SPECIALIZED COAL AND PET-COKE FIRING

PIPE DESIGN

By
Prof. Dr. Clemente Greco
Professor at Escola Politécnica da Universidade de São Paulo
CEO of C.Greco Térmica e Fluidos Consultoria Ltda.

Abstract

This paper discusses the specialized coal and pet-coke-firing viewing the design of customized combus-
tion systems in order to meet client’s specific requirements. This is an approach to combustion subject
that is becoming well known and widely accepted all over the world, fitting particularly well when the com-
bustion takes place inside a clinker rotary kiln. The best way to do this approach is by means of dimen-
sionless indexes, which characterize macroscopically the result of a wide variety of simultaneous chemi-
cal reactions, and phenomena of heat, mass and momentum transfer. The most significant dimensionless
indexes, which help tremendously in the combustion system design, are presented and discussed.

Preliminary Comments dary air necessary to complete the combustion

reactions. The primary air jet may act as an ejec-
To talk about the customized design of combus- tor, producing suction effects and accelerating the
tion system for cement kilns, the characteristics of secondary air.
the flame that results from the injection of the fuel
in a high-temperature chamber in the presence of Some burners can produce internal re-circulations
preheated air should be analyzed and very well too. Those re-circulations occur internally to the
known. Some very important phenomena happen flame and can be very important to accelerate the
at that zone of the kiln and affect tremendously ignition of the fuel particle cloud. Depending on
the characteristics of the clinker produced. the intensity of the internal re-circulations, the first
temperature peak of the flame can be brought
The injection of fuel and primary air at much closer to the burner, which may be important to
higher velocities than the secondary air causes

the process. In some cases, it can occur also the

the formation of external re-circulations or vor-
generation of small-scale internal re-circulations,
tices. The intensity of those re-circulations is very
a very important phenomenon to the ignition of
important because they interfere with the mixture
small particles and wastes.
rate of the fuel/primary airflows with the secon-
 th
Many chemical reactions take place in the flame cloud presented by H.H. Chiu et al at the 19
and these reactions strongly depend on the mix- Combustion Symposium, in 1982, and they can
ture of the reactants. As the mixture happens be visualized in the graph prepared by those
progressively and far from the tip, the burner must authors and reproduced in this paper. Therefore,
provide the adequate propagation of the effects of the control of fuel cloud dispersion is very impor-
kinetic energy. Turbulence is generated as a tant to define the characteristics of the flame and
function of the kinetic energy of the jets, mainly of the thermal profile of the kiln.

primary air and fuel flows. So, the characteristics

of a flame are strongly related to the kinetic en- Application
ergy of all the flows at the burning zone.
Usually, a company needs a customized combus-
The last aspect of this field of combustion to be tion system when either:
pointed out refers to the dispersion of the cloud of • It is installing a new kiln;
pulverized fuel. In a clinker kiln, the fuel particles • It is substituting a fuel for another;
usually do not burn individually – they burn in a • It is facing a new environmental situation;
cloud. The mechanisms of combustion of a cloud • It is having the opportunity to use a technologi-
of particles depend on its dispersion. So, poorly cally updated equipment;
dispersed clouds will present basically “external • The combustion system of an existing kiln is
sheath combustion” and “external group combus- not able to allow operators to run the equip-
tion”, as observed very close to the tip of most ment at desired conditions.
burners. On the other hand, well-dispersed clouds
may present “internal group combustion” and “in- Operating problems in existing kilns may be re-
dividual particle combustion”, as observed far lated to one or more of the following aspects:
from the burner tip. Those outcomes agree with
the model for the combustion mechanism of a
Clinker quality: improving of clinker quality capacity enhancement. Once again, flame shap-
through adequate heating and cooling rates inside ing may help to optimize this aspect of plant op-
the kiln is a major concern at cement plants. eration.
These parameters may affect significantly C3S
and C2S contents in the clinker, as well as the Coating: control of coating formation reflects in
size and morphological characteristics of the the kiln operation and its stability influences re-
crystals. Flame shape is one of the very important fractory life, also. Although raw material feed to
the kiln and refractories used in its lining are of
utmost importance, thermal distribution is a major
factor to define coating characteristics. The ad-
justment of the intensity and position of the two
temperature peaks, once again, can help to form
a thick and stable coating. In other words, that
adjustment may allow the protection of the basic
bricks at the most critical sections of the kiln and
obtaining a time-extended refractory service life.

Emissions: the control of gaseous emissions, par-

ticularly of THC (total hydrocarbons), NOX (Nitro-
gen oxides) and CO (carbon monoxide) is be-
coming one of the most important concerns to
factors to determine those quality parameters. plant managers, as environmental regulations
Position and intensity of the two temperature may impose serious restraints to the operation of
peaks frequently observed along the length of many kilns. Conciliating the complete combustion
clinker kilns – as shown in the figure – affect of the fuels (i.e. low CO and THC emissions) with
those rates. The occurrence of the two tempera- adequate temperature, fuel and oxidant distribu-
ture peaks, it should be pointed out, can be: tions (i.e. low NOX emission) is the task in this
• Predicted by mathematical modeling through case. One should notice that sometimes the ob-
the use of CFD (Computational Fluid Dynam- jective of low NOX emissions conflicts with the
ics); objective of high quality clinker production. A
• Checked by experimental tests. customized combustion system is a must when
the plant faces a conciliation problem of this kind
The occurrence of the two temperature peaks is a and an equilibrium point has to be found by op-
very complex phenomenon influenced by three- eration personnel. SOX emissions, it should be
dimensional multi-phase flows with mass, heat pointed out, are much more related to other proc-
(conduction, convection and radiation) and mo- ess conditions than to combustion.
mentum exchanges with simultaneous chemical
reactions. It is a very hard task to understand this Sulfur purge: purge of sulfur from the kiln interior
phenomenon and to manage it in order to get through the clinker produced, especially when
specific results. In short, the occurrence of two burning high-sulfur fuels as pet-coke, may request
clearly defined peaks separated by a large lower special temperature profile along the kiln length to
temperature zone indicates the tendency for ob- avoid excessive recycling of sulfur compounds
taining less C3S and large crystals. On the other and ring formation on kiln internal walls and/or
hand, the occurrence of two peaks almost coinci- build-ups on pre-heaters. Normally, a short sin-
dent and close to burner tip indicates that the tering zone would be needed to meet sulfur purge
possibility of obtaining high C3S clinker with requirements. Adequate pet-coke grinding, tur-
smaller crystals is considerable. bulence at convenient levels and controlled con-
ditions for the fuel cloud dispersion are the mini-
Clinker grain size: another concern is to improve mum requirements to get that short sintering
clinker grain size distribution. This factor may zone. Additionally, one should pay attention to the
have influence in both kiln and cooler operation, occurrence of reducing zones in the kiln’s internal
depending on how much dust is generated in the atmosphere, which makes more difficult the sulfur
process. Additionally, plant operation teams usu- purge.
ally search for convenient clinker grain size, in or-
der to decrease electric power consumption at the Specific consumption: decrease of specific heat
cement mills and eventually getting grinding plant consumption of the kiln may arise as a necessity
to cut costs and increase market competitiveness. tion between raw meal, fuels and refractories
This improvement may be obtained through ex- eventually is a little different than predicted in the
haust gas temperature drop as consequence of a plant project. Consequently, it is recommended
shortened flame and/or a total excess air limita- that the design of the customized combustion
tion, which should be attained only through the system for a new kiln consider wider ranges for
proper design of a combustion system. Some operational parameters.
combustion systems allow significantly reduction
of primary air rate, which is also a way of reduc- On the other hand, the design of a customized
ing, although in small percentage kiln specific combustion system that will fit an existent kiln re-
consumption. quires the previous knowledge of the following
data:
Waste fuel burning: the use of alternative fuels, • Process data: type (wet, dry, semi-dry, etc.),
either solid or liquid, may lead to operational actual product output, actual thermal consump-
problems, emission problems and clinker quality tion, etc.;
problems. Due to the wide variety of wastes that • Actual raw material data: chemical analyses,
might be consumed, depending on the cement fineness, moisture, actual quality fluctuations,
plant location, the problems may vary from kiln to etc., remarking that:
kiln, as the interactions between raw materials, • Fluctuations on raw material composition is a
conventional fuels, alternative fuels, refractories, very common cause of kiln instability and may
etc. are different. explain “poor performance” of both refractory
bricks and burner pipe;
Design Considerations • Kiln project documentation: drawings and tech-
nical specifications, remarking that:
It is unlikely, if not impossible, that a standard – It must be checked if the available docu-
combustion system, including the so-called “shelf mentation actually correspond to the equip-
burners”, would be able to satisfy any of the cli- ment working at the field;
ent’s needs. • Existent firing system project data;
• Clinker characteristics data: chemical analyses,
The combustion system design must be oriented crystallographic analyses, physical properties,
towards the right direction, so one should develop etc., remarking that:
the design with the aim of reaching clearly defined – It is very important to discern from target
objectives. values and actual values;
– In case of significant discrepancies between
Naturally, every combustion system design target and actual values, a doubtless diag-
should start with the knowledge of the process to nosis on the causes of those differences
be carried out in the cement kiln. This involves an should be made;
extensive data-gathering phase. • Fuels actually used data: proximate and ele-
mentary analyses and conditions of supply
If the system will be installed in a new kiln, the (fineness, moisture, etc.), remarking that:
main data to be collected should include the fol- – During its service life, almost all the cement
lowing topics: plants experienced fuel changes and, by that
• Process data: type (wet, dry, semi-dry, …), reason, the knowledge of actual characteris-
product output, thermal consumption, etc.; tics of the fuels being used is fundamental.
• Available raw material data: chemical analyses, – Particle size distribution and moisture can
fineness, moisture, expected quality fluctua- affect significantly the combustion condi-
tions, etc.; tions, especially the ignition of the particle
• Kiln project documentation: drawings and tech- cloud;
nical specifications; • Kiln operational parameters: production rate,
• Type of clinker to be obtained and its required fuel consumption, product/raw material rate,
characteristics; specific exhaust gas flow, specific cooling air
• Fuels to be used: analyses, supply conditions flow, primary air rate, etc., remarking that:
(fineness, moisture, …), etc. – It is useful to check what is the factor that lim-
its kiln output, for example: kiln exhaust gases
Normally the design of a combustion system for a capacity, clinker cooler capacity, kiln drive
new kiln has more uncertainty on data concerning power, kiln shell temperature, raw meal
raw materials and fuels. The result of the interac-
 grinding/feeding, fuel grinding/drying or oth- carbon, moisture, ash content, sulfur content,
ers. Hard Grove Index (HGI), etc., remarking that:
• Field measurements: mass flows of raw mate- – Concerning pet-coke, the HGI may vary
rials, cooling air, fuels, primary air, product, ex- considerably depending mainly on the origin
haust gases, composition, temperature and of the fuel.
pressure of gaseous streams, etc. – Fluid coke is normally very hard (HGI < 30),
present low volatile matter content and has
Field measurement is one of the most important low permeability.
phases of a data-gathering process. The meas- – Green delayed cokes present higher perme-
urements often show that the kiln is not running ability and may present HGI between 45 and
as considered during its project. Frequently those 55, or even more.
measurements allow discovering causes not sus- – Usually, high-HGI cokes present lighter
pected for an unsatisfactory performance of a volatile matter.
cement kiln, sometimes unfairly claimed as a – Low-HGI cokes, even with the same total
combustion system fault. Solving that type of volatile matter content of high-HGI cokes,
problems may bring better operating conditions normally present heavier volatile matter.
and make easier any improvements to combus- – High-sulfur pet-cokes usually are harder,
tion system. For example, it can be presented the have heavier volatile matter and present
case of a kiln that had a very long sintering zone higher nitrogen content, which affects signifi-
and was producing poor quality clinker. Despite cantly NOX generation;
the burning system of the kiln was not a very ad- • Required thermal profile, remarking that:
vanced one, the main reason for the long flame – It must be defined if the combustion system
was lack of oxygen inside the kiln. Exhaust gas design will aim at hard, short and very radi-
analysis at smoke chamber showed oxygen ant flames, for instance, to maximize clinker
availability, but in fact the probe was taking sam- quality or, on the other hand, aim at softer
ples under influence of false air infiltration through and narrower flames, for example to get the
the kiln inlet seal and there was not enough oxy- maximum life for refractory bricks;
gen inside the kiln to complete the combustion. – Considerations on the desirable temperature
peaks intensity and position should be made
After acquiring the maximum of useful information, at this point.
one can proceed to establish the basis for the de- • Coating characteristics preview according to
sign. Fundamentally, it comprises the thermal ca- raw materials and refractory lining project;
pacity of the system (as a function of kiln maximum
production, specific heat consumption and thermal An example can enlighten in a very clear way
“split” between pre-calciner and main burner, if ap- about choosing the thermal profile in the design of
plicable). Nevertheless, additional information must a combustion system. It is a situation in which
be taken in account to the proper design, as follows: previous data indicate the presence of fluorine in
• The target product: the clinker characteristics the raw meal of a pre-calciner dry-process kiln
that must be obtained normally and continu- that will burn 100% high-sulfur petroleum coke
ously from the kiln; through indirect systems (both main and secon-
• Raw materials available or obtainable: chemi- dary). In this case, the kiln main burner should be
cal composition, moisture, fineness, stability of able to produce a narrow and soft flame, in order
feeding conditions, etc.; to protect refractory lining from possible liquid
• Available equipment: the kiln itself (capacity, di- phase wash out, but not a too long flame that
mensions, heat consumption, refractory lining would extend sintering zone. This extension
types and distribution), existing combustion sys- would lead to an increase of sulfur compounds
tem (direct, semi-direct, indirect, etc.), existing volatilization rates and problems with ring forma-
coal/coke grinding plant characteristics (mill type, tion and pre-calciner build-ups. A very flexible main
fan type, mill capacity and limitations, drying limi- burning system would be required to allow operators to
tations, particle size distribution obtained versus find the best adjustment in this case.
desired/necessary) and primary air supply condi-
tions (type of blower, flow and pressure charac- Another example refers to a coal-fired long dry-
teristics and limitations); process kiln, which production rate was limited by
• Available fuels: coal and or petroleum coke – unstable operation caused by periodical formation
heating values, volatile matter content, fixed and fall of rings. In this case, a “double cooking”
phenomenon was verified with two clearly sepa-
rated temperature peaks. To solve the problem, • One system operating with 100% petroleum
not a new customized system was needed, but coke ground to 95%<#170 would require higher
only a “customized modification”. The indirect turbulence index than another system operat-
system primary air rate was adjusted and the air ing with the same coke ground to 99%<#170.
injection velocities were changed through modifi-
cations of the burner tip. Dispersion index: this index refers to the condi-
tions of dispersion of the pulverized fuel cloud in
To go on with the design of a customized com- the primary and secondary air streams. The dis-
bustion system it is necessary to set the ranges of persion index is related to the intensity of both
variation of the Dimensionless Indexes that will be temperature peaks and, as consequence, plays a
used in the burner design. Some of those indexes major role in the study of the “thermal NOX” gen-
are mentioned bellow. Several other indexes can eration.
be considered during burner design, depending
on the objectives defined previously. Some additional factors, not directly related to
characteristic dimensionless indexes must be
Axial index: this index refers to the generation of considered during the burner design. The first one
gaseous re-circulations externally to the flame. It refers to the secondary air conditions (tempera-
is directly related to the aspiration and mixing of ture, velocity distribution, dust content, etc.). The
secondary air by both primary air and second factor is the burner pipe penetration into
fuel/conveying air streams. The axial index also the kiln cylinder in view that the length of this
has some relation to dust re-circulation at the kiln penetration has proved to interfere in both kiln
outlet area and the formation of build-ups at the performance and clinker quality. Finally, the firing
nose-ring, including the so-called “shark teeth”. hood geometry has some influence in the flame
characteristics as it interferes with secondary air-
Tangential index: this index refers to re-circulations flow pattern.
internally to the flame, which has influence in the ig-
nition of the particles and flame spread. The tan- Someone could ask how to know in advance the
gential index has close relationship with the position proper ranges of the dimensionless indexes for a
and intensity of the first temperature peak in the kiln. certain application. The answer can be finding
Usually, during the burner design the dimensions of searching an extensive database with construc-
the nozzles at the tip are calculated in order to allow tion and operational details of more than 200 kilns
the variation of this index inside a predetermined worldwide.
range, depending on the adjustment of the primary
air components. So, if the basis of design indicates Another question that may arise is how to “cus-
narrower flames, the burner designer should calcu- tomize” a conventional coal direct-fired system, as
late the tip dimensions to get lower values of tan- this type of configuration normally does not offer
gential index in the burner operational range. On the too many resources to process control. The an-
other hand, if the basis of project indicates that the swer is a hybrid system, a configuration that
process would require wide and short flames, then brings additional flame shaping primary air com-
the designer should calculate the burner operational ponents to an existing single channel pipe and
range to present higher tangential indexes. uses the lowest possible conveying airflow. The
hybrid system is a concept, not a standard prod-
Turbulence index: this index refers to the position uct. The possibility of its use should be carefully
of both temperature peaks in the kiln. During the studied to check the benefits that could be ex-
calculation of the burner tip dimensions the turbu- pected, for each particular case.
lence index is checked to be above a minimum
value all over the range of adjustment of the Conclusion
burner. Usually this minimum value is calculated as
a function of fuel type, fuel preparation (moisture After taking account of all considerations above, it
and fineness), secondary air temperature and kiln is possible to conclude that the combustion plays
dimensions. With relationship to that minimum value a major role in the rotary kiln operation, but any
of the turbulence index it should be pointed out that: improvement in this area should be faced, first of
• Bituminous coal finely ground (90%<#170) all, as a “cooking” problem and not merely as a
would require lower turbulence indexes than “firing” problem. It must be considered all the pre-
petroleum coke ground to the same fineness; dominant variables of the process and not only
those related to the oxidation of a fuel.