JSPM’s

Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.

(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

LAB MANUAL
For

Electronic Measuring Instruments &

Tools

SE (E&TC) 2014C

Electronics and Telecommunication

Engineering

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

List of Experiments

Class: S.E. Sub.: Electronic Measuring Instruments & Tools

Sr. No. Experiment

1 Study of statistical analysis of Digital Voltmeter.

Study of Digital Multimeter.
2

3 Study of CRO.

4 Study of Digital Storage oscilloscopes (DSO).

5 Study of True RMS meter.

6 Study of Programmable LCR meter.

7 Study of Spectrum Analyzer.

8 Study of Frequency Counter.

9 Calibration of Digital Voltmeter (DVM).

10 Study Of Function Generator.

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 1
Title: Study of statistical analysis of Digital Voltmeter.

Date of Performance: Roll No:

Date of Submission: University Seat No:

Signature of Staff:

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 1
STUDY OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DIGITAL VOLTMETER

Title: Study of statistical analysis of Digital Voltmeter.

Aim:
To study of statistical analysis of Digital Voltmeter.

Objective:

1) To find mean standard deviation average deviation & variance.

2) To find probable error for one reading and mean.
3) To compare result of 3 ½ digit DMM, 6 ½ digit DMM etc.

Equipments:

1) 3 ½ digit DMM
2) 6 ½ digit DMM
3) Connecting probes, etc.

Theory:

Statistical analysis is basically art of collection, organization& interpretation of data

acquired in terms of various parameter such important parameters related to statistical
analysis are as follows:

Mean:

Mean is sum of value divided by the no. of values. A mean of set of no.x1,x2,x3,…..xn is
typically denoted by X.
Mathematically
𝒏
𝑿𝒊
̅=∑
𝑿
𝑵
𝟏

Where
𝑿𝒊 =various Reading.
N=Total no. of recordings.

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Deviation

Deviation point is difference between value of an observation and mean of all

observation and mean of all observations. It is denoted as D;

Mathematically
̅
𝑫𝒊 = 𝑿𝒊 − 𝑿

Where
𝑿𝒊 =current observation
̅ =Mean of observation
𝑿

Standard deviation

It is widely used measurement of variability or directivity used in statics. It shows

how much variation is present from mean. A low standard deviation indicates data is
spread-out. It is also used to measure confidence in statistically.
Mathematically,
𝑵
𝝈 = √∑ (𝑿𝒊 − 𝒙
̅)/(𝑵 − 𝟏)
𝒊=𝟏

Where
𝝈= Standard deviation.
̅ =Mean
𝑿

Average Deviation

The average deviation of data set is average of absolute deviation ,avg deviation of
set {x1,x2,x3….xn} is mathematically given as

𝑵
̅ |)/𝑵
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = ∑(|𝑿𝒊 − 𝑿
𝒊=𝟏

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Variance

The variance is used as measure of how far a set of no.are spread out from each
other or two for no from mean variance is measure of amount of variations of value taking
account of all possible value &not just var (X).

Mathematically,

var (X)=(std deviation)

= 𝝈𝟐

Problem statement:

Compute all statistical parameter for AC voltage measured using 312 and 612 DMM.

𝟑𝟏𝟐 DMM:

Mean:
𝑵
𝑿𝒊
̅=∑
𝑿
𝑵
𝟏

Deviation:
̅
𝑫𝒊 = 𝑿𝒊 − 𝑿

𝐷1 = 𝐷2 = 𝐷3 = 𝐷7 = 𝐷8 = 𝐷10

𝐷4 = 𝐷5 = 𝐷6 = 𝐷9 = 𝐷10

Standard deviation

𝑵
𝝈 = √∑ ̅ )𝟐 /(𝑵 − 𝟏)
(𝑿𝒊 − 𝑿
𝒊=𝟏

Variance

The variance is used as measure of how far a set of no. are spread out from each
other or two for no from mean variance is measure of amount of variations of value taking

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

account of all possible value &not just var (X).

Mathematically,

var (X)=(std deviation)

= 𝝈𝟐

Average Deviation
𝑵
̅ |)/𝑵
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = ∑(|𝑿𝒊 − 𝑿
𝒊=𝟏

𝟔𝟏𝟐 DMM:

Mean:
𝑵
𝑿𝒊
̅=∑
𝑿
𝑵
𝟏

Deviation:
̅
𝑫𝒊 = 𝑿𝒊 − 𝑿

𝐷1 = 𝐷2 = 𝐷3 = 𝐷7 = 𝐷8 = 𝐷10

𝐷4 = 𝐷5 = 𝐷6 = 𝐷9 = 𝐷10

Standard deviation

𝑵
𝝈 = √∑ ̅ )𝟐 /(𝑵 − 𝟏)
(𝑿𝒊 − 𝑿
𝒊=𝟏

Variance

= 𝝈𝟐

Average Deviation
𝑵
̅ |)/𝑵
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = ∑(|𝑿𝒊 − 𝑿
𝒊=𝟏

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Observation Table:

Sr. No. Readings DMM(mV) DMM(mV)

1 𝑿𝟏

2 𝑿𝟐

3 𝑿𝟑

4 𝑿𝟒

5 𝑿𝟓

6 𝑿𝟔

7 𝑿𝟕

8 𝑿𝟖

9 𝑿𝟗

10 𝑿𝟏𝟎

Comparison Table:

Parameter DMM(mV) DMM(mV)

Mean

Standard deviation

Average deviation

Variance

Conclusion:

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 2
Title: Study of Digital Multimeter

Date of Performance: Roll No:

Date of Submission: University Seat No:

Signature of Staff:

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 2
STUDY OF DIGITAL MULTIMETER

Title : Study of Digital Multimeter.

Aim:

To study of Digital Multimeter.

Objective:

1. Measurement of dc voltage, dc current, ac (rms) voltage, resistance.

2. Understand the effect of decimal point on resolution.
3. To test continuity, PN junction and transistor.

Equipment:

Digital Multimter, Power supply, transistor, resistor, diode, connecting wires.

Theory:

A digital multimeter is composed of a number of functional groups, as shown in the block

diagram. The signal scaler is an attenuator amplifier that acts as a range selector. The signal

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

conditioner converts the scaled input signal to a dc voltage within the range of the analog-
todigital converter (A/D converter). In the case of ac voltage measurements, the ac voltage
is converted into a dc voltage via a precision rectifierfiltercombination.The gain of the
active filter is set to provide a dc level equal to the rms value of the ac input voltage or
current.The signal conditioner also contains circuits to convert current and/or resistance
into proportional dc voltages. The A/D converter converts the dc analog input voltage into
a digital output voltage.The digital display provides a digital readout of the measured input.
Control logic is used to synchronize the operation of the A/D converter and digital display.

DMM has following functions:

Power switch:

PUSH switch is used to turn on and off meter.

Display:

3 and half digit 18 mm high LCD

Function or range selection:

There are 32 ranges provided of different functions. This knob is used to select function
and range both.

I/O Jack:

Com jack: black connector id connected.

V/Ω jack: to measure voltage and resistance.
2A/10mA jack: measure current range.

VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT

To measure voltage, the instrument should be set to a suitable A.C. or D.C. range, and
then connected parallel across the source of voltage to be measured. The range should be
set from upper-right part. If the expected magnitude of the voltage is within the range of
the meter, but its actual value is unknown, the instrument should be set to its highest
range, connected up and if below 1000 V the appropriate selector knob should be rotated
decreasing the ranges step by step, until the most suitable range has been selected.

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT

On resistance ranges, the meter must not merely start from its instrument zero, but must
have, in addition a resistance zero corresponding to the full scale deflection of the meter.
Before carrying out tests for resistance a check and, if necessary, adjustment should be
carried out to ensure that when the leads are joined, together the meter actually indicates
zero ohms, irrespective of the condition of the battery (within the limits of adjustment).
The method of adjustment is given below.
1. Set left-hand knob at “OHMS”.
2. Join probes together.
3. Set right-hand knob to “x 1 k” or “x 100” from the middle-right part (green part).
4. The drum should be steady at zero on the green scale. If it is not, arrange knob on the
upper-left part until the drum is steady at zero.
If it is not possible to obtain zero ohms setting, or furthermore the pointer position does
not remain constant, falls steadily, the internal battery (or batteries) should replace. To test
a resistance, the right-hand knob should be at the range required, the leads being
connected across unknown component. However, the value, where the drum is steady,
should be multiplied by the selected ohm range.
A resistance of component should be measured when it is not connected to any circuit that
resistance test should never be carried out on components which are already carrying
current on or when it is connected to a circuit.

Testing of transistor:

Set rotary switch at hfe position. Determine whether transistor to be tested in NPN or PNP
type. Locate Emtiter Base and Collector to transistor testing sockets. The meter will show
approapriate value of hfe.

Continuity Test:

Connect black test lead to com jack and red to V/ohm jack.and connect them together. If
sound comes, then it is ok.

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Observation Table:

1.Resistance Measurement

Sr.No. Color Code. Theoretical Practical Value % Error

Value
1.
2.
3.
4.

2.Capacitance Measurement

Sr.No. Value Theoretical Practical Value % Error

Value
1.
2.
3.
4.

3. DC Voltage Measurement

Sr.No. Reading from power supply Reading on DMM % Error

1.
2.
3.
4

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

4. AC Voltage Measurement

Reading from function

Sr.No. generator Reading on DMM % Error

1.
2.
3.
4.

5. Diode testing:

6. Transistor Testing:

Conclusion:

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 3
Title: Study of CRO

Date of Performance: Roll No:

Date of Submission: University Seat No:

Signature of Staff:

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 3
STUDY OF CRO

Title : Study of CRO.

Aim:

To study of CRO.

Objective:

1. Calculate the value of amplitude

2. Calculate the value of time period
3. Calculate the value of frequency.

Equipment:

Cathode ray Oscilloscope.

Theory :

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Principles

Figure 1 shows the structure, and the main components of a cathode ray tube (CRT).

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Electron beam generated by the electron gun first deflected by the deflection plates, and
then directed onto the fluorescent coating of the CRO screen, which produces a visible light
spot on the face plane of the oscilloscope screen.

A detailed representation of a CRT is given in Figure 1. The CRT is composed of two

mainparts,
· Electron Gun
· Deflection System

Electron Gun

Electron gun provides a sharply focused electron beam directed toward the
fluorescent-coated screen. The thermally heated cathode emits electrons in many
directions. The control grid provides an axial direction for the electron beam and controls
the number and speed of electrons in the beam. The momentum of the electrons
determines the intensity, or brightness, of the light emitted from the fluorescent coating
due to the electron bombardment. Because electrons are negatively charged, a repulsion
force is created by applying a negative voltage to the control grid, to adjust their number
and speed. A more negative voltage results in less number of electrons in the beam and
hence decreased brightness of the beam spot. Since the electron beam consists of many
electrons, the beam tends to diverge. This is because the similar (negative) charges on the
electrons repulse each other. To compensate for such repulsion forces, an adjustable
electrostatic field is created between two cylindrical anodes, called the focusing anodes.
The variable positive voltage on the second anode cylinder is therefore used to adjust the
focus or sharpness of the bright spot.

The Deflection System

The deflection system consists of two pairs of parallel plates, referred to as the
vertical and horizontal deflection plates. One of the plates in each set is permanently
connected to the ground (zero volt), whereas the other plate of each set is connected to
input signals or triggering signal of the CRO.
The electron beam passes through the deflection plates. In reference to the schematic
diagram in Figure 8, a positive voltage applied to the Y input terminal causes the electron
beam to deflect vertically upward, due to attraction forces, while a negative voltage applied
to the Y input terminal causes the electron beam to deflect vertically downward, due to
repulsion forces. Similarly, a positive voltage applied to the X input terminal will cause the
electron beam to deflect horizontally toward the right, while a negative voltage applied to

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

the X input terminal will cause the electron beam to deflect horizontally toward the left of
the screen.
The amount of vertical or horizontal deflection is directly proportional to the
corresponding applied voltage. When the electrons hit the screen, the phosphor emits light
and a visible light spot is seen on the screen. Since the amount of deflection is proportional
to the applied voltage, actually the voltages Vy and Vx determine the coordinates of the
bright spot created by the electron beam.

Controls

Display Controls

Display systems may vary between analog and digital oscilloscopes. Common
controls include:
 An intensity control to adjust the brightness of the waveform. As you increase the
sweep speed of an analog oscilloscope, you need to increase the intensity level. 

 A focus control to adjust the sharpness of the waveform. Digital oscilloscopes may
not have a focus control. 

 Other display controls may let you adjust the intensity of lights and turn on or off
any on-screen information (such as menus). 

Vertical Controls

Vertical controls are used to position and scale the waveform vertically.
Oscilloscopes also have controls for setting the input coupling and other signal
conditioning, described in this section.

Position and Volts per Division Settings

The position knob moves the waveform vertically. The scale knob varies volts per
division (usually written volts/div), which determines the voltage value corresponding to
each vertical division on the oscilloscope’s screen. As the volt/div value is altered, the size
of the waveform on the screen changes. The volts/div setting is a scale factor. For example,
If there are ten vertical divisions on the oscilloscope screen and if the volts/div setting is 5
volts, then each of the vertical divisions represents 5 volts and the entire screen can show
50 volts from bottom to top. If the setting is 0.5 volts/div, the screen can display 5 volts
from bottom to top, and so on. The maximum 21 voltage you can display on the screen is
the volts/div setting times the number of vertical divisions. Often the volts/div scale has

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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

either a variable gain or a fine gain control for scaling a displayed signal to a certain
number of divisions.

Horizontal Controls

Horizontal controls are used to position and scale the waveform horizontally. The
horizontal position control (x-pos.) is used to move the waveform from left and right to
exactly where you want it on the screen. The time per division (time/div) setting lets you
select the rate at which the waveform is drawn across the screen (also known as the time
base setting or sweep speed).

Input Coupling

Coupling means the method used to connect an electrical signal from one circuit to
another. In this case, the input coupling is the connection from your circuit to the
oscilloscope. The coupling can be set to DC, AC, or ground (GND). By setting the coupling
control to AC, the DC offset voltage is removed form the input waveform, so that you see
the waveform centered at zero volts. When DC coupling is selected, both AC and DC
components of the input waveform are passed to the oscilloscope.. The signal y(t) = 3 +
sin(wt) where 3 Volts is DC component and sin(wt) is AC component. By selecting AC
coupling, DC component is eliminated and only the signal of sin(wt) The AC coupling
setting is useful when the entire signal (alternating plus constant components) is too large
for the volts/div setting.

The ground setting disconnects the input signal from the vertical system, which lets
you see where zero volts is on the screen. With grounded input coupling and auto trigger
mode, you see a horizontal line on the screen that represents zero volts. Switching from DC
to ground and back again is a handy way of measuring signal voltage levels with respect to
ground.

X-Y Button

Most oscilloscopes have the capability of displaying a second channel signal along
the X-axis (instead of time). This is called XY mode. Pressing the X-Y button the oscilloscope
is used in XY mode.

DUAL Button

The oscilloscopes have the capability of displaying both channel signals on the

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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

screen at the same time. This is called the Dual Mode. This mode is usually used to measure
phase difference between two signals.

Alternate and Chop Buttons

On analog scopes, multiple channels are displayed using either an alternate or chop
mode. (Digital oscilloscopes do not normally use chop or alternate mode.) Alternate mode
draws each channel alternately - the oscilloscope completes one sweep on channel 1, then
one sweep on channel 2, a second sweep on channel 1, and so on. Use this mode with
medium- to high-speed signals, when the time/div scale is set to 0.5 ms or faster. Alternate
mode is available when only DUAL button is depressed. Chop mode causes the oscilloscope
to draw small parts of each signal by switching back and forth between them. The
switching rate is too fast for you to notice, so the waveform looks whole. You typically use
this mode with slow signals requiring sweep speeds of 1 ms per division or less. Chop
mode is available when both DUAL and ADD button are depressed. Figure shows the
difference between the two modes. It is often useful to view the signal both ways, to make
sure you have the best view.

ADD Button

When ADD button is depressed, the signals of both channels are algebraically added
and the result is displayed on the screen. Volt/div scales of two channels should be the
same in order to appropriately see the summation of the signals. When the volt/div scales
of the channels are not the same, the signals are summed up as they are displayed on the
screen (i.e. graphically). Assume a signal 2sin(wt) is connected to Channel I and a signal

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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

2sin(wt) is connected to channel II. CH I is set to 2 volts/div and CH II is set to 1 volt/div.

When the ADD button is depressed, the resulting signal on the screen is shown in fig.

INVERT Button

When the INVERT button of a channel is depressed, negative of the signal is

displayed on the CRO screen.

EXT Button

When the EXT button is depressed, the oscilloscope is used in external triggering
mode.

AT/NORM Button

Using the AT/NORM button you can switch between automatic trigger level
selection (AT) and manual trigger level selection (NORM). When the AT/NORM button is
released, the automatic trigger level is selected as zero volts, so that the value of the
signal on the extreme left of the screen is equal to zero. When the AT/NORM button is
depressed, the user can determine the trigger voltage level (the voltage on the extreme
left) manually by adjusting LEVEL knob.

LEVEL and +/- Buttons

The trigger level can be set using the LEVEL knob when the AT/NORM button is
depressed. Using the LEVEL knob, the trigger voltage level can be set to values different
than zero. However, if the trigger level is set to a voltage value that is higher/lower than
the positive/negative peak of the signal, the signal cannot be triggered and therefore
cannot be displayed on the CRO screen. The +/- button is used to determine whether an
increasing signal passing from trigger voltage, starts the sawtooth waveform (+/- button
released) or vice versa.

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Observation Table:

Frequency and amplitude from Frequency and amplitude from

Sr. No. Waveform Function Generator CRO

1. Sine

2. Square

3. Triangular

Conclusion:

OUT PUT WAVE FORMS:

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 4
Title: Study of Digital Storage oscilloscopes (DSO)

Date of Performance: Roll No:

Date of Submission: University Seat No:

Signature of Staff:

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 4
STUDY OF DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPES (DSO)

Title : Study of DSO.

Aim:
To study of DSO
1. Different modes DSO such as Roll, Average, Peak Detection.
2. Capture Transients.
3. Storage Techniques in DSO.
4. Various Math Operation.
5. FFT Analysis.

Objectives:

1. After performing this experiment, student should be able to perform a mathematical

operation on two different signal on DSO.
2. Students should be able to carry out FFT analysis using DSO.

Equipments:

1. DSO(54622A: 100 MHz oscilloscope)

2. Function generator.
3. D.C. Power supply
4. Relay kit.

Theory:

The main purpose of an oscilloscope is to give an accurate visual representation of

electrical signals. An oscilloscope is a measurement and testing instrument used to
display a certain variable as a function of another.


Types of Oscilloscopes
1. Analog Oscilloscopes:
The first oscilloscopes were analog oscilloscopes, which use cathode-ray
tubes to display a waveform. The downside of an analog oscilloscope is that it
cannot “freeze” the display and keep the waveform for an extended period of time. Once

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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

the phosphorus substance illuminates, that part of the signal is lost. Also, you cannot
perform measurements on the waveform automatically. Instead you have to make
measurements by hand using the grid on the display. Analog oscilloscopes are also very
limited in the types of signals they can display because there is an upper limit to how
fast the horizontal and vertical sweeping of the electron beam can occur. While analog
oscilloscopes are still used by many people today, they are not sold very often. Instead,
digital oscilloscopes are the modern tool of choice.

2. Digital Storage oscilloscopes (DSOs):

Digital storage oscilloscopes (often referred to as DSOs) were invented to remedy many
of the negative aspects of analog oscilloscopes. DSOs input a signal and then digitize it
through the use of an analog-to-digital converter. Figure 1 shows an example of one
DSO architecture used by Agilent digital oscilloscopes. The attenuator scales the
waveform. The vertical amplifier provides additional scaling while passing the
waveform to the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The ADC samples and digitizes the
incoming signal. It then stores this data in memory. The trigger looks for trigger events
while the time base adjusts the time display for the oscilloscope. The microprocessor
system performs any additional post processing you have specified before the signal is
finally displayed on the oscilloscope. Having the data in digital form enables the
oscilloscope to perform a variety of measurements on the waveform. Signals can also be
stored indefinitely in memory. The data can be printed or transferred to a computer via
a flash drive, LAN, or DVD-RW. In fact, software now allows you to control and monitor
your oscilloscope from a computer using a virtual front panel.
 
 Trigger controls

As we mentioned earlier, triggering on your signal helps to provide a stable, usable
display and allows you to see the part of the waveform you are interested in. The trigger
controls let you pick your vertical trigger level (for example, the voltage at which you
want your oscilloscope to trigger) and choose between various triggering capabilities.

Examples of common triggering types include:

1. Edge triggering

Edge triggering is the most popular triggering mode. The trigger occurs when the
voltage surpasses some set threshold value. You can choose between triggering on a
rising or a falling edge.

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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

2. Glitch triggering

Glitch triggering mode enables you to trigger on an event or pulse whose width is
greater than or less than some specified length of time. This capability is very useful for
finding random glitches or errors. If these glitches do not occur very often, it may be
very difficult to see them. However, glitch triggering allows you to catch many of these
errors.

3. Pulse-width triggering

Pulse width triggering is similar to glitch triggering when you are looking for specific
pulse widths. However, it is more general in that you can trigger on pulses of any
specified width and you can choose the polarity (negative or positive) of the pulses you
want to trigger on. You can also set the horizontal position of the trigger. This allows
you to see what occurred pre-trigger or post-trigger. For instance, you can execute a
glitch trigger, find the error, and then look at the signal pre-trigger to see what caused
the glitch. If you have the horizontal delay set to zero, your trigger event will be placed
in the middle of the screen horizontally. Events that occur right before the trigger will
be to the left of the screen and events that occur directly after the trigger will be to the
right of the screen. You also can set the coupling of the trigger and set the input source
you want to trigger on. You do not always have to trigger on your signal, but can instead
trigger on a related signal.
 
 Input controls

There are typically two or four analog channels on an oscilloscope.They will be
numbered and they will also usually have a button associated with each particular
channel that enables you to turn them on or off. There may also be a selection that

allows you to specify AC or DC coupling. If DC coupling is selected, the entire signal
will be input. On the other hand, AC coupling blocks the DC component and centers the
waveform about 0 volts (ground). In addition, you can specify the probe impedance for
each channel through a selection button. The input controls also let you choose the type of
sampling. There are two basic ways to sample the signal:

1. Real-time sampling

Real-time sampling samples the waveform often enough that it captures a complete image

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Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

of the waveform with each sweep. This is useful if you are sampling low-frequency signals,
as the oscilloscope has the required time to sample the waveform often enough in one
sweep.

2. Equivalent-time sampling

Equivalent time sampling builds up the waveform over several sweeps. It samples part of
the signal on the first sweep, then another part on the second sweep, and so on. It then
laces all this information together to recreate the waveform. Equivalent time sampling is
useful for high-frequency signals that are too fast for real-time sampling.

DSO features:

1. Pre- trigger function:

The DSO is capable of recording the waveforms preceding the triggering point. It
continuously stores data until a trigger occurs storing is stopped at the predefined no.
Of sampling after the trigger &then the stored data is displayed with the trigger point
as reference.

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(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

2. Observation of single shot events:

A DSO can capture single _shot events such as power supply, start up characteristics,
power resets, power failure detection counter measures against noise & instantaneous
waveforms for areas that include mechanical equipments such as motors. The DSO can
be used for failure monitoring purposes such as storing waveforms.
3. Large memory capacity:

DSO stores the observed data in memory. Memory capacity is unlimited. With a large
memory capacity, phenomenon can be recorder over a long period.

4. Computations:

Since the collected waveform data is expressed as digital values, sophisticated

computation processing can be performed on the waveform data &the results are
displayed on the screen in real time. This enables various functions such as auto set up
function.

5. Data output:

Digitization of waveforms data allows various forms of output. For eg. By incorporating
a printer in the digital oscilloscope, the display on the screen can be immediately
printed out and time consuming.


Important Oscilloscope Performance

Properties 1. Bandwidth and channels

It dictates the range of signals (in terms of frequency) that you are able to accurately
display and test. Bandwidth is measured in Hertz. Without sufficient bandwidth, your
oscilloscope will not display an accurate representation of the actual signal. A channel
refers to an independent input to the oscilloscope. The number of oscilloscope channels
varies between two and twenty. Most commonly, they have two or four channels.

2. Sample Rate

The sample rate of an oscilloscope is the number of samples the oscilloscope can

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Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

acquire per second. It is recommended that your oscilloscope have a sample rate that is
at a least 2.5 times greater than its bandwidth. However, ideally the sample rate should
be 3 times the bandwidth or greater. You need to be careful when you evaluate an
oscilloscope’s sample rate banner specifications. Manufactures typically specify the
maximum sample rate an oscilloscope can attain, and often this maximum rate is
possible only when one channel is being used. If more channels are used
simultaneously, the sample rate may decrease.

3. Memory depth

As we mentioned earlier, a digital oscilloscope uses an A/D (analog-to-digital)

converter to digitize the input waveform. The digitized data is then stored in the
oscilloscope’s high-speed memory. Memory depth refers to exactly how many records
and, therefore, what length of time can be stored. Memory depth plays an important
role in the sampling rate of an oscilloscope. In an ideal world, the sampling rate would
remain constant no matter what the settings were on an oscilloscope. However, this
kind of an oscilloscope would require a huge amount of memory at small time/division
settings and would have a price that would severely limit the number of customers that
could afford it. Instead, the sampling rate decreases as you increase the range of time.
Memory depth is important because the more memory depth an oscilloscope has, the
more time you can spend capturing waveforms at full sampling speed. Mathematically,
this can be seen by:

Memory depth =(sample rate).(time across display)

So, if you are interested in looking at long periods of time with high resolution between
points, you will need deep memory.

Procedure:

Math Operation

Addition & Subtraction

  Activate both CH1 and CH2. 

  Press math key. 
  Press operation repeatedly to select addition (+) or subtraction (-). 
  The math measurement result appears in the display. 

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Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

  To move math result vertically, press position and use the variable knob. 
 To clear the math result from the display, press the math key again. 
FFT function

a) Press the math key.

b) Press operation repeatedly to select FFT.
c) Press Source repeatedly to select the source channel.
d) Press window repeatedly to select the FFT window type.
e) The FFT result appears. The horizontal scale changes from time to frequency,
and the vertical scale from voltage to dB.
f) To move the FFT waveform vertically, press position and use the variable
knob. Range:- -12.00 Div ~ +12.00 Div.
g) To select the vertical waveform, press unit/div repeatedly. Range: -
1,2,5,10,20 dB/Div
h) To clear the FFT result from the display, press the math key again.

Transient Response

a) Check the o/p of RLC circuit for 10volt dc i/p on DSO.

b) Press Measure key, and measure the parameters rise time, fall time, duty cycle.
c) To clear the Transient Function result from the display, press the math key again.

ON/OFF Time Measurement

1. Set the DSO in ROLL mode.

2. Apply sinusoidal input through the function generator to the input of DSO.
3. Calculate ON time for the signal.
4. Switch off the input signal & measure the OFF time.

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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Observation Table:1

Sr. i/p Reading from function generator Reading from DSO

No. waveform
Frequency Voltage Frequency Voltage
1. Sine wave
2. Square wave
3. Triangular
wave

Observation Table: 2

Sr. Reading from FG1 Reading from FG2 Reading from DSO
No.
Frequency Voltage Frequency Voltage Voltage
(CH1+CH2)
1.
2.
3.

Conclusion:

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

OUT PUT WAVE FORMS:

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 5
Title: Study of True RMS meter.

Date of Performance: Roll No:

Date of Submission: University Seat No:

Signature of Staff:

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 5
STUDY OF TRUE RMS METER

Title : Study of True RMS meter.

Aim:

To Measure RMS , Peak, average of various waveforms on power electronics, phase

controlled rectifier using SCR.

Apparatus:

1. Dual Trace CRO

2. Digital Multimeter
3. Trainer kit
4. Load lamp, Connectors, etc.

Circuit diagram:

1) For R Load

Theory:

True RMS Meter

Complex waveforms are used to measure with an RMS voltmeter indication byusing

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Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
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waveform of RMS value of the voltage thus heating the thermocouple. Power can be
measured by amplifying it and feeding it to thermocouple whose output voltage is
proportional to Erms.Thermocouples are non linear devices.

Operation with Resistive load:

Controlled bridge is so called because only half of the power devices are
‘Controllerdevices’ namely SCRs. In positive half cycle SCR T1 and diode D1 conducts and
in negative half cycle SCR T2 and diode D2 conducts. Natural or line commutation takes
place at the end of each half cycle of the supply.

Operation can be divided into four modes:

Mode I (α ≤ ωt ≤ π):

The SCR T1 and diode D1 are forward biased at firing angle α in the positive half cycle of
input AC signal. T1 is fired at α between 0 and 180°. After this, the AC supply is
connected across the load with polarity shown. The instantaneous Load current is IL=
Vmsinωt/R.

Mode II (π ≤ ωt ≤ π+α):

At ωt=π, the mains goes to zero. The load current flowing through T1& D1 goes to zero.
The load current flowing through T1 and D1 goes to zero. T1 is turned off as forward
current through it goes to below the holding current value (natural commutation at ωt =
π). Both load voltage, load current are zero in this interval.

Mode III (π+α ≤ ωt ≤ 2π):

At ωt=π, the supply polarity reverses. T2 is forward biased and it can be turned on at the
same firing angle α. The instant is (π+α).The output voltage is positive and load current
is in the same direction of mode I. T2 and D2 turned OFF due to natural commutation at
ωt = 2π.

Mode IV (2π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π+α) or (0 ≤ ωt ≤ α):

T2 and D2 are turned off by natural commutation. This mode is identical to mode II,
where all devices remain off. The load voltage and load current are zero. Due to

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Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

resistive load nature, freewheeling action does not take place.

  This training system is designed to explain working principle of semi converter. 
 Here the Phase Angle Control technique is used using UJT triggering circuit. 

 The position of firing angle may be from 10o to 170o on half cycle to obtain
maximum to minimum voltage across the load. 

Procedure:

1)Observe & sketch different waveforms in control circuit i.e. o/p of bridge, Voltage
across zener , voltage across capacitor C and voltage across primary of Pulse transformer.
2) Now connect G1 of control circuit to G1 of power converter, similarly connect K1 to K1,
G2 to G2& K2 to K2.
3) Connect a lamp load (R load)of 15W / 25W / 40W in given bulb socket.
4) Connect a CRO & a multimeter across the load.
5) Observe load voltage waveform on CRO, measure corresponding o/p voltage& firing
angle.
6) Now vary the firing angle by pot, observe different waveforms across load, measure
corresponding o/p voltages & firing angles.

Observation table:

1) For R load:

Sr. Firing V0 V0 V0
No. Angle Theoretical (Practical) (Practical)
On DMM On TRM
1
2
3
4
5

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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Calculations:

Theoretical value of output voltage

V m
VO = π (1+cosα)

Conclusion:

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Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
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Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 6
Title: Study of Programmable LCR meter

Date of Performance: Roll No:

Date of Submission: University Seat No:

Signature of Staff:

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 6
STUDY OF PROGRAMMABLE LCR METER

Title : LCR Meter.

Aim:

To study of LCR-Q meter.

a) To measure inductance.
b) To measure capacitance and resistance.

Objectives:

To measure resistances, inductances and capacitances on an LCR-Q Meter.

Equipments:

1) LCR-Q meter
2) Resistances
3) Capacitances
4) Inductances.

Theory:

Basic Q-Meter Circuit

The Q meter is an instrument designed to measure some of the electrical properties of coils
and capacitors. The operation of this useful laboratory instrument is based on the familiar
characteristics of series-resonant circuit, namely, that the voltage across the coil or the
capacitor can be calibrated to read Q directly.
The voltage and current relationships of a series-resonant circuit are as shown. At
resonance, the following conditions are valid:
XC=XL
EC=IXC=IXL
Where
E=applied voltage
I=circuit current
Ec=voltage across

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capacitor Xc=capacitive
reactance XL=inductive
reactance R=coil resistance
The magnification of the circuit, by definition is
Q, where
Q=XL / R =XC/R=EC/E
Therefore if E is maintained at a constant and known level, a voltmeter connected
across the capacitor can be calibrated directly in terms of circuit Q.

Measurement Methods

There are three methods for connecting unknown components to the rest terminals of a Q
meter direct, series, and parallel. The type of component and its size determine the method
of connection.

Direct Connection

Most coils can be connected directly across the test terminals, exactly as shown in the basic
Q-circuit the circuit is resonated by adjusting either the oscillator frequency or the
resonating capacitor. The indicated Q is read directly from the "circuit Q" meter, modified
by the setting of the "multiply Q by" meter, modified by the setting of the "multiply Q by"
meter. When the last meter is set at the unity mark, the "circuit Q" meter reads the correct
value of Q directly.

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Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Series Connection

Low-impedance components, such as low -value resistors, small coils, and large capacitors,
are measured in series with the measuring circuit. The component to be measured, here
indicated by [Z], is placed in series with a stable work coil across the test terminals. (The
work coil is usually supplied with the instrument.) Two measurements are made: in the
first measurement the unknown is short-circuited by a small shorting strap and the circuit
is resonated, establishing a reference condition. The values of tuning capacitor (C1) and the
indicated Q (Q1) are noted. In the second measurement the shorting strap is removed and
the circuit is returned, giving a new value for the tuning capacitor (C1) and a change in the
Q value from Q1 and Q2.

For the reference condition,

Xc1=XL or 1/ωC1=ωL
And neglecting the resistance of the measuring circuit,
Q1=ωL/R=1/ωC1R
For the second measurement, the reactance of the unknown can be expressed in terms of
the new value of the tuning capacitor (C2) and the in-circuit value of the inductor (L). This
yield
Xs=Xc2-XL or Xs=1/ωC2- 1/ωC1
So that Xs=C1-C2/ωC1C2
Xs is inductive if C1>C2 and capacitive if C1<C2. The resistive component of the
unknown impedance can be found in terms of reactance Xs and the indicated values of
circuit Q, since
R1=X1/Q2 and R2=X2/Q2
Also, Rs=R2-R1= 1/ωC2Q2-1/ωC1Q1
So that Rs=C1Q1-C2Q2/ωC1C2Q1Q2
If the unknown is purely resistive, the setting of the tuning capacitor would not

have changed in the measuring process, and C1=C2. The equation for resistance reduces to
Rs=Q1-Q2/ωC1Q1Q2
If the unknown is small inductor, the value of the inductance is found from eq. and
equals Ls=C1-C2/ω2C1C2
The Q of coil is
Qs=Xs/R
and
Qs= (C1-C2) (Q1Q2)/C1Q1-C2Q2
If the unknown is large capacitor, its value is determined as,

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Cs=C1C2/C2-C1

Procedure:

1) Switch on the meter and measure the inductance and Q of the given coils.
2) Also measure the set of resistances and given capacitances.
3) For low impedance use series mode of operation and for high impedance use
parallel mode of operation.

Observation Table:.

Inductance Measurement

Sr.No. Actual Value of Inductor Measured Value Of Inductor

1
2
3

Capacitance Measurement

Sr.No. Actual Value of Capacitor Measured Value Of Capacitor

1
2
3

Resistance Measurement

Sr.No. Actual Value of Resistor Measured Value Of Resistor

1
2
3

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Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Calculations:

Conclusion:

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 7
Title: Study of Spectrum Analyzer

Date of Performance: Roll No:

Date of Submission: University Seat No:

Signature of Staff:

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 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 7
STUDY OF SPECTRUM ANALYZER

Title : Study of Spectrum Analyzer.

Aim:

To study of Spectrum analyzer.

  Harmonic analysis. 
  Test frequency response of filters & HF amplifier. 
 Spectrum of AM. 

Objectives:

1. Carrier & sideband power of AM signal

2. Percentage modulation
3. Channel bandwidth

Equipments:

1) AM generator
2) Spectrum analyzer.
3) Connecting probes, etc.

Theory:

The instrument providing frequency domain view is the spectrum analyzer. A

spectrum analyzer provides a calibrated graphical display on its CRT, with frequency on
the horizontal axis and amplitude (voltage) on the vertical axis. Spectrum analyzer uses
either a parallel filter bank or a swept frequency technique. In a parallel filter bank

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analyzer, the frequency range is covered by a series of filters whose central frequency and
bandwidth are so selected that overlap each other as shown in fig 7.1.

Typically, an audio analyzer will have 32 of these filters, each covering one third of an
octave. For wide band resolution analysis, particularly at RF or microwave signals, the
swept technique is preferred.

SPECTRUM ANALYZER USING SWEPT FREQUENCY TECHNIQUE /SUPER

HETERODYNE:

As shown in fig.7.2, the saw tooth generator provides the saw tooth voltage which drives
the horizontal axis element of the scope and this saw tooth Voltage is frequency controlled
element of the voltage tuned oscillator. As the oscillator sweeps from fmin tofmaxof its
frequency band at a linear recurring rate, it beats with the frequency component of the

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input signal and produce an IF, whenever a frequency component is met during its sweep.
The frequency component and voltage tuned oscillator frequency beats together to
produce a difference frequency, i.e IF. The IF corresponding to the component is amplified
and then applied to the vertical plates of the CRO, producing a display of amplitude versus
frequency. The spectrum produced on the CRO shown in fig.7.3.

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3. Frequency Resolution

Frequency resolution is the ability of the spectrum analyzer to separate signals closely
spaced in frequency. Two factors determine resolution, the bandwidth or selectivity of
the intermediate-frequency amplifier and the frequency stability of the spectrum
analyzer, as determined by the drift, residual FM, and phase noise of the local
oscillators.

4. Sweep Desensitization

Sweep desensitization is an effect, caused by scanning a spectrum analyzer too fast,

which results in loss of amplitude calibration, sensitivity, and resolution.
 
 Sensitivity

The ability of the swept superheterodyne spectrum analyzer to measure small signals is
determined by its own internally generated noise. Typical noise figures vary from 24 dB

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 at low frequency to 40 dB at 12 GHz. 

Noise power is proportional to bandwidth,and so the highestsensitivity to continuous-
 wave signals is obtained by using the narrowest bandwidths.
 
 Dynamic Range

The dynamic range of the spectrum analyzer expresses its ability to display the true
spectra of large and small signals simultaneously. The dynamic range that is free of
spurious signals can be defined as the ratio of the signal level to the noise level at signal
levels where spurious distortion products just begin to become visible above the noise

 level of the display.
 
 Harmonic Mixing

Harmonic mixing isused to extend the frequency range of the swept super heterodyne
spectrum analyzer.
Applications:

1. Radars.
2. Oceanography
3. Bio-medical

Procedure:

1) Switch ON the power supply.

2) Measure Vp-p of modulating signal generator.
3) Adjust DC bias of XR 2206 to 8v using point provided on panel.
4) Now connect output signal generator to modulating input of XR 2206.
5) Observe AM output by keeping pot of AM output at maximum position.& calculate
Modulation Index(m)
6) By varying amplitude of signal generator observe its effects on modulating index.
7) Connect the o/p of AM generator to the Spectrum Analyzer.
8) Set centre freq. equal to carrier freq.
9) Set Span as four times of modulating freq.
10) Observe spectrum of AM wave.
11) Measure channel power, PSD occupied B.W, Carrier Power, modulation Index and ACP.

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Observation Table:

1. Modulating Signal:

Amplitude:
Frequency:

2. Carrier Signal

Amplitude:
Frequency:

Sr. no. Parameter Value

1 Channel power
2 PSD
3 Occupied B.W
4 Carrier Power
5 Modulation Index Vc mVc/2 M

6 ACP dBc dBm

Lower
Upper

Calculations:

Result:

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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Conclusion:

Experiment No. 8
Title: Study of Frequency Counter

Date of Performance: Roll No:

Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I
Date of Submission: University Seat No:
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Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 8
STUDY OF FREQUENCY COUNTER.

Title : Frequency Counter.

Aim:
To study of Frequency Counter.

Objective:

1. Carry out measurements through different modes of measurement.

2. Measure frequency, time, ratio, events & pulse width.

Equipments:

Frequency counter
CRO

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Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Theory:

A frequency counter is an electronic instrument, or component of one, that is used

for measuring frequency. Frequency is defined as the number of events of a particular sort
occurring in a set period of time. Frequency counters usually measure the number of
oscillations or pulses per second in a repetitive electronic signal. Such an instrument is
sometimes referred to as a cymometer, particularly one of Chinese manufacture.

Operating principle:

It has two input channels. Channel one (input A) has a frequency range of 0.2Hz to
110MHz. Its high input impedance gives minimum loading effect. Channel two (input B) has
a pre-scaler & a frequency range from 50MHz to 1.3 GHz. Its 50 Ohms input impedance
matches with most of the source impedances in high frequency range. Selection of four gate
times (i.e. 10msec, 100msec, 1sec & 10sec) gives the best compromise between time &
resolution.
Front panel controls:

Front panel controls are functionally grouped for ease of operation and are clearly
designated their various functions are detailed below:

1. Display time:

This control helps the user to manually adjust the display time i.e. update of display. The
range of the display time is approximately 0.8sec to>8secs.

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Fig.8.1.Front panel of frequency counter

2. Overflow and gate led indicator:

Overflow led indicates that the result is greater than 8 digit or result is negative and
goes outside the 8 digit range. Gate LED when lit, indicates that the main gate is open and
measurement is bin progress.

3. Display:

8 DIGIT 0.56” green LED displays are provided to indicate frequency or period.

4. Unit annunciator:

The unit of measured frequency or period is indicated by this LED. Seconds display is
indicated by glowing msec and µsec both LEDs.

5.Input ‘B’:

The input for frequency measurement above 50MHz terminated by 50 ohms.

6.Input ‘A’:

This is input for frequency measurement below 110MHZ with input impedance 1 Mohms
shunted by 25pF.

7.Coupling:

This switch selects the type of coupling either AC or DC for signal fed at input ‘A’ BNC
socket.

8.Attenuation:

When this switch is in the position x1 the input signal at input ‘A’ BNC is directly connected

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to the input amplifier. When the switch is in the x10 position the signal is attenuated by a
factor approximately 10.

9.LPF:

With this switch the signal at input ‘A’ BNC is filtered through a low pass filter which has
the bandwidth of 100 KHz approximately.

10.Slope:

This switch selects the positive or negative going edge of input ‘A’ signal for triggering.

11.Gate time switch:

This switch selects the gate time of 0.01, 0.1, 1 & 10 secs.

12.Gate time LEDs:

Selected gate time is indicated by these LEDs.

13.Mode selector:

This switch enables the selection of the following different measurement modes:

A) FREQ A (Conv.)

This is a conventional frequency counting mode with low resolution at input ‘A’.

B) FREQ A

This is reciprocal counting frequency measurement mode with high resolution at input ‘A’.

C) FREQ B

This is frequency counting mode at input B for frequency 50MHz-1.3GHz.

D) PERIOD A

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This is period measurement mode of the signal at input A.

14. Mode LEDs:

Selected mode is indicated by these LEDs.

15. Frequency offset:

Push FREQ. OFFSET switch to toggle the function on & off. This function is enabled only for
FREQ. A (Conv.) and FREQ. B mode. When this function is selected (indicated by LED glow)
it will cause the counter to display the difference between the current frequency & the first
measurement after the function is turned on. Thus differential measurement is possible.

16. HOLD:

The HOLD function is provided to hold the measurement in progress. When HOLD is
enabled current measurement in progress will continue and display will update. New
measurement will not be initiated until HOLD IS RELEASED.

17. RESET:

It resets the current measurement

REAR panel controls:

1. Power on/off switch:

Turns the instrument on/off on mains code. When external DC input is applied at EXT.
BATT terminal this switch will turn on/off mains supply but external DC power will keep
instrument on.

2. Mains in:

The instrument is powered by connecting a mains cord to this 3 pin socket.

3. Fuse:

This is 100mA fast blow fuse in series with mains input for protection.

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4. Earth:

This is an external protective earth terminal.

5. EXT. batt:

This socket is used for giving 10-12V DC external power.

6. INT/EXT:

This switch selects either internal or external time base reference mode.

7. EXT IN:

The external time base input signal is given.

8. INT OUT:

The terminal time base reference signal is available at this BNC socket.

9. RS232 CONNECTOR:

Operating instructions & adjustments:

DEFAULT SETTINGS

After power ON self test the amount will select FREQ A (CONV) mode & 1 sec gate time.

FREQ. A (CONV) MEASUREMENT MODE

This is conventional frequency counting mode with 0.2Hz to 110MHz frequency

range at input A. this mode has facility of frequency offset measurement.
Frequency counters designed for radio frequencies (RF) are also common and
operate on the same principles as lower frequency counters. Often, they have more range
before they overflow. For very high (microwave) frequencies, many designs use a high-
speed prescaler to bring the signal frequency down to a point where normal digital

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circuitry can operate. The displays on such instruments take this into account so they still
display the correct value. Microwave frequency counters can currently measure
frequencies up to almost 100 GHz. Above these frequencies the signal to be measured is
combined in a mixer with the signal from a local oscillator, producing a signal at the
difference frequency, which is low enough to be measured directly.

Accuracy:

The accuracy of a frequency counter is strongly dependent on the stability of its

time base. Highly accurate circuits are used to generate this for instrumentation purposes,
usually using a quartz crystal oscillator within a sealed temperature-controlled chamber
known as a crystal oven or OCXO (oven controlled crystal oscillator). For higher accuracy
measurements, an external frequency reference tied to a very high stability oscillator such
as a GPS disciplined rubidium oscillator may be used..

I/O Interfaces:

I/O interfaces allow the user to send information to the frequency counter and
receive information from the frequency counter. Commonly-used interfaces include RS232,
USB, GPIB and Ethernet..

FEATURES:

Following are feature of the frequency counter:-

  Frequency range for measurement – 1Hz to 100MHz 
  Minimum input voltage. 
‘ATT’ opened :- 50mV (F : 10Hz to 50MHz)
 100mV (F: 10Hz to 100MHz) 
 ‘ATT’ closed :- 0.5V (F : 10Hz to 50MHz) 
1V (F: 10Hz to 100MHz)
  Maximum input voltage allowed : 100 Vpp (F <=100kHz) 
 Input impedance :- >500kHz 

Procedure:

1. Apply sine wave or a square wave wave generated by the frequency counter

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to the CRO.
2. Observe the frequency and amplitude obtained on CRO and compare with
input from frequency generator.
3. Vary the frequency or the amplitude on the frequency counter and observe
the output of the same on the CRO.

Observation Table

Waveform Amplitude(from Frequency(from amplitude(from Frequency(from

freq. counter) freq. counter) CRO) CRO)
Sine
Square

Calculations:

Duty cycle(D) calculation

D =ton/ttotal

1. For sine wave

2. For square wave

Conclusion:

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Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 9
Title: Calibration of Digital Voltmeter (DVM)
Electronic Measuring Instruments and Tools S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I
Date of Performance: Roll No:
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(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 9
CALIBRATION OF DIGITAL VOLTMETER (DVM)

Title : Calibration Of DVM,

Aim:

To Calibrate Digital Voltmeter.

1) Calibrate DVM for DC Voltage Measurement
2) Calibrate DVM for AC Voltage Measurement

Objective:

1) 3½ Digit DMM
2) 6 ½ Digit DMM, Connecting Probes etc

Equipments:

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Network Analyzer

Theory:

Calibration:

Calibration is the comparison of measurement and Test Equipment (M & TE) or a

measurement Standard of unknown accuracy to a measurement Standard of known
accuracy to detect, correlate, report or eliminate by adjustment in any variation in the
accuracy of instrument being compared. It is process of comparing a measurement device
whose accuracy is unknown or has not been verified to one with known characteristics.
The purpose of calibration are to ensure that a measurement device is functioning within
the limit tolerances that specified by its manufacturer, characterize its performance or
ensure that it has the accuracy required to perform its intended task.
Calibration is an essential process to be undertaken for each instrument and measuring
system as frequently as is considered necessary. A reference standard, at least ten times
more accurate than instrument under test is normally used.
The Calibration consists of reading the standard and test instruments simultaneously when
the input quantity is held constant at several values over the range of the test instrument.
The calibration is better carried out under stipulated environmental conditions. All modern
electronic instruments are provided with built in calibration facility.
While calibrating it is customary to take readings in both ascending and descending order.
Once the ‘Best fit’ calibration is drawn, the linearity is defined as the proportionality
between input and output quantities. If the sensitivity is constant for all values from zero to
full scale of the measuring system, then the calibration characteristic is linear and it
isstraight line passing through zero. In case , there is a zero error, the characteristic
assumes the form of equation y= mx + c, where c is the zero error.

Types of Calibration:

There are 2 fundamental types of calibration , report and limit tolerance.

i. Report Calibration:

A Report Calibration is the type issued by NIST when it tests a customer’s instrument. It
provides the results of measurements and a statement of measurement uncertainty. Non

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government calibration laboratories also issue report calibrations. It provides no

Guarantee of performance beyond the time when the data was taken.

ii. Limit Tolerance Calibration:

Limit Tolerance Calibrations are the type most commonly used in industry. The purpose of
a limit calibration is to compare an instrument’s measured performance against nominal
performance specifications. If an instrument submitted for calibration doesn’t conform to
required specification, it is considered to be received “out of tolerance”. It is then repaired
or adjusted to correct the out of tolerance condition, retested and returned to its owner. A
calibration label is applied to indicate when the calibration was performed and when next
service will be due. This type of calibration is a certification that guarantees performance
for a given period.
Procedure:

Voltage calibration:

1. Adjust meter range to 0- 30 V.

2. Bring the supply voltage to 0 V, check the meter reading.If the reading is not zero,
bring it to zero by adjusting the fine adjustment pot. Bring supply voltage to 20 V
and again check meter reading.
3. Repeat the above step after changing the supply voltage to 20V.
4. Repeat the steps 2 &3 at least thrice or till maximum accuracy is attained.
5. Repeat step 2 for immediate voltages e.g. 4V, 8V etc.
6. Now take reading at intervals of 24V on the uncalibrated calibrated meters.

Current calibration:

1. Adjust meter range to 0- 30 ma.

2. Bring the supply voltage to 0 ma, check the meter reading. If the reading is not zero,
bring it to zero by adjusting the fine adjustment pot. Bring supply voltage to 30 ma
and again check meter reading.
3. Repeat the above step after changing the supply voltage to 30mV.
4. Repeat the steps 2 &3 at least thrice or till maximum accuracy is attained.
5. Repeat step 2 for immediate voltages e.g. 4mV, 8mV etc.
6. Now take reading at intervals of 24V on the uncalibrated calibrated meters.
Observation Table:

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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

1) Voltage Calibration:
Voltage Calibration
Sr.No. Input voltage
3½ Digit DMM 6 ½ Digit DMM

1.

2.

3.

4.

1) Current Calibration:
Current Calibration
Sr.No. Input voltage
3½ Digit DMM 6 ½ Digit DMM

1.

2.

3.

4.

Conclusion:

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Experiment No. 10
Title: Study Of Function Generator

DateMeasuring
Electronic of Performance:
Instruments and Tools Roll No: S.E. (2014 Course) Sem-I

Date of Submission: University Seat No:

 JSPM’s
Imperial College of Engineering and Research, Wagholi, Pune.
(Approved by AICTE, Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
Gat No.720, Pune-Nagar road, Wagholi, Pune-412207
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 10
STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR

Title : Study of Function Generator.

Aim:

To study of Function generator.

Objective:

Generate signal of required amplitude, frequency, duty cycle, offset etc.

Equipment:

Function generator, CRO, Probes.

Theory:

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Fig. 10.1:Block Diagram of Function generator

A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of producing different types
of waveforms as its output signal. The most common output waveforms are sine-waves,
triangular waves, square waves, and sawtooth waves. The frequencies of such

waveforms may be adjusted from a fraction of a hertz to several hundred kHz. The block
diagram of a function generator is given in figure. In this instrument the frequency is
controlled by varying the magnitude of current that drives the integrator. This instrument
provides different types of waveforms (such as sinusoidal, triangular and square waves) as
its output signal with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.
The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current supply sources. Current
supply source 1 supplies constant current to the integrator whose output voltage rises
linearly with time. An increase or decrease in the current increases or reduces the slope of
the output voltage and thus controls the frequency.
The voltage comparator multivibrator changes state at a predetermined maximum
level, of the integrator output voltage. This change cuts-off the current supply from supply
source 1 and switches to the supply source 2. The current supply source 2 supplies a
reverse current to the integrator so that its output drops linearly with time. When the
output attains a predetermined level, the voltage comparator again changes state and
switches on to the current supply source. The output of the integrator is a triangular wave
whose frequency depends on the current supplied by the constant current supply sources.
The comparator output provides a square wave of the same frequency as output. The
resistance diode network changes the slope of the triangular wave as its amplitude changes

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and produces a sinusoidal wave with less than 1% distortion.

Procedure:

1. Use a BNC coaxial cable to connect the function generator OUTPUT (lower right corner of
panel) to the CH 1 input of the oscilloscope.

2. Set up the 'scope to view the signal on channel 1 with dc coupling.

3. Adjust the 'scope trigger level to obtain a stable waveform.

4. Observe the sine wave and verify that the amplitude and frequency are as expected from
the function generator controls.

5. Explore the effect on the waveform of the following controls.

6. Vary only one control at a time andreturn it to its original value before changing to the
next.

7. Depress the (square), (triangle), and (sine) buttons and observe the waveforms.

8. Use the knob to change AMPL. Observe the amplitude changes.

9. Use the knob to change the OFFSET value. Note the change in dc level.

10. Set to (square), use the knob to change the DUTY CYCLE

11. Return to (sine) and change the FREQUENCY using the knob; note how you need to
use the small arrow buttons to get the full range (100 µHz – 15 MHz).

Observation Table:

Sr.No. Waveform Amplitude and Frequency Amplitude and Frequency

on FG on CRO
1. Sine
2. Triangular
3. Square

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Conclusion:

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