247 343 1 PB
247 343 1 PB
247 343 1 PB
Page 261 - Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, volume 38, 2011
Figure 1
Model for Learning
Cognitive Domain
Output
Overt Behavior
Input
Sensory
on all dimensions (Hoover, 1974), in other words, to be- produce synergistic learning outcomes through a virtual
come an active part of the exercise. This would seem logi- immersion in the learning process (Giambatista and Hoo-
cal because according to the continuum he proposed ver, 2009). This is similar to putting oneself “in the shoes”
(Figure 2), the dimensions of cognition, affect, and behav- of the decision-maker, and where experiential learning in-
ior are combinatorial, co-existent and perhaps even syner- volves immersing learners in an environment in which they
gistically interactive (Hoover, 1974) and the greatest de- actively participate in acquiring knowledge (Cannon and
gree would occur when all three are present. What is be- Feinstein, 2005).
lieved to be missing is the degree of ownership present, In Hoover’s (1974) model, this would be movement
because one can be involved (immersed) without taking from a Low Intensity/ Behavioral to High Intensity/ Cogni-
ownership (just doing it to do it rather than displaying emo- tive-Affective. The acquisition of such knowledge cannot
tion). or should not be limited to either a lecture type format or
Additionally, this would also consider the acknowl- one in which and experiential exercise is a conduit and
edgement that different learning constructs may require a where discussion is largely facilitated by the instructor
pre-eminent emphasis on one or two dimensions; in other rather than by the class in general. Such is an example of
words, that although the three components were interactive, passive learning. The opportunity for class discussion,
they may have different weights and importance depending where the learner is acting as facilitator, the affective do-
on the material (Giambatista and Hoover, 2009). A ques- main comes into play more because it is through this dis-
tion which can be brought forward is the degree of owner- cussion where emotion and ownership become apparent.
ship the learner assumes concerning the material. That is to Learners who show a greater emphasis on this dimension
say that some material may be relatively complex in nature will tend to become more “vocal” in their arguments or
(cognitive dimension) and be of little or no interest on the show greater intensity through increased concentration on
part of the learner, yet may be of great interest were the the issue.
level of ownership would increase (affective dimension).
This in turn would have an effect on the “immersion” LEARNING DOMAIN/DIMENSIONS
which would take place. Furthermore, the experiential
learning process is enhanced through the processes of be- The basis of this research is threefold: to investigate or
havioral immersion; that is, learning environments that to consider each of the learning domains/dimensions as
Page 262 - Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, volume 38, 2011
Figure 2
A Conceptual Classification Scheme
Illustrating Combinations of Experiential Learning
Cognitive/ Cognitive/ Cognitive/Affective/
Cognitive Affective Behavioral
Affective Behavioral Behavioral
High
Inten-
sity
Null Null Null XX XX XXX
Expe-
riential
Yes Yes Definitely
Learn-
ing
Low
Inten-
sity X X? X?
Expe-
riential Yes Maybe Maybe Possibly Possibly Possibly
Learn-
ing
Page 263 - Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, volume 38, 2011
cluding satisfaction in response and developing a system of Given that we start with some reflex movement to
values (Eiss, et.al., 1969). some stimulus and gradually build on that movement until
For Krathwohl the taxonomy is ordered according to at some point the reaction we have is classified as Non-
the principle of internalization. Internalization refers to the Discourse communication (psychomotor’s highest level).
process whereby a person’s affect toward an object passes At this level each learner develops a style of “moving”
from a general awareness level to a point where the affect which communicates their feelings about their objective
is “internalized”, and consistently guides or controls the self to a perceptive observer. These can be classified as
person’s behavior. (Seels & Glasgow, 1990). This is re- either being innate or vicarious (observed by the learner
lated to the immersion process where the learner in one and created by combining reflexes) or learned by immer-
sense takes a degree of ownership in the sense that their sion (performed to convey a message to the receiver)
emotions and feelings take over enabling them to get in- (Harrow, 1972),
volved. One question that arises is that in the absence or For example, the psychomotor component of rifle
low level of affect, can the learner, through psychomotor marksmanship encompasses the physical aspects of shoot-
immersion, raise that level of affect as they become more ing such as; assuming the different shooting positions, es-
aware of the issues behind the situation. Another way of tablishing proper sight alignment and sight picture, and;
looking at this would be the possible creation of an maintaining rifle steadiness. In general, being able to es-
“artificial affect”, one that did not previously exist or ex- tablish and maintain a steady position has consistently been
isted to a relatively low degree and yet not part of the per- found to be related to shooting performance, and expert
son’s personality since the affective domain includes objec- shooters have found to be much steadier. Consistency in
tives that emphasize interests, attributes, and values (Smith, hitting the target is determined by the extent to which these
1981) and more concisely can be one of attitudinal change factors can be maintained before, during, and immediately
(Blanchett, 1993). firing a round (Chung, et.al., 2009). The relationship is that
a person can become more proficient at a (management)
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN skill the more they practice and know about the skill. The
same could be said if one improved one’s focus (affective).
Table 4 lists the taxonomy for the psychomotor domain and Psychomotor skills are important in implementation,
their definitions (Harrow, 1972). This is the least studied and hence the importance of “behavioral immersion” in
of Bloom’s taxonomies. Nonetheless, the psychomotor increasing the impact of experiential learning in “whole-
domain has drawn some interest since it is the one dimen- person” learning in executive skill acquisition. This then
sion that can simultaneously activate high-intensity learn- lends to asking the question of how to accomplish the
ing environments in such a way to result in improved be- learning person involvement, through the whole person,
havioral skill acquisition of executive skills (Giambatista & required to complete the learning cycle from cognition
Hoover, 2009) this could be obtained either through immer- awareness to successful skill demonstration (Giambatista,
sion by active participation or vicariously. The original et.al., 2009). Figure 3 shows a model of the combined tax-
model was proposed for classifying movement behaviors onomies and the interrelationships which are believed to
unique to the psychomotor domain and has been designed exist.
specifically to aid educators and curriculum developers to ------- Insert Figure 3 here --------
clarify and categorize relevant movement experiences for
children (Harrow, 1972). It would appear that the psychomotor is the culmina-
tion of the cognitive and affective domains, where they
------ Insert Table 4 here -------- become visible. Effectiveness of measuring these domains
from a behavioral perspective comes not from a single ex-
Since appropriate skill and use thereof can be shown periential exercise but from a series, over time, where cog-
through action and in some cases in a do or die situation in nitive and affective domains can come to full bear on their
business the importance of knowing that movement is the contribution to skill development. So, in order to deter-
key to life and exists in all areas of life. When one per- mine if cognition is correct, how do you judge through the
forms purposeful movement (there is known value and with psychomotor; are the right answers always a result of the
emotion), they are coordinating the cognitive, affective, correct movements?
and psychomotor domains (Harrow, 1972). She also writes Each of these domains function both independently
that since movement is incorporated in all life, and is pre- and interdependently to certain degree. Hoover (1974)
requisite, it becomes a difficult task to isolate behaviors stated that in order to develop a conceptualization of expe-
unique to the psychomotor domain because observable riential learning that is useful experimentally, experiential
behavior is modifies by the affective self. Therefore, we learning practioners need effective delineation and defini-
act as we feel or believe. Again, we need to consider the tion of the cognitive, affective and behavioral
issue of vicarious (learning by observing) vs. non-vicarious (psychomotor) domains of learning as separate compo-
(learning by doing) and its effects on the psychomotor do- nents. At the same time he also stated that, “the learning
main. dimensions of cognition, affect, and behavior are combina-
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torial, co-existent and perhaps even synergistically interac- The first group is an organization and management
tive. course comprised of various majors across the campus.
Some of the students are required to take the course as part
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY of their required major (as in the case of business students),
some are required to take it as part of a curriculum, but not
Experiential exercises usually have as their primary a business major (as in sports management or information
focus elements from the cognitive domain because they are technology) and for some it is an elective to their curricu-
the easiest to measure. If we are to subscribe to a whole- lum. These students are formed into groups for the experi-
person perspective and to maximize the learning experi- ential exercise sessions by self-selection. The second
ence, we should in some way be able to measure the rela- group is those in the capstone course, organizational strat-
tive contribution of each domain and determine what the egy, with the composition of the students being business
effect is, if any, of one domain’s attributes, on another. For majors. Again, groups are formed by self-selection for the
example, it is one thing to talk about the facets of SWOT experiential sessions.
analysis and the resultant suggested strategies of matching The students in both groups were asked at the begin-
strengths to opportunities in organizational strategy; yet ning of the course of their expectations from the course and
another to become emotionally involved as to the relative the exercises. These groups are given the same survey in-
importance of one or another factors uncovered and be able strument asking questions based in the three dimensions
to defend then in a class discussion. and their effort. To help fill the credibility gap cited by
For the framework for this type of analysis we need to Russell in the current research, in this study the following
borrow from self-regulation theory (Yeo, 2010). In this is initially hypothesized:
work she writes that self-regulation theories have been used
to explain performance in a variety of domains including Hypothesis 1: Overall students that see more meaning from
organizational, educational, and sports settings. Self- the various exercises as they pertain to their major will de-
regulation refers to a set of proximal motivational proc- rive the greatest benefit.
esses that control the allocation of resources across on-task
and off-task activities during task engagement (Karoly, Hypothesis 2: Business students in the organization and
1993). It consists of three activities (Kanfer & Ackerman, management course should have higher correlations than
1989); self-monitoring involving the allocation toward task non-business students in that course.
-relevant behavior; self-evaluation involving a comparison
of current performance or behavior with a desired state, Hypothesis 3: Students in the capstone course should have
and; self-reaction which involves self-satisfaction with per- the highest degree of correlation since they are business
formance and self-efficacy with goal attainment. majors and should by virtue of immersion derive the maxi-
These three were then operationalized to the higher- mum benefit.
order cognitive and affective components of self-
regulation. Cognitive regulation is the set of proximal or The results will be shared at the upcoming conference.
short-term motivational processes aimed at sustaining goal-
directed action by minimizing on-task resources and/or
minimizing off-task demands (Yeo, 2010). Affective regu- REFERENCES
lation is the set of proximal motivational processes aimed
at maintaining or modifying the experience and/or expres- Blanchett, David, Nancy Brown, Shared Cultural Perspec-
sion of affect so as to maintain goal-directed behavior/ tives: an Experimental Exercise Utilizing International
action (Yeo, 2010). This framework is an attempt to use Students to Globalize the Classroom, Developments in
self-regulation as a means to ascertain the motivation re- Business Simulation and Experiential Exercises, vol.
quired to both maintain balance for the activity and to de- 20, 1993
termine if the learner was able to derive a benefit through Bloom, Benjamin S., Max D. Engelhart, Edward J. Furst,
evaluation of the activity. Walker H. Hill, David R. Krathwohl, Taxonomy of
When considering the ABSEL literature, a majority, if Educational Objective: The Classification of Educa-
not all, of the studies evaluating the effectiveness of goal/ tional Goals: Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain, David
objective attainment has been with business majors in a McKay Company, Inc. (1956)
capstone course or in one of the various functional areas of Cannon, Hugh M., Andrew Hale Feinstein, Bloom Beyond
business such as accounting, finance, etc., many involving Bloom: Using the Revised Taxonomy To Develop
simulation and gaming. It has not been seen where an in- Experiential Learning Strategies, Developments in
troductory course in management with a variety of majors Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Vol.
has been conducted considering all three of the domains. 32, 2005
Given that the affective domain is one in which contributes Chung, Gregory K.W.K., Sam O. Nagoshima, Paul D.
in determining the overall effect of immersion, this study Espinosa, Chris Berka, Eva L. Baker, The Influence of
proposes to look at two groups. Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Factors on the Develop-
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