic inefficiency of workers due to low morale, insufficient training, faulty
instructions, incorrect scheduling of jobs, etc.
h. Use of non-standard material requiring more or less operation time.
i. Carrying out operations not provided for a booking them as direct wages.
j. Incorrect standards
k. Wrong selection of workers, i.e., not employing the right type of man for doing a job.
l. Increase in labour turnover.
m. Incorrect recording of performances, i.e., time or output.

(i) Direct Labour Composition or Mix or Gang Variance: This is a sub-variance

of labour efficiency variance. This variance arises due to change in the
composition of a standard gang, or, combination of labour force

Mix or gang or Composition Variance = (Actual Hours at Standard Rate of Standard gang)
minus (Actual Hours at Standard Rate of Actual
gang)

(ii) Direct Labour Yield Variance: Just as material yield variance is calculated,
similarly labour yield variance can also be known. It is the variation in labour cost
on account of increase or decrease in yield or output as composed to the relative
standard. The formula is –

Direct Labour yield Variance = Standard Cost Per unit × [Standard Output for Actual Mix –
Actual Output]

3. Idle time variance: This variance which forms a portion of wages efficiency
variance, is represented by the standard cost of the actual hours for which the
workers remain idle due to abnormal circumstances.

Idle time variance = (Standard rate x Actual hours paid for) minus (Standard rate x
Actual hours worked) or
= Standard Rate x Idle Hours

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 SR = Standard Rate of Labour Per Hour
SH = Standard Hours for Actual Production or output
RSH = Revised Standard Hours
AH = Actual Hours
AR = Actual Rate of Labour per Hour
1. SRSH = Standard Cost of Standard Labour
2. SRRSH = Revised Standard Cost of Labour
3. SRAH = Standard Cost of Actual Labour
4. ARAH = Actual Cost of Labour
= 1-
a. Labour Sub-efficiency or yield Variance 2
= 2-
b. Labour Mix or gang or Composition Variance 3
= 1-
c. Labour efficiency Variance 3
= 3-
d. Labour Rate Variance 4
= 1-
e. Labour Cost Variance 4
Idle Time Variance = Idle Time Hours x Standard Rate per Hour.
It is to be noted that this is the part and parcel of efficiency ratio and always it is adverse.
III. Overhead Cost Variance: overhead cost variance or overall (or net) overhead variance
is the difference between the actual overhead incurred and the overhead charged or
applied into the job or process at the standard overhead rate.
1. Fixed Overhead Variance:
Fixed overhead cost variance is the difference between the standard cost of fixed
overhead allowed for the actual output achieved and the actual fixed overhead cost
incurred. The fixed overhead variance is analysed as below:
(i) Budget (or) Expenditure (or) Spending Variance:
Fixed overhead variance which arises due to the difference between the budgeted fixed
overheads and the actual fixed overheads incurred during a particular period. It shows
the efficiency in spending. Expenditure variance arises due to the following:
 Rise in general price level.
 Changes in production methods.
 Ineffective control.
Fixed overhead expenditure or Budget Variance = Budgeted Fixed overhead - Actual Fixed
overhead
(ii) Volume Variance:
Fixed overhead volume variance is the difference between standard cost of fixed
overhead allowed for actual output and the budgeted fixed overheads for the period. This
variance shows the over (or) under absorption of fixed overheads during a particular
period. If the actual output is more than the budgeted output then there will be over
recovery of fixed overheads and volume variance will be favourable and vice-versa. This
is so because fixed overheads are not expected to change with the change in output.
Volume variance arises due to the following reasons:
 Poor efficiency of workers.
 Poor efficiency of machinery.
 Lack of orders.
 Shortage of power.
 Ineffective supervision.
 More or less working days.
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL 125
MANAGEMENT
Volume variance (Fixed Overhead) =Recovered Fixed overhead - Budgeted Fixed
overhead
Volume variance can be further sub divided into three variances namely:

a. Capacity Variance:
It is that portion of the volume variance which is due to working at higher or lower
capacity than the standard capacity. In other words, the variance is related to the under
and over utilization of plant and equipment and arises due to idle time, strikes and lock-
out, break down of the machinery, power failure, shortage of materials and labour,
absenteeism, overtime, changes in number of shifts. In short, this variance arises due to
more or less working hours than the budgeted working hours.

Capacity Variance = Standard Fixed Overhead Rate per hour × [Actual Hour worked -
Budgeted Hours]
Or
= Standard overhead - Budgeted overheads

Calendar Variance:
It is that portion of the volume variance which is due to the difference between the
number of working days in the budget period and the number of actual working days in
the period to which the budget is applicable. If the actual working days are more than the
budgeted working days the variance will be favourable and vice-versa if the actual
working days are less than the budgeted days.

Calendar Variance = Standard Rate Per Hour or Per Day × excess or Deficit Hours or Days
Worked

c. Efficiency Variance:
It is that portion of the volume variance which is due to the difference between the
budgeted efficiency of production and the actual efficiency achieved.

Efficiency Variance = Standard Fixed Overhead Rate per hour × [Standard Hour for Actual
Production – Actual Hours]
Or
= Recovered Fixed Overheads – Standard Fixed Overheads

Fixed Overhead Variances:

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Where,
SR = Standard Rate of Fixed overhead Per Hour
SH = Standard Hours for Actual Production or output
AH = Actual Hours
RBH = Revised Budgeted Hours
BH = Budgeted Hours
AR = Actual Rate of Fixed over Head per Hour
1. SRSH = Standard Cost of Standard Fixed overhead
2. SRAH = Standard Cost of Actual Fixed overhead or Fixed overhead Absorbed or
Recovered
3. SRRBH = Revised Budgeted Fixed overhead
4. SRBH = Budgeted Fixed overhead
5. ARAH = Actual Fixed overhead
= 1-
a. Fixed overheads effciency Variance 2
= 2-
b. Fixed overheads Capacity Variance 3
= 3-
c. Fixed overhead Calendar Variance 4
= 1-
d. Fixed overhead Volume Variance 4
= 4-
e. Fixed overhead Budget or expenditure Variance 5
=1-
f. Fixed overhead Cost Variance 5

Note1: - In the above values SR is found out in the following manner.

Note 2: Fixed overhead variances can also be worked out using overhead rate per unit
instead of rate per hour. In that event values and variances would be as follows:

Where,
SR = Budgeted Fixed overheads / Budgeted Quantity
1. SRSQ = Standard Cost of Standard Fixed overhead
2. SRAQ = Standard Cost of Actual Fixed overhead or Fixed overhead Absorbed or
Recovered
3. SRRBQ = Revised Budgeted Fixed overhead
4. SRBQ = Budgeted Fixed overhead
5. ARAQ = Actual Fixed overhead
a. Fixed overheads efficiency Variance = 1-2
b. Fixed overheads Capacity Variance = 2-3
c. Fixed overhead Calendar Variance = 3-4
d. Fixed overhead Volume Variance = 1-4
e. Fixed overhead Budget or expenditure Variance = 4-5
f. Fixed overhead Cost Variance = 1-5
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 Note 3:- Idle time variance in fixed overhead is part and parcel of efficiency variance
and it is always adverse.

2. Variable overhead variance:

This is the difference between the standard variable overhead cost allowed for the actual
output achieved and the actual variable overhead cost. The variance is represented by
expenditure variance only because variable overhead cost will vary in proportion to
output so that only a change in expenditure can cause such variance.

Sometimes, variable overhead efficiency variance can also be calculated just like labour
efficiency variance. Variable overhead efficiency can be calculated if information relating
to actual time taken and time allowed is given. In that event variable overhead variance
can be divided into two parts.
(i) Variable overhead efficiency variance.
(ii) Variable overhead expenditure (or) budget (or) price variance.
Idle Time Variance = Idle Time Hours x Fixed overhead Rate per
Hour

(i) Efficiency Variance: This variance is due to the difference between standard hours for
actual output and the actual hours taken at the standard variable overhead rate. In other
words, Variable overhead efficiency Variance is a measure of the extra overhead (or
saving) incurred solely because direct labour usage exceeded (or was less than) the
standard direct labour hours allowed.

Efficiency Variance = Standard Variable overhead Rate per Hour × [Standard Hours for
Actual production – Actual Hours]
= Recovered Variable overheads - Standards Variable overheads

(ii) Expenditure or Budget or Price Variance: This variance is due to the difference
between standard variable overhead rate and actual variable overhead rate for the
actual time taken. It is calculated on the pattern of Direct Labour rate Variance.

Expenditure Variance = Actual Time × [Standard Variable overhead Rate per Hour –
Actual Variable overhead rate per hour]
=Standard Variable overheads – Actual Variable overheads

(iii) Sales Variance: The analysis of variances will be complete only when the difference
between the actual profit and standard profit is fully analysed. It is necessary to make an
analysis of sales variances to have a complete analysis of profit variance, because profit
is the difference between sales and cost. Thus, in addition to the analysis of cost
variances i.e., material cost variance, labour cost variance and overhead variance, an
analysis of sales variance should be made. Sales variances analysis may be categorized
into two:
1. Sales Value (or) Revenue variance.
2. Sales Margin (or) Profit variance.

Sales Value Variance is the difference between the budgeted value of sales and the
actual value of sales during a period. Sales Value Variance may arise due to the following
reasons:
 Actual selling price may be higher or lower than the standard price.
 Actual quantity of goods sold may be more or less than the standard.
 Actual mix of the sales may be different than the standard mix.

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Sales Margin Variance is the difference between the budgeted profit and actual profit and
this is also the sum total of all variances. Sales Margin Variance may arise due to the
following reasons:
 Raise in general price level.
 unexpected competition.
 Ineffective sales promotion.

1. Sales Value Variance: The difference between budgeted sales and actual sales
results in Sales Value Variance. If the actual sales are more than the budgeted
sales, a favourable variance would be shown and vice versa. The formula is:

Sales Value variance = Budgeted Sales - Actual Sales

(i) Price Variance: This can be calculated just like Material Price Variance. It is an
account of the difference in actual selling price and the standard selling price for
actual quantity of sales. The formula for this is:

Price variance = Actual Quantity Sold × (Standard Price - Actual Price)

Or
=Standard Sales - Actual Sales

(ii) Volume Variance: It can be computed as Material usage Variance. Budgeted

sales may be different from the standard sales. In other words, budgeted quantity
of sales at standard prices may vary from the actual quantity of sales at standard
prices. Thus, the variance is as a result of difference in budgeted and actual
quantities of goods sold. The formula is:

Volume Variance = Standard Price × (Budgeted Quantity - Actual

Quantity) Or
= Budgeted Sales - Standard Sales

(b) Mix variance: When more than one product is manufactured and sold, the
budgeted sales of different products are in a given ratio. If the actual quantities
sold are not in the same proportion as budgeted, it would cause a mix variance.

It can be calculated according to two methods:

• Based on Quantity: This method is followed on those cases where products are
homogenous. In case the formula for calculating Sales Mix Variance is on the
same pattern as is used in case of Material Mix Variance.

Mix Variance = Standard Price × (Revised Standard Quantity - Actual

Quantity) = Revised Standard Sales - Standard Sales

If actual quantity is more than the revised standard quantity, it will result in favourable
variance or vice versa.

Revised Standard Quantity Total Quantity of Actual Mix × Standard

= Total Quantity of Standard Quantity
Mix

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129
 Based on Value: This method is followed in those cases where products are not
homogeneous. In such a case, the actual sales at standard prices, i.e. standard sales are
to be expressed in budgeted ratios so as to calculate ‗revised standard sales‘ and then is
compared with the actual sales at standard prices. The formula is:

Mix Variance = Revised Standard Sales × Standard Sales

Revised Standard Sales = Budgeted Ratio of Sales × Standard Sales
Budgeted Ratio of Sales = Budgeted Sales of a Product
Total Budgeted Sales

(b)Quantity Variance: It is the difference between budgeted sales and the revised
standard sales. The formula is:

Quantity variance = Budgeted Sales – Revised Standard Sales

Where,
AQ = Actual Quantity Sold
AP = Actual Selling Price
SP (or) BP = Standard Selling Price (or) Budgeted Price
RSQ = Revised Standard Quantity
SQ (or) BQ = Standard (or) Budgeted Quantity
1. AQAP = Actual Sales
2. AQSP = Actual Quantity of Sales at Standard Selling Prices.
3. RSQSP = Revised Standard or Budgeted Sales.
4. SQSP = Standard (or) Budgeted Sales.
=3-
a. Sales Sub-Volume (or) Quantity Variance 4
= -
b. Sales Mix Variance 2 3
= -
c. Sales Volume Variance 2 4
= -
d. Sales Price Variance 1 2
=
e. Total Sales Value Variance 1 –4

V. Profit Variance: This represents the difference between budgeted profit and actual
profit.
The formula is: Profit Variance = Budgeted Profit – Actual Profit
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 (i) Price Variance: It shall be equal to the price variance calculated with reference to
turnover. It represents the difference of standard and actual profit on actual volume of
sales. The formula is:
Price Variance = Standard Profit – Actual
Profit or
=Actual Quantity Sold × (Standard Profit per unit - Actual Profit per unit)

(ii) Volume Variance: The profit at the standard rate on the difference between the
standard and the actual volume of sales would be the amount of volume variance. The
formula is:

Volume Variance = Budgeted Profit – Standard profit

or
= Standard Rate of Profit × (Budgeted Quantity - Actual Quantity)

The Volume Variance can be divided into:

(a) Mix Variance: When more than one product is manufactured is manufactured and sold,
the difference in profit can result because of the variation of actual mix and budgeted
mix of sales. The difference between revised standard profit and the standard profit,
therefore is the mix variance. The formula is:

Mix Variance = Revised Standard Profit – Standard Profit

(b)Quantity Variance: It results from the variation in profit because of difference in actual
quantities sold and the budgeted quantities both taken in the same ratio. The actual
quantities are to be revised in the ratio of standard mixture. The formula is:
Quantity Variance = Budgeted Profit – Revised Standard Profit

Where,
AQ = Actual Quantity Sold
AR = Actual Rate of Profit
SR (or) BR = Standard (or) Budgeted Rate of Profit
RSQ = Revised Standard Quantity
SQ (or) BQ = Standard (or) Budgeted Quantity
1. AQAR = Actual Profit
2. AQSR = Actual Quantity of Sales at Standard Rate of Profit

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3. RSQSR = Revised Standard (or) Budgeted Profit
4. SQSR = Standard (or) Budgeted Profit
a. Profit Sub-Volume or Quantity Variance = 3-4
b. Profit Variance due to Sales Mix = 2-3
c. Profit Variance due to Sales Volume = 2-4
d. Profit Variance due to Selling Price = 1-2
e. Total Profit Variance = 1-4

4.3 INVESTIGATION OF VARIANCES – & REPORTING OF VARIANCES

Reporting of Variances:
In order that variance reporting should be effective, it is essential that the following
requisites are fulfilled:
1. The variances arising out of each factor should be correctly segregated. If part of a
variance due to one factor is wrongly attributed to or merged with that of another,
the analysis report submitted to the management would be misleading and wrong
conclusions may be drawn from it.
2. Variances, particularly the controllable variances should be reported with promptness
as soon as they occur. Mere operation of Standard Costing and reporting of variances
is of no avail. The success of a Standard Costing system depends on the extent of
responsibility which the management assumes in correcting the conditions which
cause variances from standard. In order to assist the management in assuming this
responsibility, the variances should be reported frequently and on time. This would
enable corrective action being taken for future production while work is in progress
and before the project or job is completed.
3. For effective control, the line of organisation should be properly defined and the
authority and responsibility of each individual should be laid down in clear terms. This
will avoid ‗passing on the buck‘ and shirking of responsibility and will enable the
tracing of the causes of variances to the appropriate levels of management.
4. In certain cases, a particular variance may be the joint responsibility of more than
one individual or department. It is obvious that if corrective action has to be effective
in such cases, it should be taken jointly.
5. Analysis of uncontrollable variances should be made with the same care as for
controllable variances. Though a particular variance may not be controllable at the
lower level of management, a detailed analysis of the off-standard situation may
reveal far reaching effects on the economy of the concern. This should compel the
top management to take corrective action, say, by changing the policy which gave
rise to the uncontrollable variance.

Forms of Variance Reports:

The forms of reports for the different types of variances should be designed keeping in
view the needs of the management and the size of the concern, and no standard forms
are, therefore, suggested. Variance Analysis Reports prepared for the top management
would obviously be more formal and would contain broad details only, while those meant
for presentation to the lower levels would contain details showing the causes of each
variance and the specific responsibilities of the individuals concerned.

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 Variance Ratios and Cost Ratios:
We have so far considered the various cost variances in absolute monetary terms.
Although these show the extent of the variances, the information is insufficient if the
management wants to study the trend of variances from period to period. Absolute
figures in themselves do not give the full picture and it is only by comparison of one item
with another that their correct relationship is obtained. Variance Ratios serve this need
and comparison of these ratios from one period to another can be gainfully made.
Another advantage of Variance Ratio is in regard to its applicability in the dual plan of
standard cost accounting. With the help of the Cost Variance Ratios, standard costs of
production and the standard values of inventory can be easily converted into actual costs
for the purpose of incorporation in the financial accounts.

A number of ratios are used for reporting to the management the effective use of
capacity, material, labour and other resources of a concern. Some of these are
considered below:
1. Efficiency Ratio.
2. Activity Ratio.
3. Calendar Ratio.
4. Capacity usage Ratio
5. Capacity utilization Ratio.
6. Idle Time Ratio.

1. Efficiency Ratio: It is the standard hours equivalent to the work produced, expressed as
a percentage of the actual hours spent in producing that work.
Standard Hours
Efficiency Ratio = × 100
Actual Hours

2. Activity Ratio: It is the number of standard hours equivalent to the work produced,
expressed as a percentage of the budgeted standard hours.
Activity Ratio = Standard Hours for Actual Work × 100
Budgeted Standard Hours

3. Calendar Ratio: It is the relationship between the number of working days in a period
and the number of working days in the relative budget period.
Calendar Ratio = Available Working Days × 100
Budgeted Working Days

4. Capacity Usage Ratio: It is the relationship between the budgeted number of working
hours and the maximum possible number of working hours in a budget period.
Budgeted Hours
Maximum Possible Hours in Budget ×
Capacity usage Ratio = Period 100

5. Capacity Utilisation Ratio: It is the relationship between actual hours in a budget

period and the budgeted working hours in the period.
Actual Hours
Capacity utilisation Ratio Budgeted ×
= Hours 100

6. Idle Time ratio: It is the ratio of idle time hours to the total hours budgeted.
Ideal Time Hours
Idle Time Ratio = × 100
Budgeted Hours

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 4.4 VALUATION OF STOCK UNDER STANDARD COSTING

Stock Valuation:
The function of a Balance Sheet is to give a true and fair view of the state of affairs of a
company on a particular date. A true and fair view also implies the consistent application
of generally accepted principles. Stocks valued at standard costs are required to be
adjusted at actual costs in the following circumstances:
a. As per Indian Accounting Standards - 2, closing stock to be valued either at cost price
or at net realisable value (NRV) whichever is less.
b. The standard costing system introduced is still in an experimental stage and the
variances merely represent deviations from poorly set standards.
c. Occurrence of certain variances which are beyond the control of the management.
(unless the stocks are adjusted for uncontrollable factors, the values are not correctly
started).

Maintenance of Raw Material Stock at Standard Cost:

In the single plan, the inventory in the stores ledger may be carried either at standard
costs or at actual. Although both the methods are in use, the consensus is in favour of
standard costs. The advantages of adopting standard costs for inventory valuation are as
follows:
a. Stores ledger may be maintained in quantities only and the standard price noted at
the top in the ledger sheets. This economises the use of forms as well as reduces
clerical costs as no columns for rates need be maintained.
b. Pricing of materials requisitions is simplified as only one standard price for each item
of material is required to be used.
c. Price variance is promptly revealed at the time of purchase of material.

The disadvantages are:

a. The stores ledger does not reveal the current prices.
b. If the material stock is shown in the Balance Sheet at standard costs, the variances
have the effect of distorting the profit or loss. Standard cost of the closing inventory
is required to be adjusted to actual cost based on price variance to comply with the
statutory requirement of the Companies Act, 2013.
c. A revision of the standard necessitates revision of the cost of the inventory.

4.5 UNIFORM COSTING AND INTER-FIRM COMPARISON

Introduction:
Uniform Costing is not a separate method or type of Costing. It is a technique of Costing
and can be applied to any industry. Uniform Costing may be defined as the application
and use of the same costing principles and procedures by different organisations under
the same management or on a common understanding between members of an
association. The main feature of uniform costing is that whatever be the method of
costing used, it is applied uniformly in a number of concerns in the same industry, or
even in different but similar industries. This enables cost and accounting data of the
member undertakings to be compiled on a comparable basis so that useful and crucial
decisions can be taken. The principles and methods adopted for the accumulation,
analysis, apportionment and

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allocation of costs vary so widely from concern to concern that comparison of costs is
rendered difficult and unrealistic. Uniform Costing attempts to establish uniform methods
so that comparison of performances in the various undertakings can be made to the
common advantage of all the constituent units.

Scope of Uniform Costing:

Uniform Costing methods may be advantageously applied:
a. In a single enterprise having a number of branches or units, each of which may be a
separate manufacturing unit.
b. In a number of concerns in the same industry bound together through a trade
association or otherwise, and
c. In industries which are similar in nature such as gas and electricity, various types of
transport, and cotton, jute and woollen textiles.

The need for application of uniform Costing System exists in a business, irrespective of
the circumstances and conditions prevailing therein. In concerns which are members of a
trade association, the procedure for uniform Costing may be devised and controlled by
the association or by any other central body specially formed for the purpose.

Requisites for Installation of a Uniform Costing System:

The organisational set up for implementing the principles and methods of uniform
Costing may take different forms. It may range from a small association of a number of
concerns who agree to have uniform information regarding a few specific cost accounting
respects, to be a large organisation which has a fully developed scheme covering all the
aspects of costing. The success of a uniform costing system will depend upon the
following:
a. There should be a spirit of mutual trust, co-operation and a policy of give and take
amongst the participating members.
b. There should be a free exchange of ideas and methods.
c. The bigger units should be prepared to share with the smaller ones, improvements,
achievements of efficiency, benefits of research and know-how.
d. There should not be any hiding or withholding of information.
e. There should be no rivalry or sense of jealousy amongst the members.

In the application of uniform Costing, the fundamental requirement is, therefore, to

locate such differences and to eliminate or overcome, as far as practicable, the causes
giving rise to such differences. The basic reasons for the differences may be as follows:

a. Size and organisational set up of the business:

The number and size of the departments, sections and services also vary from one
concern to another according to their size and organisation. The difficulty in operating
uniform Cost Systems for concerns which vary widely in regard to size and type of
business may to some extent be overcome by arranging the various units in a
number of size or type ranges, and applying different uniform systems for each such
type.
b. Methods of production:
The use of different types of machines, plant and equipments, degree of
mechanization, difference in materials mix and sequence and nature of operations
and processes are mainly responsible for the difference in costs.

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c. Methods and principles of cost accounting applied:
It is in this sphere that the largest degree of difference arises. undertakings
manufacturing identical or similar products and having the same system of cost
accounting would generally employ different methods of treatment of expenditure on
buying, storage and issue of materials, pricing of stores issues, payment to workers,
basis of classification and absorption of overhead, calculation of depreciation,
charging rent on freehold or leasehold assets etc.

Fields covered by Uniform Costing:

There is no system of uniform Costing which may be found to ft in all circumstances. The
system to be installed should be tailored to meet the needs of each individual case. The
essential points on which uniformity is normally required may be summarized as follows:
a. Whether costs are required for the individual products i.e. for the cost units or for cost
centres.
b. The method of costing to be applied.
c. The technique employed such as Standard Costing, Marginal Costing.
d. Items to be excluded from costs.
e. The basis of departmentalization.
f. The basis of allocation of costs to departments and/or service department costs to
production departments.
g. The methods of application administration, selling and distribution overhead to cost
of sales.
h. The method of valuation of work-in-progress.
i. Methods of treating cost of spoilage, defective work, scrap and wastage.
j. Methods of accounting of overtime pay bonus and other miscellaneous allowances
paid to workers.
k. Whether purchase, material handling and upkeep expenses are added to the cost of
stores or are treated as overhead expenses.
l. The system of materials control-pricing of issues and valuation of stock.
m. The system of classification and coding of accounts.
n. The method of recording accounting information.

Advantages of Uniform Costing:

Main advantages of a uniform Costing System are summarised below:
(i) It provides comparative information to the members of the organisation/association
which may by them to reduce or eliminate the evil effects of competition and
unnecessary expenses arising from competition.
(ii) It enables the industry to submit the statutory bodies reliable and accurate data
which might be required to regulate pricing policy or for other purposes.
(iii) It enables the member concerns to compare their own cost data with that of the
others detect the weakness and to take corrective steps for improvement in
efficiency.
(iv) The benefits of research and development can be passed on the smaller members
of the association lead to economy of the industry as a whole.
(v) It provides all valuable features of sound cost accounting such as valued and
efficiency of the workers, machines, methods, etc., current reports of comparing
major cost items with the predetermined standards, etc.
(vi) It serves as a prerequisite to Cost Audit and inter firm comparison.

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(vii) Uniform Costing is a useful tool for management control. Performance of individual
units can be measured against norms set for the industry as a whole.
(viii) It avoids cut-throat completion by ensuring that competition among member units
proceeds on healthy lines.
(ix) The process of pricing policy becomes easier when uniform Costing is adopted.
(x) By showing the one best way of doing things, uniform Costing creates cost
consciousness and provides the best system of cost control and cost presentation in
the entire industry.
(xi) Uniform costing simplifies the work of wage boards set up to fix minimum wages
and fair wages for an industry.

Limitations of Uniform Costing:

(i) Uniform costing presumes the application of same principles and methods of
Costing in each of the member firms. But individual units generally differ in respect
of certain key factors and methods.
(ii) For smaller units the cost of installation and operation of uniform Costing System
may be more than the benefits derived by them.
(iii) Uniform costing may create conditions that are likely to develop monopolistic
tendencies within the industry. Prices may be raised artificially and supplies
curtailed.
(iv) If complete agreement between the members is not forthcoming, the statistics
presented cannot be relied upon. This weakens the uniform Costing System and
reduces its usefulness.

Inter Firm Comparison

Inter-firm comparison as the name denotes means the techniques of evaluating the
performances, efficiencies, deficiencies, costs and profits of similar nature of firms
engaged in the same industry or business. It consists of exchange of information,
voluntarily of course, concerning production, sales cost with various types of break-up,
prices, profits, etc., among the firms who are interested of willing to make the device a
success. The basic purposes of such comparison are to find out the work points in an
organisation and to improve the efficiency by taking appropriate measures to wipe out
the weakness gradually over a period of time.

The benefits which are derived from Inter-firm Comparison are appended below:
a. Inter-firm Comparison makes the management of the organisation aware of strengths
and weakness in relation to other organisations in same industry.
b. As only the significant items are reported to the Management time and efforts are not
unnecessary wasted.
c. The management is able to keep up to data information of the trends and ratios and
it becomes easier for them to take the necessary steps for improvement.
d. It develops cost consciousness among the members of the industry.
e. Information about the organisation is made available freely without the fear of
disclosure of confidential data to outside market or public.
f. Specialized knowledge and experience of professionally run and successful
organisations are made available to smaller units who can take the advantages it
may be possible for them to have such an infrastructure.

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g. The industry as a whole benefits from the process due to increased productivity,
standardization of products, elimination of unfair comparison and the trade practices.
h. Reliable and collective data enhance the organising power in deal in with various
authorities and government bodies.
i. Inter firm comparison assists in a big way in identifying industry sickness and gives a
timely warning so that effective remedial steps can be taken to save the organisation.

Limitations of Inter-firm Comparison:

The practical difficulties that are likely to arise in the implementation of a scheme of
inter-firm comparison are:
a. The top management may not be convinced of the utility of inter-firm comparison.
b. Reluctance to disclose data which a concern considers to be confidential.
c. A sense of complacence on the part of the management who may be satisfied with
the present level of profits.
d. Absence of a proper system of Cost Accounting so that the costing figures supplied
may not be relied upon for comparison purposes.
e. Non-availability of a suitable base for comparison.

These difficulties may be overcome to a large extent by taking the following steps:
a. ‗Selling‘ the scheme through education and propaganda. Publication of articles in
journals and periodicals, and lecturers, seminars and personal discussions may prove
useful.
b. Installation of a system which ensures complete secrecy.
c. Introduction of a scientific cost system.

Illustration 1:
The share of total production and the cost-based fair price computed separately for each
of the four units in industry are as follows:
` per unit
Share of Production 40% 25% 20% 15%
Material Costs 150 180 170 190
Direct Labour 100 120 140 160
Depreciation 300 200 160 100
Other overheads 300 300 280 240
850 800 750 690
20% return on capital employed 628 430 350 230
Fair Price 1,480 1,230 1,100 920
Capital employed per unit is worked out as
follows:
Net Fixed Assets 3,000 2,000 1,600 1,000
Working Capital 140 150 150 150
Total 3,140 2,150 1,750 1,150

Indicate with reasons, what should be the uniform Price fixed for the product.

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138
Solution:
Computation of Uniform
Price:
= [850 x 40%] + [800 x 25%] + [750 x 20%] +
Weighted Average Cost [690 x 15%]
= 340 + 200 + 150 + 103.5
= `793.5

=[628 x 40%] + [430 x 25%] + [350 x 20%] + [230 x 15%]

=251.20 + 107.5 + 70 + 34.5
=`463.20
Uniform Price = 793.5 + 463.20 = `1,256.70.

Illustration 2:
The standard costs of a certain chemical mixture is:
40% Material A at `200 per ton
60% Material B at `300 per ton
A standard loss of 10% is expected in
production During a period they used
90 tons of Material A at the cost of `180 per ton
110 tons of Material B at the cost of `340 per ton
The weight produced is 182 tons of good production.

Calculate and present Material price, usage,

Mix Solution:

Analysis of Given Data

Standard Actual
Material Data Data
Quantit
y Price (`) Value (`) Quantity Price (`) Value (`)
A 80 200 16,000 90 180 16,200
B 120 300 36,000 110 340 37,400
200 52,000 200 53,600
Less: Loss 20 - 18 -
180 52,000 182 53,600
Computation of Required
Values
AQAP (4)
Material SQSP (1) (`) RSQSP (2) (`) AQSP (3) (`) (`)
80.88 x 200 =
A 16,176 16,000 90 x 200 = 18,000 16,200
121.33 x 300 =
B 36,400 36,000 110 x 300 = 33,000 37,400
52,578 52,000 51,000 53,600

Computation of SQ:
 RSQ for that product 
SQ = × AQ for that product 
RSQ for all product 
80
For A = × 182
 
 180 

= 80.88 units
 120 
For B = × 182
 80 
= 121.33
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 139
Where
(1) SQSP = Standard cost of Standard Material = ` 52,578
(2) RSQSP = Revised Standard Cost of Material = ` 52,000
(3) AQSP = Standard Cost of Actual Material = `51,000
(4) AQAP = Actual Cost of Material = ` 53,600

Computation of Required Variances:

a. Material yield Variance = (1) - (2) = `578 (F) [`(52,578 - 52,000)]
b. Material Mix Variance = (2) - (3) = `1,000 (F) [`(52,000 - 51,000)]
c. Material usage Variance = (1) - (3) = `1,578 (F) [`(52,578 - 51,000)]
d. Material Price Variance = (3) - (4) = `2,600 (A) [`(51,000 - 53,600)]
e. Material Cost Variance = (1) - (4) = `1,022 (A) [`(52,578 - 53,600)]

Illustration 3:
SV Ltd., manufactures BXE by mixing 3 raw materials. For every batch of 100 kg. of BXE,
125 kg of raw materials are used. In April 2012, 60 batches were prepared to produce an
output of 5600 kg of BXE. The standard and actual particulars for April, 2012 are as
under:

Standard Price per Actual Quantity of raw

Raw Mix kg Mix Price per materials
material % (`) % kg (`) purchased (Unit)
A 50 20 60 21 5000
B 30 10 20 8 2000
C 20 5 20 6 1000
Calculate all variances.

Solution:

Analysis of Given Data

Standard Actual
Material Data Data
Quantity Price (`) Value (`) Quantity Price (`) Value (`)
A 3,750 20 75,000 4,500 21 94,500
B 2,250 10 22,500 1,500 8 12,000
C 1,500 5 7,500 1,500 6 9,000
1,05,00
7,500 0 7,500 1,15,500
Less:
Loss 1,500 - 1,900 -
1,05,00
6,000 0 5,600 1,15,500

Computation of Required Values

SQSP (1) RSQSP (2)

Material (`) (`) AQSP (3) (`) AQAP (4) (`)
3,500 x 20 =
A 75,000 70,000 4,500 x 20 = 90,000 94,500
2,100 x 10 =
B 22,500 21,000 1,500 x 10 = 15,000 12,000
C 7,500 1,400 x 5 = 7,000 1,500 x 5 = 7,500 9,000
 1,05,000 98,000 1,12,500 1,15,500

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

140
Computation of SQ:
 RSQ for that product 
SQ = x AQ for that product  RSQ
for all product 
 3,750 
For A = x 5,600 = 3,500 units
 6,000 
2,250
For B = x 5,600 = 2,100 units
 
 6,000 
 1,500 
For B = x 5,600 = 1,400 units.
 6,000 

Where
(1) SQSP = Standard Cost of Standard Material = ` 98,000
(2) RSQSP = Revised Standard Cost of Material = ` 1,05,000
(3) AQSP = standard Cost of Actual Material = ` 1,12,500
(4) AQAP = Actual Cost of Material = ` 1,15,500.

Computation of Required Variances:

(a) Material yield Variance = (1) – (2) = `7,000 (A) [`(98,000 – 1,05,000)]
(b) Material Mix Variance = (2) – (3) = `7,500 (A) [`(1,05,000 – 1,12,500)]
(c) Material usage Variance = (1) – (3) = `14,500 (A) [`(98,000 – 1,12,500)]
(d) Material Price Variance = (3) – (4) = `3,000 (A) [`(1,12,500 – 1,15,500)]
(e) Material Cost Variance = (1) – (4) = `17,500 (A) [`(1,05,000 – 1,15,500)]

Illustration 4:
A brass foundry making castings which are transferred to the machine shop of the
company at standard price uses a standard costing system. Basing standards in regard to
material stocks which are kept at standard price are as follows

Standard Mixture: 70% Copper and 30% Zinc

Standard Price: Copper ` 2,400 per ton and Zinc ` 650 per ton
Standard loss in 5% of input
melt:
Figures in respect of a costing period are as follows:
Commencing stocks: Copper 100 tons
Zinc 60 tons
Finished stock: Copper 110 tons
Zinc 50 tons
Purchases: Copper 300 tons cost ` 7,32,500
Zinc 60 tons cost ` 62,500

Metal melted 400 tons

Casting produced 375 tons
Present figures showing: Material price, Mixture and yield
Variance

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 141
Solution:

Computation of Actual Quantity (AQ)

Coppe
Particulars r Zinc
Quantity
(tons) Value (`) Quantity (tons) Value (`)
opening Stock 100 2,40,000 60 39,000
Add: Purchases 300 7,32,500 100 62,500
400 9,72,500 160 1,01,500
Less: Closing
stock 110 2,64,000 50 32,500
AQ 290 7,08,500 110 69,000

Analysis of Given Data

Actual
Material Standard Data Data
Quantity Quantity
(tons) Price (`) Value (`) (tons) Price (`) Value (`)
Copper 280 2,400 6,72,000 290 7,08,500
Zinc 120 650 78,000 110 69,000
400 7,50,000 400 7,77,500
Less: Loss @
5% 20 - 25 -
380 7,50,000 375 7,77,500

Computation of Required Values

SQSP RSQSP
Material (1) (2) AQAP (4) AQSP (3)
276.31 x 2,400 = 290 x 2,400 =
Copper 6,63,157.87 6,72,000 6,96,000 7,08,500
118.42 x 650 =
Zinc 76,973.68 78,000 110 x 650 = 71,500 69,000
Total 7,40,132 7,50,000 7,67,500 7,77,500

Computation of SQ
 RSQ for that material 
SQ = x AQ for that material 
RSQ for all material 
280
For Copper = x 375 = 276.31 units.
 
 380 
120
For Zinc = x 375 = 118.42 units.
 
 380 

Where
(1) SQSP = Standard Cost of Standard Material = ` 7,40,132
(2) RSQSP = Revised Standard Cost of Material = ` 7,50,000
(3) AQSP = standard Cost of Actual Material = ` 7,67,500
(4) AQAP = Actual Cost of Material = ` 7,77,500.

Computation of Required Variances:

a. Material yield Variance = (1) - (2) = `9,868 (A) [`(7,40,132 - 7,50,000)]
b. Material Mix Variance = (2) - (3) = `17,500 (A) [`(7,50,000 - 7,67,500)]
c. Material usage Variance = (1) - (3) = `27,368 (A)[`(7,40,132 - 7,67,500)]
d. Material Price Variance = (3) - (4) = `10,000 (A) [`(7,67,500 - 7,77,500)]
e. Material Cost Variance = (1) - (4) = `37,368 (A) [`(7,40,132 - 7,77,500)]

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 142
Illustration 5:
A company manufacturing a special type of fencing tile 12‖X 8‖ X 1\2‖ used a system of
standard costing. The standard mix of the compound used for making the tiles is:
1,200 kg. of Material A @ `0.30 per kg.
500 kg. of Material B @ `0.60 per kg.
800 kg. of Material C @ `0.70 per kg.

The compound should produce 12,000 square feet of tiles of 1/2‖ thickness. During a
period in which 1,00,000 tiles of the standard size were produced, the material usage
was:
Kg `
7,000 Material A @ ` 0.32 per kg. 2,240
3,000 Material B @ ` 0.65 per kg. 1,950
5,000 Material C @ ` 0.75 per kg. 3,750
15,000 7,940

Present the cost figures for the period showing Material Price, Mixture, Sub-usage
Variance.

Solution:

Area of tile =12 x 8/12 x 12=2/3 sq. ft.

No of tiles that can be laid in 12,000 sq. ft. is 12,000 / (2/3) = 18,000 tiles.

Actual
Standard Data Data
P
Q P (`) V (`) Q (`) V (`)
A 6,666.67 0.3 2,000 7,000 0.32 2,240
B 2,777.77 0.6 1,666.67 3,000 0.65 1,950
C 4,444.44 0.7 3,111.11 5,000 0.75 3,750
13,888.89 6,778 15,000 7,940

(1) (2) (3) (4)

SQSP (`) RSQSP (`) AQSP (`) AQAP (`)
7,000 x
A 2,000 7,200 x 0.3 0.3 2,240
3,000 x
B 1,666.67 3,000 x 0.6 0.6 1,950
5,000 x
C 3,111.11 4,800 x 0.7 0.7 3,750
A 2,160 2,100
B 1,800 1,800
C 3,360 3,500
(`) 6,778 (`) 7,320 (`) 7400 (`) 7,940

RSQ for A= (15,000/13,888.89) x 6,666.67 = 7,200 units.

1. SQSP = Standard Cost of Standard Material = ` 6,778
2. RSQSP = Revised Standard Cost of Material = ` 7,320
3. AQSP = Standard Cost of Actual Material = ` 7,400
4. AQAP = Actual Cost of Material = ` 7,940
a. Material Sub-usage Variance = (1 – 2) = ` 542(A)
b. Material Mix Variance = (2 – 3) = ` 80(A)
c. Material usage Variance = (1 – 3) = ` 622(A)
d. Material Price Variance = (3 – 4) = ` 540(A)
e. Material Cost Variance = (1 – 4) = ` 1,162(A)

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 143
Illustration 6:
The standard mix of product M5 is as follows:

LBs Material Price Per LB

50% A 5.00
20% B 4.00
30% C 10.00

Standard loss is 10% of input. There is no scrap value. Actual production for month was
LB.7240 of M5 from 80 mixes. Purchases and consumption is as follows:

LBs
Material Price
4160 A 5.5
1680 B 3.75
2560 C 9.5

Calculate variances.

Solution:
Analysis of Given
Data
Standard Actual
Material Data Data
Quantit
y Price Value Quantity Price Value
A 4,200 5 21,000 4,160 5.50 22,880
B 1,680 4 6,720 1,680 3.75 6,300
C 2,520 10 25,200 2,560 9.50 24,320
8,400 52,920 8,400 53,500
Less: Loss 840 - 1,160 -
7,560 52,920 7,240 53,500

Computation of Required Values

RSQSP (2)
Material SQSP (1) (`) (`) AQSP (3) (`) AQAP (4) (`)
4,022.22 x = =
A 5 20,111.11 21,000 4,160 x 5 20,800 22,880
1,608.889 x 4 =
B 6,435.56 6,700 1,680 x 4 = 6,720 6,300
2,413.33 = =
C x10 24,133.33 25,200 2,560 x 10 25,600 24,320
50,680 52,920 53,120 53,500

Computation of SQ:
 SQ for that material 
SQ = × AQ for that material  SQ
for all material 
 4,200 
For A = × 7,240 = 4,022.22
 7,560 
 1,680 
For B = × 7,240 = 1,608.889
 7,560 
2,520
For C = × 7,240 = 2,413.33
 
 7,560 
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 144
Where
(1) SQSP = Standard Cost of Standard Material = ` 50,680
(2) RSQSP = Revised Standard Cost of Material = ` 52,920
(3) AQSP = Standard Cost of Actual Material = ` 53,120
(4) AQAP = Actual Cost of Material = ` 53,500.

Computation Of Required Variances:

a. Material yield variance = (1) – (2) = ` 2,240(A)
b. Material Mix Variance = (2) – (3) = ` 200(A)
c. Material usage Variance = (1) – (3) = ` 2,440(A)
d. Material Price Variance = (3) – (4) = ` 380(A)
e. Material Cost Variance = (1) – (4) = ` 2,820(A)

Illustration 7:
The standard set for material consumption was 100kg. @ ` 2.25 per kg.
In a cost period:
Opening stock was 100 kg. @ `2.25 per kg.
Purchases made 500 kg. @ `2.15 per kg.
Consumption 110 kg.

Calculate: a) usage b) Price variance

1) When variance is calculated at point of purchase
2) When variance is calculated at point of issue on FIFO basis
3) When variance is calculated at point of issue on LIFO basis

Solution:

a) Computation of Material Usage Variance

Material usage Variance = SQSP – AQSP
=SP (SQ – AQ)
=2.25(100-110)
=22.50 (A)
b) Computation of Price variance:
1) When Variance is calculated at the point of purchase:
Price variance = AQSP - AQAP
=(110 x 2.25) - (110 x 2.15)
=11 (F)
2) When variance is calculated at the point of issue on FIFO basis
Price variance = AQSP - AQAP
=(110 x 2.25) - ([100 x 2.25]+[10 x 2.15])
=1 (F)
3) When variance is calculated at the point of issue on LIFO basis
Price variance = AQSP - AQAP
=(110 x 2.25) - (110 x 2.15)
=247.50-236.50
=11 (F)

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 145
Illustration 8:
The standard labour complement and the actual labour complement engaged in a week
for a job are as under:
Skilled Semi- skilled Unskilled
workers workers workers
a) Standard no. of workers in the
gang 32 12 6
b) Standard wage rate per hour (`) 3 2 1
c) Actual no. of workers employed in 28 18 4
the gang during the week
d) Actual wage rate per hour (`) 4 3 2

During the 40 hour working week the gang produced 1,800 standard labour hours of
work. Calculate
1) Labour efficiency Variance 2) Mix Variance
3) Rate of Wages Variance 4) Labour Cost Variance

Solution:

Analysis of Given Data

Standard Actual
Data Data
Hours Rate (`) Value (`) Hours Rate (`) Value (`)
Skilled 1,280 3 3,840 1,120 4 4,480
Semi skilled 480 2 960 720 3 2,160
unskilled 240 1 240 160 2 320
2,000 5,040 2,000 6,960

Computation of Required Values

SRSH (1) SRRSH (2)
(`) (`) SRAH (3) (`) ARAH (4) (`)
3 x 1,152 = 3 x 1,120 =
Men 3,456 3,840 3,360 4,480
2 x 432 =
Women 864 960 2 x 720 = 1,440 2,160
Boy 1 x 216 =
s 216 240 1 x 160 = 160 320
4,536 5040 4,960 6,960

Computation of SH
SH for that
SH =
 worker 
  x AQ for that worker
 SH for all the worker 

For Skilled worker = 1,28  × 1,800 =
 0
 1,152
 2,000 
For Semiskilled worker = 480
 
  × 1,800 = 432

2,000 

For unskilled worker = 240  × 1,800 = 216
 
2,000 
Where
(1) SRSH = Standard Cost of Standard Labour = ` 4,536
(2) SRRSH = Revised Standard Cost of Labour = ` 5,040
(3) SRAH = Standard Cost of Actual Labour = ` 4,960
(4) ARAH = Actual Cost of Labour = ` 6,960

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 146
Computation of Labour Variances:
a. Labour Sub-efficiency Variance = (1) – (2) = ` 504 (A) [`(4,536 – 5,040)]
b. Labour Mix or gang Variance = (2) – (3) = `80 (F) [`(5,040 – 4,960)]
c. Labour efficiency Variance = (1) – (3) = `424 (A) [`(4,536 – 4,960)]
d. Labour Rate Variance = (3) – (4) = `2,000 (A) [`(4,960 – 6,960)]
e. Labour Cost Variance = (1) – (4) = `2,424 (A) [`(4,536 – 6,960)]

Illustration 9:
Calculate variances from the following:
STANDARD ACTUAL
INPU
T MATERIAL (`)/KG TOTAL INPUT MATERIAL (`)/KG TOTAL
400 A @ 50 20,000 420A @ 45 18,900
200 B @20 4,000 240B @ 25 6,000
100 C @15 1,500 90C @15 1,350
700 25,500 750 26,250
LABOUR LABOUR
HOURS HOURS
120 @ `2.50 per
100 @ `2 per hour 200 hour 300
240 woman @ `
200 woman @ `1.50 300 500 1.60 384 684
25 Normal Loss 75Actual Loss
675 26,000 675 26,934
Solutio
n:
Calculation of Material
Variances:
(1) (2) (3) (4)
SQSP (`) RSQSP (`) AQSP (`) AQAP (`)
428.57 x
A 50 420 x 50
214.29 x
B 20 240 x 20
107.14 x
C 15 90 x 15
A 20,000 21,429 21,000 18,900
B 4,000 4,289 4,800 6,000
C 1,500 1,607 1,350 1,350
`
` 25,500 ` 27,325 ` 27,150 26,250

RSQ for
A = 400/700 x 750 = 428.67 units
B = 200/700 x 750 = 214.29 units
C = 100/700 x 750 = 107.14 units
1. SQSP = Standard Cost of Standard Material = ` 25,500
2. RSQSP= Revised Standard Cost of Material = ` 27,325
3. AQSP= Standard Cost of Actual Material = ` 27,150
4. AQAP= Actual Cost of Material = ` 26,250
a. Material yield Variance (1-2) = ` 1,825 (A)
b. Material Mix Variance (2-3) = ` 175 (F)
c. Material usage Variance (1-3) = ` 1,650 (A)
d. Material Price Variance (3-4) = ` 900 (F)
e. Material Cost Variance (1-4) = ` 750 (A)

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 147
Calculation of Labour Variances:
(1) (2) (3)
SRSH (`) SRRSH (`) SRAH (`)
Men 2 x 107.14 2 x 120
Women 1.50 x 214.28 1.50 x 240
Men 200 214.28 240
Women 300 321.42 360
` 500 ` 536 ` 600

RSH for
Men = 100/700 x 750 = 107.14 units.
Women = 200/700 x 750 = 214.28 units.
1. SRSH = Standard Cost of Standard Labour = ` 500
2. SRRSH = Revised Standard Cost of Labour = ` 536
3. SRAH = Standard Cost of Actual Labour = ` 600
4. ARAH = Actual Cost of Labour = ` 684
a. Labour yield Variance (1-2) = ` 36 (A)
b. Labour Mix Variance (2-3) = ` 64 (A)
c. Labour efficiency Variance (1-3) = ` 100 (A)
d. Labour Rate Variance (3-4) = ` 84 (A)
e. Labour Cost Variance (1-4) = ` 184 (A)

Illustration
10:
Budgeted hours for month of March,
2012 180 Hrs.
Standard rate of article produced per
hour 50 Units
Budgeted fixed overheads ` 2,700
9,200
Actual production March, 2012 Units
Actual hours for production 175 Hrs.
Actual fixed overheads ` 2,800
Calculate overhead cost, budgeted variances.

Solution:
Computation of Required
Values
SRSH (1) SRBH (3) ARAH (4)
(`) SRAH (2) (`) (`) (`)
15 x184 15 x 175
2,70
2,760 2,625 0 2,800
 Budgeted Fixed 2,70
Overheads   0
SR = =`
  =  15
 Budgeted Hours   180 
Actual quantity = 9,200 units
 9,200 
Standard Hours for Actual Production = =184 hours
 
 50 
Where
(1) SRSH = Standard Cost of Standard Fixed overheads = ` 2,760
(2) SRAH = Standard Cost of Actual Fixed overheads = ` 2,625
(3) SRBH = Budgeted Fixed overheads = ` 2,700
(4) ARAH = Actual Fixed overheads = ` 2,800
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 148
Computation of Fixed Overhead Variances:
a. Fixed overheads efficiency Variance = (1) – (2) = `135(F)
b. Fixed overhead capacity Variance = (2) – (3) = `75 (A)
c. Fixed overhead Volume Variance = (1) – (3) = `60 (F)
d. Fixed overhead Budget/ expenditure Variance = (3) – (4) = `100 (A)
e. Fixed overhead Cost Variance = (1) – (4) = ` 40 (A)

Illustration 11:
In Dept. A the following data is submitted for the week ended 31st October:

Standard output for 40 hours per week 1,400 units

Standard fixed overhead ` 1,400
Actual output 1,200 Units
Actual fixed overhead ` 1,500
Actual hours worked 32 Hours

Prepare a statement of variances

Solution:

Computation of Required Values

SRSH (1) (`) SRAH (2) (`) SRBH (3) (`) ARAH (4) (`)
9,20
 0 35 × 32
35 ×  
 50 
1,200 1,120 1,400 1,500

1,40
 Budgeted Fixed Overheads   0
SR =   =
  = 35 units.

 Budgeted Hours   40 
1,20 
SH =  = 34.29 hrs.
0

 (approx.)
 35 

Where
(1) SRSH = Standard Cost of Standard Fixed overheads = 1,200
(2) SRAH = Standard Cost of Actual Fixed overheads = 1,120
(3) SRBH = Budgeted Fixed overheads = 1,400
(4) ARAH = Actual Fixed overheads = 1,500.

Computation of Fixed Overhead Variances:

a. Fixed overheads efficiency Variance = (1) – (2) = `80 (F)

b. Fixed overhead Capacity Variance = (2) – (3) = `280 (A)
c. Fixed overhead Volume Variance = (1) – (3) = `200 (A)
d. Fixed overhead Budget / expenditure Variance = (3) – (4) = `100 (A)
e. Fixed overhead Cost variance = (1) – (4) = `300 (A)

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 149

Illustration 12:
Item Budget Actual
No .of working days 20 22
Output per man hour 1.0 units 0.9 units
Overhead Cost (`) 1,60,000 1,68,000
Man-hours per day 8,000 8,400
Calculate overhead Variances.
Solution:

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

SRSH (`) SRAH (`) SRRBH (`) SRBH (`) ARAH (`)
1 x 166320 1 x 184800 1 x 176000 ` 160000 ` 168000
` 166320 ` 184800 ` 176000

Working Notes:
SR = budgeted FOH/budgeted hours = 1,60,000/1,60,000 = 1
RBH = (22/20) x 1,60,000 = 1,76,000
AH = 22 x 8,400 = 1,84,800
AQ = 1,84,800 x 0.9 = 1,66,320
SH = 1,66,320/1 = 1,66,320

1. SRSH = Standard Cost of Standard Fixed overheads = ` 1,66,320

2. SRAH = Standard Cost of Actual Fixed overheads
(or) Fixed overheads Absorbed or Recovered = `
1,84,800
3. SRRBH = Revised Budgeted Fixed overheads = ` 1,76,000
4. SRBH = Budgeted Fixed overheads = ` 1,60,000
5. ARAH = Actual Fixed overheads = ` 1,68,000
a. FOH efficiency Variance = 1-2 = ` 18,480(A)
b. FOH Capacity Variance = 2-3 = ` 8,800(F)
c. FOH Calendar Variance = 3-4 = ` 16,000(F)
d. FOH Volume Variance = 1-4 = ` 6,320(F)
e. FOH Budget Variance = 4-5 = ` 8,000(A)
f. FOH Cost Variance = 1-5 = ` 1,680(A)

Illustration 13:
A manufacturing co. operates a costing system and showed the following data in respect
of the month of November.
Actual no. of working days 22
Actual man hours worked during the month 4,300
No. of Products Produced 425
Actual overhead incurred ` 1,800
Relevant information from the company‘s budget and standard cost data is as
follows:
Budgeted no. of working days per month 20
Budgeted man hours per month 4,000
Standard man hours per product 10
Standard overhead rate per month per hour 50 p.
you are required to calculate the overhead variances for the month of November

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 150
Solution:

COMPUTATION OF REQUIRED VALUES

SRSH (1) (`) SRAH (2) (`) SRRBH (3) (`) SRBH (4) (`) ARAH (5) (`)
0.5 x 4,250 0.5 x 4,300 0.5 x 4,400 0.5 x 4,000
2,125 2,150 2,200 2,000 1,800

2,00
 Budgeted Fixed Overheads   0
SR =   =  = 0.50
4,00
 Budgeted Hours   0
RBH = 2
 2 
  4,000 = ` 4,400
 20 
SH = 425 × 10 = 4,250

Where
(1) SRSH = Standard Cost of Standard Fixed overhead = ` 2,125
(2) SRAH = Standard Cost of Actual overhead = ` 2,150
(3) SRRBH = Revised Budgeted overheads = ` 2,200
(4) SRBH = Budgeted overheads = ` 2,000
(5) ARAH = Actual overheads = ` 1,800
Computation of Required Variances:
a. FOH efficiency Variance = (1) – (2) = ` 25 (A)
b. FOH Capacity Variance = (2) – (3) = ` 50 (A)
c. FOH Calendar Variance = (3) – (4) = ` 200 (F)
d. FOH Volume Variance = (1) – (4) = ` 125 (F)
e. FOH Budget Variance = (4) – (5) = ` 200 (F)
f. FOH Cost Variance = (1) – (5) = ` 325 (F)
Illustration 14:
SV Ltd has furnished you the following data:
Budgeted Actual
No. of working days 25 27
Production in units 20,000 22,000
Fixed overheads (`) 30,000 31,000

Budgeted fixed OH rate is `1 per hour. In July, 2012 the actual hours worked were
31,500/hrs
Calculate the following variances:
1) Efficiency 2) Capacity 3) Calendar 4) Volume 5) expenditure 6) Total OH

Solution:
Computation of Required
Values
SRSH (1) (`) SRAH (2) (`) SRRBH (3) (`) SRBH (4) (`) ARAH (5) (`)
1 x 33,000 1 x 31,500 1 x 32,400
33,000 31,500 32,400 30,000 31,000
27
RBH = 30,000 × 25 = 32,400 25
30,000 hrs
Standard time per unit = = 1.5 hours
20,000
SH = 22,000 x 1.5 = 33,000
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 151
Using unit rate:
SRSQ (2)
SRAQ (1) (`) (`) SRRBQ (3) (`) SRBQ (4) (`) ARAQ (5) (`)
1.5 × 22,000 1.5 × 21,000 1.5 × 21,600 1.5 × 20,000
33,000 31,500 32,400 30,000 31,000
30,00
SR = B FOH's = 0 = 1.5 hours
Budgeted 20,00
Quantity 0
27
RBQ = 20,000 × 25 = 21,600
20,000
Units in one hour = 30,000 units
2
SQ = 31,500 × 3 = 21,000
1. SRSH / SRAQ Standard Cost of Standard FOH‘s = ` 33,000
2. SRAH / SRSQ – Standard Cost of Actual FOH‘s = ` 31,500
3. SRRBH/ SRRBQ – Revised Budgeted FOH‘s = ` 32,400
4. SRBH / SRBQ – Standard Fixed overheads = ` 30,000
5. ARAH/ARAQ – Actual Fixed overheads = ` 31,000
a. FOH efficiency Variance = (1) – (2) = 1,500 (F)
b. FOH Capacity Variance = (2) – (3) = 900 (A)
c. FOH Calendar Variance = (3) – (4) = 2,400 (F)
d. FOH Volume Variance = (1) – (4) = 3,000 (F)
e. FOH Budget or expensive Variance = (4) – (5) = 1,000 (A)
f. FOH Cost Variance = (1) – (5) = 2,000 (F)

Illustration 15:
A Co. manufacturing two products operates a standard costing system. The standard OH
content of each product in cost center 101 is

Product A ` 2.40 (8 direct labour hours @ 30 p. per hour)

Product B ` 1.80 (6 direct labour hours @ 30 p. per hour)
The rate of 30 p. per hour is arrived at as
follows:
Budgeted OH ` 570
Budgeted Direct labour Hours `1,900
100
Output of product A units
200
Output of product B units
No opening or closing stock
Actual direct labour hours worked 2,320
Actual OH incurred ` 640
a) you are required to calculate total OH for the month of October
b) Show division into: 1) expenditure 2) Volume 3) efficiency Variances.

Solution:

Computation of Required Values

SRSH (1) (`) SRAH (2) (`) SRBH (3) (`) ARAH (4) (`)
0.3 x 2000 0.3 x 2320 0.3 × 1,900
600 696 570 640
SH = (100 x 8) + (200 x 6) =
2000 hrs
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 152
Where
(1) SRSH = Standard Cost of Standard Fixed overhead = ` 600
(2) SRAH = Standard Cost of Actual overhead = ` 696
(3) SRBH = Budgeted overheads = ` 570
(4) ARAH = Actual overheads = ` 640

Computation of Required Variances:

a. FOH efficiency Variance = (1) – (2) = 96 (A)
b. FOH Capacity Variance = (2) – (3) = 126 (F)
c. FOH Volume Variance = (1) – (3) = 30 (F)
d. FOH Budget Variance = (3) – (4) = 70 (A)
e. FOH Cost Variance = (1) – (4) = 40 (A)

Illustration 16:
The following information was obtained from the records of a manufacturing unit using
standard costing system.

Unit
s Standard Actual
4,000 3,800
No. of working
days 20 21
Fixed overheads (`) 40,000 39,000
Variable overhead (`) 12,000 12,000

You are required to calculate the following overhead variances

1) Variable OH 2)Fixed 3) a) expenditure b) Volume c) Efficiency d) Calendar.

Also prepare a reconciliation statement for the standard fixed expenses worked out at
standard fixed OH rate and actual OH.

Solution:

Computation of Required Values

SRAQ (1) (`) SRRBQ (2) (`) SRBQ (3) (`) ARAQ (4) (`)
10 x 3800 10 x 4200 10 x 4000
38000 42000 40000 39000
SR = Budgeted Fixed  30,00
 
Overheads 0
 = = 1.5 hours
20,00
 Budgeted Units  0
21
RBQ = 20 × 4,000 = ` 4,200
Where
(1) SRAQ = Standard Cost of Standard Fixed overhead = ` 38,000
(2) SRRBQ = Revised Budgeted overheads = ` 42,000
(3) SRBQ = Budgeted overheads = ` 40,000
(4) ARAQ = Actual overheads = ` 39,000

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 153
Computation of Required Variances:
a. FOH efficiency Variance = (1) – (2) = 4,000 (A)
b. FOH Calendar Variance = (2) – (3) = 2,000 (F)
c. FOH Volume Variance = (1) – (3) = 2,000 (A)
d. FOH Budget Variance = (3) – (4) = 1,000 (F)
e. FOH Cost Variance = (1) – (4) = 1,000 (A)

Variable Overhead Variance = SRAQ – ARAQ

=(3 x 3,800) – 12,000
=11,400 – 12,000
=` 600 (A)

SR =  Budgeted Variable 
12,00 = ` 3 per
Overheads = 0 hour.
 Budgeted Hours  4,000

Illustration 17:
Vinayak Ltd. has furnished you the following information for the month of August, 2012.

Budget Actual
Output (units) 30,000 32,500
Hours 30,000 33,000
Fixed OH (`) 45,000 50,000
Variable OH (`) 60,000 68,000
Working days 25 26
Calculate Variances.

Solution:

Computation of Required Values

(1) SRSH (`) (2) SRAH (`) (3) SRRBH (`) (4) SRBH (`) (5) ARAH (`)
1.5 x 32,500 1.5 x 33,000 1.5 x 31,200
48,750 49,500 46,800 45,000 50,000


 45,00 =`
SR =  Budgeted Variable Overheads = 0 1.50
30,00
 Budgeted Hours  0
2
RBH = 6
 
 ×30,000 = ` 31,200
 25 
Where
(1) SRSH = Standard Cost of Standard Fixed overhead = ` 48,750
(2) SRAH = Standard Cost of Actual overhead = ` 49,500
(3) SRRBH = Revised Budgeted overheads = ` 46,800
(4) SRBH = Budgeted overheads = ` 45,000
(5) ARAH = Actual overheads = ` 50,000
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

154
Computation of Required Variances:
a. FOH efficiency Variance = (1) - (2) = 750 (A)
b. FOH Capacity Variance = (2) - (3) = 2,700 (F)
c. FOH Calendar Variance = (3) - (4) = 1,800 (F)
d. FOH Volume Variance = (1) - (4) = 3,750 (F)
e. FOH Budget Variance = (4) - (5) = 5,000 (A)
f. FOH Cost Variance = (1) - (5) = 1,250 (A)

Variable Overhead Variances:

Computation of Required Values

SRSH (1) (`) SRAH (2) (`) ARAH (3) (`)
2 x 32,500 2 x 33,000
66,00
65,000 0 68,000

 60,000
SR =  Budgeted Variable Overheads = = ` 2 per unit
30,00
 Budgeted Hours  0
Where
(1) SRSH = Standard Cost of Variable overheads = ` 65,000
(2) SRAH = Standard Variable overhead for Actual Hours = ` 66,000
(3) ARAH = Actual Variable overhead = ` 68,000.

Computation of Required Variances:

a. Variable overhead efficiency Variance = (1) – (2) = 1,000 (A)
b. VOH Budget/ expenditure Variance = (2) – (3) = 2,000 (A)
c. VOH Cost Variance = (1) – (3) = 3,000 (A)
Illustration 18:
The Cost Accountant of a Co. was given the following information regarding the OHs for
Feb, 2013:
a. Overhead Cost Variance `1,400 (A)
b. Overheads Volume Variance ` 1,000 (A)
c. Budgeted Hours for Feb, 2013: 1,200 Hours
d. Budgeted OH for Feb, 2013: ` 6,000
e. Actual Rate of Recovery of OH ` 8 per hour

You are required to assist him in computing the following for Feb, 2013
1. OHs expenditure Variance
2. Actual OH‘s incurred
3. Actual Hours for Actual Production
4. OHs Capacity Variance
5. OHs efficiency Variance
6. Standard Hours for Actual Production
Solution:
Computation of Required Values
SRSH (1) (`) SRAH (2) (`) SRBH (3) (`) ARAH (4) (`)
5 x 1,000 5 x 800 5 x 1,200 8 x 800
5,000 4,000 6,000 6,400

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

155
1. SRSH - SRBH = Volume Variance
SRSH – 6,000 = 1,000
5,000
SRSH = 5,000 or SH = = 1,000
5
2. SRSH – ARAH = Cost
Variance 5,000 – ARAH =
1,400

a. Overhead expenditure Variance = 6,000 – 6,400 = `400 (A)

b. Actual OH‘s Incurred = ` 6,400
c. Actual Hours for Actual Production = 800 hours
d. Overheads Capacity Variance = 4,000 – 6,000 = ` 2,000 (A)
e. Overheads Efficiency Variance = 5,000 – 4,000 = 1,000 (F)
f. Standard Hours for Actual Production = 1,000 hours

Illustration 19:
Standard Actual
Quantity S.P. Total Quantity A.P. Total
A – 1600 24 38,400 A – 2400 20 48,000
B – 1400 18 25,200 B – 1400 18 25,200
C – 600 12 7,200 C – 750 14 10,500
D – 400 15 6,000 D – 450 14 6,300
4000 76,800 5000 90,000
From the above data calculate various sales variances

Solution:

AQAP (1)
Material (`) AQSP (2) (`) RSQSP (3) (`) SQSP (4) (`)
2,000 x
A 2,400 x 24 24
1,750 x
B 1,400 x 18 18
750 x
C 750 x 12 12
500 x
D 450 x 15 15

A 48,000 57,600 48,000 38,400

B 25,200 25,200 31,500 25,200
C 10,500 9,000 9,000 7,200
D 6,300 6,750 7,500 6,000
90,000 98,550 96,000 76,800

 SQ for that product 

RSQ = × AQ for all products 
SQ for all products 
1,600
e.g. = 4,000 × 5,000 = 2,000 units
1. AQAP = Actual Sales = ` 90,000
2. AQSP = Actual Quantity of Sales at Standard Prices = ` 98,550
3. RSQSP = Revised Standard on Budgeted Sales = ` 96,000
4. SQSP = Standard or Budgeted Sales ` 76,800
a. Sales Sub-Volume Variance 3 -4 `19,200 (F)

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 156
 (F
b. Sales Mix Variance 2–3 ` 2,550 )
` 21,750
c. Sales Volume Variance 2 -4 (F)
d. Sales Price Variance 1- 2 ` 8,550 (A)
` 13,200
e. Sales Volume Variance 1-4 (F)

Illustration 20:
Budgeted and actual sales for the month of December, 2012 of two products A and B of
M/s. XY Ltd. were as follows:
Budgeted Sales Price/Unit
Product Units (`) Actual Units Sales Price / Unit (`)
A 6,000 `5 5,000 5.00
1,500 4.75
B 10,000 `2 7,500 2.00
1,750 8.50

Budgeted costs for Products A and B were `4.00 and `1.50 unit respectively. Work out
from the above data the following variances.
Sales Volume Variance, Sales Value Variance, Sales Price Variance, Sales Sub Volume
Variance, Sales Mix Variance

Solution:

(1) (2) (3) (4)

AQAP (`) AQSP (`) RSQSP (`) SQSP (`)
A 5,000 × 5.00 6,500 × 5 5,906.25 × 5 6,000 × 5
1,500 × 4.75
B 7,500 × 2.00
1,750 × 1.90 9,250 × 2 9,843.75 × 2 10,000 × 2
A 25,000 32,500 29,531.25 30,000
7,125
B 15,000
3,325 18,500 19,687.5 20,000
`50,450 `51,000 `49,219 `50,000
Revised Standard Quantity for
A = 6,000/16,000 × 15,750 = 5,906.25 units
B = 10,000/16,000 × 15,750 = 9,843.75 units
1. AQAP = Actual Sales = `50,450
2. AQSP= Actual Quantity of Sales at Standard Price = `51,000
3. RSQSP = Revised Budgeted or Standard Sales = `49,219
4. SQSP = Standard or Budgeted Sales = `50,000
a. Sales Sub Volume or Quantity Variance = 3 – 4 = `781 (A)
b. Sales Mix Variance = 2– 3 = `1,781 (F)
c. Sales Volume Variance = 2– 4 = `1,000 (F)
=
d. Sales Price Variance = 1– 2 `550 (A)
=
e. Sales Value Variance = 1– 4 `450 (F)

Illustration 21:
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 157
From the following particulars for a period reconcile the actual profit with the budgeted
profit.
Budgeted Actual
(` lac) (` lac)
Direct Material 50.00 66.00
Direct Wages 30.00 33.00
Variable overheads 6.00 7.00
Fixed overheads 10.00 12.00
Net Profit 4.00 8.50
100.00 126.50
Actual material price and wage rates were higher by 10%. Actual sales prices are also
higher by 10%.

Solution:
(Amount in ` lac)
100
Sales Price Variance = 126.5 – [126.5 x /110] = 11.5 (F)
Sales Volume Variance = [126.5 x 100/110] – 100 = 15.0 (F)
Sales Value Variance = 126.5 – 100 = 26.5 (F)
% of Volume Increase = 15%
Material Price Variance = [66 x 100/110] – 66 = 6 (A)
Material Volume Variance = [50 x 15/100] = 7.5 (A)
Material usage Variance = [50 x 115/100] – [66 x 100/110] = 2.5 (A)
Material Cost Variance = 50 – 66 = 16 (A)
100
Wage Rate Variance = [33 x /110] – 33 = 3 (A)
Wage Volume Variance = [30 x 15/100] = 4.5 (A)
Wage efficiency Variance = [30 x 115/100] – [33 x 100/110] = 4.5 (F)
Wage Cost Variance = 30 – 33 = 3.0 (A)
Variable overhead Volume Variance = [6 x 15/100] = 0.9 (A)
115
Variable overheads efficiency Variance = [6 x /100] – 7 0.1 (A)
Variable overhead Cost Variance = 6–7= 1.0 (A)
Fixed overhead Cost Variance = 10 – 12 = 2.0 (A)
Statement showing the reconciliation of budgeted profit with actual
profit
OR
Profit Variance Statement
(` in lakhs)
Budgeted Profit 4.00
Add: Sales Price Variance 11.50
Sales Volume Variance 15.00
Wage efficiency Variance 4.50 31.00
35.00
Less: Material Price Variance 6.00
Material Volume Variance 7.50
Material usage Variance 2.50
Wage Rate Variance 3.00
Wage Volume variance 4.50
Variable overhead Volume Variance 0.90
Variable overheads efficiency Variance 0.10
Fixed overhead Cost Variance 2.00 26.50
Actual Profit 8.50

Illustration 22:
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 158
 (` in
lakhs)
31-3-2012 31-3-2013
Sales 120 129.6
Prime cost of sales 80 91.1
Variable overheads 20 24.0
Fixed expenses 15 18.5
Profit 5 (4.0)
During 2012-13, average prices increased over these of the previous years
(1) 20% in case of Sales (2) 15% in case of Prime Cost (3) 10% in case of
overheads. Prepare a profit variance statement from the above data.
Solution:

Calculation of variances:

(` in lakhs)
: 129.60 – (129.60 x 100/120) = 21.60
1. Sales Price Variance (F)
: [120 – (129.60 x 100/120)] =
2. Sales Volume Variance 12 (A)
3. Sales Value Variance : 129.60 –120 = `9.60 (F)
Decrease in Volume = 120 – 12
100 – ? = 10%
Prime Cost Price Variance : (91.10 x 100/115) – 91.10 =
4. `11.88 (A)
(F
5. Prime Cost Volume Variance = 80 x 10/100 = `8 )
6. Prime Cost usage or efficiency Variance = (80 × 90/100) – (91.10 × 100/115) = ` 7.22
(A)
7. Prime Cost Variance : 80 – 90.1 = ` 11.1 (A)
8. Variable overhead Price Variance = (24 × 100/110) – 24 = ` 2.18 (A)
9. Variable overhead Volume Variance = 20 × 10/100 = ` 2 (F)
10. Variable overhead efficiency Variance = (20 × 90/100) – (24 × 100/110) = ` 3.82 (A)
11. Variable overhead Cost Variance = 20 – 24 = ` 4 (A)
12. Fixed overhead Price Variance = (18.50 x 100/110) – 18.50 = ` 1.68 (A)
13. Fixed overhead efficiency Variance = 15 – (18.50 × 100/110) = ` 1.82 (A) [Fixed
overhead will not change give to variation in
volume]
14. Fixed overhead Cost Variance = 15 – 18.50 = ` 3.5 (A)
Profit Variance Statement
(` in
Particulars lakhs)
Profit for the year ending 31-3-2012 5.00
Add: Sales Price Variance 21.60
Prime Cost Variance 8.00
Variable overhead Variance 2.00 31.60
36.60
Less: Sales Volume Variance 12.00
Price Cost Price Variance 11.88
Price Cost usage Variance 7.22
Variable overhead Price Variance 2.18
Variable overhead efficiency Variance 3.82
Fixed overhead Price Variance 1.68
Fixed overhead efficiency Variance 1.82 40.60
Loss for the year ending 31-3-2013 4.00
Illustration 23:
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 159
ABC Ltd; adopts a Standard Costing System. The standard output for a period is 20,000
units and the standard cost and profit per unit is as under:
`
Direct Material (3 units @ `1.50) 4.50
Direct Labour (3 hrs. @ `1.00 ) 3.00
Direct expenses 0.50
Factory overheads : Variable 0.25
Fixed 0.30
Administration overheads 0.30
Total Cost 8.85
Profit 1.15
Selling Price (Fixed by government) 10.00

The actual production and sales for a period was 14,400 units. There has been no price
revision by the government during the period.

The following are the variances worked out at the end of the period:
Favourable (`) Adverse ( `)
Direct Material
Price 4,250
Usage 1,050
Direct labour
Rate 4,000
Efficiency 3,200
Factory overheads
Variable – expenditure 400
Fixed – expenditure 400
Fixed – Volume 1,680
Administration overheads
Expenditure 400
Volume 1,680
You are required to:
Ascertain the details of actual costs and prepare a Profit and Loss Statement for the
period showing the actual Profit/Loss. Show working clearly. Reconcile the Actual Profit
with Standard Profit.

Solution:

Statement showing the Actual Profit and Loss Statement

Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`)
Standard Material Cost (14,400 x 4.50) 64,800
Add: Price Variance 4,250
Less: usage Variance (1,050) 68,000
Standard Labour Cost (14,400 x 3) 43,200
Add: Rate Variance 4,000
Less: efficiency Variance (3,200) 44,000
Direct expenses (14,400 x 0.50) 7,200
Prime Cost 1,19,200
Factory overhead:

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

160
Variable (14,400 x 0.25) 3,600
Less: expenditure Variance (400) 3,200
Fixed (14,400 x 0.30) 4,320
Add: Volume Variance 1,680
Less: expenditure Variance (400) 5,600
Administration overhead (14,400 x 0.3) 4,320
Add: Volume Variance 1,680
Add: exp. Variance 400 6,400
1,34,400
Total Cost 9,600
Profit (B/F)
Sales 1,44,000
Statement showing Reconciliation of Standard Profit with Actual
Profit
Particulars ` `
Standard Profit (14,400 x 1.15) 16,560
Add: Material usage Variance 1,050
Labour efficiency Variance 3,200
Variable overhead expenditure Variance 400
Fixed overhead expenditure Variance 400 5,050
21,610
Less: Material Price Variance 4,250
Labour Rate Variance 4,000
Fixed overhead Volume Variance 1,680
Administration expenditure Variance 400
Administration Volume Variance 1,680 12,010
Actual Profit 9,600

SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS:

1. Distinguish between Budgetary control and Standard Costing.

2. List down the benefits and limitation accrue out of Standard Costing.
3. Discuss various types of standards.
4. Define and explain the sales variances based on a] profits and b] turnover.
5. Define and explain briefly the following terms:
A. Material price variance
B. Material usage variance
C. Material mixture variance
D. Material yield variance
6. Define and explain briefly the following terms:
A. Wage rate variance
B. Labour efficiency variance
C. Variable overhead efficiency variance
7. Define and explain the following terms:
A. Fixed overhead cost variance
B. Fixed overhead volume variance
C. Fixed overhead capacity variance
D. Fixed overhead calendar variance
8. List down the objective of Uniform Costing.
COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL
MANAGEMENT 161
9. List down the benefits and limitation accrue out of Uniform Costing.
10. List down the benefits and limitation accrue out of Inter Firm Comparison.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:

1. Which of the following is true about standard costs?

A. They are the actual costs for delivering a product or service under normal
conditions
B. They are predetermined costs for delivering a product or service under normal
conditions.
C. They are the actual costs for producing a product under normal conditions
D. They are predetermined costs for delivering a product or service under normal
and abnormal conditions.
2. Which of the following is true?
A. Standard costs are predetermined rates for materials and labour only.
B. Standard costs are predetermined rates for materials only.
C. Standard costs are based on actual activity at the end of the period
D. Standard costs are predetermined rates for materials, labour, and overhead.
3. Which of the following is often the cause of differences between actual and standard
costs of materials and labour?
A. Price changes for materials
B. Excessive labour hours
C. Excessive use of materials
D. All of the above
4. Which of the following can be used to calculate the materials price variance?
A. (AQ – SQ) x SP
B. (AP – SP) x AQ
C. (AP – SP) x SQ
D. (AQ – SQ) x AP
5. Which of the following is the difference between actual and standard cost of material
caused by the actual quantity of material used exceeding the standard quantity of
material allowed?
A. Price variance
B. Mix variance
C. Quantity variance
D. Yield variance
6. Which of the following departments is most likely responsible for a price variance in
direct materials?
A. Warehousing
B. Receiving
C. Purchasing
D. Production
7. The overhead variance is caused by the difference between which of the following?
A. Actual overhead and standard overhead applied
B. Actual overhead and overhead budgeted at the actual operating level
C. Standard overhead applied and budgeted overhead
D. Budgeted overhead and overhead applied
8. When are the overhead variances recorded in a standard costing system?
A. When the cost of goods sold is recorded

COST & MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL

MANAGEMENT 162
 B. When the factory overhead is applied to work-in-process
C. When the goods are transferred out of work-in-process
D. When direct labour is recorded
9. Which of the following is true when recording variances in a standard costing system?
A. All unfavourable variances are debited
B. Only unfavourable material variances are credited.
C. Only unfavourable material variances are debited.
D. Only unfavourable variances are credited.
10. Which of the following operating measures would a manager want to see decreasing
over time?
A. Merchandise inventory turnover
B. Total quality cost
C. Percentage of on-time deliveries
D. Finished goods inventory turnover

[Ans: B,D,D,B,C,C,A,B,A,B]

Match the following:

Column A Column B
1 Inter firm comparison A Technique to assist inter-firm comparison
2 Calendar Variance B Standard Sales – Actual Sales
3 Ind As-2 C Difference between Standard and Actual cost
4 Variance Analysis D Standard rate per hour X Deficit hour worked
Difficulty of inter firm
5 comparison E Budgeted Sales – Actual Sales
6 Sales Price variance F About its utility
7 Uniform Costing G Inventory valuation
8 Uniform Costing H Technique of Costing
9 Variance Analysis I Technique for evaluating performance
10 Sales value variance J Management by Exception

[Ans: I, D, G, A, F, B, H, J, C, E]

State whether the following statement is True or False:

1. Standard costing works on the principle of exception.

2. An increase in production means an increase in overall productivity.
3. Difference between the standard cost and actual cost is called as variance.
4. Uniform costing helps in free exchange of ideas among the participating members.
5. A variance may be either favourable or adverse.
6. There is no difference between standard costing and budgeting.
7. The objective of uniform costing is wealth maximisation.
8. Uniform costing is a method of costing.
9. Uniform costing is a must for meaningful in a firm comparison.
10. Standards are arrived at on the basis of past performance.

[Ans: 1.True, 2.False, 3.True, 4.True, 5.True, 6.False, 7.True, 8.False, 9.True,
10.False]

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Fill in the Blanks:

1. Ideal time variance is always ________________.

2. Material usage variance is the sum of ______________.
3. ____________ is a must for meaningful inter firm comparison.
4. Standard cost is the ___________ cost.
5. Uniform costing is a _____________ of costing.
6. Inter firm comparison is the technique of evaluation of _____________.
7. Standard cost is a _____________cost.
8. Three types of standard ______________.
9. Standards costing are applied in ____________ industry.
10. When standard cost is less than the standard cost, it is known as ___________ variance.

[Ans: 1.Adverse, 2.Mix Variance and Yield variance, 3.Uniform Costing,

4.Predetermined Cost,
5.Technique, 6.Performance, 7.Predetermined, 8.Basic
Standard & Normal Standard,
9.Engineering, 10.Favourable.]

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