School of Engineering and Architecture

Saint Louis University

LABORATORY REPORT EVALUATION SHEET

Laboratory Course: Unit Operations 1 Schedule: 7:30-10:30 Daily

Experiment Number: 2
Experiment Title: Fluid Flow Through a Straight Pipe
Group Number: 2 Date Performed: June 14, 2017
Group Members: Binay-an, Emylene P. Date Submitted: June 21, 2017
Bullago, Joshua G.
Gonzales, Rocellyn Allysa L. Rabara, Joan A.
Marzan, Paula Joy A. Velasco, Gary Jr. T.

CONTENTS TOTAL REMARKS SCORE

POINTS
I. Abstract 10
II. Chapter 1: Introduction 15
III. Chapter 2: Design and Methodology 10
IV. Chapter 3: Results and Discussion 20
V. Chapter 4: Conclusion and 10
Recommendation
VI. References 5
VII. Appendices 15
a. List and Uses of Apparatus
b. Definition of Terms
c. Computations
d. Problems
VIII. Table of Contents / List of Tables / 5
List of Figures
IX. Format and Neatness 10
TOTAL POINTS: 100 SCORE: ______

Evaluated by: Engr. Ray Limuel C. Laureano Date: ___________________

i
 Acknowledgment

The researchers would like to express their utmost gratitude to the people who

contributed for the success of this experiment. To the co-researchers who extended their hands

through resources supplementation. To Engr. Limuel Laureano, for his patience, encouragement,

knowledge, support, insights and expertise that helped the researchers immensely. To all other

people not mentioned, but were genuinely considered to be a help to this study. Above all, to

Almighty God, for the guidance, wisdom, and safety He has bestowed upon the researchers. It is

through Him, with Him, and in Him that this study was made possible.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES iv

LIST OF FIGURES v

ABSTRACT vi

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter 2: DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 4

Chapter 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 7

Chapter 4: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 10

REFERENCES 11

APPENDICES 12

iii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1. Head loss and Fanning Friction Factors corresponding to different 7

flowrates and U-tube manometer reading

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Experimental Set-up 5

Figure 3.1. Flowrate versus friction factor 9

Figure 3.2 Friction factor versus Reynold’s number 9

v
 ABSTRACT

Majority of the energy loss in fluid flow through a straight pipe is due to skin

friction since there are no contractions, expansions, fittings, valves or bends in the pipe. This

friction is dependent on the fluid viscosity, surface roughness and the interaction between the

surface and the flowing fluid. This friction accounts for the head loss or pressure drop along a

particular region in the pipe flow measured by the U-tube manometer. The change in height of

the mercury is indicative of the pressure drop due to skin friction. As the flowrate or velocity

increases, the change in mercury height resulting to change in pressure drop increases as well as

the Reynold’s number. However all flows fell in the turbulent regime and has been treated

accordingly. One of the objectives of the experiment is to correlate fanning friction factor with

the varied flowrates. For the theoretical value, the Churchill equation was used and the friction

factor is dependent on the Reynold’s number. An inverse relationship exists for such.

Furthermore, for turbulent flows, friction factor is also dependent on the surface roughness of the

pipe. However, a fluctuating response exists between Reynold’s number and the experimental

friction factor. Given the fact that the Churchill equation is empirical and a less precise

measuring instrument to determine change in mercury height, the results contain considerable

errors.

vi
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Energy losses can occur through friction in pipes, bends and fittings, and in equipment.

When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance due to which some

of the energy of the fluid is lost. The energy lost may be subdivided into major and minor losses.

Major energy losses are due to friction. Minor energy losses on the other hand results from

sudden expansion, sudden contraction, bends in pipe, pipe fittings and an obstruction in pipes.

Based on their classification, major energy losses accounts for the majority of the loss whereas

minor losses are just a small fraction of the total losses. The viscosity causes loss of energy in

flows which is known as frictional loss.

In a pump, liquid horsepower is inputted and converted to velocity energy by the

impeller, then converted to pressure energy in the diffuser section of the volute case to push

liquid through the piping to the sprinkler or holding tank or cooling coils or whatever is attached

to it. To do this work we have to supply the pump a given amount of energy.

If you want to move something, there will be resistance. If you try to push a heavy box

along the ground, it will require a certain amount of effort to do it. Since the weight and the size

of the box will not change, the work required should be the same regardless of the surface it is

resting on. However, the box will be much easier to move on a smooth linoleum floor than trying

to move it on a deep pile carpet. The difference in the required effort is due to friction. The

carpet has a higher resistance to the movement of the box than the smooth floor.

1
 To move a given volume of liquid through a pipe requires a certain amount of energy. An

energy or pressure difference must exist to cause the liquid to move. A portion of that energy is

lost to the resistance to flow. This resistance to flow is called head loss due to friction.

One form of resistance to flow is due to the viscosity of the liquid. Viscosity is the

amount of work needed to move one "box" of liquid against another "box" of liquid. Every liquid

has its own value for this resistance to flow. SAE 30 motor oil has a lower viscosity and flows

much easier than SAE 50 motor oil. The values for water are lower than for the motor oil.

Another characteristic of any liquid is its attraction to a surface. It attaches itself to any

surface and cannot be moved. The liquid in the "box" on the very surface of a pipe does not flow

or move. It always remains stationary. The liquid in the "box" above it has to slide against it and

that requires an amount of energy to overcome friction between the two "boxes." The higher the

viscosity of the liquid is, the higher the resistance to flow, therefore, the higher the friction loss.

A layer is formed by this non-moving liquid and reduces the inside diameter of the

pipe. This increases the velocity of the liquid passing through it. The head loss from friction is

related to the velocity energy (V2/2g) of the liquid squared.

The condition of the inside of a pipe also has a great effect on the head loss of the flow of

liquid. The rougher it is, the thicker the layer of non-moving or slow moving liquid near the pipe

wall. This reduces the inside diameter of the pipe, increasing the velocity of the liquid. With the

increase in velocity comes an increase in friction losses.

Because the flow involved is through a straight pipe without any fittings or devices to

disturb flow or sudden contractions or expansions, the greatest contributor to the head loss is skin

friction which is attributed to the condition inside the pipe and the fluid properties. The head loss

2
due to skin friction derived from the hydrostatic equilibrium is used where
g
∆P=[ρ(Hg)- ρ(H2O)] gc ∆h. ∆P = pressure drop or head loss; ρ(Hg)=density of mercury;

ρ(H2O)density of water; g=gravitational acceleration; gc=correction factor; ∆h = reading from

manometer.

The friction factor, f, is a dimensionless factor that depends primarily on the velocity u,

diameter D, density ρ, and viscosity η. It is also a function of wall roughness which depends on

the size ε, spacing ε' and shape of the roughness elements characterized by ε''. Terms ε and ε'

have the dimension of length whereas ε'' is dimensionless. Since the friction factor is

dimensionless, the quantities that it depends upon should appear in the dimensionless form. The

friction factor can be written in a general form as:

From this we see that the friction factor of pipes will be the same of their Reynolds

number, roughness patterns, and relative roughness are the same. For a smooth pipe, the

roughness term is neglected and the magnitude of the friction factor is determined by fluid

Reynolds number alone.

In this experiment where the flow is determined as turbulent the students used Churchill

equation to determine the true value of fanning friction. Since in turbulent flow in contrast to

laminar flow, the friction factor must be determined empirically or through experiments that is

why empirical equations such as Churchill are used. Fanning friction for turbulent flows does not

only depend on Reynold’s number but also on surface roughness of pipe which is incorporated in

such equations.

3
 Chapter 2

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Preparation of Fluid Flow apparatus

Adjustment of flow control valve to achieve

desired flowrate of 220 gallons per hour

Reading of change in height of mercury in the

U-tube manometer

close the flow control valve and stabilize the

mercury level in the U-tube manometer

Repeat the process of adjusting the flow

control valve for 320, 420, 520 and 620
gallons per hour and read the change in height
of mercury in the manometer respectively

Determination of head loss and fanning

friction factor

4
Figure 2.1. Experimental Set-up

5
 The particular pipe run was selected. For this experiment, a straight pipe with no fittings

or valves was used. The isolating valves were closed for all other pipes except for the said pipe.

Rubber tubings were attached to region of choice to measure the pressure drop across it. The

flow control valve was assured to be closed before the pump was started. Once the pump has

been opened, the control valve was opened to displace all air from the pipeline. Then, the valve

was again closed until the mercury level in the U-tube manometer was stabilized. Once

accomplished, the control valve was opened to achieve 220 gallons per hour flowrate and the

reading of change in height of mercury in the manometer was recorded. The valve is then closed

until mercury level stabilization. The same process was applied to flowrates of 320, 420, 520 and

620 gallons per hour. Select the pipe run containing the pipe bends, by closing the isolating

valves for all other pipe runs.

6
 Chapter 3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 3.2. Head loss and Fanning Friction Factors corresponding to different flowrates and U-

tube manometer reading

Flowrate, Percent
Rm, Head loss, f x 𝟏𝟎𝟑 f 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑
gallons per Re error,
mm Hg Pa (theoretical) (experimental)
hour %
220 1 10,280.2127 123.6241 7.7179 6.8057 11.8181
320 3 14,952.1189 370.8722 6.9892 9.6529 38.1102
420 6 19,624.6561 741.7445 6.5249 0.0112 71.65
520 8 24,297.1932 988.9927 6.1932 9.7458 57.3629
620 11 28,969.7304 1359.8649 5.9396 9.4276 58.7249

Based on the formula for Reynold’s number (Re), the Reynold’s number is directly

proportional to the diameter of the circular column where the water flowed, to the flow velocity

and to the density of the fluid while it is inversely proportional to the dynamic viscosity. Since

the diameter of the column, the density and dynamic viscosity of the fluid remained constant for

a particular temperature to which the experiment was performed, the change in Reynold’s

number is manifested by the change in the flow velocity. As the time to fill 1000 ml volume of

the beaker increases, the velocity decreases since these quantities are inversely proportional. So

it is apparent that when the time is higher and the velocity is slower, the Reynold’s number is

lower relative to other data gathered.

According to Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th edition by Green and Perry, Re ≥ 5000

usually tells us that the flow falls under the turbulent regime. Thus, the calculated Reynold’s

numbers fall under this regime and has been treated correspondingly. When the flow is turbulent,

the fanning friction factor not only depends on the Reynold’s number but also surface roughness

7
characterized by the roughness parameter which is indicative of the material. The roughness

parameter, 𝜖 ⁄𝐷, is directly proportional to the friction factor. Thus, if a material offers high

surface roughness, the friction factor increases. But for this case where the said parameter is kept

constant since the same apparatus was used, the Reynold’s number is the variable that has been

analyzed in terms of its effect to the friction factor. From the data obtained, the true values for

friction factor are precise since a higher Reynold’s number is tantamount to lower friction factor

based on the Churchill equation. Also, based on the moody chart for a low roughness parameter,

The Reynold’s number shows an inverse relationship.

However, the true and experimental values do not show the same trend as velocity,

Reynold’s number, and head loss increase. The true value shows direct proportionality with these

quantities. Based on the formula used for true value of fanning friction factor, it is directly

proportional to the pressure drop and inversely proportional to the square of the fluid velocity.

Thus, we can deduce that even if the friction factor has an inverse proportionality to the square of

the fluid velocity, the pressure drop change is still more dominant to cause the friction factor to

generally follow a direct relationship with the other quantities for this experiment.

Such case is considerable knowing that true value to which the experimental one is being

compared to is based on equation derived from experiments or is said to be empirical. Thus,

there is still an inherent error using the Churchill equation. However significant error still lies in

the reading of the mercury manometer which affects the calculated head loss. Given the inherent

human and instrumental error upon measurement of height change in mercury, and adjustment of

velocity using the flow control valve, the true values deviate from the actual ones creating

significant errors. Lastly, as depicted in the data, as the Reynolds number becomes higher, the

friction factor calculated using Churchill equation nearly becomes constant.

8
 700

flow rate, gallons per hour

600

500

400

300 experimental
theoretical
200

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
friction factor, f

Figure 3.1. Flowrate versus friction factor

12

10
friction factor, f

6
experimental
4 theoretical

0
0.00 10,000.00 20,000.00 30,000.00 40,000.00
Reynold's Number, Re

Figure 3.2 Friction factor versus Reynold’s number

9
 Chapter 4

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The head loss of a fluid was successfully determined with respect to varying flowrates

from 220 to 620 gallons per hour with 100 gph interval. The head loss is directly proportional to

the flow rate and inversely proportional to the theoretical fanning friction factor. However with

respect to the experimental, it has a more complicated relationship depending on which

dominates—velocity or pressure drop. Graphs for friction factor versus Reynold’s number and

flowrate versus friction factor were obtained. The theoretical friction factor is inversely

proportional to the Reynold’s number and the flowrate is inversely proportional to the friction

factor. However, with respect to experimental a complicated relationship exists depending on

which dominates—velocity or pressure drop.

The students recommend the use of more modernized and more precise instruments for

measuring the pressure drop other than the U-tube manometer. The students recommend the use

of other manometers used in the industry and the use of more precise measuring tools to

determine the change in height of the mercury because it is really difficult to attain an accurate

measurement with just a foot rule.

10
References

Green, D. & Perry, R. (2008). Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook. 8th ed.

Geankoplis, C. (1993). Transport Processes and Unit Operations. 3rd ed.

11
APPENDICES

12
 APPENDIX A

List and Uses of Apparatus

Fluid Flow Apparatus consists of different branches of glass pipes which may or may not have

any fittings or valves, contractions, expansions or disturbances in flow. Water flows through

selected pipe regions by opening the region of choice while closing other pipe regions with a

valve. Equipped with a motor pump and a flow control valve, the fluid flows through the

particular region with varied flow rates. Rubber tubings are attached over the region of choice to

a U-tube manometer where the pressure drop is measured.

U-tube manometer is a type of a manometer with a U shape glass filled with mercury. It was

used to observe the change in height of the mercury manifested by a pressure drop along the

region of choice in the fluid flow apparatus

Foot rule is a measuring tool used to determine the change in height of mercury in the U-tube

manometer.

Thermometer is a temperature measuring device used to measure the temperature of the water

flowing in the fluid flow apparatus.

13
 APPENDIX B

Definition of Terms

Head loss or pressure drop is a change in pressure due to major energy loss caused by skin

friction and minor energy losses caused by sudden expansion, sudden contraction, bends in pipe,

pipe fittings and an obstruction in pipes. Head loss maybe measured by change in height of fluid

in the manometer or other pressure drop measuring devices.

Skin friction is a type of friction responsible for major energy loss in flowing fluids due to

viscosity of fluids, roughness of surface and other interactions between the surface and the fluid

in contact with it.

Friction factor, f, is a dimensionless factor that depends primarily on the velocity u, diameter D,

density ρ, and viscosity η. It is also a function of wall roughness which depends on the size ε,

spacing ε' and shape of the roughness elements characterized by ε''.

Turbulent flow is characterized by the irregular movement of particles of the fluid. The inertial

forces are more dominant than viscous forces in this regime thus the Reynold’s number is

usually higher than laminar flow.

Reynold’s number is a dimensionless number that expresses the ratio of inertial (resistant to

change or motion) forces to viscous (heavy and gluey) forces. It can be mathematically defined

𝜌×𝑉𝑒𝑙×𝐿
as Re = or in terms of kinematic viscosity, Re = (velocity * L) / v.
𝜇

Viscosity is a property of a fluid which measures the resistance of a liquid to flow.

Density is an intensive property defined as the amount of mass in a unit volume of the substance.

Flow velocity is defined as distance traversed by the fluid per unit time.

14
 APPENDIX C

Computations

At T = 20 ℃ = 293.15K, the properties of water are computed as follows from the Chemical

Engineers’ Handbook 8th edition by Green and Perry:

For density from Table 2-32; ρ = 17.863 + 58.606τ0.35 – 95.396τ2/3 + 213.89τ – 141.26τ4/3

Where τ = 1 – T/647.096 = 1 – 294.15/647.096 = 0.546976028

ρ = 17.863 + 58.606(0.546976028)0.35 – 95.396(0.546976028)2/3 + 213.89(0.546976028)

– 141.26(0.546976028)4/3

ρ = 998.1567 kg/ 𝒎𝟑

𝐶2
(𝐶1+ 𝑇 +𝐶3𝑙𝑛𝑇+𝐶4𝑇 𝐶5 )
For dynamic viscosity from Table 2-313 ; µ =𝑒

C1 = -52.843, C2 = 3703.6, C3 = 5.866, C4 = -5.879E-29, C5 = 10

3703.6
[−52.843+ 294.15 +(5.866)𝑙𝑛294.15+(−5.879E−29)(294.15)10 ]
µ =𝑒

µ = 1.0214 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Pa.s

𝜌×𝑉𝑒𝑙×𝐷
For Reynold’s number calculation, Re = where D = 28 mm = 0.028 m ; vel = Q / A;
𝜇

A= 𝜋𝑅 2 = 𝜋(0.014𝑚)2

15
 For fluid velocity,

𝑔𝑎𝑙 3.7853𝐿 1𝑚3 1ℎ𝑟

Q 220 ℎ𝑟 ( 𝑔𝑎𝑙 )(1000𝐿)(3600𝑠)
Q = 220 gph: velocity = = = 0.3757 m/s
A π(0.014m)2

𝑔𝑎𝑙 3.7853𝐿 1𝑚3 1ℎ𝑟

Q 320 ℎ𝑟 ( 𝑔𝑎𝑙 )(1000𝐿)(3600𝑠)
Q = 320 gph: velocity = = = 0.5464 m/s
A π(0.014m)2

𝑔𝑎𝑙 3.7853𝐿 1𝑚3 1ℎ𝑟

Q 420 ℎ𝑟 ( 𝑔𝑎𝑙 )(1000𝐿)(3600𝑠)
Q = 420 gph: velocity = = = 0.7172 m/s
A π(0.014m)2

𝑔𝑎𝑙 3.7853𝐿 1𝑚3 1ℎ𝑟

Q 520 ℎ𝑟 ( 𝑔𝑎𝑙 )(1000𝐿)(3600𝑠)
Q = 520 gph: velocity = = = 0.8880 m/s
A π(0.014m)2

𝑔𝑎𝑙 3.7853𝐿 1𝑚3 1ℎ𝑟

Q 620 ℎ𝑟 ( 𝑔𝑎𝑙 )(1000𝐿)(3600𝑠)
Q = 620 gph: velocity = = = 1.0587 m/s
A π(0.014m)2

16
 For Reynold’s number:

𝑘𝑔 0.3757𝑚
ρ×vel×D 998.1567 3 ( )(0.028m)
𝑚 𝑠
Q = 220 gph: Re =
μ
= -3
= 10,280.2127
1.0214 ×10 Pa.s

𝑘𝑔 0.5464𝑚
ρ×vel×D 998.1567 3 ( )(0.028m)
𝑚 𝑠
Q = 320 gph: Re =
μ
= -3
= 14,952.1189
1.0214 ×10 Pa.s

𝑘𝑔 0.7172𝑚
ρ×vel×D 998.1567 3 ( )(0.028m)
𝑚 𝑠
Q = 420 gph: Re =
μ
= -3
= 19,624.6561
1.0214 ×10 Pa.s
𝑘𝑔 0.8880𝑚
ρ×vel×D 998.1567 3 ( )(0.028m)
𝑚 𝑠
Q = 520 gph: Re = = = 24,297.1932
μ -3
1.0214 ×10 Pa.s
𝑘𝑔 1.0587𝑚
ρ×vel×D 998.1567 3 ( )(0.028m)
𝑚 𝑠
Q = 620 gph: Re = = = 28,969.7304
μ -3
1.0214 ×10 Pa.s

17
 For head loss, Pa:

𝑚
g 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 9.81 2 1
Q = 220 gph: ∆P = [ρ(Hg)- ρ(H2O)] gc ∆h = ∆P = [13600 𝑚3 - 998.1567 𝑚3 ] 𝑠
𝑁 ( 1000 m)
1
𝑘𝑔

∆P = 123.6241 Pa

𝑚
g 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 9.81 2 3
Q = 320 gph: ∆P = [ρ(Hg)- ρ(H2O)] gc ∆h = ∆P = [13600 𝑚3 - 998.1567 𝑚3 ] 𝑁
𝑠
( 1000 m)
1
𝑘𝑔

∆P = 370.8722 Pa

𝑚
g 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 9.81 2 6
Q = 420 gph: ∆P = [ρ(Hg)- ρ(H2O)] gc ∆h = ∆P = [13600 𝑚3 - 998.1567 𝑚3 ] 𝑁
𝑠
( 1000 m)
1
𝑘𝑔

∆P = 741.7445 Pa
𝑚
g 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 9.81 2 8
Q = 520 gph: ∆P = [ρ(Hg)- ρ(H2O)] gc ∆h = ∆P = [13600 𝑚3 - 998.1567 𝑚3 ] 𝑠
𝑁 ( 1000 m)
1
𝑘𝑔

∆P = 988.9927 Pa

𝑚
g 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 9.81 2 11
Q = 620 gph: ∆P = [ρ(Hg)- ρ(H2O)] gc ∆h = ∆P = [13600 𝑚3 - 998.1567 𝑚3 ] 𝑁
𝑠
( 1000 m)
1
𝑘𝑔

∆P = 1359.8649 Pa

18
 Fanning friction factor f (theoretical):

1 0.27𝜖 7 0.9
= −4log[ +( ) ]
√𝑓 𝐷 𝑅𝑒

1 0.27 ×0.00152 ×10−3 7 0.9

Q = 220 gph: = −4log[ + (𝟏𝟎,𝟐𝟖𝟎.𝟐𝟏𝟐𝟕) ] ; f = 7.7179 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
√𝒇 0.028𝑚

1 0.27 ×0.00152 ×10−3 7 0.9

Q = 320 gph: = −4log[ + (14,952.1189) ] ; f = 6.9892 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
√𝒇 0.028𝑚

1 0.27 ×0.00152 ×10−3 7 0.9

Q = 420 gph: = −4log[ + (19,624.6561) ] ; f = 6.5249 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
√𝒇 0.028𝑚

1 0.27 ×0.00152 ×10−3 7 0.9

Q = 520 gph: = −4log[ + (24,297.1932) ] ; f = 6.1932 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
√𝒇 0.028𝑚

1 0.27 ×0.00152 ×10−3 7 0.9

Q = 620 gph: = −4log[ + (𝟐𝟖,𝟗𝟔𝟗.𝟕𝟑𝟎𝟒) ] ; f = 5.9396 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
√𝒇 0.028𝑚

 Fanning friction factor, f (experimental) :

𝐷∆𝑃 (0.028)(123.6241)
Q = 220 gph: 𝑓 = = = 6.8057 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
2𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿 2(998.1567)(0.3757)2 (1.805)

𝐷∆𝑃 (0.028)(370.8722)
Q = 320 gph: 𝑓 = = = 9.6529 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
2𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿 2(998.1567)(0.5464)2 (1.805)

𝐷∆𝑃 (0.028)(741.7445)
Q = 420 gph: 𝑓 = = = 0.0112
2𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿 2(998.1567)(0.7172)2 (1.805)

𝐷∆𝑃 (0.028)(988.9927)
Q = 520 gph: 𝑓 = = = 9.7458 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
2𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿 2(998.1567)(0.8880)2 (1.805)

𝐷∆𝑃 (0.028)(1359.8649)
Q = 620 gph: 𝑓 = = = 9.4276 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
2𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿 2(998.1567)(1.0587)2 (1.805)

19
 Percent difference:

theoretical f-experimental f
% difference = ×100%
theoretical f

7.7179 - 6.8057
Q = 220 gph: % difference = ×100% = 11.8181 %
7.7179

6.9892 - 9.6529
Q = 320 gph: % difference = ×100% = 38.1102 %
6.9892

6.5249 - 0.0112
Q = 420 gph: % difference = ×100% = 71.65 %
6.5249

6.1932 - 9.7458
Q = 520 gph: % difference = ×100% = 57.3629 %
6.1932

5.9396 - 9.4276
Q = 620 gph: % difference = ×100% = 58.7249 %
5.9396

20