WHO Vaccination Guide

Immunization in Practice
A practical guide for health staff

2015 update
1
Diseases and vaccines
2
The vaccine cold chain
3
Module 5: Managing an immunization session
Ensuring safe injections

Whenever possible, the immunization station itself should be separated from other
activities so that crying children do not cause distress to those waiting. Ideally, the
whole circuit should have a separate entrance and exit, and be well marked with signs,
ropes and other visual aids through which community members or health workers may
4
guide those attending.
In practice, workplace situations are often less than ideal. Large numbers of people
crowding the area may cause safety issues, as well as confusion and stress, not just for
the health worker, but also for everyone concerned. Careful preparation and a positive,
Microplanning for reaching

welcoming manner help ensure a successful immunization session.
1.3 Prepare supplementary materials and equipment

every community
5
A list of needed materials should be reviewed before all sessions (see Section 7 of this
module for a proposed checklist). Figure 5.2 shows an example immunization station.
Figure 5.2 Immunization station: example arrangement Managing an

immunization session
6
Immunization Monitoring National EPI
checklist chart schedule
Safety box of needle

and syringe disposal
Box of AD
Box of reconstitution
syringes
Monitoring and surveillance
7
Seat for caregiver/child
syringes AEFI kit
Tally
sheet
Vaccine carrier Water container
and foam pad
Rubbish
Basin
Soap
Partnering with
communities
Immunization in practice (5)5
Module5_Proof4.indd 5 03/09/2015 17:32

WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Immunization in practice: a practical guide for health staff – 2015 update.
Contents: Module 1: Target diseases and vaccines -- Module 2: The vaccine cold chain -- Module 3: Ensuring safe
injections -- Module 4: micro planning for reaching every community -- Module 5: Managing an immunization
session --Module 6: Monitoring and surveillance -- Module 7: Partnering with communities
1.Vaccination. 2.Immunization Programs. 3.Vaccines. 4.Cold Chain. 5.Injections – standards. 6.Handbooks.

7.World Health Organization.
ISBN 978 92 4 154909 7 (NLM classification: WA 115)
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Printed in China
Contents
Contents
Abbreviations and acronyms.........................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................................................v
Preface.................................................................................................................................................................vi
Module 1: Target diseases and vaccines
1. Diphtheria................................................................................................................................................. (1)7
2. Haemophilus influenzae type b disease.......................................................................................... (1)11
3. Hepatitis B............................................................................................................................................... (1)15
4. Human papillomavirus infection and cervical cancer.................................................................. (1)19
5. Japanese encephalitis.......................................................................................................................... (1)23
6. Measles.................................................................................................................................................... (1)28
7. Meningococcal disease........................................................................................................................ (1)32
8. Mumps..................................................................................................................................................... (1)37
9. Pertussis .................................................................................................................................................. (1)40
10. Pneumococcal disease....................................................................................................................... (1)43
11. Poliomyelitis ........................................................................................................................................ (1)48
12. Rotavirus gastroenteritis................................................................................................................... (1)51
13. Rubella and congenital rubella syndrome .................................................................................. (1)56
14. Seasonal influenza.............................................................................................................................. (1)60
15. Tetanus.................................................................................................................................................. (1)64
16. Tuberculosis.......................................................................................................................................... (1)69
17. Yellow fever.......................................................................................................................................... (1)73
18. Opportunities for integration of services: EPI Plus and vitamin A deficiency...................... (1)77
19. The integrated Global Action Plan for Pneumonia and Diarrhoea ........................................ (1)80
Module 2: The vaccine cold chain
1. The cold chain.......................................................................................................................................... (2)3
2. Health facility cold chain equipment................................................................................................. (2)7
3. Temperature monitoring devices...................................................................................................... (2)15
4. Monitoring cold chain temperatures .............................................................................................. (2)23
5. Arranging vaccines inside cold chain equipment......................................................................... (2)27
6. Basic maintenance of cold chain equipment................................................................................. (2)39
7. The Shake Test........................................................................................................................................ (2)44
Module 3: Ensuring safe injections
1. Using safe injection equipment and techniques............................................................................ (3)3
2. Preventing needle-stick injuries........................................................................................................ (3)10
3. Disposing of used syringes and needles......................................................................................... (3)13
Annex 3.1 Unsafe immunization practices.......................................................................................... (3)22
Immunization in practice iii

Contents
Module 4: Microplanning for reaching every community

1. Making or updating a map................................................................................................................... (4)3
2. Identifying priority health centres and communities.................................................................... (4)7
3. Identifying barriers to access and utilization................................................................................. (4)11
4. Identifying solutions and preparing a workplan........................................................................... (4)14
5. Making a session plan.......................................................................................................................... (4)17
6. Finding defaulters................................................................................................................................. (4)23
Annex 4.1 Calculations used in determining needed session frequency.................................... (4)24
1. Preparing for the session....................................................................................................................... (5)3
2. Communicating with caregivers......................................................................................................... (5)9
3. Assessing infants for vaccination...................................................................................................... (5)14
4. Giving vaccinations............................................................................................................................... (5)17
5. Closing the session............................................................................................................................... (5)30
6. Recording data....................................................................................................................................... (5)32
7. Using the immunization session checklist...................................................................................... (5)34
Module 6: Monitoring and surveillance
1. Tools for monitoring............................................................................................................................... (6)3
2. Tools for surveillance............................................................................................................................ (6)15
3. Monthly summary reports.................................................................................................................. (6)25
4. Analysis of monitoring data............................................................................................................... (6)31
5. Analysis of surveillance data.............................................................................................................. (6)38
Annex 6.1 Common problems associated with poor access and utilization,
and possible solutions.............................................................................................................................. (6)43
Annex 6.2 Immunization service supervisory visit checklist.......................................................... (6)45
Module 7: Partnering with communities
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................. (7)3
2. Get started................................................................................................................................................ (7)5
3. Learn about the community................................................................................................................. (7)6
4. Plan services with communities.......................................................................................................... (7)9
5. Involve communities in monitoring and surveillance................................................................. (7)12
6. Inform and engage community members..................................................................................... (7)15
7. Address resistant groups..................................................................................................................... (7)18
Annex 7.1 Community meetings........................................................................................................... (7)21
Annex 7.2 Checklist for NGO involvement in immunization.......................................................... (7)24
iv Immunization in practice
Abbreviations and acronyms

AD Auto-disable (syringes or prefilled injection devices)
AEFI Adverse Event Following Immunization
AIDS Acquired immune-deficiency syndrome
BCG Bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccine that protects against tuberculosis
CRS Congenital rubella syndrome
CTC Controlled temperature chain
DOTS Directly observed treatment schedule for tuberculosis
dT Diphtheria-tetanus toxoids vaccine with lower concentration of
diphtheria toxoid
DT Diphtheria-tetanus toxoids vaccine
DTP A combination vaccine containing diphtheria, tetanus toxoid, and
pertussis vaccines
DTP+HepB A combination vaccine containing DTP and hepatitis B vaccines
DTP+HepB+Hib A combination vaccine containing DTP, HepB and Haemophilus
influenzae type b vaccines
DTR Electronic temperature logger
EPI Expanded Programme on Immunization
GAPPD Integrated Global Action Plan for Pneumonia and Diarrhoea
HC Health centre
HepB Hepatitis B
Hib Haemophilus influenzae type b
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
HPV Human papillomavirus
ID Intradermal
ILR Ice-lined refrigerators
IM Intramuscular
IPV Inactivated polio vaccine
IU International unit (unit in vitamin A supplements)
JE Japanese encephalitis
M Measles only vaccine
MCV Measles-containing vaccine
Men (as in MenA) Meningitis
MM A combination vaccine containing measles and mumps vaccines
MMR A combination vaccine containing measles, mumps, and rubella
vaccines
MMRV A combination vaccine containing measles, mumps, rubella and
varicella vaccines
MNT Maternal and neonatal tetanus
MR A combination vaccine containing measles and rubella vaccines
NGO Nongovernmental organization
NIDs National Immunization Days (for polio eradication)
OPV Oral polio vaccine
Immunization in practice v
ORS Oral rehydration solution

PAB Protected at birth
PATH Program for Appropriate Technology in Health
PCV Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines
RUP Reuse prevention feature
RV Rotavirus vaccine
SC Subcutaneous
TB Tuberculosis
Td Tetanus-diphtheria toxoids vaccine
TT Tetanus toxoid vaccine
TTCV Tetanus toxoid-containing vaccine
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
USA United States of America
VAD Vitamin A deficiency
VAPP Vaccine associated paralytic polio
VVM Vaccine vial monitor
WHO World Health Organization
WPV Wild polioviruses
YF Yellow fever
vi Immunization in practice
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
This revised edition of Immunization in Practice is the result of team work between
WHO and other GAVI alliance partners, particularly UNICEF, CDC, Program for
Appropriate Technologies in Health (PATH) and John Snow Incorporated (JSI),
and many other individuals who are committed to improving immunization services
throughout the world. We are especially grateful to JSI for their support in the
development of Module 7 and PATH for their support to Module 2.
Ms Jhilmil Bahl coordinated the development of this publication for WHO

headquarters, along with several staff working in headquarters and regional offices in
the immunization team.
We would like to thank Dr Amulya Reddy who worked as a consultant on this project
providing technical support and oversight. We are thankful to Ms Marg Estcourt who
provided insights particularly on Module 5.
The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to all the many people who have
contributed to the development of this publication.
Immunization in practice vii

Preface
Preface
With the previous edition of Immunization in Practice (IIP) having been translated
and used throughout the world, we realized the tremendous responsibility we had
when we embarked on this new version. This new edition has seven modules instead
of eight as we concluded that merging target diseases and vaccines would make the
flow more useful for our readers. Several new vaccines that have become more readily
available and used in recent years have been added. Also the section on integration
with other health interventions has been expanded as exciting opportunities and
experiences have become evident in the years following the previous edition.
There were also some fundamental issues to resolve. The first was to decide whether
IIP should be a training document and therefore written in a teaching style, or remain
a practical and resource information guide. The decision was that it should, as before,
remain as a book to turn to for information rather than one to be used for training
purposes. Nonetheless it is very suitable as a resource during immunization workshops.
The second issue was defining the target audience. IIP is obviously meant to be used
by people at the health service delivery level and it needs therefore to be as practical
as possible. Being aware, however, that the book is also used at almost every level, we
decided that the target audience would be “health facility and sub-national level”, that
is for those at the grassroots and the next level up. In reality there is a lot of overlap
between the functions of these two levels, so it has not always been necessary to present
material differently.
The third issue was to decide what to leave out. We have not tried to include every
vaccine available today, only the ones in common use, nor have we provided technical
material on supplementary immunization strategies as these are dealt with elsewhere.
The revision of IIP was intended to meet the demand to improve immunization
services so as to reach more infants in a sustainable way, building upon the experiences
of polio eradication. We have thus included material adapted from polio on planning,
monitoring and use of data to improve the service, which can be used at any level.
Revising IIP has been a team exercise. There are contributions from a large number of
experts, organizations and institutions, and we thank everyone who has contributed
for their time and patience in reviewing the many draft versions.
IIP is firmly dedicated to the hundreds of thousands of health workers throughout the
world who are responsible for protecting countless numbers of children from vaccine
preventable diseases. The message to them from all contributors to IIP is: “You are
already doing a great job, and this booklet is meant to help you use your time and
resources even better and improve your services”.
viii Immunization in practice

1: Target diseases and vaccines
1 Target diseases
and vaccines
About this module…
This module discusses target diseases for immunization programmes and describes the vaccines
used to prevent them. The diseases are listed in alphabetical order. Where combination vaccines
are recommended, their details are presented in summary tables within the relevant sections.
Each country determines its own immunization schedule and chooses vaccine presentations.
Health workers should always refer to their national schedules and vaccine handling instructions
when providing immunization services.
The vaccine summary tables provided in this module show schedule recommendations
from WHO position paper summaries, which are available online at http://www.who.int/
immunization/policy/immunization_tables/en/index.html.
Immunization programmes provide opportunities to promote integrated services and improve
the overall health of recipients. Different sections of this module introduce some of these: human
papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination as an opportunity to link to cervical cancer control and
adolescent health services; Vitamin A supplementation as part of the Expanded Programme on
Immunization (EPI) Plus; and pneumonia and diarrhoea control measures complementary to
immunization as part of the 2013 integrated Global Action Plan for Pneumonia and Diarrhoea.
Contents
1. Diphtheria ....................................................................................................... (1)7
1.1 What is diphtheria? .......................................................................................................................... (1)7
1.2 How is diphtheria spread? .............................................................................................................. (1)7
1.3 What are the symptoms and signs of diphtheria? .................................................................... (1)7
1.4 What are the complications of diphtheria? ................................................................................ (1)7
1.5 What is the treatment for diphtheria? ......................................................................................... (1)7
1.6 How is diphtheria prevented? ....................................................................................................... (1)8
1.7 What are diphtheria-containing vaccines? ................................................................................. (1)8
1.8 How safe is diphtheria vaccine and what are the potential adverse events
following immunization? ................................................................................................................ (1)8
1.9 When are diphtheria-containing vaccines administered?...................................................... (1)9
2. Haemophilus influenzae type b disease ....................................................... (1)11
2.1 What is Haemophilus influenzae type b? ................................................................................... (1)11
2.2 How is Hib spread? ......................................................................................................................... (1)11
2.3 What are the symptoms and signs of Hib disease? ................................................................ (1)11
2.4 What are the complications of Hib disease? ............................................................................ (1)11
2.5 What is the treatment for Hib disease? ..................................................................................... (1)12
2.6 How is Hib disease prevented? .................................................................................................... (1)12
2.7 What is needed for global Hib disease control? ...................................................................... (1)12
2.8 What are Hib-containing vaccines? ............................................................................................ (1)12
2.9 How safe is Hib vaccine and what are the potential adverse events
following immunization? .............................................................................................................. (1)13
2.10 When is Hib-containing vaccine administered?...................................................................... (1)13
3. Hepatitis B .................................................................................................... (1)15
3.1 What is hepatitis B? ........................................................................................................................ (1)15
3.2 How is hepatitis B spread? ............................................................................................................ (1)15
3.3 What are the symptoms and signs of hepatitis B? .................................................................. (1)15
3.4 What are the complications of hepatitis B? .............................................................................. (1)15
3.5 What is the treatment for hepatitis B? ....................................................................................... (1)15
3.6 How is hepatitis B prevented? ..................................................................................................... (1)16
3.7 What are hepatitis B-containing vaccines? .............................................................................. (1)16
3.8 How safe is HepB vaccine and what are the potential adverse events
3.9 When are HepB-containing vaccines administered? ............................................................. (1)17
4. Human papillomavirus infection and cervical cancer ................................. (1)19
4.1 What is human papillomavirus? .................................................................................................. (1)19
4.2 How is HPV spread? ........................................................................................................................ (1)19
(1)2 Immunization in practice

4.3 What are the symptoms and signs of cervical cancer? .......................................................... (1)19
4.4 What is the treatment for cervical cancer? ............................................................................... (1)19
4.5 What can be done to prevent and control cervical cancer? ................................................. (1)20
4.6 What is HPV vaccine? ..................................................................................................................... (1)20
4.7 How safe is HPV vaccine and what are the potential adverse events following
immunization? ................................................................................................................................. (1)21
4.8 When is HPV vaccine administered? .......................................................................................... (1)21
5. Japanese encephalitis .................................................................................. (1)23
5.1 What is Japanese encephalitis? ................................................................................................... (1)23
5.2 How is Japanese encephalitis spread?....................................................................................... (1)23
5.3 What are the symptoms and signs of Japanese encephalitis? ............................................ (1)23
5.4 What are the complications of Japanese encephalitis?......................................................... (1)23
5.5 What is the treatment for Japanese encephalitis?.................................................................. (1)24
5.6 How is Japanese encephalitis prevented?................................................................................. (1)24
5.7 What is Japanese encephalitis vaccine?..................................................................................... (1)24
5.8 How safe is Japanese encephalitis vaccine and what are the potential adverse
events following immunization?................................................................................................. (1)25
5.9 When is Japanese encephalitis vaccine administered?.......................................................... (1)25
6. Measles ......................................................................................................... (1)28
6.1 What is measles? ............................................................................................................................. (1)28
6.2 How is measles spread? ................................................................................................................ (1)28
6.3 What are the symptoms and signs of measles? ...................................................................... (1)28
6.4 What are the complications of measles? .................................................................................. (1)28
6.5 What is the treatment for measles? ........................................................................................... (1)29
6.6 How is measles prevented? .......................................................................................................... (1)29
6.7 What is needed for global measles control? ............................................................................ (1)29
6.8 What are measles-containing vaccines? ................................................................................... (1)29
6.9 How safe is measles vaccine and what are the potential adverse events
6.10 When are measles-containing vaccines administered? ........................................................ (1)30
7. Meningococcal disease ................................................................................. (1)32
7.1 What is meningococcal disease? ................................................................................................ (1)32
7.2 How is meningococcal disease spread? .................................................................................... (1)32
7.3 What are the symptoms and signs of meningococcal disease? .......................................... (1)32
7.4 What are the complications of meningococcal disease? ...................................................... (1)32
7.5 What is the treatment for meningococcal disease? ............................................................... (1)33
7.6 How is meningococcal meningitis prevented? ....................................................................... (1)33
7.7 What is needed for meningococcal disease control? ............................................................ (1)33
7.8 What is meningococcal vaccine? ................................................................................................ (1)33
7.9 How safe are meningococcal vaccines and what are the potential adverse events
7.10 When are meningococcal vaccines administered? ................................................................ (1)34

8. Mumps .......................................................................................................... (1)37

8.1 What is mumps? .............................................................................................................................. (1)37
8.2 How is mumps spread? ................................................................................................................. (1)37
8.3 What are the symptoms and signs of mumps? ....................................................................... (1)37
8.4 What are the complications of mumps? ................................................................................... (1)37
8.5 What is the treatment for mumps? ............................................................................................ (1)37
8.6 How is mumps prevented? ........................................................................................................... (1)38
8.7 What is needed for global mumps control? ............................................................................. (1)38
8.8 What are mumps-containing vaccines? .................................................................................... (1)38
8.9 How safe is mumps vaccine and what are the potential adverse events
8.10 When are mumps-containing vaccines administered? ......................................................... (1)39
9. Pertussis ....................................................................................................... (1)40

9.1 What is pertussis? ........................................................................................................................... (1)40
9.2 How is pertussis spread? ............................................................................................................... (1)40
9.3 What are the symptoms and signs of pertussis? ..................................................................... (1)40
9.4 What are the complications of pertussis? ................................................................................. (1)40
9.5 What is the treatment for pertussis? .......................................................................................... (1)40
9.6 How is pertussis prevented? ........................................................................................................ (1)41
9.7 What are pertussis-containing vaccines? ................................................................................. (1)41
9.8 How safe is pertussis vaccine and what are the potential adverse events
9.9 When are pertussis-containing vaccines administered? ...................................................... (1)41
10. Pneumococcal disease ................................................................................ (1)43
10.1 What is pneumococcal disease? ................................................................................................. (1)43
10.2 How is pneumococcal disease spread? ..................................................................................... (1)43
10.3 What are the symptoms and signs of pneumococcal disease? ........................................... (1)43
10.4 What are the complications of pneumococcal disease? ....................................................... (1)44
10.5 What is the treatment for pneumococcal disease? ................................................................ (1)44
10.6 How is pneumococcal disease prevented? .............................................................................. (1)44
10.7 What is needed for global pneumococcal disease control? ................................................. (1)44
10.8 What is pneumococcal conjugate vaccine? ............................................................................. (1)44
10.9 How safe is pneumococcal conjugate vaccine and what are the potential
adverse events following immunization? ................................................................................. (1)45
10.10 When is pneumococcal conjugate vaccine administered? .................................................. (1)46
11. Poliomyelitis ............................................................................................... (1)48
11.1 What is poliomyelitis? .................................................................................................................... (1)48
11.2 How is polio spread? ...................................................................................................................... (1)48
11.3 What are the symptoms and signs of polio? ............................................................................ (1)48
11.4 What is the treatment for polio? ................................................................................................. (1)48
11.5 How is polio prevented? ............................................................................................................... (1)48

11.6 What is polio vaccine? ................................................................................................................... (1)49

11.7 How safe is polio vaccine and what are the potential adverse events
11.8 When is polio vaccine administered? ........................................................................................ (1)49
12. Rotavirus gastroenteritis ........................................................................... (1)51
12.1 What is rotavirus gastroenteritis? ............................................................................................... (1)51
12.2 How is rotavirus spread? ............................................................................................................... (1)51
12.3 What are the symptoms and signs of rotavirus gastroenteritis? ........................................ (1)51
12.4 What are the complications of rotavirus gastroenteritis? ..................................................... (1)51
12.5 What is the treatment for rotavirus gastroenteritis? .............................................................. (1)51
12.6 How is rotavirus gastroenteritis prevented? ............................................................................ (1)52
12.7 What is needed for global rotavirus gastroenteritis control? .............................................. (1)52
12.8 What is rotavirus vaccine? ............................................................................................................ (1)52
12.9 How safe are rotavirus vaccines and what are the potential adverse reactions? ........... (1)53
12.10 When is rotavirus vaccine administered? ................................................................................. (1)54
13. Rubella and congenital rubella syndrome ................................................. (1)56
13.1 What are rubella and congenital rubella syndrome? ............................................................. (1)56
13.2 How is rubella virus spread? ......................................................................................................... (1)56
13.3 What are the symptoms and signs of rubella and CRS? ........................................................ (1)56
13.4 What are the complications of rubella? .................................................................................... (1)56
13.5 What is the treatment for rubella and CRS? ............................................................................. (1)57
13.6 How are rubella and CRS prevented? ........................................................................................ (1)57
13.7 What is needed for global rubella and CRS disease control? ............................................... (1)57
13.8 What are rubella-containing vaccines? ..................................................................................... (1)57
13.9 How safe is rubella-containing vaccines and what are the potential adverse events? ..... (1)57
13.10 When is rubella-containing vaccine administered? ............................................................... (1)58
14. Seasonal influenza ..................................................................................... (1)60
14.1 What is seasonal influenza? ......................................................................................................... (1)60
14.2 How is seasonal influenza spread? ............................................................................................. (1)60
14.3 What are the symptoms and signs of seasonal influenza? ................................................... (1)60
14.4 What are the complications of seasonal influenza? ............................................................... (1)60
14.5 What is the treatment for seasonal influenza? ........................................................................ (1)60
14.6 How is seasonal influenza prevented? ...................................................................................... (1)61
14.7 What is seasonal influenza vaccine? .......................................................................................... (1)61
14.8 How safe are inactivated influenza vaccines and what are the potential
adverse events following immunization? ................................................................................. (1)61
14.9 When are inactivated influenza vaccines administered? ...................................................... (1)62
15. Tetanus ....................................................................................................... (1)64
15.1 What is tetanus? .............................................................................................................................. (1)64
15.2 How is tetanus spread? ................................................................................................................. (1)64
15.3 What are the symptoms and signs of tetanus? ....................................................................... (1)64

15.4 What are the complications of tetanus? ................................................................................... (1)65

15.5 What is the treatment for tetanus? ............................................................................................ (1)65
15.6 How is tetanus prevented? ........................................................................................................... (1)65
15.7 What is needed for global tetanus disease control? .............................................................. (1)65
15.8 What are tetanus toxoid-containing vaccines? ....................................................................... (1)66
15.9 How safe is tetanus toxoid vaccine and what are the potential adverse events
15.10 When are tetanus toxoid-containing vaccines given? ........................................................... (1)66
16. Tuberculosis ................................................................................................ (1)69
16.1 What is tuberculosis? ...................................................................................................................... (1)69
16.2 How is TB spread? ........................................................................................................................... (1)69
16.3 What are the symptoms and signs of TB? ................................................................................. (1)69
16.4 What are the complications of TB? ............................................................................................. (1)70
16.5 What is the treatment for TB? ...................................................................................................... (1)70
16.6 How is TB prevented? ..................................................................................................................... (1)70
16.7 What is BCG vaccine? ..................................................................................................................... (1)70
16.8 How safe is BCG vaccine and what are the potential adverse events
16.9 When is BCG vaccine administered? .......................................................................................... (1)71
17. Yellow fever ................................................................................................ (1)73
17.1 What is yellow fever? ..................................................................................................................... (1)73
17.2 How is yellow fever spread? ......................................................................................................... (1)73
17.3 What are the symptoms and signs of yellow fever? ............................................................... (1)73
17.4 What are the complications of yellow fever? ........................................................................... (1)73
17.5 What is the treatment for yellow fever? .................................................................................... (1)73
17.6 How is yellow fever prevented? .................................................................................................. (1)74
17.7 What is yellow fever vaccine? ...................................................................................................... (1)74
17.8 How safe is yellow fever vaccine and what are the potential adverse events
17.9 When is yellow fever vaccine administered? ........................................................................... (1)75
18. Opportunities for integration of services: EPI Plus and
vitamin A deficiency ................................................................................... (1)77
18.1 Vitamin A deficiency ...................................................................................................................... (1)77
18.2 What is vitamin A? .......................................................................................................................... (1)77
18.3 When does vitamin A deficiency occur? ................................................................................... (1)78
18.4 What are symptoms and signs of vitamin A deficiency? ...................................................... (1)78
18.5 What is vitamin A supplementation? ......................................................................................... (1)78
18.6 Are there any side effects of vitamin A supplements? .......................................................... (1)78
18.7 What are the opportunities to link vitamin A and routine immunization? ...................... (1)79
19. The integrated Global Action Plan for Pneumonia and Diarrhoea ........... (1)80

1 Diphtheria
1.1 What is diphtheria?
Diphtheria is caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae. This bacterium

produces a toxin that can harm or destroy human body tissues and organs. One type
of diphtheria affects the throat and sometimes the tonsils. Another type, which is more
common in the tropics, causes ulcers on the skin.
Diphtheria affects people of all ages, but most often it strikes unimmunized children. In
temperate climates, diphtheria tends to occur during the colder months.
1.2 How is diphtheria spread?
Diphtheria is transmitted from person to person through close physical and respiratory
contact.
1.3 What are the symptoms and signs of diphtheria?
When diphtheria affects the throat and tonsils, the early symptoms are sore throat, loss
of appetite and slight fever. Within two to three days, a bluish-white or grey membrane
forms in the throat and on the tonsils. This membrane sticks to the soft palate of the
throat and can bleed. If there is bleeding, the membrane may become greyish-green or
black. The patient may either recover at this point or develop severe weakness and die
within six to 10 days. Patients with severe diphtheria do not develop a high fever but may
develop a swollen neck and obstructed airway.
1.4 What are the complications of diphtheria?
The most severe complication of diphtheria is respiratory obstruction followed by death.

During the early phase of the illness, or even weeks later, patients may develop abnormal
heartbeats that can result in heart failure. Some patients with diphtheria experience
inflammation of the heart muscle and valves, and this may lead to chronic heart disease
and heart failure.
1.5 What is the treatment for diphtheria?
Children who develop diphtheria should be given diphtheria antitoxin and such antibiotics
as erythromycin or penicillin. They should be isolated to avoid exposing others to the
disease. About two days after starting antibiotic treatment, patients are no longer infectious.

To confirm the diagnosis, health workers should obtain throat cultures from suspected
cases. However, treatment should begin urgently without waiting for culture results.
1.6 How is diphtheria prevented?
The most effective way to prevent diphtheria is to maintain a high level of

immunization in the community. In most countries, diphtheria vaccine is given in
combination with tetanus and pertussis vaccines (DTP). Some countries now use
pentavalent vaccine that combines DTP with hepatitis B (HepB) and Haemophilus
influenzae type b (Hib) vaccines. Pentavalent (DTP+HepB+Hib) vaccine reduces the
number of injections needed for infant immunization. Sections 1.7–1.9 and Table 1.1
below describe diphtheria-containing vaccines.
1.7 What are diphtheria-containing vaccines?
Diphtheria-containing vaccines include: the combination with tetanus toxoid (DT/

dT); the combination with tetanus and pertussis (DTP); and the combination with
tetanus, pertussis, hepatitis B and Haemophilus influenzae type b (pentavalent). They
are supplied in single- and multi-dose presentations. Pentavalent vaccine with a freeze-
dried (also called lyophilized) Hib component requires reconstitution: see Module 5
(Managing an immunization session), Section 4.2 for details. They must be stored
between +2 °C and +8 °C without being frozen. Pentavalent vaccine is freeze-sensitive.
If freezing is suspected, the “Shake Test” should be performed to determine whether
a vial is safe to use (see Module 2 (The vaccine cold chain), Section 7). Opened multi-
dose vials must be handled according to national multi-dose vial policy (see Module 2,
Section 5 for WHO policy).
Diphtheria-containing vaccines are administered as 0.5 ml doses given intramuscularly

in the anterolateral (outer) thigh in infants and in the deltoid muscle (upper arm) of
older children and adults.
1.8 How safe is diphtheria vaccine and what are the potential
adverse events following immunization?
Diphtheria vaccine is usually used in combination with other vaccines, and severe
adverse events due to it alone have not been reported. Mild events occur more
frequently among people who have already received several booster doses, and usually
improve without treatment. Among adults receiving boosters, local injection site
reactions – redness and swelling in 38% and pain in 20% – have been reported.

WHO safety information summaries for DTP combination vaccines are on the
website: http://www.who.int/vaccine_safety/initiative/tools/vaccinfosheets/en/.
1.9 When are diphtheria-containing vaccines administered?
Diphtheria-containing vaccine should be included in infant immunization

programmes. A three-dose primary series starting as early as six weeks of age, with an
interval of four to six weeks between doses, is generally recommended.
Unimmunized children aged one to seven years should receive three doses of DTP
with an interval of two months between the first and second doses and an interval of
six to 12 months between the second and third doses.
For all children over seven years of age and for all adults, including pregnant women,
dT should be used since it has a lower concentration of diphtheria toxoid. For
unimmunized individuals over seven years of age, two doses of dT one to two months
apart followed by a third dose after six to 12 months is recommended.
When combined with tetanus vaccine, a total childhood schedule of five doses is
required: three in infancy, another (DT) in early childhood (1–6 years) and another
(dT) during adolescence (12–15 years). A further dose in adulthood is likely to provide
lifelong protection.
Key points about diphtheria

¾¾ Diphtheria is spread from person to person in airborne droplets.
¾¾ Symptoms of the disease include sore throat, loss of appetite and mild fever.
¾¾ Patients with the disease can experience complications, such as abnormal
heartbeat and inflammation of the heart muscle and valves, and this can lead to
heart failure.
¾¾ Children with diphtheria should be treated with diphtheria antitoxin and
antibiotics.
¾¾ The most effective way to prevent the disease is to maintain a high level of
immunization within a community.

Table 1.1 Diphtheria-containing vaccine summary

Type of vaccine Toxoid
Total number of doses 3–5 – see schedules
Schedule – For infant immunization doses:

Pentavalent or DTP • pentavalent1/DTP1 starting at age 6 weeks (minimum) with pentavalent2/DTP2
for infants and pentavalent3/DTP3 at intervals of 4 weeks (minimum) to 8 weeks after the
previous dose
Schedule – For children aged 1–7 years who have not previously been immunized:
DTP for unimmunized • 3 doses of DTP with an interval of 2 months between the first and second doses
ages 1–7 years and an interval of 6–12 months between the second and third doses
Schedule – For previously unimmunized individuals 7 years of age and older:

dT for unimmunized • dT1 and dT2 should be given 1–2 months apart, and dT3 given 6–12 months
ages over 7 years after dT2
Booster When combined with tetanus vaccine, a total childhood schedule of 5 doses
(3 in infancy), another (DT) in early childhood (1–6 years), and another (dT) during
adolescence (12–15 years) is required. A further dose in adulthood is likely to
provide lifelong protection.
Contraindications Anaphylaxis or hypersensitivity (allergy) after a previous dose
Adverse events Severe adverse events due to diphtheria toxoid alone have not been reported
Mild: injection site reactions, fever
Special precautions None
Dosage 0.5 ml
Injection site Anterolateral (outer) thigh in infants

Deltoid muscle of upper arm in older children and adults
Injection type Intramuscular
Storage Between +2 °C and +8 °C

Do not freeze

2 Haemophilus influenzae type b

disease
2.1 What is Haemophilus influenzae type b?
Haemophilus influenzae is a bacterium found commonly in the nose and throats of

children. There are six types of Haemophilus influenzae that have an outer capsule.
Of these six capsular types, type b is the largest public health concern. Haemophilus
influenzae type b, or Hib, causes 90% of all serious Haemophilus influenzae infections.
Hib is responsible for severe pneumonia, meningitis and other invasive diseases, almost
exclusively in children aged less than 5 years.
2.2 How is Hib spread?
Hib is spread from person to person in droplets released when sneezing and coughing.
Children may carry Hib in their noses and throats without showing any symptoms or
signs of illness (also known as healthy carriers), but they can still infect others.
2.3 What are the symptoms and signs of Hib disease?
The serious diseases caused most frequently by Hib are pneumonia and meningitis.
While Hib is not the only cause of these diseases, it should be suspected in any child
with relevant symptoms and signs. Children with pneumonia can have fever, chills,
cough, rapid breathing and chest wall retractions. Children with meningitis can have
fever, headache, sensitivity to light, neck stiffness and sometimes confusion or altered
consciousness.
Hib can cause other diseases by infecting different parts of the body. Seen less
frequently, but still serious, Hib disease includes epiglottitis (inflammation of the
flap at the entrance to the larynx) resulting in stridor (noisy breathing) and breathing
difficulty; and septicaemia (bloodstream infection) resulting in fever, shaking or chills,
and further spread of the bacteria.
2.4 What are the complications of Hib disease?
Children who survive Hib meningitis may develop permanent neurological disability,
including brain damage, hearing loss and mental retardation, in up to 40% of cases.

2.5 What is the treatment for Hib disease?
Hib disease can be treated with antibiotics, such as ampicillin, cotrimoxazole,

cephalosporins and chloramphenicol. Hib that is resistant to some of the commonly
used antibiotics is now being seen in many parts of the world.
2.6 How is Hib disease prevented?
Hib disease is best prevented by Hib-containing vaccine given in infancy or before

24 months of age. Vaccination is becoming increasingly important as Hib antibiotic
resistance grows. Sections 2.8–2.10 and Table 1.2 below describe Hib-containing
vaccines, including pentavalent vaccine.
2.7 What is needed for global Hib disease control?
The use of Hib vaccines should be part of a comprehensive strategy to control

pneumonia including exclusive breastfeeding for six months, handwashing with soap,
improved water supply and sanitation, reduction of household air pollution, and
improved case management at community and health facility levels. Hib disease is
included in the 2013 integrated Global Action Plan for Pneumonia and Diarrhoea,
which outlines a “Prevent, Protect and Treat” framework (see Section 19 of this module).
2.8 What are Hib-containing vaccines?
Hib-containing vaccines prevent pneumonia, meningitis, epiglottitis, septicaemia and

other Hib disease. They do not protect against other types of Haemophilus influenzae
or other bacteria that cause similar diseases.
Hib-containing vaccines are available in stand-alone and combination forms. Hib

combined with DTP and HepB vaccines, or pentavalent vaccine (DTP+HepB+Hib),
reduces the number of injections an infant has to receive while completing the
recommended immunization schedule.
Hib-containing vaccines are supplied in liquid or freeze-dried powder (also called

lyophilized) formulations in single- and multi-dose presentations. Pentavalent
vaccine is available in two- and 10-dose vials. Pentavalent vaccine with a freeze-dried
Hib component requires reconstitution: see Module 5 (Managing an immunization
session), Section 4.2 for details. The diluent for pentavalent vaccine is the DTP+HepB
component. Hib-containing vaccines must be stored between +2 °C and +8 °C
without being frozen. Freezing does not damage stand-alone freeze-dried Hib vaccine
but does damage liquid Hib and pentavalent vaccines. If freezing is suspected,
the Shake Test should be performed to determine whether a vial is safe to use (see
Module 2 (The vaccine cold chain), Section 7). Opened multi-dose vials must be
handled according to national multi-dose vial policy (see Module 2, Section 5 for
WHO policy).

For infants, Hib-containing vaccines are administered as 0.5 ml doses in the

anterolateral (outer) thigh. For older children (12–24 months of age), they may be
given in the deltoid muscle (upper arm).
2.9 How safe is Hib vaccine and what are the potential adverse
events following immunization?
Hib vaccine is one of the safest vaccines in current use. There are no known serious
adverse events to date. Mild events include injection site pain, redness or swelling in
approximately 10% of recipients and fever in 2%.
WHO safety information summaries for Hib and combination vaccines are on the
2.10 When is Hib-containing vaccine administered?
Since serious Hib disease occurs mainly before 24 months of age, and infants are
most at risk at between four and 18 months of age, Hib-containing vaccines should
be included in all infant immunization schedules. Any of three schedules may be
followed: three primary doses without a booster (3p+0), two primary doses plus a
booster (2p+1), and three primary doses with a booster (3p+1). The series should start
from six weeks of age, or as early as possible thereafter. The interval between doses
should be at least four weeks if three primary doses are given, and at least eight weeks
if two primary doses are given. When given, the booster dose should be given at least
six months after completion of the primary series. Children who start vaccination late,
but are aged less than 12 months, should complete the schedule. When a first dose is
given to a child over 12 months of age, only one dose is recommended. Hib vaccine is
not required for healthy children after five years of age.
Key points about Hib disease

¾¾ Hib disease primarily affects children under two years of age in developing
countries.
¾¾ Healthy carriers as well as sick patients can spread Hib.
¾¾ Hib disease can affect different parts of the body. The most frequently seen
serious diseases are pneumonia and meningitis.
¾¾ Hib conjugate vaccine protects only against the type b strain. The type b strain is
found in 90% of serious Haemophilus influenzae cases.
¾¾ Hib vaccination should be given in infancy as part of a comprehensive package
to reduce childhood pneumonia (see Section 19 of this module).

Table 1.2 Hib-containing vaccines (Hib, pentavalent (DTP+HepB+Hib) summary

Type of vaccine Conjugate (capsular polysaccharide bound to a carrier protein)
Number of doses 3
Schedules • Given as pentavalent, or as a separate injection at the same time as DTP from age
6 weeks
• 3p+0: 3 primary doses given at minimum intervals of 4 weeks
• 2p+1: 2 primary doses given at minimum intervals of 8 weeks and booster given
at least 6 months after 2nd primary dose
• 3p+1: 3 primary doses given at minimum intervals of 4 weeks and booster given
at least 6 months after 3rd primary dose
• Children >12 months of age without a primary series may be given a single dose
Booster As above
Adverse events • Severe: none reported to date

• Mild: injection site reactions, fever
Special precautions For pentavalent: do not use pentavalent vaccine to provide a birth dose of
hepatitis B vaccine
Dosage 0.5 ml
Injection site • Anterolateral (outer) thigh in infants

• Deltoid muscle of upper arm in older children and adults
Storage • Between +2 °C and +8 °C

• Do not freeze

3 Hepatitis B
3.1 What is hepatitis B?
Hepatitis B is caused by a virus that infects the liver. Among adults who get
hepatitis B, 90% recover completely. But among infants infected during birth or
before one year of age,
90% develop chronic disease. Approximately 780,000 people die each year due to the
consequences of hepatitis B such as cirrhosis or liver cancer.
3.2 How is hepatitis B spread?
The hepatitis B virus is spread by contact with infected blood and other body fluids in
various situations: a) from mother to child during birth; b) during social interaction
between children with cuts, scrapes, bites, and/or scratches; c) from person to person
during sexual intercourse; and d) through unsafe injections and/or transfusions, or
needle stick accidents with infected blood. Overall, hepatitis B is 50 to 100 times more
infectious than HIV.
3.3 What are the symptoms and signs of hepatitis B?
Acute hepatitis B does not often cause symptoms and signs, but when it does, patients
can have fatigue, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and jaundice (yellowing of the
skin and eyes). Chronic hepatitis B patients have signs related to liver failure (such
as swelling of the abdomen, abnormal bleeding and changing mental status) as the
disease progresses.
3.4 What are the complications of hepatitis B?
A small proportion of acute infections can be severe (fulminant hepatitis) and lead to
death. Other serious complications that occur in people with chronic infection include
cirrhosis and liver cancer.
3.5 What is the treatment for hepatitis B?
There is no specific treatment for acute hepatitis B. Chronic hepatitis B can be treated
with interferon and antiviral agents in some cases.

3.6 How is hepatitis B prevented?
Hepatitis B can be prevented by immunization. Since perinatal (around the time of

birth) or postnatal (during the early days of life) transmission is an important cause of
chronic infections globally, all infants should receive their first dose of HepB as soon
as possible (less than 24 hours) after birth even in low-endemicity countries. After the
birth dose, HepB vaccine should be administered with DTP and Hib, preferably in the
form of pentavalent (DTP+HepB+Hib) vaccine. Sections 3.7–3.9 and Table 1.3 below
describe HepB-containing vaccines.
People who recover completely from acute hepatitis B are protected from becoming
infected again throughout their lives.
3.7 What are hepatitis B-containing vaccines?
Hepatitis B (HepB)-containing vaccines are available in stand-alone or combination

(pentavalent or quadrivalent DTP+HepB) formulations. Stand-alone HepB vaccine
is a liquid supplied in single- or multi-dose vials, or in prefilled auto-disable
injection devices. Pentavalent vaccine with a freeze-dried Hib component requires
reconstitution: see Module 5 (Managing an immunization session), Section 4.2 for
details. HepB-containing vaccines must be stored between +2 °C and +8 °C. They
are freeze-sensitive. If freezing is suspected, the Shake Test should be performed
to determine whether a vial is safe to use (see Module 2 (The vaccine cold chain),
Section 7). Opened multi-dose vials must be handled according to national multi-dose
vial policy (see Module 2, Section 5 for WHO policy).
HepB-containing vaccines are administered as 0.5 ml doses given intramuscularly in

the anterolateral (outer) thigh in infants and in the deltoid muscle (upper arm) of
If HepB vaccine vials stand for a long time, the vaccine may separate from the liquid.
When separated, the vaccine looks like fine sand at the bottom of the vial. Shake the
vial to mix it before using.

3.8 How safe is HepB vaccine and what are the potential adverse
HepB vaccine has an excellent safety profile. Severe adverse events include anaphylaxis,
which has been reported in about one per million vaccine doses administered. Mild
events include injection site pain in 3–29% of those vaccinated, redness or swelling in
about 3%, headache in about 3% and fever in 1–6%.
A WHO safety information summary for hepatitis B vaccine is available on the

3.9 When are HepB-containing vaccines administered?
All infants should receive HepB vaccine at birth, preferably within the first 24 hours.
Only stand-alone HepB vaccine can be used for the birth dose. It can be given with
BCG vaccine. HepB combinations such as pentavalent vaccine are recommended for
subsequent doses. Two additional doses can be given in the form of pentavalent1 and
3. Alternatively, three additional doses can be given in the form of pentavalent1, 2
and 3. There should be a minimum interval of four weeks between doses.
HepB vaccine may also be used for older age groups at risk of infection, including
patients who require frequent transfusions, dialysis patients, injecting drug users,
household members and sexual contacts of known chronic hepatitis B patients, and
health care workers.
Key points about hepatitis B

¾¾ 90% of infants infected develop chronic disease while 90% of healthy adults
infected recover completely. Early vaccination at birth is important.
¾¾ The hepatitis B virus is spread through contact with blood or other body fluids
from an infected person. It is 50 to 100 times more infectious than HIV.
¾¾ Chronic hepatitis B infection leads to cirrhosis, liver cancer, liver failure and
death.
¾¾ All children should receive stand-alone hepatitis B vaccine at birth followed
by two to three doses given with the DTP and Hib schedule, preferably as
pentavalent vaccine.

Table 1.3 HepB-containing vaccine summary

Type of vaccine Recombinant DNA or plasma-derived
Total number of doses 3 or 4 (including birth dose)
Schedule – • 3-dose primary series: stand-alone HepB as soon as possible after birth (<24h),
HepB birth dose followed pentavalent1, pentavalent3
by pentavalent • 4-dose primary series: stand-alone HepB as soon as possible after birth (<24h),
pentavalent1, pentavalent2, pentavalent3
• Minimum interval of 4 weeks between doses required for both series
• For the pentavalent schedule, see Table 1.2: starting at age 6 weeks (minimum)
with second and third doses at 4–8 week intervals after the previous dose
Booster None
Adverse events • Severe: rare anaphylaxis

• Mild: injection site reactions (pain, redness, swelling); headache; fever
Special precautions Use only stand-alone HepB vaccine for the birth dose (do not use pentavalent
vaccine for the birth dose)
Dosage 0.5 ml

• Deltoid muscle of upper arm in older children and adults

• Do not freeze

4 Human papillomavirus infection

and cervical cancer
4.1 What is human papillomavirus?
Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a common sexually transmitted virus that causes

genital warts and various cancers. There are more than 100 types of HPV. Some types
cause only genital warts, but at least 13 different types cause cancer. While HPV
does cause cancer of the anus, external genitalia and oral cavity in both sexes, it is of
particular concern in women since it is now known to be the cause of 99% of cervical
cancers.
Cervical cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in adult women in the developing
world and the second most common cancer among women worldwide. Approximately
85% of these deaths occur in developing countries.
4.2 How is HPV spread?
HPV spreads easily by skin-to-skin contact. Almost all sexually active individuals
become infected with it at some point, usually early in their sexual lives.
4.3 What are the symptoms and signs of cervical cancer?
Most HPV infections do not cause symptoms or disease and usually clear within a
few months. About 90% of infections clear within two years, but some infections
continue. Infection that continues can progress to cervical cancer with specific types
of HPV (particularly types 16 and 18). This progression takes 20 years on average and
tends to cause symptoms only after the cancer has reached an advanced stage.
Symptoms and signs of cervical cancer include abnormal vaginal bleeding (after sexual
intercourse and/or between menstrual periods); pelvic, back and/or leg pain; vaginal
discharge; fatigue and weight loss. Anaemia, renal failure and fistulae can also occur in
advanced stages of cervical cancer.
4.4 What is the treatment for cervical cancer?
A comprehensive approach should be taken to prevent cervical cancer as described in

Section 4.5.
If cervical cancer is caught early by screening methods such as the Papanicolaou smear
(Pap smear), HPV-DNA tests and/or visual inspection with acetic acid, then it can be

removed and cured effectively with localized treatment (e.g. cryotherapy). Treatment
of advanced cancer is complicated and usually involves combinations of surgery,
radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
4.5 What can be done to prevent and control cervical cancer?
Comprehensive cervical cancer prevention and control consists of: a) primary

prevention by vaccination against HPV infection for girls nine to 13 years of age
and, for both girls and boys, health education warning against tobacco use, sexuality
education and promotion of condom use, and male circumcision; b) secondary
prevention in women aged 30–49 years with a screen and treat approach, since
vaccination does not protect against all cancer-causing HPV types; and c) tertiary
prevention by treatment of invasive cancer at any age.
Currently available HPV vaccines can prevent infection with the two HPV types,
16 and 18, which are known to cause 70% of cervical cancers. This is important
particularly in countries that lack resources for effective screening programmes.
Screening by Pap smear, HPV-DNA or visual inspection with acetic acid is
recommended at least once for women between 30 and 49 years of age even after
vaccination, since cervical cancer related to other HPV types may still occur. Condom
use can also reduce the risk of infection with HPV. For an HIV-positive woman,
screening should start when the HIV diagnosis is confirmed, regardless of her age.
HPV vaccines should be introduced as part of a coordinated strategy to prevent

cervical cancer.
HPV vaccination of males is not recommended as a priority, especially in resource-

constrained settings. The available evidence indicates that the first priority should
be for cervical cancer reduction by timely and high-coverage vaccination of young
females.
Sections 4.6–4.8 and Table 1.4 describe available HPV vaccines.
4.6 What is HPV vaccine?
Two HPV vaccines are currently available worldwide: a bivalent vaccine, Cervarix®,
which protects against HPV types 16 and 18, and a quadrivalent vaccine, Gardasil®,
which protects against four HPV types (6 and 11 (which cause genital warts), and
16 and 18). Both are available in single-use vials or prefilled syringes. The bivalent
HPV vaccine (Cervarix®) also comes in two-dose vials. These vaccines do not require
reconstitution. They must be stored between +2 °C and +8 °C. Opened multi-dose
vials must be handled according to national policy (see Module 2, Section 5 for WHO
multi-dose vial policy).
Both vaccines are administered intramuscularly in two or three separate 0.5 ml doses.

4.7 How safe is HPV vaccine and what are the potential adverse
Both HPV vaccines are well tolerated and have excellent safety profiles. Serious events
include rare anaphylaxis with quadrivalent vaccine (1.7–2.6 per million doses). Mild
events include local injection site reactions (pain, redness and swelling). These usually
resolve without treatment. Other mild events reported following HPV vaccination
include fever, dizziness and nausea. Adolescents are known to sometimes faint after
any injection and should be seated during vaccination and for at least 15 minutes
afterwards.
WHO safety information summary for HPV vaccines is available on the website:
http://www.who.int/vaccine_safety/initiative/tools/vaccinfosheets/en/.
4.8 When is HPV vaccine administered?
The recommended target population for the prevention of cervical cancer is females
aged nine to 13 years, prior to becoming sexually active. For females younger than 15
years, a two-dose schedule with an interval of six months is recommended. Even those
females who are over 15 years at the time of the second dose are adequately protected
by two doses. There is no maximum recommended interval between doses. However,
an interval of no greater than 12–15 months is suggested in order to complete the
schedule promptly and before the start of sexual activity. If the interval between the
two doses is less than five months, a third dose should be given at least six months
after the first dose. For females over 15 years of age, or who are known to have a
compromised immune system (that does not respond normally) and/or are HIV-
infected, a three-dose schedule (at 0, 1 or 2 and 6 months) is recommended.
HPV vaccines can be delivered through a healthcare facility-based strategy, or a school-

and/or other community-based outreach service. If a girl gets pregnant before she
has been fully immunized, the remaining dose(s) should be postponed since it is not
licensed for use in pregnancy. To date, no health problems for mother or child have
been observed following vaccination during pregnancy.

Key points about HPV and cervical cancer

¾¾ Cervical cancer is the leading cause of cancer death among women in developing
countries.
¾¾ Almost all cervical cancers are caused by HPV, a sexually transmitted virus. Two
types of HPV (types 16 and 18) cause 70% of cervical cancer cases.
¾¾ Cervical cancer develops many years after initial HPV infection and does not
usually show symptoms and signs until it is late stage and difficult to treat.
¾¾ HPV vaccination, condom use, prevention of tobacco use, and cervical cancer
screening later in life are all needed to prevent cervical cancer.
¾¾ Screening to detect early changes that lead to cancer is needed at least once for
all women aged 30–49 years, including those who were vaccinated, because the
vaccine does not protect against all HPV types that cause cervical cancer.
¾¾ Two HPV vaccines, a bivalent and a quadrivalent, are currently available.
Table 1.4 Summary of HPV vaccines for girls aged between 9 and 13 years
Type of vaccine Recombinant protein capsid, liquid vaccine
Total number of doses 2
Schedule – • 0 and 6 months

bivalent • There is no maximum interval between doses – as long as the girl is under
(HPV types 16 and 18; GSK 15 years of age at the time of the first dose, two doses are sufficient
Cervarix®) and • If the interval between doses is less than 5 months, a third dose should
quadrivalent be given at least 6 months after the first dose.
(HPV types 6, 11, 16 and 18; Note: For females >15 years of age, or who are known to have a
Merck Gardasil®) compromised immune system and/or are HIV-infected, a 3-dose schedule
(at 0, 1 or 2 and 6 months) is recommended

• Mild: injection site reactions; fever, dizziness, nausea
Special precautions • Postpone vaccination for pregnancy

• Adolescents should be seated during injections and for 15 minutes
afterwards since they sometimes faint
Dosage 0.5 ml
Injection site Deltoid muscle of upper arm

Do not freeze

5 Japanese encephalitis
5.1 What is Japanese encephalitis?
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is an infection of the brain caused by a virus. It is found in

nearly all Asian countries, some Pacific Islands and a small part of Northern Australia.
Although traditionally considered a childhood disease, JE can occur in all ages,
particularly when the virus is introduced into new areas where the population has no
pre-existing immunity.
5.2 How is Japanese encephalitis spread?
The JE virus is spread by mosquitoes. It normally infects birds and domestic animals,
especially wading birds and pigs, which serve as its reservoirs. Humans may contract
the disease when a mosquito that has bitten an infected animal then bites a person.
In temperate climate zones, JE occurs more frequently during the warm season.
In subtropical and tropical areas, the disease occurs at the highest rate during and
shortly after the rainy season, although where irrigation permits mosquito breeding,
transmission can occur all year. People living in rural areas, especially where rice is
grown, are most at risk although patterns of the disease are changing.
5.3 What are the symptoms and signs of Japanese encephalitis?
The majority of infections result in mild symptoms or no symptoms at all. On average,

only one of every 250 people infected with the virus develops symptoms. Symptoms,
which usually appear four to 14 days after infection, are flu-like, with sudden onset
of fever, chills, headache, tiredness, nausea and vomiting. In children, stomach or
abdominal pain may be the most prominent symptom during the early stage of the
illness. Signs of confusion or coma occur after three to four days. Children often have
seizures.
5.4 What are the complications of Japanese encephalitis?
JE is fatal in about 20–30% of cases, with young children (less than 10 years of age)
having a greater risk of severe disease and a higher case fatality rate. Of those who
survive the disease, 30–50% will have brain damage and paralysis.

5.5 What is the treatment for Japanese encephalitis?
There is no specific treatment. Since JE is caused by a virus, antibiotics are not

effective. Supportive treatment should be given to reduce symptoms.
5.6 How is Japanese encephalitis prevented?
Immunization is the single most important measure to control JE. No effective

method of environmental control of JE transmission is known. Socioeconomic
improvements and changes in agricultural practices may reduce viral transmission
in some places, but large-scale vaccination of affected populations with effective and
affordable vaccines appears to be the logical control measure, at least in the short term.
Sections 5.7–5.9 and Table 1.5 describe JE vaccine.
Bed nets may help prevent JE in small children since mosquitoes carrying JE tend to
bite in the twilight hours.
5.7 What is Japanese encephalitis vaccine?
There are now four types of vaccines that protect against JE:
• Inactivated Vero cell-derived vaccine (so called since the virus is grown in Vero cells)
– the vaccine with the brand name JEEV® has been WHO prequalified.
• Live attenuated (weakened) vaccine – single- and multi-dose vials of the vaccine are
WHO prequalified.
• Live recombinant vaccine – this type of vaccine, which is also grown in Vero
cells and is WHO prequalified, combines parts of an attenuated JE virus with an
attenuated yellow fever vaccine virus (brand names include IMOJEV®, JE-CV® and
ChimeriVax-JE®).
• Inactivated mouse brain-derived vaccine (so called because the virus is grown in
mouse brains) – this is an older type of vaccine that is slowly being replaced with
the newer ones above. No inactivated mouse brain-derived vaccines are WHO
prequalified.
Summaries of these vaccines are in Tables 1.5–1.8.
WHO recommends the first three newer vaccine types over the older inactivated
mouse brain-derived vaccines.

5.8 How safe is Japanese encephalitis vaccine and what are the
potential adverse events following immunization?
JE vaccines have acceptable safety profiles. The tables in this section include adverse
events noted for each type of JE vaccine.
A WHO safety information summary for JE vaccines is available on the website:

5.9 When is Japanese encephalitis vaccine administered?
JE vaccine should be integrated into EPI programmes in all areas where JE constitutes
a public health problem. The most effective immunization strategy in JE-endemic
settings is one-time catch-up campaigns, including child health weeks or multi-antigen
campaigns in the locally defined primary target population, followed by incorporation
of the JE vaccine into the routine immunization programme.
Key points about Japanese encephalitis

¾¾ JE is found in nearly all Asian countries, some Pacific islands and a small part of
northern Australia.
¾¾ The disease is spread by infected mosquitoes.
¾¾ In temperate zones, JE occurs more frequently during the warm season. In
subtropical and tropical areas, the disease occurs with the rainy season, although
transmission can occur all year.
¾¾ The illness can progress to encephalitis, a serious infection/inflammation of
the brain that is fatal in 20–30% of cases. It can also cause paralysis and brain
damage.
¾¾ There is no specific treatment for JE.
¾¾ Immunization with JE vaccine is the single most important control measure.

Table 1.5 Inactivated Vero cell-derived Japanese encephalitis vaccine summary

Note: This table primarily addresses JEEV®, which is WHO prequalified. If other brands of inactivated Vero cell-derived vaccine are chosen, the manufacturer’s
instructions should be followed.
Type of vaccine Inactivated Vero cell-derived
Number of doses Two doses at 4-week intervals, with the primary series starting at >6 months of age in endemic settings
Schedule As above
Booster WHO position states that the need for a booster in endemic settings has not been clearly established
Contraindications Known allergy to the vaccine or its components
Adverse events Injection site reactions: pain, redness, swelling (in 4% of cases); hives (6%); headache and dizziness
(less than 1%); fever (12%)
Special precautions Postpone vaccination in persons with acute severe febrile conditions
Dosage 0.25 ml for those aged <3 years, 0.5 ml for those aged >3 years
Injection site Anterolateral (outer) thigh for children

Deltoid muscle of upper arm for adults
Table 1.6 Live attenuated Japanese encephalitis vaccine summary

Type of vaccine Live attenuated virus
Number of doses 1
Schedule Single dose administered at >8 months of age
Booster WHO position states that the need for a booster in endemic settings has not been clearly established
Contraindications • Known allergy to the vaccine or any of its components

• Pregnancy
• Any condition that results in a decreased or abnormal immune system response, including due to
any infection (such as HIV), medication and/or congenital problems (since birth)
• Acute diseases, severe chronic diseases, and chronic diseases with acute symptoms and/or fever
• Encephalopathy (brain disease), uncontrolled epilepsy (seizures) or other diseases of the nervous
system
Adverse events High fever (5–7% of those vaccinated); injection site reactions (redness, swelling: in less than 1% with
some types of vaccine); low-grade fever, irritability, nausea and dizziness (rare)
Special precautions • Review medical history – caution needed for family or individual history of seizures or other chronic
diseases, allergies and for women who are lactating
• Postpone vaccination for at least 3 months if the person has been given immunoglobulin
• There should be at least a 1 month interval (either before or after) between JE and other live vaccines
• Women of childbearing age should avoid pregnancy for at least 3 months after immunization
• Live attenuated JE vaccine is not meant to be given during JE epidemic seasons
Dosage 0.5 ml
Injection site Upper arm
Injection type Subcutaneous

Table 1.7 Live recombinant Japanese encephalitis vaccine summary

Type of vaccine Live recombinant virus vaccine
Number of doses 1
Schedule Single dose at >9 months of age
Booster WHO position states that the need for a booster in endemic settings has not been clearly
established
Contraindications • Known allergy to the vaccine or any of its components

• Pregnancy
• Lactation
• Any condition that results in a decreased or abnormal immune system response, including
due to any infection (such as HIV), medication and/or congenital problems (since birth)
• Symptomatic HIV infection
Adverse events Comparable to other vaccines; lower local reaction rates in adults (compared to mouse brain-
derived JE vaccines); high fever, acute viral illness have been reported only twice
Special precautions Postpone vaccination for acute febrile illness
Dosage Per manufacturer’s instructions
Table 1.8 Japanese encephalitis mouse brain-derived vaccine summary

Type of vaccine Live attenuated vaccine
Number of doses 1 (primary immunization)
Schedule First dose at 9–12 months of age
Booster After 1 year
Contraindications • Hypersensitivity (allergy) to gelatin, gentamycin, kanamycin

• Pregnancy
• Any condition that results in a decreased or abnormal immune system response, including
due to any infection (such as HIV), medication and/or congenital problems (since birth)
Adverse events • Severe: anaphylaxis in 1–2% of those vaccinated; hypersensitivity (allergy) reactions,
sometimes up to 9 days after vaccination in 17%; nervous system complications in 1–2.3%
• Mild: fever, injection site swelling in about 20% of those vaccinated; headache, muscle aches,
low-grade fever, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, rash, chills, dizziness in 5–30%
Special precautions Not usually given before 9 months of age
Dosage 0.5 ml

6 Measles
6.1 What is measles?
Measles is a highly infectious disease caused by a virus. It remains an important cause

of death among young children globally, despite the availability of a safe and effective
vaccine. More than 95% of measles deaths occur in countries with low incomes and
weak health infrastructures.
Because the disease is so infectious, it tends to occur as an epidemic with high death
rates in settings such as refugee camps. Severe measles is particularly likely to occur in
poorly nourished children, especially those who do not receive sufficient vitamin A,
who live in crowded conditions, and whose immune systems have been weakened by
HIV/AIDS or other diseases.
6.2 How is measles spread?
Measles is spread through contact with nose and throat secretions of infected people
and in airborne droplets released when an infected person sneezes or coughs.
People with measles can infect others for several days before and after they develop
symptoms. The disease spreads easily in places where infants and children gather, such
as health centres and schools.
6.3 What are the symptoms and signs of measles?
The first sign of infection is a high fever, which begins approximately 10 to 12 days after
exposure to the measles virus and lasts several days. During this period, the patient may
develop a runny nose, a cough, red and watery eyes, and small white spots (Koplik spots)
inside their cheeks. About seven to 18 days after exposure, a slightly raised rash develops,
usually on the face and upper neck. Over a period of about three days, the rash spreads
to the body and then to the hands and feet. It lasts for five to six days and then fades.
6.4 What are the complications of measles?
Unimmunized children under five years of age and, especially, infants are at the highest
risk of contracting measles and suffering from its complications, which can include
death. Infected infants may suffer from dehydration due to severe diarrhoea. Children
may also develop malnutrition, inflammation of the middle ear, pneumonia and
encephalitis (brain infection). Measles is a major cause of blindness among children in
Africa and other areas of the world where it is endemic.

Pneumonia is the most common cause of death associated with measles. The pneumonia
may be caused by the measles virus itself or by a secondary bacterial infection.
6.5 What is the treatment for measles?
There is no specific antiviral treatment for measles. Antibiotics should be prescribed

only for bacterial ear infections and pneumonia. General nutritional support and the
treatment of dehydration with oral rehydration solution are important. Children with
measles should therefore be encouraged to eat and drink.
All children in developing countries diagnosed with measles should receive two doses of
vitamin A supplement given 24 hours apart to help prevent eye damage and blindness.
Vitamin A supplementation reduces the number of deaths from measles by 50%.
6.6 How is measles prevented?
Measles is prevented by immunization with measles-containing vaccine (MCV). High

coverage with a two-dose schedule is needed to prevent measles epidemics. Sections
6.8–6.10 and Table 1.9 below describe MCVs. Children who have recovered from
measles are immune for the rest of their lives.
6.7 What is needed for global measles control?
The Global Measles and Rubella Strategic Plan (2012–2020) focuses on five core
components: a) achieving and maintaining high levels of population immunity by
providing high vaccination coverage with two doses of measles-containing vaccine;
b) monitoring disease and evaluating programmatic efforts to ensure progress; c)
developing and maintaining outbreak response and case management capacities; d)
communicating to build public confidence and demand for immunization; and e)
performing research and development to support cost-effective operations and to
improve vaccination and diagnostic tools.
6.8 What are measles-containing vaccines?
Measles-containing vaccines (MCVs) include measles only (M) or a combination of

measles with rubella (MR), mumps (MM, MMR) and varicella (MMRV) vaccines.
MCVs can be used interchangeably in immunization programmes. MM and MMRV
are not discussed in this module; national guidelines should be made available if either
is used routinely in an immunization programme.
M, MR and MMR are supplied as freeze-dried (also called lyophilized) powders with
diluents in separate vials. They must be reconstituted before use with only the diluent
supplied: see Module 5 (Managing an immunization session), Section 4.2 for details.
Measles-containing vaccines must be stored between +2 °C and +8 °C and protected

from sunlight since they are sensitive to both heat and light. Opened multi-dose vials
must be handled according to national multi-dose vial policy (see Module 2, Section 5
for WHO policy).
MCVs are administered by subcutaneous injection.
In countries where vitamin A deficiency is common, vitamin A supplements are often

given at the same time as the vaccine (see Section 18 of this module).
6.9 How safe is measles vaccine and what are the potential adverse
All MCVs approved for immunization programmes are safe and effective. Serious
events are rare and include anaphylaxis in 1–3.5 per one million doses administered,
severe allergic reaction in one per 100 000 doses, and thrombocytopenia (decreased
platelet count) in one per 30 000 doses. Encephalitis (brain infection) has been
reported rarely but there is no definite proof that the vaccine was the cause. Mild
events are more common and include local injection site pain and tenderness, fever (in
5–15%) and rash (in about 5%), which can occur five to 12 days after vaccination.
A WHO safety information summary for MMR vaccine is available on the website:
6.10 When are measles-containing vaccines administered?
All children should receive two doses of MCV. Very high (90–95%) coverage with
both doses is required to prevent measles outbreaks. The first dose (MCV1) should be
given at nine or 12 months of age. Because many cases of measles occur in children
over 12 months of age who have not been vaccinated, routine delivery of MCV1
should not be limited to infants ages nine to 12 months. All unvaccinated children
over 12 months should be offered MCV1 using every opportunity when the child
comes in contact with health services.
MCV2 should be given between 15–18 months of age. Vaccinating in the second year
of life reduces the number of unprotected children. This may be linked to the timing
of other routine immunizations (for example, a DTP booster). Screening for measles
vaccination at school entry helps to ensure that all children receive both doses.
In measles outbreaks or in areas where there is a high rate of both HIV infection
and measles, the first dose of MCV1 may be offered as early as age six months. Two
additional doses of measles vaccine should be administered to these children according
to the national immunization schedule.

Key points about measles

¾¾ Measles is a highly infectious viral disease that is spread from person to person
through sneezing, coughing and close personal contact.
¾¾ The first sign of infection is a high fever lasting one to seven days. A generalized
rash develops seven to 18 days after exposure to the virus.
¾¾ Pneumonia is the most common cause of death associated with measles.
¾¾ Severe complications can be avoided through proper case management,
including vitamin A supplementation.
¾¾ Measles can be prevented by immunization. All children should receive two
doses of measles vaccine. Very high coverage (90–95%) is needed with both
doses.
Table 1.9 Measles-containing vaccines summary (MCV = M, MR, or MMR)

Type of vaccine Live attenuated (weakened) viral
Schedule • MCV1: 9 or 12 months of age; minimum age 6 months (for infants at high risk,
see text)
• MCV2: at least 1 month after MCV1
Contraindications • Known allergy to vaccine components (including neomycin and gelatin)

• Pregnancy
• Severe congenital or acquired immune disorders, including advanced HIV
infection/AIDS
Adverse events • Serious: thrombocytopenia (decreased platelets), anaphylaxis, encephalitis

(brain infection, though causal link not certain)
• Mild: fever, rash 5–12 days following administration
Dosage 0.5 ml
Injection site Anterolateral thigh or upper arm depending on the child’s age

• Keep all MCVs away from sunlight

7 Meningococcal disease
7.1 What is meningococcal disease?
Meningococcal meningitis is an infection of the meninges (membranes covering the

brain and spinal cord) caused by the bacterium Neisseria meningitidis (also known
as the meningococcus). Each Neisseria meningitidis bacterium has a capsule and,
depending on the type of this capsule, it is put in a serogroup. Neisseria meningitidis
serogroups A, B, C, X, W135 and Y cause most cases of meningococcal meningitis.
It occurs globally, but in the sub-Saharan Africa meningitis belt, epidemics occur
every two to three years. Since the 1980s, the intervals between major epidemics of
meningococcal meningitis have become shorter and more irregular.
The meningococcus bacterium can also cause septicaemia (bloodstream infection),

which is less common but more severe and often fatal.
7.2 How is meningococcal disease spread?
The meningococcus is spread from person to person via airborne droplets emitted from
the nose and throat of infected people. Meningococcal disease is most common in
young children, but older children and young adults living in crowded conditions can
also be at high risk.
7.3 What are the symptoms and signs of meningococcal disease?
Meningococcal meningitis is marked by the sudden onset of intense headache, fever,

nausea, vomiting, sensitivity to light and stiff neck. Other signs include lethargy,
delirium, coma and convulsions. Infants may not have sudden-onset illness and a stiff
neck; they may only appear to be slow, inactive, irritable or are feeding poorly and may
be vomiting.
A petechial rash (petechiae are small spots of bleeding into the skin) is the key sign of
meningococcal septicaemia, which can be followed by rapid shock and death.
7.4 What are the complications of meningococcal disease?
Death occurs in almost all untreated cases. Even with early treatment, up to 10%
of patients die. About 10–20% of meningococcal meningitis survivors suffer from
complications, such as mental retardation, deafness, paralysis and seizures.

7.5 What is the treatment for meningococcal disease?
Because the meningococcus is a bacterium, antibiotics such as ceftriaxone,

chloramphenicol and penicillin G are effective. Each case should be considered as a
medical emergency and referred to a hospital to reduce the risk of death from rapidly
progressing disease.
7.6 How is meningococcal meningitis prevented?
Several vaccines are available to protect against meningococcal serogroups A, C, W135

and Y. No vaccine protects against serogroup X at this time. Countries must choose a
vaccine based on the meningococcal serogroups most often identified locally. Sections
7.8–7.10 and Tables 1.10–1.12 describe meningococcal vaccines.
7.7 What is needed for meningococcal disease control?
Epidemic control relies on good surveillance with early detection and treatment of
cases as well as immunization. A mass immunization campaign that reaches at least
80% of the entire population with vaccine against serogroups A and C can prevent an
epidemic in areas where these serogroups are the cause of outbreaks.
7.8 What is meningococcal vaccine?
There are two categories of meningococcal vaccine, as shown in Table 1.10 below:
polysaccharide vaccines with specific capsule serogroup antigens and polysaccharide-
protein conjugate vaccines, which have serogroup antigens bound to a protein that
helps increase the immune system response to the vaccine. Conjugate vaccines are
preferred over polysaccharide vaccines due to their potential for herd protection and
their increased ability to generate immunity, particularly in children under two years of
age (this is similar for pneumococcal conjugate vaccines, see Section 10 of this module).
Meningococcal vaccines should be stored between +2 °C and +8 °C. Polysaccharide

vaccines are generally given as a 0.5 ml dose subcutaneously. Conjugate vaccines are
administered as a 0.5 ml dose intramuscularly.
Table 1.10 Meningococcal vaccines
Meningococcal vaccine Serogroups How supplied
category (and other antigens)
bivalent A, C
Polysaccharide trivalent A, C, W135
quadrivalent A, C, W135, Y Freeze-dried
Single- or
powder requiring
monovalent A or C multi-dose vials
reconstitution
Conjugate quadrivalent A, C, W135, Y
combination C, Hib

7.9 How safe are meningococcal vaccines and what are the potential
Meningococcal vaccines have an excellent safety record. Severe adverse events with
polysaccharide vaccines include rare anaphylaxis (one per one million doses of vaccine
administered) and infrequent neurologic reactions, such as seizures. Mild events
include local injection site reactions in up to 56% and fever in less than 5% (most
commonly in infants).
Conjugate vaccines have excellent safety profiles. No severe adverse events have been
associated with them. Mild events include local injection site reactions, and fever and
irritability in children.
Both conjugate and polysaccharide vaccines are safe and effective when used in
pregnant women.
7.10 When are meningococcal vaccines administered?
For MenA conjugate vaccine (5μg), a one-dose schedule is recommended at nine to

18 months of age based on local programme factors. The vaccine should be
administered by deep intramuscular injection, preferably in the anterolateral (outer)
aspect of the thigh. There is no reason to expect interference when co-administered
with other vaccines. The need for a booster dose has not been established. If in a
specific setting there is a strong reason to vaccinate infants younger than nine months,
a two-dose schedule should be used starting at three months of age, with an interval of
at least eight weeks between doses.
For monovalent MenC conjugate vaccine, a single intramuscular dose is recommended

for children aged over 12 months, teenagers and adults. Children aged two to 11
months require two doses administered at an interval of at least two months and a
booster about one year after. If the primary series is interrupted, vaccination should be
resumed without repeating the previous dose.
Quadrivalent conjugate vaccines (A,C,W135,Y-D and A,C,W135,Y-CRM) should

be administered as one single intramuscular dose to individuals aged over two years.
A,C,W135,Y-D is also licensed for children nine to 23 months of age, and given as a
two-dose series, three months apart beginning at age nine months. If the primary series
is interrupted, vaccination should be resumed without repeating the previous dose.
Meningococcal polysaccharide vaccines can be used for those over two years of age to
control outbreaks in countries where limited economic resources or insufficient supply
restrict the use of meningococcal conjugate vaccines. Polysaccharide vaccines should
be administered to individuals over two years of age as one single dose. One booster
three to five years after the primary dose may be given to persons considered to be at
continued high risk of exposure, including some health workers.

Key points about meningococcal disease

¾¾ Meningococcal disease is caused by a bacterium, Neisseria meningitides, and
most commonly affects young children.
¾¾ The meningococcus is spread by contact with respiratory droplets from the nose
and throat of the infected person.
¾¾ Meningococcal meningitis typically presents with sudden-onset intense
headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, light sensitivity and stiff neck. Infants may
only be slow, irritable and feeding poorly.
¾¾ A petechial rash is the key sign of meningococcal septicaemia.
¾¾ Meningococcal disease can be rapidly fatal and should always be treated as a
medical emergency.
¾¾ Conjugate vaccines are the preferred choice due to their better protection of
children under two years of age and herd immunity.
Table 1.11 Meningococcal polysaccharide vaccines summary

Type of vaccine Purified bacterial capsular polysaccharide; bivalent, trivalent or quadrivalent
Number of doses 1
Schedule 2 years of age and older
Booster One dose after 3–5 years if still at risk

• Mild: injection site reaction, fever
Special precautions Children under 2 years of age are not protected by the vaccine
Dosage 0.5 ml

Table 1.12 Meningococcal conjugate vaccines summary

Type of vaccine Purified bacterial capsular polysaccharide bound to protein; monovalent,
quadrivalent
Number of doses 1 or 2 – see schedules below
Schedule – Single dose 9–18 months (5 µg)

monovalent MenA conjugate
Schedule – • Single dose 12 months and older

monovalent MenC conjugate • 2 doses (at least 8 weeks apart) 2–11 months of age
Schedule – • [A,C,W135,Y-D] and [A,C,W135,Y-CRM] vaccines: single dose for all

quadrivalent conjugate 2 years of age and older
• [A,C,W135,Y-D] vaccine only: 2 doses (at least 12 weeks apart) for
9–23 months of age
Booster MenC after 1 year if given to infants 2–11 months
Adverse events • Serious: rare anaphylaxis

• Mild: injection site reactions, fever
Special precautions See schedules above for age restrictions
Dosage 0.5 ml

• Deltoid muscle of upper arm in children and adults

• Do not freeze MenC

8 Mumps
8.1 What is mumps?
Mumps is an infection caused by a virus that is present throughout the world. It is also
known as infectious parotitis since it most often involves the salivary glands. When the
mumps virus infects the testicles, the disease is called mumps orchitis.
Mumps most often affects children of between five and nine years of age. The mumps
virus can also infect adults, in which case the complications are more likely to be
serious.
8.2 How is mumps spread?
The mumps virus is spread by airborne droplets released when an infected person
sneezes or coughs, and by direct contact with an infected person. A person who has
mumps can infect others from about six days before to about nine days after salivary
gland infection.
8.3 What are the symptoms and signs of mumps?
About 33% of individuals infected with the mumps virus have no symptoms or signs.
If they do appear, they usually begin 14–21 days after infection. Symptoms include
pain on chewing or swallowing. Fever and weakness can occur. Swelling of the salivary
glands, just below and in front of the ears, is the most prominent sign and may occur
on one or both sides of the neck.
If mumps orchitis develops, the testicles usually become tender and swollen.
8.4 What are the complications of mumps?
Complications from mumps are rare, but they can be serious. In men and teenage
boys, mumps orchitis may cause sterility. Encephalitis (brain infection), meningitis
(infection of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord) and hearing loss are
other rare complications that can occur with mumps at any age.
8.5 What is the treatment for mumps?
There is no specific treatment for mumps. Since it is caused by a virus, antibiotics are
not effective. Supportive treatment should be given to relieve symptoms.

8.6 How is mumps prevented?
Mumps is prevented by immunization with mumps-containing vaccine. In countries

implementing mumps vaccine, MMR, the combination measles-, mumps- and
rubella-containing vaccine, is recommended. Sections 8.8–8.10 and Table 1.13 below
describe mumps vaccine. Measles and rubella vaccines are described in Sections 6 and
13 of this module respectively.
People who recover from mumps are thought to have lifelong immunity against the
virus.
8.7 What is needed for global mumps control?
Routine mumps vaccination is recommended in countries with well-established

programmes that maintain measles and rubella coverage at over 80%. Measles and
congenital rubella syndrome are considered priorities because of their higher mortality
and disease burden. Like rubella, mumps may cause more serious disease burden in
older age groups if childhood vaccination lapses. Two doses of mumps-containing
vaccine are required to maintain the high level of immunization coverage needed for
mumps control. Countries must decide on the addition of mumps-containing vaccine
based on the burden of this disease and its public health priority.
8.8 What are mumps-containing vaccines?
Mumps-containing vaccines such as MMR are supplied as freeze-dried (also called

lyophilized) powders. They must be reconstituted before use: see Module 5 (Managing
an immunization session), Section 4.2 for details. They should be kept at a temperature
of between +2 °C and +8 °C. They are sensitive to heat but are not damaged by
freezing. Opened multi-dose vials must be handled according to national multi-dose
Mumps-containing vaccines are administered by subcutaneous injection.
8.9 How safe is mumps vaccine and what are the potential adverse
Mumps vaccine is very safe to use. Infrequently, depending on the vaccine virus strain
used, aseptic meningitis (inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and
spinal cord) has been reported at different rates. Children recover from it without
long-term problems, although some may need to be hospitalized. Mild events include
pain at the injection site (in 17–30% of those vaccinated) and parotid swelling (in
1–2%). There is no evidence to support an association between MMR and autism.
A WHO safety information summary for MMR vaccine is available on the website:

8.10 When are mumps-containing vaccines administered?
Two doses of mumps-containing vaccines are required for long-term protection. The
first dose should be given at the age of 12–18 months. The second should be given at
least one month before school entry; the age may range from the second year of life to
about six years. Countries should decide on optimal timing to maximize programme
coverage. The required minimum interval between doses is one month.
Key points about mumps

¾¾ Mumps is transmitted in airborne droplets emitted by infected individuals when
they cough or sneeze.
¾¾ About one-third of individuals infected with mumps have no symptoms.
¾¾ The most prominent sign is swelling in the salivary glands.
¾¾ Complications from mumps are rare but can be serious.
¾¾ Mumps vaccine should be given in combination with measles and rubella vaccines
(MMR) in high-performing immunization programmes with coverage over 80%.
Table 1.13 Mumps-containing vaccines summary

Schedule • Mumps1: 12–18 months of age with MCV

• Mumps2: in the second year of life to school entry with MCV
• Minimum 1-month interval required between doses

• Pregnancy
infection/AIDS
Adverse events • Serious: aseptic meningitis (with some strains); orchitis (inflammation of the
testicles); sensorineural deafness; acute myositis (inflammation of the muscles)
• Mild: injection site reactions; parotid swelling
Dosage 0.5 ml
Injection site Anterolateral (outer) thigh or upper arm depending on the child’s age

• If using combination vaccines, keep all measles-containing vaccines away from
sunlight

9 Pertussis
9.1 What is pertussis?
Pertussis, or whooping cough, is a disease of the respiratory tract caused by Bordetella

pertussis bacteria that live in the mouth, nose and throat. Because it is highly
communicable and affects unimmunized infants in particular, pertussis remains a
public health concern globally, including in countries where vaccination coverage
is high.
9.2 How is pertussis spread?
Pertussis spreads very easily from person to person in droplets produced by coughing
or sneezing. Untreated patients may be infectious and spread pertussis for up to three
weeks after the typical cough starts. In many countries, the disease occurs in regular
epidemic cycles of three to five years.
9.3 What are the symptoms and signs of pertussis?
About 10 days after infection, symptoms similar to a common cold appear – runny
nose, watery eyes, sneezing, fever and a mild cough. The cough worsens to many rapid
bursts. At the end of these bursts, the typical patient takes in air with a high-pitched
whoop. Children may turn blue because they do not get enough oxygen during a long
burst of coughing. Vomiting and exhaustion often follow the coughing attacks, which
are particularly frequent at night.
9.4 What are the complications of pertussis?
Pneumonia is the main complication of pertussis – it has been found to occur in about
6% of cases in industrialized countries. The risk of pneumonia in infants under six
months of age can be up to four times higher than that in older children.
Children may experience complications, such as convulsions and seizures, due to fever
or reduced oxygen supply to the brain during bursts of coughing.
9.5 What is the treatment for pertussis?
Treatment with an antibiotic, usually erythromycin, may reduce the severity of the
illness. Because the medication kills bacteria in the nose and throat, antibiotics also
reduce the ability of infected people to spread pertussis to others.

9.6 How is pertussis prevented?
Prevention involves immunization with pertussis vaccine, which has been given
in combination with diphtheria and tetanus vaccines (as DTP) for many years,
but is more recently being given in pentavalent vaccine that covers hepatitis B and
Haemophilus influenzae type b as well as DTP. Pentavalent vaccine reduces the number
of injections needed for infant immunization. DTP and pentavalent vaccines are
described in the diphtheria and Haemophilus influenzae type b sections of this module.
Sections 9.7–9.9 and Table 1.14 below describe pertussis-containing vaccines.
9.7 What are pertussis-containing vaccines?
Pertussis vaccine is most often given in DTP or pentavalent combination form.

Pertussis-containing vaccines are supplied in single- and multi-dose presentations.
Pentavalent vaccine with a freeze-dried Hib component requires reconstitution: see
Module 5 (Managing an immunization session), Section 4.2 for details. Pertussis-
containing vaccines must be stored between +2 °C and +8 °C without being frozen.
They are freeze-sensitive: see Module 2 (The vaccine cold chain), Section 7 for
instructions on the Shake Test that determines whether a vial is safe to use if freezing is
suspected. Opened multi-dose vials must be handled according to national multi-dose
Pertussis-containing vaccines are administered as 0.5 ml doses given intramuscularly

in the anterolateral (outer) thigh in infants and in the deltoid muscle (upper arm) of
9.8 How safe is pertussis vaccine and what are the potential adverse
Safety information on pertussis vaccine is from studies on combination vaccines.
Severe events include rare anaphylaxis with some types of vaccine (1.3 per 1 million
doses with whole cell pertussis vaccine). Prolonged crying and febrile seizures have
been noted in less than one in 100 doses and hypotonic–hyporesponsive episodes (loss
of muscle tone and awareness or consciousness) in less than one in 1000–2000 doses.
Mild events are common and include pain, redness and swelling at the injection site
and fever and agitation (in one in 2–10 doses).
A WHO safety information summary for DTP combination vaccines is on the

9.9 When are pertussis-containing vaccines administered?
A three-dose primary series is recommended; it should be started at six weeks of

age with subsequent doses given four to eight weeks apart. Ideally, all three doses of
pertussis vaccine should be given by six months of age. A booster is recommended

at between one and six years of age, preferably between one to two years of age. The
booster dose should be given at least six months after the last primary dose.
Schedules for combination vaccines are shown in the diphtheria and Haemophilus
influenzae type b sections of this module.
Key points about pertussis

¾¾ Pertussis, or whooping cough, is a disease of the respiratory tract.
¾¾ Pertussis is a bacterial infection spread from person to person by sneezing and
coughing.
¾¾ Infants and young children are most likely to be infected, to have serious
complications, and to die from the disease.
¾¾ The most effective way to prevent pertussis is to immunize all infants with
pertussis-containing vaccine.
Table 1.14 Pertussis-containing vaccine summary

Type of vaccine Killed whole cell or acellular (without intact cells)
Number of doses 3
Schedule Pentavalent or DTP or pertussis vaccine 3-dose primary series starting at age
6 weeks (minimum) with second and third doses at intervals of 4–8 weeks after
the previous dose
Booster • Children between 1 and 6 years: 1 booster dose at least 6 months after the
3-dose primary series, preferably in the second year of life
• Each country should make its own decision on booster doses in adolescents
and adults
Adverse events • Severe: rare anaphylaxis, hypotonic–hyporesponsive episodes (loss of muscle

tone and responsiveness/consciousness); febrile seizures; prolonged crying
• Mild: injection site reactions (pain, redness, swelling); fever and agitation
Dosage 0.5 ml
Injection site • Anterolateral (outer) mid-thigh in infants

• Outer deltoid muscle of upper arm in children and adults

• Do not freeze

10 Pneumococcal disease
10.1 What is pneumococcal disease?
Pneumococcal disease is caused by infection with a bacterium called Streptococcus

pneumoniae (also known as the pneumococcus) in different parts of the body. The
pneumococcus is a common cause of serious diseases, such as pneumonia, meningitis
(infection of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord) and septicaemia
(bloodstream infection) and milder ones, such as otitis media (middle ear infection)
and sinusitis.
Pneumococcal diseases are a common cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide,

although rates of disease and death are higher in developing countries, with the
majority of deaths occurring in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. It is most common in
very young children and elderly people.
For infants, risk factors for pneumococcal disease include lack of breastfeeding and
exposure to indoor smoke. HIV infection, sickle cell disease, asplenia (lack of a
functioning spleen), chronic kidney disease and previous influenza virus infection are
risk factors for all ages.
10.2 How is pneumococcal disease spread?
Pneumococcal disease is spread from person to person by coughing, sneezing or close

contact. Pneumococcus is transmitted by direct contact with respiratory secretions
from patients and from people who have pneumococcus in their noses and/or throats
(healthy carriers). In some groups, up to 70% may be healthy carriers.
10.3 What are the symptoms and signs of pneumococcal disease?
Because the pneumococcus can affect many parts of the body, symptoms and signs
vary, depending on the site of infection. Fever and shaking or chills can occur with
all types of pneumococcal disease. Children with pneumonia can present with cough,
rapid breathing and chest wall retractions; older patients may complain of shortness
of breath and pain when breathing in and on coughing. Patients with meningitis can
present with headaches, sensitivity to light, neck stiffness, convulsions and sometimes
confusion or altered consciousness. Those with otitis or sinusitis may have pain,
tenderness and/or discharge from the affected area.

10.4 What are the complications of pneumococcal disease?
Pneumonia can be complicated by septicaemia (bloodstream infection) and/or empyema

(pus in the pleural space, which is the space between the lung and the membrane
covering it) and/or lung abscesses. Meningitis survivors may suffer complications,
including hearing loss, mental retardation, motor abnormalities and seizures.
10.5 What is the treatment for pneumococcal disease?
Pneumococcal disease can be treated with antibiotics, such as amoxicillin. Some

of the commonly used antibiotics are no longer effective in some areas since the
pneumococcus is developing resistance.
10.6 How is pneumococcal disease prevented?
Pneumococcal disease can be prevented by vaccination. While improved living

conditions (e.g. reduced crowding and indoor air pollutants) and nutrition can reduce
the risk of pneumococcal disease and death, they are less effective than vaccines
for prevention. Sections 10.8–10.10 and Table 1.16 below describe pneumococcal
conjugate vaccine.
10.7 What is needed for global pneumococcal disease control?
The use of pneumococcal vaccine should be seen as complementary to the use of other
pneumonia control measures, such as appropriate case management, promotion of
exclusive breastfeeding for first six months of life, and the reduction of known risk
factors, such as indoor pollutants and tobacco smoke. The 2013 integrated Global
Action Plan for Pneumonia and Diarrhoea outlines a “Prevent, Protect and Treat”
framework, which is discussed in Section 19 of this module.
10.8 What is pneumococcal conjugate vaccine?
The pneumococcus is a bacterium with an outer polysaccharide (or sugar) capsule.

Many different strains, or serotypes, of pneumococcus have been identified based on
differences in this capsule. Pneumococcal vaccines have been developed based on the
serotypes frequently found in severe pneumococcal disease patients.
There are two categories of pneumococcal vaccines. Pneumococcal polysaccharide

vaccines were used for many years; they contain the purified capsule of up to
23 serotypes of pneumococcus but only produce short-term protection and are not
effective in infants and young children. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV)
overcome the limitations of polysaccharide vaccines by conjugating, or binding, the
capsule with a protein; this results in longer-lasting protection and makes the vaccine
more effective in children.

Each pneumococcal vaccine protects against disease caused by the pneumococcal

serotypes that it contains; it is unlikely to protect against serotypes that it does
not contain. It does not protect against other bacteria that cause the same types of
infections (pneumonia, meningitis, etc.) as the pneumococcus. The fact that the
vaccine cannot protect against all causes of pneumonia should be emphasized in health
education so that it is not misunderstood as a failure of the vaccine.
Available pneumococcal conjugate vaccines are listed in Table 1.15 below. The number
indicates how many pneumococcal serotypes the vaccine contains (for example,
PCV10 protects against 10 serotypes of pneumococcus).
PCVs in these presentations do not require reconstitution. They must be stored at

a temperature of between +2 °C and +8 °C without being frozen. They are freeze-
sensitive. If freezing is suspected, the Shake Test should be performed to determine
whether a vial is safe to use (see Module 2 (The vaccine cold chain), Section 7).
Opened multi-dose vials must be handled according to national multi-dose vial policy
(see Module 2, Section 5 for WHO policy).
For infants and children, 0.5 ml of PCV is administered by intramuscular injection in

the anterolateral thigh.
Table 1.15 Pneumococcal vaccines
Vaccine Formulation Presentation
PCV10 Liquid Single-dose vial
PCV10 Liquid • 2-dose, preservative-free vial

• Prefilled syringe
PCV13 Liquid • Single-dose vial

• Prefilled syringe
10.9 How safe is pneumococcal conjugate vaccine and what are the
Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine is safe and well tolerated in all target groups. No
severe adverse events have been proven with use of these vaccines to date. Mild events
include soreness at the injection site in about 10% of those vaccinated; fever has been
reported in less than 1%.
A WHO safety information summary for pneumococcal vaccines is on the website:


10.10 When is pneumococcal conjugate vaccine administered?
PCVs should be given priority in childhood immunization programmes, particularly

in countries with high mortality in children under five years of age (more than
50/1000 live births). Three doses are required and can be given as a three-primary
(3p+0) or, as an alternative, two-primary-plus-one booster (2p+1) schedule. The 3p+0
schedule can be started as early as six weeks of age, with a minimum interval of four
weeks between doses. The 2p+1 schedule is shown in Table 1.16 below. In choosing
between schedules factors such as the epidemiology of the disease, likely coverage, and
the timeliness of vaccination should be considered.
Once a series has been started, the same product should ideally be used for all three
doses; for example, if PCV10 is used for the first dose, it should be used for the second
and third doses also. If this is not possible, the schedule may be completed with the
available PCV.
Previously unvaccinated or incompletely vaccinated children, including those who

recover from pneumococcal disease, should be vaccinated according to their age.
Children 12–24 months require only two doses, with an interval of at least eight
weeks.
Key points about pneumococcal disease

¾¾ Pneumococcal disease is a leading cause of death in children under five years of
age, especially in developing countries.
¾¾ The pneumococcus can cause infections in different parts of the body; the most
common severe diseases are pneumonia, meningitis and septicaemia.
¾¾ Healthy carriers as well as patients can spread pneumococcus.
¾¾ Pneumococcal vaccination should be given as part of a comprehensive package to
protect, prevent and treat and to reduce mortality and morbidity from childhood
pneumonia.
¾¾ Each pneumococcal vaccine protects against disease caused only by the
pneumococcal serotypes that it contains. It does not protect against other
bacteria that cause the same types of infections (pneumonia, meningitis, etc.).

Table 1.16 Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine summary

Type of vaccine Conjugate (pneumococcal polysaccharide bound to a carrier protein; does not
contain any live bacteria)
Schedule – First dose as early as 6 weeks of age with 4–8 weeks interval between doses
3p+0
Schedule – • 2 primary doses ideally completed by six months of age, starting as early as
2p+1 6 weeks of age with an interval of 8 weeks or more between doses
• For infants ≥7 months who started vaccination late: a minimum interval of
4 weeks between doses is possible
Booster • With 2p+1 schedule: one booster dose between 9–15 months of age
• HIV+ infants and preterm neonates who receive 3p doses before 12 months
of age may benefit from a booster dose during the second year of life
Adverse events • Severe: none known

• Mild: injection site reactions and fever
Special precautions Postpone vaccination if the child has moderate to severe illness
(with temperature ≥39 °C)
Dosage 0.5 ml
Injection site Anterolateral (outer) thigh in infants and children

• Do not freeze

11 Poliomyelitis
11.1 What is poliomyelitis?
Poliomyelitis, or polio, is a highly infectious disease caused by poliovirus types 1, 2 or 3.

These are also called wild polioviruses (WPVs) since they are the naturally occurring
types that circulate and infect people.
Polio mainly affects children of less than five years of age. One in 200 infections causes
irreversible paralysis when the virus attacks the spinal cord nerve cells that control the
muscles.
Due to the Global Polio Eradication Initiative, which was launched in 1988, the
number of countries still reporting WPVs has been reduced from 125 to three in 2015.
11.2 How is polio spread?
Poliovirus spreads by the faecal-to-oral route. In areas with poor sanitation, it is thought
to more commonly enter the body through the mouth when people eat food or drink
water that is contaminated with faeces. The majority of infected people do not show
symptoms but can still spread the disease.
11.3 What are the symptoms and signs of polio?
Following infection with poliovirus, approximately 25% of those infected develop

a minor illness, usually with fever, headache and sore throat. Paralysis occurs in
approximately 1% of those infected. Death occurs in approximately 5–10% of those
paralysed.
11.4 What is the treatment for polio?
There is no cure for polio. Treatment consists of supportive, symptomatic care. A

ventilator can help patients who have difficulty breathing. Orthopedic treatment, regular
physiotherapy and the use of braces can help reduce the long-term crippling effects.
11.5 How is polio prevented?
Polio can be prevented through immunization with oral polio vaccine (OPV) and/or
inactivated polio vaccine (IPV). WHO recommends that all countries using only OPV
add at least one dose of IPV to the routine immunization schedule.

11.6 What is polio vaccine?
OPV is a live attenuated (weakened) poliovirus vaccine that contains types 1, 2 and 3
individually or in combination (types 1, 2 and 3, or 1 and 3). It is supplied in multi-
dose vials. It is very heat-sensitive and must be kept frozen during long-term storage.
After thawing, it can be kept at a temperature of between +2 °C and +8 °C for a
maximum of six months or can be refrozen.
IPV is an inactivated poliovirus vaccine available as a stand-alone product or in

combination with diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, hepatitis B and/or Hib. It is stable
outside the cold chain but should be stored between +2 °C and +8 °C. It must not be
frozen. It is supplied in one-, five- or ten-dose vials.
OPV is given orally and IPV is injected intramuscularly as a 0.5 ml dose.
11.7 How safe is polio vaccine and what are the potential adverse
Both OPV and IPV are extremely safe. With OPV, vaccine-associated paralytic polio
(VAPP) can occur in approximately 1 in 2.7 million doses. VAPP usually occurs with
the first dose of OPV, and this small risk declines further with subsequent doses. On
rare occasions, over time, in areas of low vaccination coverage, the live attenuated
(weakened) viruses contained in OPV can begin to circulate and regain the ability to
cause paralytic cases. This is known as circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus.
IPV is one of the safest vaccines in routine use. No serious adverse events have been
linked to it. Mild events include injection site redness in less than 1% of those
vaccinated, swelling in 3–11% and soreness in 14–29%.
A WHO safety information summary for polio vaccines is available on the website:
11.8 When is polio vaccine administered?
Polio vaccine schedules for countries no longer infected are shown in Table 1.17.
Countries reporting infections should refer to guidance available on the WHO
website: http://www.who.int/immunization/documents/positionpapers/en/.

Key points about polio

¾¾ Polio is caused by wild type polioviruses 1, 2 and 3 and is easily spread by the
faecal-to-oral and oral-to-oral routes.
¾¾ The majority of individuals infected do not have symptoms but can still spread
the disease.
¾¾ Approximately 1% of infections result in paralytic poliomyelitis; when paralysis
occurs, it will lead to death in approximately 5–10% of cases.
¾¾ For countries using OPV only, WHO recommends that they introduce at least
one dose of IPV to the routine immunization schedule.
Table 1.17 Polio vaccination summary

Type of vaccine OPV – Live attenuated (weakened) viral; IPV – Inactivated viral
Total number of doses 3–4
Schedule – • 3 OPV doses initiated from 6 weeks of age with minimum interval of 4 weeks; an
OPV plus IPV IPV dose should be given from 14 weeks of age (with OPV dose).
• Note: In areas where polio is endemic or there is high-risk for importation, an
OPV birth dose (a zero dose) should be given
Schedule – 1–2 doses of IPV starting from 2 months of age, followed by at least 2 doses of OPV;
Sequential IPV-OPV an interval of 4–8 weeks is required between all doses
Schedule – 3 doses beginning at 2 months of age, with an interval of 4–8 weeks between doses
IPV-only
Booster If the series begins before 2 months of age, then give booster ≥ 6 months
after last dose
IPV-only schedule
Contraindications Known hypersensitivity (allergy) or anaphylaxis to a previous dose
Adverse events • OPV – Rare vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP)

• IPV – No known serious reactions; mild injection site reactions do occur
Special precautions Postpone vaccination if the child has moderate to severe illness (with temperature
≥39 °C)
Dosage • OPV – 2 drops into the mouth

• IPV – 0.5 ml injection
Route of administration • OPV – Oral only

• IPV – Intramuscular injection; anterolateral (outer) mid-thigh in infants and
children
Storage • OPV – Keep frozen; very heat sensitive; storage in temperatures of between
+2 °C and +8 °C is possible for a maximum of 6 months
• IPV – between +2 °C and +8 °C; do not freeze

12 Rotavirus gastroenteritis
12.1 What is rotavirus gastroenteritis?
Rotavirus gastroenteritis is a highly infectious diarrhoeal disease caused by strains of

rotavirus infecting the small intestine. Rotavirus gastroenteritis is the leading cause
of severe diarrhoea in infants and young children worldwide. It occurs everywhere,
including in countries where sanitation standards and access to safe water are good.
Deaths occur mainly in infants of between three and 12 months of age when they
develop severe gastroenteritis following their first infection and are very vulnerable to
the effects of dehydration.
12.2 How is rotavirus spread?
Rotavirus spreads by the faecal-to-oral route. Large quantities of virus can be shed in
the faeces of an infected child. Shedding can occur from two days before to 10 days
after the onset of symptoms. Rotavirus is stable in the environment and can spread via
contaminated food, water and objects.
12.3 What are the symptoms and signs of rotavirus gastroenteritis?
Rotavirus gastroenteritis can range from mild loose stools to severe watery diarrhoea
and vomiting leading to dehydration. Symptoms usually begin one to three days after
infection. Fever and vomiting can occur before diarrhoea. The diarrhoea lasts for three
to seven days on average.
12.4 What are the complications of rotavirus gastroenteritis?
Once vomiting and/or watery diarrhoea begins, infants can rapidly become severely
dehydrated, leading to complications such as shock, kidney and liver failure, and
death.
12.5 What is the treatment for rotavirus gastroenteritis?
There is no specific antiviral treatment for rotavirus gastroenteritis. As with other

causes of diarrhoea, key supportive measures are fluid replacement with oral
rehydration solution (ORS) and treatment with zinc supplementation. Severe
dehydration may require intravenous infusion in addition to ORS for the urgent
replacement of fluid and electrolytes.

12.6 How is rotavirus gastroenteritis prevented?
Over the past 20 years, global deaths due to diarrhoea from other causes have
decreased significantly due to improved nutrition, hygiene and sanitation and the
availability of ORS and zinc. Improvements in sanitation and access to safe water are
less effective for reducing rotavirus infections, and vaccination has become important
for prevention of severe rotavirus disease in particular. Sections 12.8–12.10 and
Table 1.18 describe rotavirus vaccines.
The first infection will give some, but not complete, immunity. The severity of
infection tends to become less with each repeat infection.
12.7 What is needed for global rotavirus gastroenteritis control?
The use of rotavirus vaccines should be part of a comprehensive strategy to control

diarrhoeal diseases with the scaling up of both prevention (exclusive breastfeeding for
six months, vitamin A supplementation, safe drinking water, hygiene/handwashing
with soap, and sanitation) and treatment (low-osmolarity ORS, zinc and continued
feeding). The 2013 integrated Global Action Plan for Pneumonia and Diarrhoea
outlines a “Prevent, Protect and Treat” framework, which is discussed in Section 19
of this module.
12.8 What is rotavirus vaccine?
The currently available rotavirus vaccines (RV) contain one or more live attenuated
(weakened) virus strains. They are given orally to protect against rotavirus
gastroenteritis. They do not protect against other causes of diarrhoea, a fact that is
important to emphasize in health education.
Two oral rotavirus vaccines are available: Rotarix® (RV1 or monovalent RV), which
contains one strain; and RotaTeq® (RV5 or pentavalent RV), which contains five
strains.
Rotarix® comes in single-dose freeze-dried (also called lyophilized) powder and in

liquid forms. Freeze-dried RV1 must be reconstituted using diluent in a prefilled oral
applicator. Liquid Rotarix® is ready to use in an oral applicator or a squeezable tube.
All of these must be stored between +2 °C and +8 °C without being frozen. They
should be used immediately after reconstitution or opening. If not used immediately,
reconstituted freeze-dried vaccine can be stored between +2 °C and +8 °C or at
ambient temperatures of less than 25 °C and used within 24 hours (see Table 1.18).
RotaTeq® is a ready-to-use liquid that should be stored at a temperature of between

+2 °C and +8 °C without freezing. It should be used as soon as possible after being
removed from the refrigerator.

12.9 How safe are rotavirus vaccines and what are the potential
adverse reactions?
The available rotavirus vaccines are safe and well tolerated. There is a low risk of
intussusception (about one to two per 100 000 infants vaccinated; see box on
intussusception). Both are approved for administration with other vaccines in infant
immunization programmes. Mild adverse reactions include irritability, runny nose, ear
infection, vomiting and diarrhoea (in 5% or more of children vaccinated).
Rotavirus vaccines are generally not recommended for infants with a history of
intussusception. Studies show a much smaller increase in risk (five to 10 times lower)
of intussusception after the first dose of Rotarix® or RotaTeq® than with an earlier
vaccine called RotaShield® that was withdrawn from the market. The benefits of the
currently available rotavirus vaccines are far greater than the potential risks.
A WHO safety information summary for rotavirus vaccines is on the website:

What is intussusception?
¾¾ Intussusception is a folding or telescoping of one segment of the intestine within
another.
¾¾ Intussusception usually results in a blockage of the intestine (bowel obstruction).
¾¾ Intussusception occurs primarily in infants; peak incidence is between four and
10 months of age.
¾¾ Symptoms and signs of intussusception include abdominal pain sometimes
accompanied by a lump that can be felt on examination, vomiting, stools with
blood and mucus, and lethargy.
¾¾ These are not specific and may be caused by other bowel diseases, but
intussusception should be considered as one of the possible diagnoses in relevant
cases.
¾¾ Early diagnosis and treatment of intussusception are essential to save the
intestine and the child.
¾¾ A child that has any of the above symptoms should be taken immediately to the
nearest hospital for urgent evaluation and appropriate treatment.

12.10 When is rotavirus vaccine administered?
Rotarix® is given on a two-dose schedule along with pentavalent1 and 2 (the first two
doses of DTP+HepB+Hib vaccine). RotaTeq® is given on a three-dose schedule along
with pentavalent1, 2 and 3. For both vaccines, there should be a minimum interval of
four weeks between doses.
WHO recommendations encourage early vaccination (first dose of RV to be given as

soon as possible after six weeks of age), but allow infants to receive rotavirus vaccine
together with pentavalent vaccine (DTP+HepB+Hib) regardless of the time of
vaccination.
Because rotavirus disease mainly affects very young children, vaccination after
24 months of age is not recommended. The duration of protection of RV is not yet
known, but boosters are also not recommended.
Key points about rotavirus gastroenteritis

¾¾ Rotavirus is a common cause of gastroenteritis in infants and young children.
¾¾ The disease spreads by the faecal-to-oral route and the virus is stable in the
environment.
¾¾ Severe disease can lead to rapid dehydration resulting in shock and death if fluids
are not replaced quickly by ORS and, if needed, intravenous infusion.
¾¾ Vaccination is the best prevention for rotavirus gastroenteritis since safe water
and sanitation measures are less effective in preventing rotavirus infections than
in preventing other causes of diarrhoea.
¾¾ Rotavirus vaccination prevents only rotavirus gastroenteritis and should be
included as part of a comprehensive treatment and prevention strategy to control
diarrhoea.

Table 1.18 Rotavirus vaccines summary

Number of doses • 2 for RV1 (monovalent RV, Rotarix®)

• 3 for RV5 (pentavalent RV, RotaTeq®)
Schedule – • First dose with pentavalent1; second dose with pentavalent2, with a minimum
Rotarix® interval of 4 weeks.
• Not recommended after 24 months of age
Schedule – • First dose with pentavalent1; second dose with pentavalent2; third dose with
RotaTeq® pentavalent3, with a minimum interval of 4 weeks.
• Not recommended after 24 months of age
Booster Not recommended at this time
Contraindications • Severe allergic reaction to previous dose

• Severe immunodeficiency (but not HIV infection)
Adverse events • Severe: intussusception

• Mild: irritability, runny nose, ear infection, diarrhoea, vomiting
Special precautions • Should be postponed for acute gastroenteritis and/or fever with moderate to
severe illness
• Not routinely recommended for history of intussusception or intestinal
malformations that possibly predispose to intussusception
Dosage • Rotarix®: 1.5 ml of liquid

• RotaTeq®: 2 ml
Route of administration Oral only

• Do not freeze

13 Rubella and congenital rubella

syndrome
13.1 What are rubella and congenital rubella syndrome?
Rubella is an infection caused by a virus and is usually mild in children and adults.
Congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) is a group of birth defects that occur when
the rubella virus infects a fetus. A woman infected with the rubella virus early in
pregnancy has a 90% chance of passing the virus on to her fetus and this can lead to
death of the fetus or to CRS. The most common birth defect is deafness, but CRS can
also cause defects in the eyes, heart and brain.
13.2 How is rubella virus spread?
Rubella is spread in airborne droplets released when infected people sneeze or cough.
The virus spreads throughout the body and, in a pregnant woman, to the fetus, about
five to seven days after infection.
Infected individuals are most likely to spread virus on days one to five of the rubella
rash (see below), but they can spread it from seven days before to about 14 days after
the rash appears. Infants with CRS can transmit the virus for a year or more.
13.3 What are the symptoms and signs of rubella and CRS?
About seven to 14 days after exposure to the virus, mild fever, conjunctivitis (more
often in adults) and swollen neck lymph nodes may occur and then be followed by a
rash five to 10 days later. The rash most often begins on the face and spreads towards
the feet. It is an erythematous maculopapular rash, which means it is red and raised
but usually fainter than a measles rash. The rash typically lasts for one to three days.
Studies have shown that 20–50% of rubella infections occur without a rash. Up to
70% of adult women may have joint pain and stiffness.
Children with CRS usually show birth defects, such as cataracts and loss of hearing
in infancy, but some do not show signs for two to four years. Mental retardation can
occur.
13.4 What are the complications of rubella?
Complications of rubella tend to occur more often in adults than in children.

Encephalitis occurs in about one in 6000 cases and is most common in adult women.
Problems with bleeding occur in about one in 3000 cases, usually among children.
Guillain-Barré syndrome has been reported rarely.

13.5 What is the treatment for rubella and CRS?
There is no specific antiviral medication for rubella or for CRS. Supportive measures
should be taken to alleviate symptoms.
13.6 How are rubella and CRS prevented?
Rubella and CRS are prevented with safe, effective rubella vaccines. For infant
immunization, rubella vaccine is usually given in combination with measles and
mumps vaccine (MR or MMR). In some countries, mostly in the industrialized world,
rubella has been nearly eliminated through childhood immunization programmes.
It is important to ensure that coverage in infants is sustained at over 80% to avoid
shifting rubella transmission to older age groups. For prevention of CRS, women
of childbearing age are the primary target group for rubella immunization. Sections
13.8–13.10 and Table 1.19 describe the rubella vaccine. Measles and mumps vaccines
are described in Sections 6 and 8 of this module respectively.
13.7 What is needed for global rubella and CRS disease control?
Although the global burden of rubella and CRS has decreased over time due to
vaccination, the remaining burden can be readily addressed along with measles control
efforts using combination vaccines (MR, MMR). Rubella and CRS are therefore part
of the Global Measles and Rubella Strategic Plan described in Section 6.7. Because
situations and approaches vary greatly, countries must decide on their use of rubella-
containing vaccines based on the burden of this disease and its public health priority.
13.8 What are rubella-containing vaccines?
MR and MMR are supplied as freeze-dried (also called lyophilized) powders. They must
be reconstituted before use: see Module 5 (Managing an immunization session), Section
4.2 for details. Rubella-containing vaccines must be stored between +2 °C and +8 °C.
They are sensitive to heat but not damaged by freezing. Opened multi-dose vials must
be handled according to national multi-dose vial policy: see Module 2 (The vaccine cold
chain), Section 5 for WHO policy.
Rubella-containing vaccines are administered in 0.5 ml doses by subcutaneous

injection.
13.9 How safe is rubella-containing vaccines and what are the

potential adverse events?
Adverse events following immunization with rubella-containing vaccines are mild in
children. Rubella vaccine may cause a temporary form of arthritis one to three weeks
after vaccination in up to one in four postpubertal females (who have already reached

sexual maturity). This is very rare in young children. Long-term joint disease has not
been associated with rubella-containing vaccines after reviewing the data from large
studies.
A WHO safety information summary for MMR combination vaccine is on the

13.10 When is rubella-containing vaccine administered?
Rubella-containing vaccine should be given at nine to 12 months of age. It can be

introduced into childhood immunization programmes with the two-dose schedule for
measles-containing vaccines. Countries should establish national schedules for older
children, adolescents and adults as needed.
Key points about rubella and CRS

¾¾ Rubella and CRS are infections caused by a virus.
¾¾ Rubella is normally a mild childhood disease, but women who contract rubella
early in pregnancy can pass the virus on to their fetuses and this can lead to fetal
death or CRS.
¾¾ The rash associated with rubella infection may not occur in 20–50% of cases.
¾¾ CRS includes birth defects of the ears, eyes, heart and brain.
¾¾ WHO currently recommends that countries use rubella vaccine in conjunction
with measles vaccine (MR or MMR) for the goal of rubella and CRS
elimination.

Table 1.19 Rubella-containing vaccines summary

Total number of doses 1 (but when given in combination with measles/mumps, 2 doses are required for
programmatic reasons)
Schedule • Rubella1: 9 or 12 months of age with MCV

• Refer to national schedules for older children, adolescents and adults

• Pregnancy
infection/AIDS
Adverse events • In some adult women: serious arthritis (joint inflammation) and mild arthralgia
(joint pain)
• Mild: injection site reactions
Dosage 0.5 ml
Injection site Anterolateral (outer) thigh or upper arm depending on the child’s age

• If using combination vaccines, keep all measles-containing vaccines away from
sunlight

14 Seasonal influenza
14.1 What is seasonal influenza?
Seasonal influenza is a respiratory disease caused by influenza viruses A and B. In

temperate climates, it can occur primarily in winter epidemics. In tropical climates,
it can occur year-round with high attack rates and deaths. Globally, seasonal influenza
can affect 5–10% of adults and 20–30% of children each year. Children under five
years of age, pregnant women, the elderly (over 65 years of age) and people with
HIV/AIDS, asthma, and other chronic heart or lung conditions are at greater risk.
14.2 How is seasonal influenza spread?
Influenza A and B viruses are spread mainly in droplets and aerosols released when an
infected person coughs or sneezes.
14.3 What are the symptoms and signs of seasonal influenza?
Symptoms of influenza usually occur after a one- to four-day incubation period and
include fever, cough, sore throat, runny nose, headache and muscle and joint aches.
Signs of severe disease in children include difficulty breathing, increased respiratory
rate, poor feeding, irritability, dehydration and decreased alertness.
14.4 What are the complications of seasonal influenza?
Bacterial pneumonia is a frequent complication in the elderly and people with certain
chronic diseases. Two of the bacteria that are often found, Streptococcus pneumoniae
and Haemophilus influenzae, are discussed in previous sections of this module.
Pregnant women are at increased risk of severe disease and death, and complications
for their babies, such as stillbirth, preterm delivery, neonatal death and low birth
weight. Elderly persons (age 65 years or over) have the highest risk of mortality from
influenza.
14.5 What is the treatment for seasonal influenza?
Several antiviral drugs are available to treat influenza but these are most often used in
high-income countries.

14.6 How is seasonal influenza prevented?
Annual vaccination is recommended to prevent seasonal influenza, particularly for

high-risk groups. WHO recommends that pregnant women should be the first priority
for influenza vaccine. Children aged six to 59 months, the elderly (over 65 years of
age), people with chronic conditions and health care workers may also be vaccinated
based on the local burden of disease, available resources and competing health
priorities. Sections 14.7–14.9 and Table 1.20 describe influenza vaccines.
14.7 What is seasonal influenza vaccine?
Most seasonal influenza vaccines are trivalent, containing two strains of influenza A
and one strain of influenza B, which are chosen based on known circulating strains.
Both inactivated and live attenuated (weakened) trivalent vaccines are available.
A quadrivalent live attenuated (weakened) vaccine was licensed in the USA in 2012.
Inactivated influenza vaccines are usually available in multi-dose vials that have
preservative (thiomersal). Preservative-free, single-dose vials and prefilled syringes are
in limited supply and more expensive. They do not require reconstitution and must be
stored at a temperature of between +2°C and +8 °C without freezing.
Inactivated influenza vaccines are administered intramuscularly in 0.5 ml doses.
Live attenuated (weakened) vaccines are administered as nasal sprays and are generally
used for healthy individuals between two and 49 years of age.
The rest of this section focuses on inactivated influenza vaccines since they are
recommended for pregnant women at any time, children six to 59 months of age and
persons of 50 years of age and older.
14.8 How safe are inactivated influenza vaccines and what are the
Inactivated influenza vaccines are considered safe. Severe adverse events have included
anaphylaxis in 0.7 per million vaccinations, Guillain-Barré syndrome in one to two per
million (in older adults) and oculo (eye)-respiratory syndrome in 76 per million. Mild
events include local injection site reactions in 10–64%, fever in 12% of children aged
one to five years and fever in 5% of children aged six to 15 years.
Inactivated influenza vaccines are contraindicated in cases of known allergic reaction to

a previous dose or to a vaccine component, including egg protein.
A WHO safety information summary on influenza vaccines is on the website:


14.9 When are inactivated influenza vaccines administered?
Annual vaccination for high-risk groups should be incorporated into immunization

programmes following national policy. WHO recommends that pregnant women
have the highest priority. Pregnant women can be vaccinated in any trimester. Ideally,
influenza vaccine should be made available throughout the year and it may be given
at the same time as tetanus vaccine. Immunizing pregnant women also benefits their
babies after birth since the vaccine is not given to infants before six months of age.
A single dose is recommended for those over nine years of age, including pregnant
women. Children aged six to 59 months are at high risk of severe disease and should
be given two doses at least four weeks apart. Children aged six to 35 months should
receive a pediatric dose. For elderly persons (over 65 years of age) vaccination is the
most effective public health intervention to reduce their risk of death from influenza.
Health care workers are an important group to vaccinate to reduce the risk of
transmission to patients.
Annual vaccination (or re-vaccination, if the vaccine strains are identical) is

recommended. Previously vaccinated children aged six to 59 months require only one
dose.
Key points about seasonal influenza

¾¾ Seasonal influenza due to influenza virus types A and B results in significant
disease and economic burden each year.
¾¾ Pregnant women are the highest priority for vaccination in order to protect
young infants (vaccine cannot be given to those under six months of age).
¾¾ Additional risk groups to be considered include children six to 59 months, as
well as the elderly over age 65 years. The elderly are most at risk of death.
¾¾ The main complication is bacterial pneumonia, which can be fatal.
¾¾ Annual vaccination is recommended, particularly for high-risk groups.

Table 1.20 Inactivated influenza vaccines summary

Type of vaccine Inactivated viral: tri- or quadrivalent for 2 strains of influenza A and 1–2 strains of
influenza B
Total number of doses • 1 for ≥ 9 years of age, including pregnant women and adults
• 2 for children 6–59 months of age (children 6–35 months should receive a
pediatric dose)
Schedule • Annual
• For children 6–59 months of age, 2 doses with an interval of 4 weeks minimum.
Previously vaccinated children aged 6–59 months require only 1 dose
Contraindications Known hypersensitivity (allergy) or anaphylaxis to a previous dose or to a vaccine

component such as egg protein
Adverse events • Severe: rare anaphylaxis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, oculo-respiratory syndrome

Special precautions May postpone vaccination in case of moderate to severe illness (with temperature
≥39 °C)
Dosage 0.5 ml
Injection site Outer (anterolateral) mid-thigh in infants and children; upper arm (deltoid) adults

• Do not freeze

15 Tetanus
15.1 What is tetanus?
Tetanus is caused by the bacterium Clostridium tetani, which is present in soil

everywhere. Infection with this bacterium occurs when soil enters a wound or cut. A
toxin released by the bacterium causes severe, painful muscle spasms that can lead to
death.
Neonatal tetanus (in newborns) and maternal tetanus (in mothers) is a serious problem
in areas where home deliveries without sterile procedures are common.
15.2 How is tetanus spread?
Tetanus is not transmitted from person to person. In people of all ages, the bacterium
can enter a wound or cut from items such as dirty nails, knives, tools, wood splinters,
dirty tools used during childbirth, or deep puncture wounds from animal bites. It
grows well in deep wounds, burns and crush injuries.
In newborn babies, infection can occur when delivery occurs on dirty mats or floors,
a dirty tool is used to cut the umbilical cord, dirty material is used to dress the cord or
when the hands of the person delivering the baby are not clean.
Infants and children may also contract tetanus when dirty tools are used for
circumcision, scarification and skin piercing, and when dirt, charcoal or other unclean
substances are rubbed into a wound.
15.3 What are the symptoms and signs of tetanus?
The incubation period (time between getting infected and showing symptoms) is
usually three to 21 days, but can be as much as several months depending on the
wound. The risk of death from the disease increases as the incubation period decreases.
In children and adults, muscular stiffness in the jaw (trismus or lock-jaw) is a common
first sign of tetanus. This is followed by stiffness in the neck, abdomen and/or back,
difficulty swallowing, muscle spasms, sweating and fever. Newborns with tetanus are
normal at birth but stop feeding at three to 28 days of age. They then become stiff and
severe muscle spasms occur.

15.4 What are the complications of tetanus?
When muscles used in breathing are affected, respiratory failure and death can occur.
Neonates and elderly patients are at highest risk. Pneumonia is also common. Fractures
of the spine or other bones may occur as a result of muscle spasms and convulsions.
Long-term neurologic impairment has been described in survivors of neonatal tetanus.
15.5 What is the treatment for tetanus?
Tetanus at any age is a medical emergency best managed in a referral hospital. Antitetanus
immunoglobulins, antibiotics, wound care and supportive measures are needed.
15.6 How is tetanus prevented?
Tetanus toxoid-containing (TTCV) vaccine protects against tetanus. Infants

and children may receive combination vaccines, such as DTP, pentavalent
(DTP+HepB+Hib) or DT. Anyone older than seven years of age should receive dT,
which contains tetanus toxoid and lower levels of diphtheria antigen. Sections 15.8–
15.10 and Tables 1.21–1.23 describe tetanus toxoid-containing vaccines.
Neonatal tetanus can be prevented by immunizing women of reproductive age with

tetanus toxoid, either during or before pregnancy. Clean delivery procedures are needed
even when the mother has been immunized. Clean umbilical cord care for the newborn
is equally important.
People who recover from tetanus do not have natural immunity and can be infected
again. WHO recommends completion of a six-dose schedule.
15.7 What is needed for global tetanus disease control?
WHO, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the United Nations
Population Fund (UNFPA) have set 2015 as the target date for the worldwide
elimination of neonatal tetanus, which means less than one case per 1000 live births
per year in every district. Because the tetanus bacterium survives in the environment,
eradication of tetanus is not feasible and high levels of immunization need to be
maintained even after elimination.
The strategies to achieve the maternal and neonatal tetanus (MNT) elimination goal
are improved vaccination coverage of pregnant women with TT-containing vaccines,
vaccination of all women of reproductive age in high-risk areas, promotion of clean
delivery and cord care practices, and improved surveillance and reporting of neonatal
tetanus cases.
After MNT elimination, countries must maintain high coverage of pregnant women
with TTCV through routine immunization, use all opportunities such as mother-and-

child health days and periodic intensification of routine immunization to ensure high
protection, promote school-based TTCV booster doses, promote clean delivery and
cord care practices, and maintain surveillance of cases.
15.8 What are tetanus toxoid-containing vaccines?
Tetanus toxoid vaccine is available as TT, which protects only against tetanus and
neonatal tetanus. It is also available in pentavalent, DTP and dT/DT combinations.
TT vaccine is supplied as a liquid in single- and multi-dose vials and also in prefilled
auto-disable syringes. Pentavalent vaccine with a freeze-dried Hib component requires
reconstitution: see Module 5 (Managing an immunization session), Section 4.2 for
details. Tetanus toxoid-containing vaccines must be stored between +2 °C and +8 °C
without being frozen. They are freeze-sensitive. If freezing is suspected, the Shake Test
should be performed to determine whether a vial is safe to use (see Module 2 (The
vaccine cold chain), Section 7). Opened multi-dose vials must be handled according to
national multi-dose vial policy (see Module 2, Section 5 for WHO policy).
Tetanus toxoid-containing vaccines are administered as 0.5 ml doses given

intramuscularly in the anterolateral (outer) thigh in infants and in the deltoid muscle
(upper arm) of older children and adults.
15.9 How safe is tetanus toxoid vaccine and what are the potential
Tetanus toxoid is very safe. Severe events are rare and include anaphylaxis (1.6 per
1 million doses) and neurologic problems such as brachial neuritis (inflammation
of arm nerves). Guillain-Barré syndrome has been reported but TTCV has not been
established as the cause. Mild events include injection site pain, redness and/or
swelling. These are more common after later doses than earlier ones, and may affect
between 50% and 85% of people who receive TT booster doses. Fever may develop in
10% of those vaccinated.
A WHO safety information summary for combination vaccines is on the website:

15.10 When are tetanus toxoid-containing vaccines given?
For long-term immunity against tetanus in all individuals, five doses of TTCV are
recommended in childhood: three doses in the primary series given in infancy by
pentavalent vaccine, one booster dose between four and seven years of age using dT
vaccine, and a second booster dose with dT between 12 and 15 years of age. For
women, one additional dose of dT is recommended during pregnancy to ensure
protection throughout reproductive age and probably for life.

Because increasing numbers of women have documentation of prior receipt of TT-

containing vaccines when they are assessed for vaccination during childbearing years,
three childhood doses are considered equivalent in protection to two doses of TT or
Td given in adulthood (see Tables 1.21–1.23).
Key points about tetanus

¾¾ Tetanus is caused by a bacterium found in the environment.
¾¾ Infection occurs during unclean delivery of babies, when contaminated objects
are used to cut the umbilical cord, or whenever tetanus bacteria enter a wound or
cut.
¾¾ Neonatal tetanus remains a serious problem in countries with poor
immunization coverage and unsafe childbirth and cord care practices.
¾¾ Most newborns who contract tetanus will die.
¾¾ The best way to prevent maternal and neonatal tetanus is to give the WHO six-
dose TTCV schedule of infant and booster doses, immunize pregnant women in
all areas (and all women of reproductive age in high-risk areas), and ensure clean
delivery and cord care practices.
Table 1.21 Tetanus-toxoid vaccine summary

Type of vaccine Toxoid
Schedule • With pentavalent: starting at age 6 weeks (minimum) with second and third
doses at 4–8 week intervals after the previous dose (see Table 1.2)
• For women, see Tables 1.22 and 1.23
Booster • 4–7 years; and adolescence 12–15 years

• For women, see Tables 1.22 and 1.23
Contraindications Known hypersensitivity (allergy) or anaphylaxis to a previous dose
Adverse events • Severe: rare anaphylaxis, brachial neuritis

Dosage 0.5 ml
Injection site Anterolateral (outer) thigh in infants and children; upper arm (deltoid) in adults

• Do not freeze

Table 1.22 Tetanus toxoid immunization schedule for routine immunization of pregnant
women who were not previously vaccinated in childhood
Dose of Schedule Expected duration
TT or Td of protection*
1 At first contact or as early as possible in pregnancy None
2 At least 4 weeks after TT1 1–3 years
3 At least 6 months after TT2 or during subsequent pregnancy At least 5 years
4 At least 1 year after TT3 or during subsequent pregnancy At least 10 years
5 At least 1 year after TT4 or during subsequent pregnancy For all reproductive years
and possibly longer
*Recent studies suggest that the duration of protection may be longer than indicated in the table. This matter is currently under review.
Table 1.23 Guidelines for tetanus toxoid immunization of women who were immunized
during infancy, childhood and adolescence
Age at last Previous immunizations Recommended immunizations
vaccination (based on written records)
At present contact/ Later (at intervals of at
pregnancy least one year)
Infancy 3 DTP 2 doses of TT/Td 1 dose of TT/Td
(min 4 weeks interval
between doses)
Childhood 4 DTP 1 dose of TT/Td 1 dose of TT/Td
School age 3 DTP + 1 DT/Td 1 dose of TT/Td 1 dose of TT/Td
School age 4 DTP + 1 DT/Td 1 dose of TT/Td None

16 Tuberculosis
16.1 What is tuberculosis?
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which usually

attacks the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body, including the bones,
joints and brain.
Not everyone who is infected with TB bacteria develops the disease. People who are
infected may not feel ill and may have no symptoms. The infection can last for a
lifetime, but the infected person may never develop the disease itself. People who are
infected and who do not develop the disease do not spread the infection to others.
16.2 How is TB spread?
TB is spread from one person to another through the air, often when an infected
person coughs or sneezes. TB spreads rapidly, especially in areas where people are living
in crowded conditions, have poor access to health care, and/or are malnourished. A
person can contract bovine tuberculosis, another variety of TB, by consuming raw
milk from infected cattle.
People of all ages can develop TB, but the risk is highest in children younger than
three years of age and in older people. People with TB infection who have weakened
immune systems (for example, people with HIV/AIDS) are more likely to develop the
disease.
16.3 What are the symptoms and signs of TB?
The period from infection to development of the first symptoms is usually four to
12 weeks, but the infection may persist for months or even years before the disease
develops. A person with the disease can infect others for several weeks after he or she
begins treatment.
The symptoms of TB include general weakness, weight loss, fever and night sweats.
In TB of the lungs, which is called pulmonary tuberculosis, the symptoms include
persistent cough, coughing up of blood and chest pain. In young children, however,
the only sign of pulmonary TB may be stunted growth or failure to thrive. Other
symptoms and signs depend on the part of the body that is affected. For example, in
tuberculosis of the bones and joints, there may be swelling, pain and crippling effects
on the hips, knees or spine.

16.4 What are the complications of TB?
TB can present in many ways and may be very difficult to diagnose. Untreated
pulmonary TB results in debility and death. This may be more rapid in people infected
with HIV/AIDS.
16.5 What is the treatment for TB?
People with TB must complete a course of therapy, which usually includes taking two
or more antituberculosis drugs for at least six months. This therapy is called Directly
Observed Treatment Schedule (DOTS). Unfortunately, some people fail to take the
medication as prescribed or do not complete the course of therapy. Some may be
given ineffective treatment. This can lead to multidrug-resistant TB that is even more
difficult to treat and more dangerous if spread to other people. When people who have
developed TB fail to complete standard treatment regimens or are given the wrong
treatment regimen, they may remain infectious.
16.6 How is TB prevented?
Vaccination before 12 months of age with bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccine (BCG) can
protect against TB meningitis and other severe forms of TB in children of less than five
years of age. Sections 16.7–16.9 and Table 1.24 describe BCG vaccine.
16.7 What is BCG vaccine?
BCG vaccine protects infants against tuberculosis. The letters B, C, G stand for
bacillus Calmette-Guérin. Bacillus describes the rod shape of the bacterium. Calmette
and Guérin are the names of the people who developed the vaccine.
BCG vaccine is supplied in freeze-dried powder (also called lyophilized) form. It must
be reconstituted with a diluent before use: see Module 5 (Managing an immunization
session), Section 4.2 for details. BCG vaccine must be stored between +2 °C and +8 °C
after reconstitution. Opened multi-dose vials must be handled according to national
multi-dose vial policy: see Module 2 (The vaccine cold chain), Section 5 for WHO policy.
16.8 How safe is BCG vaccine and what are the potential adverse
Severe events following immunization with BCG include generalized infection in
about one per 230 000–640 000 doses of vaccine given, primarily in HIV-infected
persons or those with severe immune deficiencies. Known HIV infection or other
immune deficiency is a contraindication for BCG (refer to Module 5, Section 3.1).
Other severe events include swelling and abscesses in about one per 1000–10 000
doses. Swollen glands (in the armpit or near the elbow) and/or abscesses sometimes

occur because an unsterile needle or syringe was used, too much vaccine was injected
or, most commonly, the vaccine was injected incorrectly under the skin instead of into
the top layer (refer to Module 5, Section 4.7 for injection technique).
A mild reaction at the site of injection occurs in almost all children. When BCG
vaccine is injected, a small raised lump usually appears at the injection site and then
disappears within 30 minutes. After about two weeks, a red sore (about the size of the
end of an unsharpened pencil) forms. This sore usually lasts for another two weeks and
then heals, leaving a small scar about 5 mm across – the scar is a sign that the child has
been effectively immunized.
A WHO safety information summary for BCG vaccine is available on the website:
16.9 When is BCG vaccine administered?
BCG is recommended for infants living in countries with a high TB disease burden
and high-risk children living in countries with a low disease burden. It should be given
routinely at, or as soon as possible after, birth to all infants except those known to
have HIV or any condition that results in a decreased or abnormal immune system
response.
In areas where TB is highly endemic but services are limited, BCG should be given
at birth to all infants regardless of HIV exposure. Infants with known HIV-positive
mothers should be followed closely to monitor for any BCG-related complications. If
services are available, BCG should be postponed until HIV-exposed infants (born to
known HIV-positive mothers) can be confirmed to be HIV negative.
BCG vaccine is not recommended after 12 months of age because the protection
provided is less certain.
Key points about TB

¾¾ TB usually affects the lungs but can affect other parts of the body, including the
bones, joints and brain.
¾¾ TB is spread through the air.
¾¾ The symptoms of TB disease include general weakness, weight loss, fever and
night sweats.
¾¾ People who develop TB disease must complete a course of drug therapy to cure
it and to avoid spreading it to others.
¾¾ The recommended method of TB prevention for children is BCG vaccine given
at, or as soon as possible after, birth and before 12 months of age.

Table 1.24 BCG vaccine summary

Type of vaccine Live bacterial
Number of doses 1
Schedule At or as soon as possible after birth
Booster None
Contraindications Known HIV infection or other immune deficiency
Adverse events • Severe: generalized disease or infections such as osteomyelitis (bone infection);
abscess; regional lymphadenitis (lymph node inflammation)
• Mild: injection site reactions
Special precautions Correct intradermal administration is essential – a specific syringe and needle are
used for BCG (see Module 5, Section 4.8)
Dosage 0.05 ml
Injection site Outer upper left arm or shoulder
Injection type Intradermal
• Between +2 °C and +8 °C

Storage
• Do not freeze

17 Yellow fever
17.1 What is yellow fever?
Yellow fever (YF) is a mosquito-borne viral disease of humans and other primates
that is currently endemic (occurring regularly) in 44 tropical zone African and South
American countries.
17.2 How is yellow fever spread?
YF is spread by several species of Haemagogus and Aedes mosquitoes. In forest areas and
humid regions of Africa, people become infected by the bites of mosquitoes that have
previously fed on infected nonhuman primates. During large epidemics in crowded
urban areas, mosquitoes can spread the disease from person to person.
17.3 What are the symptoms and signs of yellow fever?
Infection with YF virus can cause no symptoms or signs in some cases. In other cases,
signs usually appear three to six days after the infected mosquito bite and include
fever, muscle pain, shivering, loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting, congestion of the
conjunctivae and face and a relatively slow heart rate during fever. Approximately 15%
of infections are associated with more severe symptoms, such as jaundice (yellowing
of the conjunctivae and skin), bleeding and liver and kidney failure that can lead to
death. Severe YF can be confused with malaria, leptospirosis, viral hepatitis, other
types of haemorrhagic fevers and poisoning.
17.4 What are the complications of yellow fever?
About 20–50% of patients who develop liver and kidney failure die, usually seven to
10 days after the onset of the disease. Survivors may experience prolonged weakness
and fatigue, but the liver and kidneys usually heal completely.
17.5 What is the treatment for yellow fever?
There is no WHO recommendation for antiviral medication in YF treatment.

Supportive measures should be taken to alleviate symptoms. Severe cases usually
require hospital care. Paracetamol is used in mild cases that can be managed at home.
Aspirin and similar medications should be avoided since they may cause bleeding,
particularly in the stomach and intestines.

17.6 How is yellow fever prevented?
YF is prevented by immunization, which is recommended to protect people living in

endemic and epidemic disease areas and travellers visiting these areas, and to prevent
international spread by infected travellers. Large-scale YF vaccination has been very
effective in endemic areas, but major outbreaks have occurred where coverage has
decreased after the discontinuation of immunization campaigns.
Measures to control mosquito populations in urban areas have also been part of
prevention strategies.
17.7 What is yellow fever vaccine?
Live attenuated (weakened) virus vaccines for preventing YF are currently in use. They
are supplied in freeze-dried (also called lyophilized) form and must be reconstituted
with the diluent supplied by the manufacturer before use: see Module 5 (Managing
an immunization session), Section 4.2 for details. YF vaccine must be stored between
+2 °C and +8 °C. It is not damaged if accidentally frozen. Opened multi-dose vials
must be handled according to national multi-dose vial policy: see Module 2 (The
vaccine cold chain), Section 5 for WHO policy.
It is administered as a single 0.5 ml dose either subcutaneously in the upper arm or

intramuscularly in the anterolateral thigh.
17.8 How safe is yellow fever vaccine and what are the potential
Severe adverse events include hypersensitivity (allergy) or anaphylaxis (0.8 per
100,000 vaccinations) occurring most commonly in people with allergies to eggs or
gelatin. YF vaccine-associated neurologic disease (inflammation of different parts of
the nervous system, including the brain) and viscerotropic disease (affecting internal
organs) have been reported; overall rates are low but older patients (over 60 years
of age) receiving primary YF vaccine doses seem to be at higher risk. YF vaccine-
associated viscerotropic disease (affecting internal organs with symptoms and signs
similar to infection with YF) has been fatal in over 60% of cases.
Mild adverse events, such as injection site pain, headache, muscle ache, low-grade
fever, itching, hives and other rashes are reported in up to 25% of those vaccinated.

17.9 When is yellow fever vaccine administered?
A single dose of YF vaccine is sufficient for life-long protection and, in endemic

countries, should be integrated into routine immunization programmes, with children
aged 9–12 months receiving the vaccine at the same time as measles-containing
vaccine. Preventive mass immunization campaigns are recommended in endemic
countries where YF vaccine coverage is low. It should be provided to everyone aged
nine months or more in areas with reported cases. Unvaccinated travellers aged nine
months or more going to and from high-risk areas should receive YF vaccine unless
otherwise contraindicated.
YF vaccine is contraindicated in children aged under six months and not

recommended for children aged six to eight months, except during epidemics. It
is contraindicated in anyone with allergies to egg antigens and in HIV-infected
individuals with CD4 T-cell values of under 200 per mm3.
See Table 1.25 for YF vaccination summary.
Key points about yellow fever

¾¾ Yellow fever is a viral disease spread by infected mosquitoes primarily in tropical
zones of Africa and South America.
¾¾ YF symptoms and signs can range from none to liver and kidney failure that
leads to death; they can be easily confused with other diseases.
¾¾ No specific antiviral treatment is recommended at this time.
¾¾ YF vaccine is effective as a single dose and, if not contraindicated, should be
given to all people aged nine months or more living in or travelling to high-risk
areas.

Table 1.25 Yellow fever vaccine summary

Number of doses 1
Schedule • In endemic areas: 9–12 months of age with MCV1

• In areas with reported cases: all persons aged ≥9 months
• For travellers to high-risk areas: all persons aged ≥9 months
Booster None
Contraindications • Age <6 months; age 6–8 months except during epidemics
• Known allergy to egg antigens or to a previous dose
• HIV infection with CD4 T-cell values <200 per mm3
Adverse events • Severe: anaphylaxis; YF vaccine-associated neurologic (nerve) disease and

viscerotropic (affecting internal organs) disease; encephalitis in infants aged <6
months
• Mild: headache, muscle pain, fever
Special precautions Carry out a risk–benefit assessment before administering to pregnant women or
people aged >60 years
Dosage 0.05 ml
Injection site Outer upper left arm or shoulder (for subcutaneous); or anterolateral (outer) thigh
in infants and children (for intramuscular)
Injection type Subcutaneous or intramuscular

18 Opportunities for integration of

services: EPI Plus and vitamin A
deficiency
Immunization programmes provide an opportunity to deliver other essential health
services such as vitamin A supplementation, de-worming, malaria prevention with
insecticide-treated nets and Integrated Management of Childhood Illness. These
additional services are part of EPI Plus programmes. Vitamin A deficiency is discussed
further here.
18.1 Vitamin A deficiency
Any immunization contact is an opportunity to screen infants and young children for
eligibility to receive vitamin A, particularly if vaccinations have been delayed and the
child is six months or older.
18.2 What is vitamin A?
Vitamin A is a substance that is required by the human body. It strengthens resistance

to infection, increases a child’s chances of surviving an infection, promotes growth and
protects the cornea (the transparent part of the eye). Lack of vitamin A, or vitamin A
deficiency, can result in poor vision in dim light.
The human body cannot make vitamin A. So all the vitamin A it needs must come
from food intake. Vitamin A is present in the following foods:
• breast milk
• liver, eggs, meat, fish liver oil
• milk, cheese and other dairy products
• yellow and orange fruits, such as mangoes and papayas
• yellow and orange vegetables, such as pumpkins and carrots
• dark green, leafy vegetables
• red palm oil.
Vitamin A can be added to such foods as sugar, vegetable oil and wheat flour during
processing. This is called food fortification.

18.3 When does vitamin A deficiency occur?
Vitamin A deficiency occurs when a person does not eat enough food containing
vitamin A or when the body uses it up too fast. This often happens during illness,
during pregnancy and lactation, and when children’s growth is most rapid – from six
months to five years of age.
18.4 What are symptoms and signs of vitamin A deficiency?
Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) reduces resistance to infections, leading to more severe

and prolonged illnesses and increasing the risk of death. It can cause eye damage, such
as corneal lesions and, when severe, can cause blindness. Generally, the first clinical
sign of vitamin A deficiency is night blindness (impaired vision in dim light). Because
vitamin A deficiency reduces the body’s resistance to infection, it is a threat even before
any direct signs become apparent.
Children suffering from vitamin A deficiency are more likely to get infections, such as
measles, as well as diarrhoea and fevers. These infections are more likely to be severe,
sometimes resulting in death.
18.5 What is vitamin A supplementation?
When diets do not contain food with enough vitamin A, it is possible to increase
vitamin A levels in the body by periodically taking a concentrated dose in the form of
a capsule. This is called supplementation. When given to children, vitamin A capsules
are cut open and the drops of liquid inside are squeezed into the mouth.
Vitamin A supplementation can be combined with immunization services for children

when health officials know or suspect that vitamin A deficiency is present in an area or
among a certain population.
In addition, vitamin A supplements are also given for the treatment of measles and
xerophthalmia (dryness of the eyes that can lead to corneal damage and blindness).
18.6 Are there any side effects of vitamin A supplements?
There are usually no side effects. On rare occasions, a child may experience headache,
loss of appetite or vomiting. These symptoms pass in time, and no treatment is
necessary. Parents should be advised that this is normal.

18.7 What are the opportunities to link vitamin A and routine

immunization?
Table 1.26 shows how vitamin A supplementation can be linked with routine
immunization.
Table 1.26 Linking vitamin A and routine immunization

Target for vitamin A Immunization contact Vitamin A dose
Infants 6–11 months • Measles/yellow fever 100 000 IU

• Polio NIDs
Children 12 months and older • Other EPI campaigns 200 000 IU

• Boosters
Children 12–59 months • Booster doses 200 000 IU

• Delayed primary immunization
The optimal interval between doses of vitamin A is four to six months. The minimum
recommended safe interval between doses is one month. The interval between doses
can be reduced to treat clinical vitamin A deficiency and measles cases. Follow national
guidelines for the appropriate measles treatment schedule.

19 The integrated Global Action Plan

for Pneumonia and Diarrhoea
Pneumonia and diarrhoea remain two of the leading killers of young children globally.
Together, these diseases account for 24% of all deaths of children under five years of
age, and the concentration of these deaths among the poorest countries is the starkest
example of the child survival gap. Tackling these two leading killers of children
together will have the single greatest impact on improving child survival.
As both illnesses have multiple causes, no single intervention can prevent and
control either condition, and although low-cost and effective interventions have
been well established, they are not always promoted or implemented together to
achieve maximum benefit. Coverage of core interventions remains low, services are
too often provided piecemeal, and those most at risk are still not being reached.
However, as many of the risk factors and underlying causes of disease, as well as the
preventive strategies and available delivery platforms, are nearly identical, it is now
clear that pneumonia and diarrhoea can and should be addressed in an integrated and
coordinated manner.
Ending Preventable Child Deaths from Pneumonia and Diarrhoea by 2025 – the
integrated Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Pneumonia and
Diarrhoea (GAPPD; available at http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/
documents/global_action_plan_pneumonia_diarrhoea/en/) was launched in 2013
by WHO and UNICEF with contributions from a wide group of partners and
stakeholders. The GAPPD outlines an integrated framework of key interventions
proven to effectively protect, prevent and treat pneumonia and diarrhoea and provides
a range of supporting activities to improve and accelerate the implementation of
these interventions, which, when delivered together, can save countless children from
avoidable deaths due to both diseases.
As shown in Figure 1.1, GAPPD emphasizes a “Protect, Prevent and Treat” framework
to achieve pneumonia and diarrhoea control: protecting children by establishing
and promoting good health practices; preventing children from becoming ill from
pneumonia and diarrhoea by ensuring universal coverage of immunization, HIV
prevention and healthy environments; and treating children who are ill from
pneumonia and diarrhoea with appropriate treatment.
Protection measures include:
• exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life
• adequate complementary feeding
• vitamin A supplementation.

Prevention measures include:
• vaccines (measles, pertussis, H. influenzae type b, pneumococcus and rotavirus)
• handwashing with soap
• safe drinking water and sanitation
• reduced indoor air pollution
• HIV prevention
• cotrimoxazole prophylaxis for HIV-infected children as indicated.
Treatment measures include:
• improved care seeking and referral
• case management at health facility and community level
• supplies (ORS, zinc, antibiotics and oxygen)
• continued feeding (including breastfeeding).
Figure 1.1 GAPPD “Protect, Prevent and Treat” framework
Diarrhoea
Vitamin A Vaccination : Safe water Low-osmolarity ORS, zinc

supplementation rotavirus & improved sanitation & continued feeding
Protect Prevent Treat
Breastfeeding Measles Improved care seeking

promotion & support Vaccination behaviour and referral
Adequate complementary Handwashing Improved case management

feeding with soap at community and facility
levels health
Prevention of HIV Continued feeding
Pneumonia
Vaccination Reduced household Antibiotics Oxygen therapy

(PCV, Hib, pertussis) air pollution for pneumonia (where indicated)

2: The vaccine cold chain
2
The vaccine
cold chain
The purpose of the vaccine “cold chain” is to maintain product quality from the time of
manufacture until the point of administration by ensuring that vaccines are stored and
transported within WHO-recommended temperature ranges.
This module provides guidance for workers at health facility level. It covers the use of cold chain
and temperature monitoring equipment and the basic maintenance of cold chain equipment.
The module describes the existing range of WHO prequalified equipment at the time of
publication. Up-to-date information on prequalified equipment is available on the WHO
Performance Quality Safety (PQS) website (http://apps.who.int/immunization_standards/
vaccine_quality/pqs_catalogue/).
Some of the figures in this module show equipment from specific manufacturers. This is for
illustrative purposes only and does not indicate WHO official endorsement of these products.
Contents
1. The cold chain ..................................................................................................(2)3
1.1 Temperature requirements for vaccines ..................................................................................... (2)4
1.2 The cold chain at health centre or peripheral health facility level ....................................... (2)6
2. Health facility cold chain equipment ..............................................................(2)7
2.1 Refrigerators ....................................................................................................................................... (2)7
2.2 Cold boxes ........................................................................................................................................ (2)11
2.3 Vaccine carriers ................................................................................................................................ (2)12
2.4 Water packs ...................................................................................................................................... (2)12
2.5 Foam pads ........................................................................................................................................ (2)14
3. Temperature monitoring devices ..................................................................(2)15
3.1 Monitoring heat exposure using vaccine vial monitors ........................................................ (2)15
3.2 Temperature monitoring devices ............................................................................................... (2)18
3.3 Recommended equipment .......................................................................................................... (2)21
4. Monitoring cold chain temperatures ............................................................(2)23
4.1 Monitoring vaccine refrigerator temperature ......................................................................... (2)23
4.2 Taking action when a vaccine refrigerator’s temperature is out of range ........................ (2)25
4.3 Maintaining the correct temperature in cold boxes and vaccine carriers ........................ (2)26
5. Arranging vaccines inside cold chain equipment .........................................(2)27
5.1 General rules for using vaccine refrigerators ........................................................................... (2)27
5.2 Specific rules for using front-opening refrigerators ............................................................... (2)29
5.3 Specific rules for using top-opening refrigerators without baskets .................................. (2)32
5.4 Specific rules for using top-opening refrigerators with baskets ......................................... (2)33
5.5 Preparing ice packs and cool water packs ................................................................................ (2)35
5.6 Packing vaccines in cold boxes and vaccine carriers ............................................................. (2)37
6. Basic maintenance of cold chain equipment ................................................(2)39
6.1 Defrosting vaccine refrigerators .................................................................................................. (2)39
6.2 Maintaining solar power systems ............................................................................................... (2)40
6.3 Maintaining gas refrigerators ...................................................................................................... (2)41
6.4 Maintaining kerosene refrigerators ............................................................................................ (2)41
6.5 Managing vaccine refrigerator breakdowns ............................................................................ (2)42
6.6 Maintaining cold boxes and vaccine carriers ........................................................................... (2)43
7. The Shake Test ...............................................................................................(2)44
7.1 What is the Shake Test? ................................................................................................................. (2)44
7.2 When is the Shake Test needed? ................................................................................................. (2)44
7.3 How is the Shake Test done? ........................................................................................................ (2)44

1 The cold chain

The system used for storing vaccines in good condition is called the cold chain. It is
sometimes referred to as the vaccine supply chain, or the immunization supply chain.
The cold chain consists of a series of links that are designed to keep vaccines within
WHO recommended temperature ranges, from the point of manufacture to the point
of administration. Figure 2.1 illustrates the complete cold chain. The bottom row of
arrows shows the flow of vaccines down to the health facilities; the top row of arrows
shows where data are collected, recorded, checked and analysed, and how reporting
information flows back up the chain. Following this sequence ensures that cold chain
performance is properly monitored and that the necessary information is gathered for
vaccine forecasting.
Figure 2.1 The cold chain

Manufacturer
Request for supply
Annual statistics
and estimates
Airport
Analysis
Monthly report/
checking Central store
Daily record
District/
regional store
Health centre
Vaccinator/
mother and child
Source: PATH/WHO
In order to maintain a reliable vaccine cold chain at the peripheral level, the following
key procedures must be observed:
• store vaccines and diluents within the required temperature range at all sites
• pack and transport vaccines to and from outreach sites according to recommended
procedures
• keep vaccines and diluents within recommended cold chain conditions during
immunization sessions.
Section 5 of this module describes how to store and pack vaccines at health facility level.

1.1 Temperature requirements for vaccines
Vaccines are sensitive biological products. Some vaccines are sensitive to freezing, some
to heat and others to light. Vaccine potency, meaning its ability to adequately protect
the vaccinated patient, can diminish when the vaccine is exposed to inappropriate
temperatures. Once lost, vaccine potency cannot be regained. To maintain quality,
vaccines must be protected from temperature extremes. Vaccine quality is maintained
using a cold chain that meets specific temperature requirements. Figure 2.2 shows
recommended vaccine storage temperatures at each level of the cold chain. It is essential
that all those who handle vaccines and diluents know the temperature sensitivities and
the recommended storage temperatures for all the vaccines in the national schedule.
Figure 2.2 Recommended vaccine storage temperatures

National Sub-national District Service
(up to 6 months) (up to 3 months) (up to 1 months) (up to 1 months)
+8 °C
Liquid Lyophil Liquid Lyophil Liquid Lyophil Liquid Lyophil
All All
OPVs OPVs
+2 °C
−15 °C
Acceptable Acceptable
All All
Lyophil Lyophil
OPVs OPVs
−25 °C
Note:
Diluents should never be frozen.
If diluents are packaged with the vaccine, the product should be stored at +2 °C to +8 °C.
Bundled lyophilized-liquid combination vaccines should never be frozen and should be stored at +2 °C to +8 °C.
Sensitivity to heat and freezing

Figure 2.3 shows the relative heat sensitivity of vaccines. These vaccines are grouped
into six categories. Within each of these six categories, the vaccines are arranged in
alphabetical order, not in order of sensitivity to heat within the group. The most heat
sensitive vaccines are in Group A and the least heat sensitive vaccines are in Group F.
Note that the heat stability information shown for freeze-dried vaccines applies only
to unopened vials; most freeze-dried vaccines rapidly lose potency after reconstitution.
In addition, it is important to keep opened multi-dose vaccine vials that do not
contain preservative – whether lyophilized or liquid – cooled at temperatures between
+2 °C and +8 °C during the immunization session, or within six hours after opening,
whichever comes first.
Vaccines that are sensitive to freezing and should be protected from sub-zero
temperatures are listed in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.3 Vaccine heat sensitivity
Most sensitive to heat Least sensitive to heat
Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E Group F

Oral poliovirus (OPV) Influenza Inactivated poliovirus (IPV) Cholera Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) Hepatitis B
Japanese encephalitis (freeze-dried) DTaP-hepatitis B-Hib-IPV (hexavalent) Human papillomavirus (HPV) Hib (freeze-dried)
Measles or measles-rubella or DTwP or DTwP-hepatitis B-Hib (pentavalent) Japanese encephalitis (JE) Meningoccal A
measles-mumps-rubella (freeze-dried) Hib (liquid) Tetanus, TD, Td Pneumococcal
Measles (freeze-dried)
Rotavirus (liquid and freeze-dried)
Rubella (freeze-dried)
Yellow fever (freeze-dried)
Figure 2.4 Freeze sensitive vaccines
DO NOT FREEZE THESE VACCINES!!!

• Cholera
• DTaP-hepatitis B-Hib-IPV (hexavalent)
• DTwP or DTwP-hepatitis B-Hib (pentavalent)
• Hepatitis B (Hep B)
• Hib (liquid)
• Human papillomavirus (HPV)
• Inactivated poliovirus (IPV)
• Influenza
• Pneumococcal
• Rotavirus (liquid and freeze-dried)
• Tetanus, DT, Td
Sensitivity to light
Some vaccines are very sensitive to light and lose potency when exposed to it. Such
vaccines should always be protected against sunlight or any strong artificial light,
and exposure should be minimized. Vaccines that are as sensitive to light as they are
to heat include BCG, measles, measles-rubella, measles-mumps-rubella and rubella.
These vaccines are often supplied in dark glass vials that give them some protection
from light damage; but they should be kept in their secondary packaging for as long as
possible to protect them during storage and transportation.

Controlled Temperature Chain (CTC)

An increasing number of vaccines are being examined to determine their compatibility
with a Controlled Temperature Chain (CTC), which would allow their use at ambient
temperatures. WHO defines a CTC as the on-label use of a WHO-prequalified
vaccine out of the traditional +2 °C to +8 °C cold chain for a limited period of time, at
temperatures of up to 40 °C, just before administration. Vaccines licensed accordingly
can be used in a CTC. The CTC approach can be adopted by countries for carefully
chosen circumstances, such as for special strategies or mass vaccination campaigns.
1.2 The cold chain at health centre or peripheral health facility level
At the health facility level (usually health centres and health posts), health workers can
adequately protect vaccines by doing the following:
• Keep vaccines in appropriate vaccine refrigeration equipment.
• Use a temperature monitoring device to ensure temperatures remain between +2 °C

and +8 °C.
• Transport vaccines to immunization sessions in a vaccine carrier, correctly packed,

using coolant packs that have been properly prepared, as described in Section 2.4
of this module.
• During immunization sessions, fit a foam pad (if available) at the top of the vaccine
carrier, as described in Section 2.5 of this module.
At the health facility, one person must have overall responsibility for managing the
vaccine cold chain. A second person can fill in when the primary person is absent.
Their responsibilities should include:
• checking and recording vaccine temperatures twice daily; typically in the morning
and at the end of the session or day
• properly storing vaccines, diluents and water packs
• handling preventative maintenance of the cold chain equipment.
All health workers in a facility should know how to monitor the cold chain and what
to do if temperatures are out of range, as described in Section 4.2 of this module.

2 Health facility cold chain

equipment
Different levels within the national cold chain system require different types of
equipment for transporting and storing vaccines and diluents within the required
temperature range.
• Primary level (national): Depending on the capacity required, the primary level
generally uses cold or freezer rooms, freezers, refrigerators, cold boxes and, in some
cases, refrigerated trucks for transportation.
• Intermediate level (province or district): Depending on the capacity required,

intermediate level generally uses cold and freezer rooms and/or freezers, refrigerators
and cold boxes and, in some cases, refrigerated trucks for transportation.
• Peripheral level (health centre/facility or health post): Depending on the

capacity required, health facilities generally need refrigerators (in certain instances
with water pack freezing/cooling compartments), cold boxes and vaccine carriers. In
some countries, cold boxes alone may be used for monthly or weekly immunization
sessions.
To ensure optimal performance, cold chain equipment used for immunization

programmes at any level must comply with relevant technical specifications, as defined
under WHO prequalification standards or as determined by national regulatory
authorities. This module focuses on cold chain equipment needed at peripheral-level
health facilities.
2.1 Refrigerators
Health facility refrigerators may be powered by electricity, solar energy or gas (or
kerosene). A health facility refrigerator should be chosen based on the most reliable
power supply available and the combined capacity needed for vaccine and water pack
storage. Table 2.1 briefly describes the different refrigerator categories.
Domestic refrigerators do not have good temperature control and they cannot keep
vaccines cool during electricity cuts of more than one or two hours. These units are not
specifically built or designed to store vaccines. For this reason, domestic refrigerators
are not recommended by WHO for vaccine storage.

Table 2.1 Types of vaccine refrigerators
Categories Description
of vaccine refrigerators
Electric Ice-lined refrigerators are the preferred option where there is reliable mains
(also referred to as compression electricity for at least eight hours per day. Even with periodic breaks in
units) electricity, the inner lining of the unit can preserve the +2˚C to +8˚C holdover
time. A few models are available that can operate effectively on as little as four
hours of electricity per day (see Figure 2.19). Ice-lined refrigerators can expose
vaccines to freezing temperatures if vaccines are not loaded properly.
Solar energy Solar refrigerators are more expensive to buy and install than electric
(also referred to as photovoltaic refrigerators, but they have no running costs, apart from cleaning and
units) preventative maintenance. The two types are: a) solar-battery units connected
to a battery bank, which is charged by the solar panels and b) solar direct-drive
units that are powered directly by the solar panels.
Bottled gas (or kerosene) Bottled gas (or kerosene) refrigerators may be necessary in places where
(also referred to as absorption there is insufficient sunshine for a solar-powered unit. Gas-powered units are
units) better than kerosene models because they need less maintenance and have
better temperature control. Bottled gas and kerosene refrigerators can expose
vaccines to freezing temperatures. Keeping vaccines in the +2˚C to +8˚C range
is particularly difficult with kerosene refrigerators.
Since 2009, all WHO prequalified ice-lined, solar battery and solar direct-drive
refrigerators have been fitted with thermostats that cannot be adjusted by the user.
Provided power cuts are not excessive, the temperature in these refrigerators should
always remain between +2 °C and +8 °C. If there is a recurring problem with the
temperature control in these models, you must notify your supervisor and call the
refrigerator technician. These newer refrigerators all carry a round red and blue sticker:
the top red semi-circle shows the maximum allowable operating temperature and the
bottom blue semi-circle shows the minimum operating temperature.
For older ice-lined and solar equipment, domestic refrigerators, and all gas and
kerosene refrigerators, proceed as follows:
• When the refrigerator is first installed, set the thermostat so that the refrigerator
compartment stays between +2 °C and +5 °C during the coldest part of the day
(typically the morning). It is essential to avoid freezing temperatures and the
freezing risk is greatest when the ambient room temperature is low.
• Once you can see that the daily temperature range remains consistently between
+2 °C and +8 °C, the thermostat is correctly adjusted and the setting should not
be changed, even if electrical power is lost.
• Do not adjust the thermostat if the temperature occasionally rises a degree or so

above +8 °C after a power cut, or in very hot weather.

A health facility refrigerator must never be packed solid – always leave plenty of space
around the vaccines and diluents to allow air to circulate freely, and to make vaccine
handling easier. Typically, a health facility refrigerator should be chosen so that it is
able to hold:
• at least one month’s supply of vaccines and diluents in the refrigerator compartment
• a one- or two-week reserve stock of vaccines and diluents (usually an additional

25–50% of the one-month supply)
• a minimum of four water packs in the freezer/cooling compartment.

(Note: For technical reasons, some solar direct-drive refrigerators cannot
freeze ice packs.)
Figure 2.5 shows three commonly used types of refrigerators.
Figure 2.5 Three commonly used refrigerator types
Top opening:
ice-lined mains electric, solar-battery
or solar direct-drive
Freezer compartment
(on some models)
Vaccine storage
compartment
(most models have
baskets which
MUST be used)

Top opening:
gas or kerosene
Freezer compartment
Vaccine compartment
Front opening:
gas, kerosene or domestic mains
electric model
Freezer
compartment
Refrigerator
compartment

2.2 Cold boxes
A cold box is an insulated container that can be lined with water packs to keep
vaccines and diluents in the required temperature range during transport or short-term
storage – see Figure 2.6. Depending on the model, cold boxes can be used to store
vaccines for periods of up to two days or more when there is no electricity available,
when the health facility refrigerator is out of order, or when a passive container is
needed while the refrigerator is being defrosted. Once packed, cold boxes should not
be opened until the vaccine is needed.
The “cold life” of a cold box is the maximum Figure 2.6 Vaccine cold box
length of time that a closed cold box can maintain
temperatures below +10 °C when it is lined with
frozen ice packs. Current prequalified cold box
models have a maximum cold life of two to seven
days when tested at a constant +43 °C.
The “cool life” of a cold box is the maximum

length of time the closed cold box can maintain
temperatures below +20 °C if lined with cool
water packs that have been stored in a refrigerator.
Current prequalified cold box models have a
maximum cool life of 12 hours to two days when
tested at a constant +43 °C.
A cold box to be used at health facility level should

be chosen based on the following factors:
• The vaccine and diluent storage capacity needed for the supply period.
• The cold or cool life required, which depends on the maximum time vaccines will
be stored in the box (including transport time).
• The type and number of water packs designed to be compatible with the size of the
cold box.
Different models of cold boxes have different vaccine storage capacities and need
different numbers and sizes of water packs. It is important to use the correct number
and size of water packs, exactly as specified by the container manufacturer, otherwise
cold life or cool life will be affected.
Cold boxes can be used to carry monthly vaccine supplies from district stores to the
health facility and also from the health facility to outreach sessions if a vaccine carrier
is too small (see Section 2.3). In general, a cold box in a health facility should be large
enough to transport at least a one-month supply of vaccines.

2.3 Vaccine carriers
Vaccine carriers are smaller than cold boxes and easier to carry (see Figure 2.7).
Current prequalified vaccine carriers have a cold life with frozen ice packs of between
18 and 50 hours at +43 °C and a cool life with cool water packs of between three and
18 hours.
Vaccine carriers are generally used for the following purposes:
• To transport vaccines and diluents to

Figure 2.7 Vaccine carrier outreach sites and store them during
health facility immunization sessions.
• To store vaccines temporarily when the

health facility refrigerator is out of order
or is being defrosted.
• To transport monthly vaccine supplies

from the district store to small health
facilities.
Vaccine carriers used at the health facility

should be chosen based on the following
factors:
• The type and quantity of vaccines and

diluents to be transported.
• The cold or cool life needed for the

longest planned journeys.
• The transport method used (for example,

the requirements for a vaccine carrier that
will be carried for short distances on foot
are not the same as those for one that will
be transported for long distances on the
back of a motorcycle).
2.4 Water packs
Water packs are flat, leak-proof plastic containers that can be filled with tap water. They
are used to line the inside of the cold box or vaccine carrier (see Figure 2.8). Water packs
are used to keep vaccines at the required temperature range inside cold boxes and vaccine
carriers. In order to protect the vaccines it is important to use the correct number and size
of water packs and to follow the instructions printed inside the lid of the container. To
ensure optimal performance, WHO recommends the use of pre-qualified water packs.

Health facilities must have a minimum of two

complete sets of water packs for each of their cold Figure 2.8 Water pack
boxes and vaccine carriers so that one set can be
frozen or cooled in the freezer/refrigerator while
the other set is being used in the cold box or
vaccine carrier.
The appropriate temperature of the water pack

will depend on the type(s) of vaccines being
transported, the ambient temperatures to which
the cold box or vaccine carrier will be exposed, and
the duration of transport. Water packs can be used
in any of the following ways:
• frozen ice packs, taken directly from a freezer

at temperatures between −10 °C and −25 °C
• conditioned ice packs containing a mixture of

water and ice at an initial temperature of about
0 °C
• cool water packs, containing liquid water at an

initial temperature of +5 °C or less
• warm water packs, containing liquid water, initially at room temperature, between
+18 °C and +24 °C.
The appropriate water pack strategy to use at health facility level, for transport or
outreach operations, will be guided by national policy and practice.
If cool water packs are used for outreach operations, there must be additional
provision at the outreach session to keep both reconstituted lyophilized vaccines – and
unpreserved multi-dose vaccines that have been opened – cool at between +2 °C and
+8 °C. Exposure of reconstituted unpreserved vaccines and liquid vaccines that do not
contain preservative to temperatures above +8 °C during immunization sessions can
result in an increased risk of microbial growth in opened vials of vaccine. In practice,
this means that one or more frozen or conditioned ice packs must also be available at
the session.
Note that taking frozen, conditioned or cool water packs out of the vaccine carrier
will shorten their cold/cool life. Therefore, water packs should not be removed during
immunization sessions to hold opened vials. Opened vials should be placed in the
foam pad that is provided with the vaccine carrier, as described in Section 2.5.
WHO strongly discourages the use of wet ice in plastic water bags as this may expose
vaccines to freezing temperatures.

2.5 Foam pads
A foam pad is a piece of soft sponge-

like material that fits precisely on top Figure 2.9 Foam pad in use
of the water packs inside a vaccine
carrier (see Figure 2.9) while still
permitting the lid of the vaccine
carrier to fully close. The foam pad is
provided by the manufacturer of the
vaccine carrier. The foam pad usually
has slits in which vaccine vials can be
inserted snugly and protected. The
foam pad should be used during an
immunization session as a temporary
lid to securely hold opened vials,
while protecting unopened vials in the
cool chamber below inside the carrier.
Note that opened vials of heat-
sensitive vaccines can be protected
from heat damage for longer periods
during immunization sessions if
they are pushed into the foam pad.
Even with a foam pad, however, it is
important to keep the hard vaccine
carrier lid closed whenever possible to
conserve the inner temperature.
WHO does not recommend the use

of homemade foam pads. Health
workers should use the pad supplied
with the carrier and try to keep it
clean and free from dirt or dust.

3 Temperature monitoring
devices
It is essential to monitor and record the temperature of vaccines throughout the
supply chain. This is the only way to prove that vaccines have been kept at the right
temperature during storage and transport. Temperature monitoring also shows up
any problems with equipment and procedures. More detailed information is given in
the WHO Vaccine Management Handbook (Module VMH-E2-01.1. How to monitor
temperatures in the vaccine supply chain), which is available online (http://www.who.
int/immunization/programmes_systems/supply_chain/evm/en/index1.html).
This section only describes the type of temperature monitoring equipment that is
used in health facilities: these facilities are generally equipped with one or two vaccine
refrigerators, cold boxes and vaccine carriers.
3.1 Monitoring heat exposure using vaccine vial monitors
Vaccine vial monitors (VVMs) are the only temperature monitoring devices that
routinely accompany vaccines throughout the entire supply chain. A VVM is a
chemical indicator label attached to the vaccine container (vial, ampoule or dropper)
by the vaccine manufacturer. As the container moves through the supply chain, the
VVM records its cumulative heat exposure through a gradual change in colour (see
Figure 2.10). If the colour of the inner square is the same colour or darker than the
outer circle, the vaccine has been exposed to too much heat and should be discarded.
There are currently four types of VVM, chosen to match the heat sensitivity of the
vaccine. These four types are VVM2, VVM7, VVM14 and VVM30. The VVM
number is the time in days that it takes for the inner square to reach the colour
indicating a discard point if the vial is exposed to a constant temperature of 37 °C.
The main purpose of VVMs is to ensure that heat-damaged vaccines are not
administered. The VVM status is also used to decide which vaccines can safely be
kept after a cold chain break occurs thus minimizing unnecessary vaccine wastage.
In addition, VVM status helps the user decide which vaccine should be used first –
a batch of vaccine showing significant heat exposure should be distributed and used
before a batch that shows lower heat exposure, even if its expiry date is longer.

VVM status should always be checked and recorded manually on the arrival voucher
when it first reaches the health facility. The vaccinator must also check the VVM
before the vaccine is opened to see whether the vaccine has been damaged by heat.
Only use the vial if the expiry date has not passed, and if the inner square of the VVM
is lighter in colour than the outside circle. VVMs do not measure exposure to freezing
temperatures. If the vaccine is freeze-sensitive and freezing is suspected, then the Shake
Test must be conducted (see Section 7 of this module).
Figure 2.10 VVM showing colour change sequence and interpretation
Cumulative heat exposure
VVM start colour Discard point
The VVM start colour of the inner square is never pure-white, it is always Beyond discard point.
slightly purple and begins lighter in colour than the outer circle. From this point Square colour is darker
forward, the inner square starts to darken in colour, until the temperature and/ than the outer circle.
or duration of heat reaches a level which degrades the vaccine, at which time
the VVM’s discard point will be evident.
DO NOT USE THIS VACCINE

USE THIS VACCINE
INFORM YOUR SUPERVISOR

Where is the VVM?

There are two different locations for VVMs (see Figure 2.11) and each is associated
with specific guidance for handling opened multi-dose vials of vaccine:
1. WHO-prequalified vaccines, where the VVM, if attached, is on the label
of the vaccine. The vaccine vial, once opened, can be kept for subsequent
immunization sessions up to 28 days, regardless of the formulation of the
product (liquid or freeze-dried).
2. WHO-prequalified vaccines where the VVM is attached in a location other
than on the label (e.g., cap or neck of ampoule). In this instance, the vaccine
vial, once opened, must be discarded at the end of the immunization session
or within six hours of opening, whichever comes first. This is regardless of
the formulation of the product (liquid or freeze-dried). This would apply, for
example, to a reconstituted product of which the vaccine vial cap, which has a
VVM attached, has been discarded after opening.
Figure 2.11 Location of VVMs on ampoules and vials
VVM
VVM
vial of
freeze-dried
vaccine
ampoule of
freeze-dried
vaccine VVM
vial of liquid vaccine

3.2 Temperature monitoring devices
30-day electronic temperature loggers (30 DTR)

These devices are placed with the vaccine load in a vaccine refrigerator. They record
the refrigerator temperature at no more than 10-minute intervals and show the
temperature history for any day in the last 30 days. They also record and display a
30-day history of any heat and freeze alarms that have occurred. Alarms are triggered
if the temperature of the refrigerator drops to −0.5 °C or below for 60 minutes or if
it exceeds +10 °C for a continuous period of 10 hours. As long as the temperature
has remained within the recommended range, the device displays “OK” or a tick
symbol. Several types of 30 DTR are prequalified by WHO and Figure 2.12 shows
two examples. On newer models, data can also be downloaded via a connection to a
computer. 30 DTRs should not be used in vaccine freezers. Current models have built-
in batteries with a battery alarm feature; the device must be discarded and replaced
when the battery expires, which is typically every two or three years.
30 DTRs should be placed in an accessible position where they can be read easily and
are unlikely to be damaged. This will vary depending on the type of refrigerator. Try to
observe the following rules:
• If the refrigerator is used to store vaccines that are not freeze-sensitive, place the
device on top of the load, in the warmest part of the refrigerator.
• If the refrigerator is used to store any freeze-sensitive vaccines, the device should
preferably be placed in the coldest part of the refrigerator that is being used to store
these vaccines. This will be the bottom of a basket in chest refrigerators or nearest to
the evaporator plate in front-opening models and absorption units.
Figure 2.12 30-day electronic temperature loggers
FridgeTag2™ with USB LogTag® temperature recorder

Electronic freeze indicators

These are small digital devices that are placed with freeze-sensitive vaccines during
transport or storage. The devices have a visual indicator that shows whether the vaccine
has been exposed to freezing temperatures. Once the alarm indicator is triggered, the
device is no longer usable and should be discarded. Otherwise the device can be used
until the built-in battery expires. Figure 2.13 shows two types.
Note that electronic freeze indicators are not needed in refrigerators where a 30 DTR
is used.
Figure 2.13 Electronic freeze indicators
FreezeAlert™ Q-Tag® Quad
Integrated digital thermometers

Current prequalified vaccine refrigerators and freezers are equipped with devices like
the one shown in Figure 2.14. An internal temperature sensor monitors the storage
compartment and an instantaneous temperature reading is displayed on the unit’s
control panel. Solar direct-drive refrigerators typically have a device powered by an
integrated photovoltaic cell; these do not work at night or in dim light and may have
to be activated by shining a torch onto the display.

Figure 2.14 Integrated digital thermometer
Source: Dulas Solar
Stem thermometers
These devices only provide an instantaneous temperature reading. For this reason,
WHO no longer recommends them as the main monitoring device in vaccine
refrigerators. However, they remain an essential back-up device because they do not
require a battery or other power source. Figure 2.15 shows an example. WHO no
longer recommends bi-metallic dial thermometers (see Figure 2.16) for any purpose
because they lose their calibration over time, especially if they are dropped.
Figure 2.15 Stem thermometer Figure 2.16 Dial thermometers –

not recommended by WHO anymore
0 5
10 10
20 C 20
30 NOT recommended 30
40 40
50 50

3.3 Recommended equipment
Table 2.2 sets out the temperature monitoring options for health facility storage and
transport, in order of preference.
Table 2.2 Temperature monitoring options in health facilities
Vaccine refrigerator Cold boxes and vaccine carriers
Best practice • 30-day temperature logger Conditioned ice packs

• Integrated digital thermometer • Freeze indicator
• Stem thermometer for back-up • VVMs where supplied
• VVMs where supplied Cool water packs
• Stem thermometer
• VVMs where supplied
Warm water packs

• Freeze indicator
Minimum • Integrated digital thermometer

requirement • Stem thermometer for back-up
• Electronic freeze indicator
Vaccine vial monitors

VVMs provide a key indicator during storage and transport because they show
whether the individual vaccine container has been exposed to excessive heat.
Remember: VVMs do not measure exposure to freezing temperatures, only to heat.
Refrigerators
Wherever possible, health facility refrigerators should be equipped with a 30-day
temperature logger and facility staff should be trained in their use. These devices
provide a complete history of the refrigerator temperature. Thermometers cannot
do this; they only indicate the temperature at the time when a reading is taken.
An electronic freeze indicator and a stem thermometer is the next best choice.
The freeze indicator shows whether freeze-sensitive vaccines have been exposed to
sub-zero temperatures – the most common cause of damaged vaccine. However, a
freeze indicator cannot be used again once it has been triggered; it must be replaced
immediately with a new one. The worst choice is a stem thermometer on its own. As
noted above, a thermometer only indicates the temperature at the time a reading is
taken, which is no more than 14 times per week. A 30-day temperature logger takes at
least a thousand readings a week.

Cold boxes and vaccine carriers

If conditioned ice packs are being used to transport freeze-sensitive vaccines, an
electronic freeze indicator should be included with the load – the indicator shows if
the vaccines have been exposed to freezing temperatures. Freeze indicators are not
needed if cool water packs are used because there is no freezing risk. If warm water
packs are used to protect freeze-sensitive vaccines in very cold climates it is also good
practice to use freeze indicators, since the temperature of the load may drop below zero
on a long journey.

4 Monitoring cold chain

temperatures
The data gathered from temperature monitoring devices must be recorded and
analysed on a regular basis to demonstrate that vaccines are being stored and
transported at the correct temperatures. This section reviews temperature monitoring
of vaccine refrigerators, cold boxes and vaccine carriers at the health facility level.
4.1 Monitoring vaccine refrigerator temperature
A standard manual temperature-recording chart should be attached to the door or

lid of every vaccine refrigerator. Readings should be taken twice a day at least five
days per week and preferably every day, including weekends and holidays. Daily
readings should be taken from the same temperature monitoring device each time.
The health worker should read the 30 DTR and write the data on the chart. If there
is no 30 DTR, you should check the integrated dial thermometer or, where necessary,
the stem thermometer. Recording temperatures in this way provides evidence that the
refrigerator is being monitored and that regular readings are being taken. This can help
identify performance trends, sometimes even before automatic alarms are generated.
Manual readings should be recorded on a temperature chart attached to the

refrigerator door using the following procedure:
• Check the refrigerator temperature first thing in the morning and at the end of the
working day.
• Record the temperature by date and time on the temperature chart (an example
specifically designed for 30 DTRs is shown in Figure 2.17). When a chart is
completed, replace it with a new one. Keep completed charts together in a file for
future reference. (Note: action should be taken when the temperature goes out of
range; see Section 4.2 of this module.)

(2)24
Figure 2.17 Vaccine refrigerator temperature monitoring chart (filled example)
Temperature monitoring chart for temperature logger devices
Cold room/refrigerator number : ILR # 1 Start date: <dd/mm/yyyy> 03 Oct 2015
Key: FI = freeze indicator (status OK or X)
Equipment model: : MFR 123 Location: Erewhon HC
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
°C am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm am pm
+16
+15
+14
+13
+12
+11
+10
+9
+8
+7 x x
+6 x x x x x
+5 x x x x x x x
Temperature chart
+4 x x x x x x x x
+3 x x x x
+2 x
+1 x x x
0 x
−1 x x x
−2
−3
−4
−5
FI (x or OK)
>+8 °C alarm Once every 24 hours, enter high alarm status and maximum temperature recorded by the continuous temperature monitoring device
Alarm or OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK
Maximum °C +7.5 +6.5 +6.3 +4.5 +5.2 +3.3 +3.0 +1.8 +0.2 −0.8 −0.5 +5.2 +5.4 +5.3 +6.1 +5.5 +6.1
<−5 °C alarm Once every 24 hours, enter low alarm status and maximum temperature recorded by the continuous temperature monitoring device
Alarm or OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK X X OK OK OK OK OK OK OK
Min °C +5.8 +5.4 +4.8 +3.5 +3.6 +2.8 +1.7 +0.8 −0.5 −1.5 −1.3 +0.9 +3.5 +3.8 +3.6 +4.6 +3.9
FC
FC
FC
FC
FC
FC
FC
FC
FC
FC
FC
Initials:
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
JWL
Province: Jazir Month: October Remarks: Thermostat incorrectly adjusted by temporary health worker.
Year: 2015 Corrected on 12 Oct
Immunization in practice
District: District 9
Health centre: Erewhon Supervisor: AG
4.2 Taking action when a vaccine refrigerator’s temperature

is out of range
If the temperature of the refrigerator is below +2 °C, which is too low, a report should
be made to the supervisor. The corrective action includes the following procedure:
• Turn the thermostat knob so the arrow points to a higher number. This will make
the refrigerator warmer.
• Check whether the door of the freezer closes properly. The seal may be damaged.
If broken, a technician should be called to make repairs.
• If the temperature has fallen below 0 °C for any length of time, check freeze-
sensitive vaccines to see if they have been damaged by freezing using the Shake Test
(see Section 7 of this module).
Remember: slight heat exposure is less damaging to most liquid vaccines and diluents
than freezing exposure.
If the temperature is above +8 °C, which is too high, a report should be made to the
supervisor. The corrective action includes the following procedure:
• Make sure that the refrigerator is working. If it is not working, check whether the
power supply (electricity, gas, kerosene or solar) is adequate.
• Check whether the door of the refrigerator or the freezing compartment closes
properly; if the seal is broken, the temperature will fluctuate. Call a technician to
make repairs.
• Check whether frost is preventing cold air in the freezing compartment from
entering the refrigerator compartment. Defrost if necessary.
• If the power supply, door seal and frost levels are all in working order, turn the
thermostat knob so that the arrow points to a higher number. This will make the
refrigerator cooler.
• If the temperature cannot be maintained between +2 °C and +8 °C, store vaccines
in other cold chain equipment that can maintain this temperature range until the
refrigerator is repaired.
Remember: to avoid freezing vaccines, do not adjust the thermostat to a cooler (higher
number) setting after a power cut or when vaccines arrive.

4.3 Maintaining the correct temperature in cold boxes

and vaccine carriers
To maintain the correct temperature in cold boxes and vaccine carriers, proceed as
follows:
• Place the correct number and type of properly conditioned ice packs or cool water
packs in the cold box or vaccine carrier.
• If you are using conditioned ice packs you should preferably put an electronic freeze
indicator in each cold box or vaccine carrier containing freeze-sensitive vaccines.
• Keep the cold box or vaccine carrier in the shade.
• Keep the lid tightly closed.
• Use the foam pad to hold opened vials at the top of the vaccine carrier during an
immunization session; keep the hard carrier lid closed whenever possible.
• During the immunization session, vaccines must be kept at the recommended

temperatures after opening. In particular, it is important to keep opened multi-dose
vaccine vials that do not contain preservative – whether lyophilized or liquid –
cooled at temperatures between +2 °C and +8 °C.
• At the end of the immunization session, health workers should follow national
policy in handling remaining vials. In general, this means:
− discarding all opened vials of vaccines that do not contain preservative; this
includes all reconstituted vaccines and some liquid multi-dose vaccines
− checking the VVMs of all unopened vials and returning the unopened vials
with VVMs that are not past the discard point to a working refrigerator or
appropriate cold box as soon as possible
− where multi-dose vial policy is applied, check the VVMs of all opened vials that
contain preservative and return those with VVMs that are not past the discard
point to a working refrigerator or appropriate cold box as soon as possible. Use
these vaccines first for the next immunization session.

5 Arranging vaccines inside cold

chain equipment
Vaccines must be arranged inside cold chain equipment in a manner that helps
ensure that they remain in good condition with minimum risk of exposure to
damaging temperatures. This section describes how to arrange vaccines inside vaccine
refrigerators, cold boxes and vaccine carriers.
5.1 General rules for using vaccine refrigerators
Health facility refrigerators are used to store vaccines and diluents. Several types of
refrigerator are available and the arrangement of items inside them varies according
to the type.
The following general rules (Do’s and Do Not’s) apply to all health facility refrigerators.
DO arrange the vaccines in the health facility refrigerator like this:
• Wherever possible, store vaccines and diluents in a refrigerator that is reserved for
this purpose only. If other heat-sensitive supplies, such as drugs, ointments, sera and
samples, have to be stored in the refrigerator, label them clearly and keep them
completely separate from the vaccines and diluents.
• Always arrange vaccines and diluents so that air can circulate freely; this also makes
it easier to handle the vaccines.
• If vaccines or diluents are supplied in their original cartons, arrange the boxes so
that there is at least a two-centimetre space between stacks. Mark the cartons clearly
and make sure the markings are visible when the door or lid is opened.
• If vaccines or diluents are supplied as individual containers (vials, ampoules or

tubes), use a plastic tray, plastic box or other arrangement to store the vaccines in an
orderly fashion. Figure 2.18 shows a good arrangement using local-made stacking
boxes.
• If diluent is packaged with the vaccine, store the complete packaged product in
the refrigerator. If diluents are supplied separately from the vaccine, store them
in the refrigerator if there is adequate space. If there is not adequate space, move
the diluents to the refrigerator at least 24 hours before they are needed so they are
cooled.

Figure 2.18 Purpose-made tray for vials and ampoules
Source: Anthony Battersby
• Place vaccines with VVMs that show the most heat exposure (darker squares) in
a separate container in the refrigerator, clearly marked “Heat-exposed vials – use
first”. If there are other vaccines of the same type in the refrigerator, the vaccines
with the darkest squares should always be used first even if the expiry date is later
than the vaccines with the lighter squares.
• If a multi-dose vial policy is in place, follow the instructions for handling opened
multi-dose vials exactly as described in the national policy. If an opened multi-dose
vial will be used for the next session, the vials must be placed in a separate container
in the refrigerator, which is clearly marked “Opened vials – use first.” A summary of
the WHO Multi-dose Vial Policy is outlined in the box below. The local policy may
be different.
DON’T arrange the vaccines in the health facility refrigerator like this:
• Never store food or drink in a vaccine refrigerator.
• Do not open the door or lid unless it is essential to do so. Frequent opening raises
the temperature inside the refrigerator.
• If there is a freezer compartment, do not use it to store vaccines and diluents.
• Do not keep expired vaccines in the refrigerator. Do not keep vaccines with VVMs
that have reached, or are beyond, their discard point. Do not keep reconstituted
vaccines for more than six hours, or after the end of an immunization session.
Discard all these items immediately according to your national guidelines. Refer
any questions to your supervisor.

Summary of WHO Multi-dose Vial Policy (MDVP), 2014

All opened WHO-prequalified multi-dose vials of vaccines should be discarded at
the end of the immunization session, or within six hours of opening, whichever
comes first, unless the vaccine meets all four of the criteria listed below. If the
vaccine meets the four criteria, the opened vial can be kept and used for up to
28 days after opening. The criteria are as follows:
1. The vaccine is currently prequalified by WHO.
2. The vaccine is approved for use for up to 28 days after opening the vial, as
determined by WHO.
3. The expiry date of the vaccine has not passed.
4. The vaccine vial has been, and will continue to be, stored at WHO- or
manufacturer-recommended temperatures; furthermore, the vaccine vial
monitor, if one is attached, is visible on the vaccine label and is not past its
discard point, and the vaccine has not been damaged by freezing.
If ALL of the criteria cited above are present, the vaccine vial may be kept and used
for up to 28 days after opening, or until all the doses are administered.
5.2 Specific rules for using front-opening refrigerators
Table 2.3 briefly describes the three types of front-opening vaccine refrigerators used
for storing vaccines. Figure 2.19 shows how a gas or kerosene vaccine refrigerator or a
domestic electric front-opening refrigerator should be organized.
Table 2.3 Types of front-opening vaccine refrigerators

Types of front-opening Description
vaccine refrigerators
Type 1 Gas or kerosene models, with an ice pack freezing compartment:
There are no recently prequalified models of this type, but large numbers
remain in use.
Type 2 Mains electric domestic models: Typically these have an ice pack freezing
compartment.
Type 3 Prequalified water-lined models powered by mains or solar electricity:

These models do not have an ice pack freezing compartment.

Figure 2.19 Vaccine and diluent arrangement in a front-opening domestic, gas or kerosene vaccine
refrigerator
Freezer compartment
OPV & freeze-dried
(if provided)
vaccines with diluents
Store ice packs upright
on top shelf (BCG,
to avoid leaks
measles, MMR, JE, YF,
meningoccocal A and any
Ice pack storage: vaccines not freeze-
Frozen on left sensitive)
Unfrozen on right
30-day refrigerator
logger or freeze indicator
and thermometer
Freeze-sensitive vaccines
on middle shelf
NEVER store vaccines in Closer expiry date at front
door shelves
USE FIRST:
Box containing vaccines
with darker VVMs and box
containing opened vials
Diluents on bottom
shelf, clearly marked
Unfrozen icepacks below
bottom shelf to stabilise
temperature
The following rules apply for front-opening refrigerators:
• Never put vaccines or diluents in the door shelves. The temperature is too warm for
vaccine storage and vaccines are exposed to room temperature each time the door is
opened.
• Never put freeze-sensitive vaccines in contact with, or close to, the evaporator plate
in the refrigerator.
• Put water packs or plastic bottles full of coloured water in the space below the
bottom shelf. This helps to stabilize the temperature if there is a power cut. Do not
use the water packs in vaccine carriers. Never drink the water.

• Put measles, MR, MMR, BCG, OPV, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis,
meningococcal A conjugate and/or any other vaccines not damaged by freezing on
the top shelf.
• Put DTP, DT, Td, TT, HepB, DTP+HepB, DTP+HepB+Hib, Hib, HPV, rotavirus
and/or any other freeze-sensitive vaccines on the middle or lower shelves.
• Store the diluents next to the freeze-dried vaccine with which they are supplied, on
the appropriate shelf. If there is not enough space on the shelf, put the diluents on the
bottom shelf, clearly labelled so they can be easily identified to their matching vaccine.
Figure 2.20 shows the recommended arrangement for an upright ice-lined refrigerator.
In these models there is very little variation in the temperature inside the refrigerator
compartment, so vaccines and diluents can be placed safely on any of the shelves.
However, in humid climates, there is a risk of condensation. Cartons and vials should
be stored in plastic boxes with tightly fitting lids to reduce the risk of moisture
damage. Never store vaccines below the bottom shelf – this area may be wet because it
collects and drains the condensation from the roof and walls of the compartment.
Figure 2.20 Vaccine and diluent arrangement in a front-opening water-lined refrigerator
Ice bank on top of refrigerator

compartment
Insulated water jacket around

refrigerator compartment
30-day refrigerator logger or

freeze indicator and thermometer
Vaccines and diluents may safely

be placed on ANY shelf
USE FIRST:
Box containing vaccines with darker
VVMs and box containing opened vials
DO NOT store vaccines or diluents

In humid climates, store under the lowest shelf
vaccines and diluents in
plastic boxes with lids

5.3 Specific rules for using top-opening refrigerators without

baskets
Table 2.4 briefly describes the two types of top-opening vaccine refrigerators used for
storing vaccine. Some top opening refrigerators are supplied without baskets.
Figure 2.21 shows the arrangement of vaccines and diluent in a top-opening

refrigerator without baskets.
Table 2.4 Types of top-opening vaccine refrigerators

Types of top-opening Description
vaccine refrigerators
Type 1 Gas or kerosene refrigerators: These have a small compartment for
freezing ice packs.
Type 2 Solar direct-drive models with a lining containing a phase-change

material (PCM) to protect the vaccine overnight and during cloudy
periods: The PCM freezes at around +5 °C so vaccine can be in contact
with the lining without risk of damage. Current models do not have a
freezer compartment.
Figure 2.21 Vaccine and diluent arrangement in a top-opening refrigerator without baskets
Freezer compartment. Gas and

kerosene units only
30-day refrigerator logger

Freeze-sensitive
or freeze indicator and
vaccine and
thermometer
diluents
spaced away Icepacks in freezing
from freezing compartment
compartment/
OPV and freeze-dried vaccines
evaporator and
next to freezing compartment/
not on bottom of
evaporator and in bottom of
unit
unit (BCG, measles, MMR, JE,
YF, meningoccocal A and any
vaccines not freeze-sensitive)
USE FIRST:
Box containing Divider. DO NOT remove
vaccines with
darker VVMs and
box containing
opened vials
Leave space around vaccines for
air circulation

The following rules apply to these two types of refrigerator:
• Never put freeze-sensitive vaccines in the bottom of gas and kerosene refrigerators
or next to the freezer compartment. There is a risk of freezing in these areas.
• Put measles, MR, MMR, BCG, OPV, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis and/or
any other vaccines not damaged by freezing in the bottom of the compartment.
• Put diluents, DTP, DT, Td, TT, HepB, DTP+HepB, DTP+HepB+Hib, Hib,
meningococcal, HPV, rotavirus and/or any other freeze-sensitive vaccines in the
upper part of the compartment and well away from the freezing compartment in
gas and kerosene models.
• Store the diluents close to the freeze-dried vaccine with which they were supplied.
If this is not possible, make sure the diluents are clearly labelled so they can be
easily identified to their matching vaccine.
5.4 Specific rules for using top-opening refrigerators with baskets
Many top-opening ice-lined refrigerators are supplied with baskets for storing vaccines.
There are also a few top-opening solar-battery models; typically, these models do not
have an ice lining, but they generally have baskets.
Figure 2.22 shows how these refrigerators should be organized.
The following rules apply to these refrigerators:
• Always store vaccines and diluents in the baskets provided. Never store them
outside the baskets.
• If there is an internal lid on the freezer compartment and/or the refrigerator

compartment, always replace it before closing the main lid.
• Some solar direct-drive refrigerators have an ice-bank at one end. Never remove ice
packs from this area.
• Some solar direct-drive refrigerators have a separate ice pack freezing compartment.
Make sure to follow the manufacturer’s instruction on the use of this feature –
instructions vary.
• Use the bottom baskets to store measles, MR, MMR, BCG, OPV, yellow fever,
Japanese encephalitis and/or any other vaccines not damaged by freezing.

• Use the top baskets to store products for immediate use and to store diluents, DTP,
DT, Td, TT, HepB, DTP+HepB, DTP+HepB+Hib, Hib, HPV, rotavirus and/or
any other freeze-sensitive vaccines. Never put freeze-sensitive vaccines in the bottom
baskets. In some models there is a risk of freezing in these areas.
• Store the diluents close to the freeze-dried vaccine with which they were supplied.
If this is not possible, make sure the diluents are clearly labelled so they can be
easily identified to their matching vaccine.
Figure 2.22 Vaccine and diluent arrangement in a top-opening refrigerator with baskets
FREEZER COMPARTMENT (some models):

KEEP LID CLOSED
ICE-BANK COMPARTMENT (some solar direct-drive models):

DO NOT remove ice packs
DO NOT store vaccines outside the

baskets provided
TOP BASKETS: Store freeze-sensitive vaccines and

30-day diluents and USE FIRST items
refrigerator BOTTOM BASKETS: Store OPV and freeze-dried
logger vaccines (BCG, measles, MMR, JE, YF, meningoccocal
or freeze A and any vaccines not freeze-sensitive)
indicator and
thermometer USE FIRST: Box containing vaccines with darker VVMs
USE FIRST: Box containing opened vials

5.5 Preparing ice packs and cool water packs
If the vaccine refrigerator has a freezer compartment, this can be used to freeze and
store ice packs. If cool water packs are used, these must be prepared and stored in a
separate refrigerator, never in a refrigerator that is used to store vaccines.
Every health facility should have at least two sets of water packs that correspond in size
and number to its stock of cold boxes and vaccine carriers.
Filling and checking water packs

New water packs are supplied empty and must be filled before use. All water packs
should be checked for leaks. Proceed as follows:
1. New empty water packs: Fill each pack with clean water, up to the fill line. Do not
over-fill; leave a little air space at the top. Fix the cap on tightly.
2. Used water packs: It is not necessary to empty and refill water packs unless they
have leaked. If there is a leak, top up the water and make sure the cap is fixed
securely.
3. Before use: Hold each pack upside down and squeeze it to make sure it does not
leak. If the pack has been damaged, discard it.
Freezing ice packs

Depending on a range of factors, it can take 24 hours or more to fully freeze a batch of
ice packs.
Most mains electric ice-lined refrigerators, domestic refrigerators, or larger gas

refrigerators have a separate freezing compartment; these models can freeze up to six
large or 12 small water packs every 24 hours. Small gas or kerosene models may be
able to freeze only one or two packs per day.
Some recent solar direct-drive refrigerators can also freeze ice packs. However, their
freezing capacity depends on the amount of sunshine available, and in cloudy weather
it may not be possible to freeze any ice packs. The ice packs will always melt slightly
overnight when there is no power and there may well be some liquid water in the
packs at the beginning of the day, but this is normal.
Older solar direct-drive models do not have an ice pack freezing compartment. The
latest models do. Instead of an ice lining, the Vestfrost Solar Chill and Haier solar
direct-drive models have a bank of standard water packs in a compartment that looks
like a freezer compartment. These water packs must never be removed for use in
vaccine carriers.

Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions and never overload the freezing
compartment. Put packs in the freezer, arranged upright or on their sides so that the
surface is touching the evaporator plate. If there is a door or lid to the compartment,
make sure it is properly closed.
The more packs placed in the freezing compartment, the longer they will take to freeze.
If too may water packs are placed in the unit, they may not freeze at all. Keep extra,
unfrozen water packs that do not fit into the freezer in the bottom part of the main
refrigerator compartment to keep this section cold in case of a power failure. When
these water packs are placed in the freezer, they will freeze relatively quickly because
they are already cold. Never store frozen water packs in the refrigerator compartment;
this will lower the temperature and increase the risk of freezing vaccines.
Conditioning frozen ice packs

Frozen ice packs, taken directly from the freezer, are not suitable for immediate use.
If they are not correctly conditioned it is very likely that freeze-sensitive vaccines will
be frozen and destroyed. Wrapping vaccines in newspaper or other materials does not
protect against freezing.
Except where cool water packs are used, WHO recommends the use of “conditioned”
ice packs for transporting vaccines in cold boxes and vaccine carriers. An ice pack is
correctly conditioned when it has melted enough to allow the ice to move inside the
pack. Use the following procedure to achieve this:
1. Remove the required number of frozen

ice packs from the freezer compartment. Figure 2.23 Checking that an ice pack
The number and type of pack required is properly conditioned
is shown on the inside of the lid of the
cold box or vaccine carrier.
2. Lay the frozen ice packs on a work

surface in a single layer leaving gaps of
about 5 cm between packs.
3. Wait until all packs are properly

conditioned – there must be liquid
water inside every pack and the ice-cores
should move inside the packs when
shaken (see Figure 2.23). This will take
at least 30–45 minutes in hot weather
and much longer in cooler conditions –
from 90 to 120 minutes at +20 °C.

Preparing cool water packs

Where cool water packs are used for vaccine transport, the health facility must be
equipped with a separate refrigerator for preparing these packs. This refrigerator must
not be used for storing vaccines and the thermostat should be set as low as possible to
ensure the water packs are cooled to +5 °C or below.
Note: If a cool water pack strategy has been adopted for outreach operations, one
or more frozen ice packs must be brought to the session to ensure that opened
multi-dose vaccine vials are kept at recommended temperatures. It is particularly
important that vaccines that do not contain preservative – whether lyophilized or
liquid – are kept at temperatures between +2 °C and +8 °C during the session.
5.6 Packing vaccines in cold boxes and vaccine carriers
It is very important to pack cold boxes and vaccine carriers correctly. Proceed as
follows.
1. Arrange the conditioned ice packs or cool water packs in the cold boxes and/or
vaccine carriers exactly as shown on the manufacturer’s instructions on the inside
of the lid.
2. Put the vaccines and diluents in a plastic bag in the middle of the cold box or
carrier to protect them from damage due to condensation.
3. If conditioned ice packs are used, put an electronic freeze indicator with the
vaccines.
4. For vaccine carriers, place the foam pad in the top of the container.
5. Close the cold box or vaccine carrier lid tightly.
Figure 2.24 illustrates the procedures for arranging cold boxes and vaccine carriers.

Figure 2.24 Arranging a vaccine carrier
1 Prepare ice packs for freezing

• Fill the ice pack with water to mark. Check water level
before every use. Do NOT add salt to this water.
• Fit the stopper and screw on the cap tightly.
• Make sure the ice pack does not leak.
• Wipe the ice pack dry and place in the deep freezer.
2 Condition frozen ice packs

• Place frozen ice packs in the open till
they “sweat” (some condensation or
droplets of water).
• Check if an ice pack has been
conditioned by shaking it and
listening for water.
Unconditioned ice packs may damage
freeze sensitive vaccines.
3 Pack the vaccine carrier

• Place four conditioned ice packs
against the sides of the carrier.
• Place the plastic bag containing all
vaccines and diluents in the centre of
the carrier.
4 Remember
• Collect vaccines in the carrier on the session day (note that vaccine
carriers may not store vaccines effectively beyond 12 hours).
• Do not drop or sit on the vaccine carrier.
• Do not leave in sunlight. Keep in shade.
• Do not leave the lid open once packed.

6 Basic maintenance of cold chain

equipment
6.1 Defrosting vaccine refrigerators
A refrigerator only works well if it is properly installed and is then cleaned and
defrosted regularly.
Thick ice in the freezer compartment and on the evaporator plate does not keep
a refrigerator cool. Instead, it makes the refrigerator work harder and uses more
electricity, gas, kerosene or solar power. Refrigerators should be defrosted regularly, or
when the ice is more than 0.5 cm thick, whichever comes first.
To defrost and clean a refrigerator:
• Remove all the vaccines and transfer them to another refrigerator or to a cold box
or vaccine carrier lined with conditioned ice packs.
• Switch off the electrical supply for a mains or solar-battery refrigerator. Turn off the
gas supply for a gas refrigerator. Extinguish the flame for a kerosene refrigerator.
• Leave the door open and wait for the ice to melt. Never try to remove the ice with
a knife or ice pick; this can permanently damage the refrigerator. A pan of boiling
water can be placed inside and the door closed.
• Clean the inside of the refrigerator and door seal with a clean damp cloth.
• Re-start the refrigerator. Do not adjust the thermostat.
• When the temperature in the main section falls to +8 °C or lower (but not less than
+2 °C), arrange the vaccines, diluents and water packs in their appropriate places.
If a refrigerator needs to be defrosted more than once a month, check for these
common problems:
¾¾ Staff are opening the door too often (more than three times daily).
¾¾ The door is not closing properly.
¾¾ The door seal needs to be replaced.

6.2 Maintaining solar power systems
Solar panels need to be cleaned and checked and the batteries of solar battery
refrigerators must be inspected and maintained. Tasks can be divided into daily,
periodic and annual.
Daily
• Check the status of the control panel display. Take appropriate action as described
in the instruction manual if status is not normal.
• For battery systems only: Check the indicator lights on the battery charge regulator
every day. Do not freeze water packs if the low battery warning light is on. Move
vaccine to a safe location if the load-disconnect warning light or alarm sounder are
activated.
Periodically
Clean dust or snow off the solar array. The frequency with which this needs to be
done will vary. In very dusty areas, clean the array weekly. Remove any snow
accumulation as soon as possible.
• Do not attempt to carry out this task unless you have the correct access and safety
equipment and have received training in safe working at height. Make sure you
have somebody to help you and to hold the ladder.
• Never stand on corrugated roof sheets or tiles – use a properly designed roof ladder.
• Clean the array in the early morning or evening when the sun is weak.
• Use a soft cloth dampened with water. Wipe gently, starting at the top and working
downwards.
• Do not lean or stand on the array panels because you may damage them. Report
any damage to wiring or hardware to your supervisor.
Once a year
• Make sure the solar panels are not shaded by trees, plants, new buildings or
overhead cables between 9.00 am and 3.00 pm. If there is shading from vegetation,
arrange for the vegetation to be cut back. If there is shading from newly constructed
buildings or new overhead cables, contact your supervisor. The solar array may have
to be moved or increased in capacity.
• Check the electric cables between the solar array, the charge regulator, the batteries
and the refrigerator. Inspect grounding/lightning protection. If you see any damage,
contact your supervisor.

Solar battery and solar direct-drive refrigerators should be defrosted only on a sunny
day; they should never be defrosted in cloudy or rainy weather. A solar direct-drive
refrigerator should generally be defrosted in the early morning. It will have partly
defrosted overnight so this will speed up the process. Defrosting in the early morning
will also allow the refrigerator to make best use of the day’s supply of solar power.
6.3 Maintaining gas refrigerators
Daily
• Check the burner flame is blue. If it is not, clean the gas burner and gas jet as
described in the equipment manual. Adjust the thermostat or flame control setting
as necessary.
• Make sure there is enough gas in the bottle. If not, change the bottle. Always
change the bottle before it is completely empty and always keep a spare bottle.
Periodically
• Check weekly that you have enough gas for at least another week. If not, obtain a
new supply immediately.
• Carry out the following tasks at least once a year and always clean the flue if the
flame has been smoking.
− Clean the flue and baffle as described in the equipment manual.
− Clean the gas burner and gas jet as described in the equipment manual.
− Check the gas line connections for leaks. Brush soapy water onto the
connections. If bubbles form, there is a leak. Gas leaks are dangerous. Contact
your supervisor unless you have been trained to repair leaks yourself.
6.4 Maintaining kerosene refrigerators
Daily
• Fill the tank with clean kerosene. Always fill the tank before it is completely empty.
Always keep enough spare kerosene to ensure you never run out. Never use any
other fuel (e.g. diesel or gasoline).
• Check the flame height and colour is correct for the type of burner fitted. If the
flame smokes, turn it down a bit. If it still smokes, clean or trim the wick, burner,
flue and baffle as shown in the instruction manual. Always clean the flue if the
flame has been smoking.

Weekly
• Clean the burner, flue and baffle as shown in the instruction manual.
• Trim the wick as shown in the instruction manual. Use a wick trimmer if possible.
• Check that there is enough kerosene for at least another week. If not, replenish the
supply immediately.
Periodic tasks
• Check the fuel tank to see if there is sediment at the bottom. If there is, blow out
the burner and remove the tank. Remove the burner from the tank. Empty out the
dirty kerosene. Flush the tank with a little clean kerosene. Wipe the outside of the
tank with a clean cloth dipped in kerosene. Replace the burner and refill the tank.
• Replace the wick when you cannot turn it up any more to trim it. Use the correct
type of wick and follow the instruction manual. Always keep two spare wicks in a
safe place.
6.5 Managing vaccine refrigerator breakdowns
If a vaccine refrigerator stops working, first protect the vaccines and then check the
cause of the problem.
Protecting the vaccines

Move the vaccines to other cold chain equipment until the refrigerator is repaired.
For a problem that can be solved quickly, a cold box or vaccine carrier lined with
conditioned ice packs can be used for temporary storage. For a problem that might
take longer to solve, another refrigerator is needed. Always keep a freezer indicator
with the freeze-sensitive vaccines.
Restoring the refrigerator to working order

• Check the electricity, gas, kerosene or solar power supply and make arrangements to
deal with any interruptions.
• If a lack of electricity, gas, kerosene or solar power is not the problem, contact your
supervisor and ask for a repair service visit. Do not attempt to repair the refrigerator
yourself unless the problem is a simple one that you have been trained to deal with.
• Record the breakdown on the daily temperature monitoring chart.

6.6 Maintaining cold boxes and vaccine carriers
Vaccine carriers and cold boxes must be dried well after use, with their lids propped
open. If they are left wet with their lids closed, they will become mouldy. Mould and
damp can affect the seal of the cold boxes and vaccine carriers and may contaminate
the vaccines. If possible, store cold boxes and vaccine carriers with the lids open.
Knocks and sunlight can cause cracks in the walls and lids of cold boxes and vaccine
carriers. This exposes the insulation and increases the risk of heat exposure to the
vaccines inside. If a cold box or vaccine carrier wall has a small crack, use adhesive tape
to cover it until an undamaged container becomes available.

7 The Shake Test

7.1 What is the Shake Test?
The Shake Test is used to check whether freeze-sensitive vaccines have been damaged
by exposure to temperatures below 0 °C. After it has thawed, a vial of vaccine that has
been frozen no longer has the appearance of a cloudy liquid, but tends to form flakes
that settle at the bottom of the vial.
The Shake Test requires two vials of the same vaccine from the same manufacture and
with the same batch number. One of these is a vial that you suspect has been frozen and
the other is a vial that you have deliberately frozen solid overnight. Allow the frozen test
vial to melt completely, shake the two vials in the same hand, place them side-by-side
and watch the contents settle. If the suspect vial settles at the same speed as the frozen
vial you know that it has been frozen. If it settles more slowly, it has not been frozen.
7.2 When is the Shake Test needed?
If a freeze indicator is activated, or temperature recordings show negative temperatures,

freeze-sensitive vaccines may have been damaged. If this occurs, notify your supervisor.
If they decide to proceed, carry out the Shake Test on a sample of the freeze-sensitive
vaccines.
7.3 How is the Shake Test done?
The Shake Test protocol is shown below.

NOTES:
1) This protocol must not be altered. There is only one correct way to conduct a Shake Test.
2) The test procedure described below should be repeated with all suspect batches. In the case
of international arrivals, the shake test should be conducted on a random sample of vaccine.
However, if there is more than one lot in the shipment, the random sample must include a
vial taken from each and every lot.
1. Take a vial of vaccine of the same type and batch number as the vaccine you want to
test, and made by the same manufacturer.
2. Clearly mark the vial as “FROZEN.”
3. Freeze the vial in a freezer or the freezing compartment of a refrigerator until the
contents are completely solid.
4. Let it thaw. Do NOT heat it!
5. Take your “TEST” vial from the batch that you suspect has been frozen.
6. Hold the “FROZEN” vial and the “TEST” vial together in one hand.
7. Shake both vials vigorously for 10–15 seconds.
8. Place both vials on a flat surface side-by-side and start continuous observation of the
vials until the test is finished.
(NOTE: If the vials have large labels that conceal the vial contents, turn both vials upside down
and observe sedimentation in the neck of the vial.)
Use an adequate source of light to compare the sedimentation rates between vials.
IF,
9. The TEST vial sediments slower than the 10. Sedimentation is similar in both vials
FROZEN vial, OR
THEN, The TEST vial sediments faster than the
FROZEN vial
THEN,
11. Use the vaccine batch. 11. Vaccine damaged:

Notify your supervisor. Set aside all
affected vaccine in a container marked
“DAMAGED VACCINE FOR
DISPOSAL – DO NOT USE’’
12. Discard all affected vaccine once you have
received permission to do so.
13. Fill in the Loss/Adjustment Form.

Compare the deliberately frozen vial next to the suspect vial
Deliberately frozen vial Suspect vials
USE THIS VACCINE

If the sediments in the
suspect vial settle more
slowly, the suspect
vaccine may be used.
almost clear
thick sediment DO NOT USE THIS

VACCINE
If the sediments in
the suspect vial settle
at the same rate, the
suspect vaccine can
NOT be used.

3: Ensuring safe injections
3
Ensuring safe
injections
This module discusses practices that health workers should follow to ensure that they deliver
immunization injections in the safest manner.
Injections are considered safe for:
• the child, when health workers use sterile needles and syringes and appropriate injection
techniques;
• the health worker, when he or she avoids needle-stick injuries; and
• waste handlers and the community, when used injection equipment is disposed of properly
and does not cause injuries or pollution.
Contents
1. Using safe injection equipment and techniques ............................................(3)3
1.1 Types of injection equipment ........................................................................................................ (3)3
1.2 Estimating AD and RUP syringe needs ........................................................................................ (3)8
1.3 Giving the right vaccine safely ...................................................................................................... (3)8
1.4 Simple ways to improve injection safety .................................................................................... (3)9
2. Preventing needle-stick injuries ...................................................................(3)10

2.1 Minimizing the need to handle needles and syringes .......................................................... (3)10
2.2 Handling syringes and needles safely ....................................................................................... (3)11
2.3 Setting up the immunization work area to minimize risk of injury .................................... (3)12
2.4 Positioning children correctly for injections ............................................................................ (3)12
2.5 Practising safe disposal of all medical sharps waste .............................................................. (3)12
3. Disposing of used syringes and needles .......................................................(3)13

3.1 Why is it important to handle sharps waste properly? .......................................................... (3)13
3.2 Safety boxes ..................................................................................................................................... (3)13
3.3 Using safety boxes .......................................................................................................................... (3)16
3.4 Disposing of filled safety boxes ................................................................................................... (3)17
Annex 3.1 Unsafe immunization practices .......................................................(3)22

1 Using safe injection equipment

and techniques
1.1 Types of injection equipment
The types of equipment used to administer injectable vaccines are listed in Table 3.1.
Note that auto-disable syringes are the endorsed choice, as explained in the 1999 joint
WHO-UNICEF-UNFPA statement given in Box 1.
Table 3.1 Types of equipment used to administer injectable vaccines
Equipment Remarks
Auto-disable (AD) syringes equipment of choice
Prefilled AD injection devices available for some antigens only
Reusable syringes and needles not recommended
Hypodermic syringes with reuse for mixing purposes only

prevention feature (RUP) and needles
Box 1. WHO-UNICEF-UNFPA joint statement on the use of auto-

disable syringes in immunization services
“The auto-disable syringe, which is now widely available at low cost presents
the lowest risk of person-to-person transmission of bloodborne pathogens (such
as HepB or HIV) because it cannot be reused. The auto-disable syringe is the
equipment of choice for administering vaccines, both in routine immunization and
mass campaigns.”
Auto-disable (AD) syringes for immunization

AD syringes are recommended for all types of immunization sessions not just because
they can only be used once and can reduce disease transmission from contaminated
equipment, but also because they are disposable and save time previously spent on
sterilization.
AD syringes for fixed-dose immunization have the following main features:
• a self-locking mechanism that allows only one use; this is called a reuse prevention
feature (RUP)
• a fixed needle (usually 23G x 25 mm, but various sizes are manufactured)
• a specific scale mark showing only the quantity to be administered.

Each AD syringe is sterilized and sealed in plastic or paper blisters by the

manufacturer. All AD syringes have plastic caps to keep the needle sterile; some
also have caps on the plungers. They are supplied in three volumes: 0.5 ml for most
vaccines and 0.05 ml or 0.1 ml for BCG.
AD syringes have different types of locking mechanisms that are triggered at different
times. Some syringes lock their plunger at the start of the injection while others do
so at the end. AD syringes that lock at the start are preferred since they completely
prevent reuse. Some AD syringes are retractable, meaning that the needle can be pulled
in the barrel. This mechanism adds stick injury protection (SIP) to reduce the risk of
needle-stick injuries.
General steps for using AD syringes
Each type of AD syringe requires a specific technique for its use. But for all types, the
plunger can go back and forth only once. Health workers should not move the plunger
unnecessarily and should not inject air into a vaccine vial when using an AD syringe,
as this might disable it.
The general steps to follow when using AD syringes are given below. Note that the
steps should should be adapted depending on manufacturer’s instructions for the type
of syringe being used.
1. Remove the syringe from its plastic wrapping (peel the package open from the
syringe plunger end), or detach the plastic cap.
2. Take off the needle cap without touching the needle.
3. Insert the needle in the vaccine vial – its tip should be in the lowest part or bottom
of the vial.
4. Pull the plunger back to fill the syringe just past the 0.5 ml or 0.1 ml or 0.05 ml
mark.
5. Remove the needle from the vial. To remove air bubbles, hold the syringe upright
and tap the barrel. Then carefully push the plunger to the volume mark. For the last
dose of a multi-dose vial, keep the needle tip in the fluid at all times, making sure
to empty the full contents of the vial.
6. Proceed with the injection at the appropriate site (see Module 5 (Managing an
immunization session), Section 4 for details on injection technique).
7. Push the plunger forward and inject the vaccine. At the beginning or just at the end
of the injection, the plunger will automatically lock so the syringe cannot be reused.
8. Do not recap the needle after use.

9. Dispose of the needle and syringe in a safety box, which is a leak-proof, puncture-
resistant container for sharps waste.
Hypodermic syringes with reuse prevention features (RUP)

RUP syringes are disposable syringes with self-locking mechanisms that allow only one
use. They are the recommended choice for reconstituting vaccines, just as AD syringes
are recommended for administering vaccines.
General steps for using RUP syringes for reconstituting vaccines
Just as with AD syringes, each type of RUP syringe requires a specific technique for
its use. But for all types, the plunger can go back and forth only once and so health
workers should take care not to move it unnecessarily.
General steps to follow when using RUP syringes are given below. Note that they
should be adapted depending on manufacturer’s instructions for the type of syringe
being used.
1. Remove the RUP syringe from its wrapping (peel the package open from the
syringe plunger end) or detach the plastic caps.
2. If there is a detachable needle, fit it onto the hub of the syringe and take off the cap
without touching the needle.
3. Insert the needle in the diluent vial and move the tip of the needle to the lowest
part or bottom of the vial.
4. Pull the plunger back to fill the syringe, making sure to empty the full contents of
the vial.
5. Remove the needle and syringe from the vial. If needed, remove air in the syringe
by holding it upright and pushing the plunger slowly until the air goes out.
6. Insert the needle and syringe into the vaccine vial.
7. Push the plunger in completely to ensure that all the diluent goes into the vaccine
vial.
8. Remove the needle and syringe from the vial and ensure that the syringe is locked.
9. Dispose of the needle and syringe directly in a safety box.
10. Shake the vial to mix the diluent with the vaccine (see Module 5 (Managing an
immunization session), Section 4 for details on reconstitution technique).

Prefilled AD injection devices

Prefilled AD injection devices are single-dose packets of vaccine with a needle attached
(see Figure 3.1). This type of injection device can also be used only once. Some
prefilled devices are equipped with a vaccine vial monitor. In addition to having the
same advantages as AD syringes, they:
• are easy to use since no vaccine reconstitution is required
• prevent vaccine contamination
• make administering an accurate dose easy
• deliver vaccine and syringe in the same set (separate orders are not needed)
• reduce waste that can occur with multi-dose vials.
Prefilled hepatitis B, tetanus toxoid and pentavalent (DT(whole cell)P+HepB+Hib)

AD vaccine injection devices are now available and prequalified by WHO. They
are also called “cPAD”, which stands for “compact, prefilled autodisable injection
techonology”. Prefilled hepatitis B AD devices are used primarily to provide home
vaccination to newborns. Prefilled tetanus toxoid AD devices are used for home
vaccination of women during mass vaccination campaigns.
General steps for using prefilled AD injection devices
Every prefilled AD injection device is sterilized and sealed in its own foil package by
the manufacturer. The vaccine is contained in a sealed syringe or bubble-like reservoir
that prevents it from coming in contact with the needle until its administration. Using
it requires the steps below:
1. Prepare or activate the prefilled bubble-like injection device by pushing the needle
shield (or cap) into the port as shown in Figure 3.1. This opens the fluid path
between the needle and the reservoir that contains the vaccine.
2. Remove the needle shield.
3. Insert the needle into the injection site (see Module 5 (Managing an immunization
session), Section 4 for details on injection technique).
4. Deliver the dose by squeezing the reservoir until it is empty.
5. Dispose of the used AD device directly in a safety box.

Figure 3.1 Activation and use of prefilled bubble-like auto-disable device
port
needle shield reservoir
Remove the prefilled injection device With a firm, rapid motion, push the The gap will close and you will
from the foil pouch. needle shield into the port. feel a click.
Squeeze the reservoir firmly

to inject. After the reservoir
Hold the device by the port and completely collapses, remove
Remove the needle shield. insert the needle into the patient. the device. Do not re-shield.
Sterilizable syringes and needles

Sterilizable syringes and needles are not recommended for use in immunization
programmes.
Disposable syringes and needles that could potentially be reused

Disposable single-use syringes and needles that could potentially be reused because
they do not have RUP devices are also not recommended for immunization
programmes. The reuse of syringes and needles carries a high risk of transmitting
infections. This risk prompted the 1999 WHO, UNICEF and UNFPA joint policy
statement (see Box 1).
While RUP reconstitution injection devices are the equipment of choice for mixing
vaccine with diluent, they may not always be available. If RUP devices are not available
and disposable syringes and needles are used to reconstitute vaccine, they must never
be reused for reconstitution or injection.

1.2 Estimating AD and RUP syringe needs
See Module 4 (Microplanning for reaching every community), Section 5 for details on
estimating supply needs.
1.3 Giving the right vaccine safely
Proper vaccine storage and handling as well as clinical assessment and administration
at immunization sessions are essential. Module 2 (The vaccine cold chain) discusses
how to handle vaccines to ensure that they are safe and effective at the time of use.
Module 5 (Managing an immunization session) contains details on assessing which
vaccines are needed for each child and the techniques for their reconstitution and
administration. Table 3.2 introduces some examples of incorrect immunization
practices, and adverse events following immunization are discussed further in
Module 5 and Module 6 (Monitoring and surveillance).
Table 3.2 Examples of incorrect immunization practices and possible adverse events
following immunization
Incorrect practice Possible adverse events following

immunization
Non-sterile injection due to:
• reuse of disposable syringe or needle Infections such as local abscess at injection site, sepsis,
• improperly sterilized syringe or needle toxic shock syndrome, or death
• contaminated vaccine or diluent Transmission of bloodborne infections such as hepatitis
or HIV
Reconstitution error due to:

• inadequate mixing of vaccine Local abscess at injection site
• reconstitution with incorrect diluent Vaccine ineffectivea
• drug substituted for vaccine or diluent Negative effect of drug (for example, insulin, oxytocin,
• inappropriate reuse of reconstituted vaccine at muscle relaxants)
subsequent session Death
Injection at incorrect site such as:

• BCG given subcutaneously Local reaction or abscess
• DTP/DT/dT/TT too superficial Local reaction or abscess
• injection into buttocks Sciatic nerve damage
Vaccine transportation/storage incorrect such as:

• VVM changed colour Local reaction
• clumping of adsorbed vaccine Vaccine ineffectivea
Contraindications ignored Avoidable severe reaction

a
Strictly speaking, ineffective vaccine is considered to be an effect, not an adverse event.

1.4 Simple ways to improve injection safety
The following is a summary of points to improve injection safety that are discussed
in more detail in Module 2 (The vaccine cold chain) and Module 5 (Managing an
immunization session) and included here to emphasize their importance.
• Prepare injections in a clean, designated area that is free from blood and body fluid
contamination.
• Prepare each dose immediately before its administration – do not prepare several
syringes in advance.
• Never leave the needle in the top of the vaccine vial.
• Follow product-specific recommendations for storage, handling and use of vaccines.
–– Follow safe procedures to reconstitute vaccines. The correct diluent must be used
for reconstituting freeze-dried vaccines.
–– Use only the diluent supplied by the manufacturer for each vaccine – check the
labels.
–– Diluents must be cooled before reconstitution.
• Dispose of used AD and RUP needles and syringes in a safety box.
• Follow national multi-dose vial policy for opened vials.
• Use a new AD needle and syringe for every child:
–– Inspect the packaging very carefully.
–– Discard the needle and syringe if the package has been punctured, torn or
damaged in any way.
–– Do not touch any part of the needle.
• Discard a needle that has touched any non-sterile surface.
• Position the child carefully to minimize risk of movement and injury.
Refer to Annex 3.1 for unsafe immunization practices that must be avoided.

2 Preventing needle-stick injuries

Needles can be dangerous. They can injure health workers and, if contaminated with
hepatitis B, hepatitis C, HIV or other infections, they can transmit diseases.
Needle-stick injuries can happen at any time, particularly during and immediately
after an injection. This risk is increased when:
• health workers recap needles or walk around carrying used needles
• children are not positioned properly during injections
• unsafe disposal practices leave people and/or animals exposed to used needles and
syringes.
This section describes steps to prevent needle-stick injuries by addressing potential

risks from handling equipment, workspace arrangement, positioning of children and
waste disposal.
2.1 Minimizing the need to handle needles and syringes
In general, the more injection equipment is handled, the greater the risk of needle-
stick injuries. Reduce risk due to handling of equipment through the following steps.
• Place a safety box close to the person giving vaccinations so used needles and
syringes can be disposed of immediately, easily and without walking to find a sharps
container.
• Avoid recapping the needle. If recapping is absolutely necessary – for example, if the
injection is delayed because the child is too agitated – use the one-hand technique
of placing the cap on a table or tray and reinserting the needle by sliding it inside
without using the other hand.
• Do not remove the used needle from the syringe with your hands.
• Do not carry used syringes and needles around the work site for any reason.
• When ready to administer, draw the vaccine into the syringe, give the injection and
dispose of the syringe in the safety box without putting it down between steps.
• Close the safety box securely when it is three quarters full.
• Do not manually sort needles and syringes.

2.2 Handling syringes and needles safely
Any part of the syringe that is touched becomes contaminated. Although the barrel
and plunger of a syringe have to be touched to prepare and give an injection (see
Figure 3.2), care should be taken to avoid touching parts that come into contact with
the vaccine or the child (see Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.2 Parts of a syringe and needle that may be touched

OK TO TOUCH: OK TO TOUCH:
plunger top barrel
Do not touch:
• the shaft of the needle
• the bevel of the needle
• the adapter of the needle
• the adapter of the syringe
• the plunger seal of the syringe.
Figure 3.3 Parts of a syringe and needle that must not be touched
DO NOT TOUCH:
syringe
DO NOT TOUCH: DO NOT TOUCH: DO NOT TOUCH:

needle adapter needle shaft bevel
IMPORTANT:
If any of these parts are touched, discard the needle and syringe and get new
sterile ones.

2.3 Setting up the immunization work area to minimize risk of injury
To minimize risk of needle-stick injury, staff should arrange their workspace following
general rules:
• The vaccinator (person giving doses of vaccine) should be between the child and all
needles and sharp objects.
• The vaccinator should be able to see the opening of the safety box when discarding
needles. The safety box may be on a table or the floor depending on whether the
vaccinator is standing or sitting. He or she should be able to reach it easily and
without much change in position.
• The vaccinator should be able to dispose of used needles and syringes directly in the
safety box without putting them down on other surfaces.
• The vaccinator should have only one child – with caregiver(s) – at a time in their
workspace.
• Each vaccinator should have a separate safety box, especially at busy sites.
• The vaccine carrier should be in the shade.
• Tally sheets should be within easy reach.
See Module 5 (Managing an immunization session) for more details and illustrations.
2.4 Positioning children correctly for injections
Unexpected motion at the time of injection can lead to needle-stick injuries. This may
occur more often with children who are not positioned properly before injections are
given. To minimize this risk, see Module 5 (Managing an immunization session) for
details and illustrations on positioning children for vaccinations.
2.5 Practising safe disposal of all medical sharps waste
Used sharps must be placed in a safety box and then disposed of properly. Follow the
procedures for safe disposal outlined in the next section of this module.

3 Disposing of used syringes and

needles
3.1 Why is it important to handle sharps waste properly?
Sharps waste can cause serious health and environmental problems. Unsafe disposal
can spread some of the very same diseases immunization programmes are working to
prevent.
Dangers to health
Leaving used syringes and needles in the open or on the ground puts the community
at risk. Most frequently, children are the unfortunate victims of needle-stick injuries
from haphazard disposal of needles.
Dangers to the environment

Inappropriate treatment of waste leads to
environmental pollution. Open burning Figure 3.4 Safety box
and low-temperature incinerators release
toxins into the air; they should be used When a safety box is not in use, close the
opening on the top.
only as temporary emergency solutions
when no other options are available.
Throwing used needles and syringes into
bodies of water can contaminate the
natural environment and injure wildlife.
3.2 Safety boxes
All used disposable injection equipment

should be disposed of in a safety box
immediately (see Figure 3.4). Safety boxes
are sharps waste containers that needles
cannot pierce and that can be disposed
of when full. Reusable, sterilizable sharps
containers made of metal or heat-resistant
plastic may also be available for use with
autoclave shredder systems. If a safety box
is not available, locally available materials
can be used to create a functional and safe
sharps container (see Figure 3.6).

How to assemble a safety box

Safety boxes require proper assembly before use, as shown in Figure 3.5. Many come
with picture instructions printed on the side.
Figure 3.5 Safety box assembly and use
STOP!
DO NOT
OVERFILL!

What to do if safety boxes are not available

If safety boxes are not available, strong cardboard boxes, metal cans or thick plastic
containers may be used to collect needles and syringes and transport them to a site
where they can be properly treated (buried, incinerated or autoclaved and shredded).
Containers should be sealed when they are three-quarters full. They should not
be reused once filled – emptying sharps containers for reuse increases the risk of
accidental needle-stick injuries and infections.
How to create a good sharps container if a safety box is not available

• Find a strong cardboard box (a local shop may have some). Ideally, the walls of the
box should be strong enough to keep needles from piercing through and causing
needle-stick injuries.
• If needed, place one box inside another to create a stronger container that can
prevent needles piercing through.
• Close the box securely on the top and bottom – seal it with strong adhesive tape or
similar material.
• Cut a small hole in the top – it should be just big enough for a needle and syringe
to enter (maximum 38 mm).
• When the box is three quarters full, seal the opening.
• Dispose of the box properly (see next sections of this module).
Figure 3.6 shows a homemade safety box.
Figure 3.6 Homemade safety box
Sharps
disposal

How to help ensure safe handling of safety boxes

• Never squeeze, sit or stand on safety boxes. Do not handle or shake the safety box
more than necessary.
• Take extra care when carrying safety boxes to disposal sites. Hold the box by the
handle on top (or at the top above the level of the needles and syringes if there is no
handle).
• Keep safety boxes in dry places that are out of children’s and others people’s reach.
• Train staff on safe handling; do not ask untrained staff to handle safety boxes.
3.3 Using safety boxes
All injection equipment should be destroyed by proper waste disposal methods

(see Section 3.4). Collecting sharps waste in safety boxes or similar containers both
decreases risk of injury during handling and helps ensure proper disposal.
Safety boxes should be placed within reach of the staff administering injections
(as described in Section 2.3 of this module and in in Module 5 (Managing an
immunization session)) so that needles and syringes can be disposed of immediately.
If needle removers or needle cutters are available, used needles and syringes should
be separated immediately after each injection. After removing the needle with one of
these devices, the syringe should go in the safety box. Needles remain in a separate safe
container, which, when almost full, should be closed and disposed of properly (see
next section for disposal methods).
Safety boxes should be closed when they are three quarters full. Used needles and
syringes should never be transferred from safety boxes to other containers. A five-litre
safety box can hold about 100 syringes and needles.
For the best use of safety boxes, you should never dispose the following items in them:
• empty or discarded vials
• cotton pads
• dressing materials
• intravenous bags or tubes
• latex gloves
• any plastic materials or waste products.

Once three quarters full, safety boxes should be closed, treated and destroyed
appropriately, preferably quickly at a nearby site to minimize handling.
Used needles and syringes must never be dumped in open areas where people might
step on them or children might find them (inside safety boxes or loose). They should
never be disposed of along with general non-sharps types of waste.
3.4 Disposing of filled safety boxes
Methods commonly used to destroy or dispose of filled safety boxes are described
below. Any selected method of waste disposal must comply with national and sub-
national environmental and health regulations.
Incineration
Incineration can completely destroy needles and syringes. Fires burning at
temperatures higher than 800 °C will kill microorganisms and reduce the volume
of waste to a minimum. Properly functioning incinerators ensure the most
complete destruction of needles and syringes. High temperature, dual-combustion
incinerators with air filters produce less air pollution than incinerators burning at
lower temperatures (see Figure 3.7). Some hospitals have on-site incinerators. Others
transport the waste to cement factories to dispose of it in high-temperature kilns.
The compound in which incineration takes place must be secure. Staff members
conducting the incineration should wear safety glasses, heavy gloves and any other
personal protective equipment required by local and national guidelines.
Figure 3.7 Common types of incinerators (This is not an exhaustive illustration)
MANUFACTURERS VULCAN DE MONFORT SICIM

(High-temperature double (Air-propulsed (Double combustion (Auto-combustion
combustion with filtration) incinerator) incinerator) incinerator)

Steam treatment (autoclaving)

Autoclaving, if available, is an alternative that avoids pollution associated with
incineration (see Figure 3.8). Waste treatment autoclaves can range in size from about
20 L to over 20 000 L.
The operation of autoclaves requires the proper combination of temperature/pressure

and exposure time to achieve disinfection. A minimum recommended temperature-
exposure time criterion of 121 °C for 30 minutes is suggested for sharps waste. Since
the autoclave does not eliminate the physical hazard from sharps, a post-treatment
shredder that is designed to minimize handling is also recommended.
Figure 3.8 Simplified schematic of a vacuum autoclave

pressure
release temperature
valve safety relief
valve
charging
door
autoclave chamber
rails, tracks or trays for waste bins
steam
steam
thermostatic
drain
filter steam trap
valve
vacuum drain
Source: WHO (2014) Safe management of wastes from health care activities. Second edition. Geneva: World
Health Organization
Encapsulation
A safety pit is an option for the disposal of used needles and syringes that are loose. A
safety pit is usually two metres deep and one metre in diameter so that it can be lined
with a locally made concrete pipe. The pit should have a concrete lid with a capped metal
pipe set in it. Used needles and syringes are dropped through the metal pipe and into the
pit (see Figure 3.9). Cement is poured into the pit to seal the opening when it is full.

Figure 3.9 Safety pit
Burial in a disposal pit

Used injection equipment may be buried in a disposal pit. The site should be chosen
carefully – there should be enough space for a pit large and deep enough for bulky
boxes to be buried with minimum risk of contaminated sharps being released into the
surroundings and doing harm (see Figure 3.10).
If a disposal pit is to be used, several steps must be followed.
• Choose a site where people will not dig or build latrines in the future.
• Choose a qualified staff person to supervise the burn using appropriate equipment.
• Fence off and clear the area.

Figure 3.10 Disposal pit
• Dig a pit at least two metres deep. Make sure that
buried materials will not escape from the pit, for
example, during the rainy season.
• When ready to bury them, take filled safety boxes

to the pit site and place them in it. Do not open or
empty the boxes.
• After placing the boxes in the pit, immediately cover

them with at least 30 cm of soil. If possible, cover
the site with concrete when the pit is full.
Only qualified staff should perform this task.

IMPORTANT:
The two options below are to be considered as last resort options since they are not in
keeping with WHO policy for the treatment of waste.
Burning in a metal drum

This option should only be considered as a last resort, short-term emergency response
since low-temperature burning produces toxic emissions and is a public health and
environmental hazard.
If contaminated sharps must be destroyed by burning in a metal drum or container
(see Figure 3.11), several steps must be followed:
• Choose a site in an unused area that is as far from buildings as possible. The area
should be fenced and cleared.
• Place four bricks on the ground in a square pattern.
Figure 3.11 Metal drum
• Put a metal screen or grate on top of the bricks.
• Remove both ends of a 210-litre steel drum. This will allow
air to flow through the drum and the contents to burn
better. If a metal drum is not available, build a cylinder
from sheet metal, bricks or clay. A chimney may be added
to the removable top of the drum or container.
• Place the drum on top of a metal screen or grate.
• Put filled safety boxes in the metal drum. Mix paper, leaves
or other flammable material in among the safety boxes to
help them burn.
• Sprinkle a small amount of kerosene, if available, on the
boxes and other material in the drum.
• Place a fine metal screen over the top of the drum to
reduce flying ashes.
• Put wood, paper or other flammable material under the drum and ignite the material.
• Warn people to stay away to avoid smoke, fumes and ash from the fire.
• Allow the fire to burn until all of the safety boxes have been destroyed.
• Once the fire is out, allow the residue at the bottom of the drum to cool and
carefully collect it. Bury it in an unused location. Cover it with at least 30 cm of
soil. If possible, seal the residue pit with cement once it is full.

Burning in an open pit

This option should also only be considered as a last resort since it produces toxic
emissions and is a public health and environmental hazard. It is always preferable to
collect safety boxes for later disposal at a more appropriate treatment site.
If burning waste in the open as shown in Figure 3.12 is the only option, several steps
must be followed.
• Choose a site in an unused area that is as far from buildings as possible. The area
should be fenced and cleared.
• Dig a pit at least one metre deep, but not so deep that it will be difficult to start the
fire. Staff should not have to enter the pit to start the fire.
• Place filled safety boxes in the pit. Mix paper, leaves or other flammable materials
with the boxes to help them burn.
• Sprinkle a small amount of kerosene on the

boxes, if available, and ignite the fire. Figure 3.12 Open burning in a pit
• Warn people to stay away to avoid smoke,

fumes and ash from the fire.
• Let the fire burn until all boxes are

destroyed and then follow the instructions
for burying residue above.
IMPORTANT:
The remains of safety boxes, including needles, should be buried after burning,
whether a metal drum or an open pit was used. The remains should be buried deep
in a pit, controlled landfill or similar location where people cannot access them.

Annex 3.1 Unsafe immunization practices
Do not recap the needle
Do not leave the needle inside the vial
Do not touch the needle
Do not dispose of used needles in an open

cardboard box
Do not overfill the safety box

4: Microplanning for reaching every community
4
Microplanning for
reaching every
community
This module discusses the process of microplanning to ensure immunization services reach every
community. It starts with maps at district and health centre level, which should be updated
to include all population centres and groups in the catchment area and to flag high-risk areas.
It next describes how to identify priority, high-risk health centres and communities based on
numbers of unimmunized children. It then describes how to clarify barriers to service access
and utilization in priority communities and to make a workplan for solutions. It concludes with
making a session plan and following up on defaulters.
Contents
1. Making or updating a map ............................................................................. (4)3
1.1 District map ........................................................................................................................................ (4)3
1.2 Health centre map ............................................................................................................................ (4)4
2. Identifying priority health centres and communities ................................... (4)7

2.1 Analysis of district immunization data ........................................................................................ (4)7
2.2 Analysis of health centre data ....................................................................................................... (4)9
3. Identifying barriers to access and utilization .............................................. (4)11

3.1 Household survey of immunization status ............................................................................... (4)11
3.2 Community discussion .................................................................................................................. (4)13
4. Identifying solutions and preparing a workplan ......................................... (4)14

4.1 Outline solutions ............................................................................................................................. (4)14
4.2 Make a workplan to implement identified solutions ............................................................. (4)15
5. Making a session plan .................................................................................. (4)17

5.1 Immunization session plan .......................................................................................................... (4)17
5.2 Health centre outreach session plan .......................................................................................... (4)19
5.3 Immunization session supplies ................................................................................................... (4)21
5.4 Health centre monthly stock report ........................................................................................... (4)22
6. Finding defaulters ........................................................................................ (4)23

6.1 Defaulter tracking list .................................................................................................................... (4)23
6.2 Other opportunities ....................................................................................................................... (4)23
Annex 4.1 Calculations used in determining needed session frequency ....... (4)24

1 Making or updating a map

Every district and every health centre should display a map that shows the current
location and relative size of the population groups in their catchment areas. A
catchment area is usually determined by national authorities to help ensure service
delivery. Specific facilities are made responsible for specific catchment areas and the
population living in them.
District and health centre maps should include all eligible population groups in their
catchments. A table listing these populations or communities should be displayed
next to each map. The maps should be updated regularly to include any changes in
the catchment areas, including new administrative divisions. Priority, high-risk areas,
identified based on their high numbers of unimmunized children (see Section 2 of this
module), should be clearly marked.
All sources of updated maps should be used: polio eradication microplanning

activities in particular may have current versions to offer. If online access is available,
Internet-based tools, such as Google Maps with its Map Maker (www.google.com/
maps), can be used to create updated catchment area maps. Community leaders and
administrative officials should collaborate on creating and updating local maps, just as
they should be involved in all microplanning steps.
1.1 District map
This map should display the important geographical features and population centres
of the whole district. It should also show the locations of all the health centres and the
district health facilities that are under supervision.
The district map should include:
• health centres with their catchment areas shown as boundaries and their distances
to district facilities marked
• urban communities, towns, villages, rural settlements, isolated households
• rivers, mountains, valleys and other similar geographical features and landmarks
• natural seasonal barriers, such as flood zones during the rainy season
• roads and tracks.

The table to be displayed next to the district map (see Table 4.1 for example) should
include:
• the total population and target population in the catchment area of each health
centre
• approximate distances and travel times to each health centre
• health centre contacts and any other information that may be useful in
coordination and supervision efforts.
Table 4.1 District-level list of peripheral health centres and their catchment area populations
Health centre Total Population <1 Distance Name of Phone

name population in year of age in between health centre number of
health centre health centre health centre contact health centre
catchment catchment and main person contact
area* area district facility person
(km and travel
time)
* State source of population data
1.2 Health centre map
Each health centre should make a simple map of its catchment area (see Figure 4.1).
The communities in the catchment area should be listed and the list updated regularly.
Community boundaries should be confirmed with the help of community leaders
(see Module 7 (Partnering with communities) for more details on how to involve
communities in microplanning activities).
The health centre catchment area map should be an operational diagram with details
that can help with planning. Maps created for polio or other mass vaccination and
health intervention campaigns may serve as examples.
The health centre map should include:
• locations of every village and/or community in the catchment area, including those
that are not reached and/or are new

• landmarks and significant buildings, for example, religious centres, markets,

schools, motor parks
• settlements of urban poor and migrants within towns and cities
• settlements of migrants and/or displaced persons in rural areas.
The table displayed next to the health centre map (see Table 4.2 for example) should
include:
• the total population and target populations in each community in the

catchment area
• approximate distances and travel times to each community
• community volunteer names and their mobile phone numbers.
Include every community on the map even if accurate numbers are not available.
This applies particularly to communities of migrant workers, urban poor, ethnic
minorities, new rural settlements and groups in movement or unrest.
Figure 4.1 Example health centre map

Table 4.2 Health centre-level list of catchment area communities and populations
Community Total Population Distance Name of Phone

name population in <1 year of age between community number of
community* in community community contact community
and health person contact
centre person
(km and travel time)
* State source of population data

2 Identifying priority health centres

and communities
Two levels of analysis lead to the identification of priority health centres and
communities:
1. At district level, the analysis of health centre immunization data for the past year
should identify those health centres and communities in need of priority support.
2. At health centre level, the analysis of community immunization data for the past
year should identify those in need of priority visits. Visits may be needed for
evaluating low coverage and the reasons behind it (see Section 3 of this module).
2.1 Analysis of district immunization data
Table 4.3 shows a format for the analysis of district immunization data from the
preceding 12 months. The format identifies and prioritizes high-risk health centres
where immunization performance is problematic (see Module 6 (Monitoring and
surveillance), Section 4.2 for more details). Health centres are ranked and prioritized by
the number of unimmunized infants in their catchment areas.
How to prioritize health centres using district immunization data

• Use all available information to complete the analysis of immunization data – the
inputs of community and administrative leaders is needed to best assemble all
available information.
• Rank health centres by the number of unimmunized infants; the one with the
highest number of unimmunized children is ranked first (1) and so on. The health
centre ranked 1 has the highest priority, and so on.
• Consider prioritizing health centres that have inaccurate data; for example, a health
centre that shows negative values for unimmunized children due to inaccurate
population data or negative vaccine wastage rates may need to be given priority.
• Consider prioritizing health centres with known management problems.

Table 4.3 District immunization data analysis: example format

(To include data from all health centres in the district over the past 12 months)
Note that this format uses penta3 (DTP+HepB+Hib) and MCV1 to evaluate unimmunized children and then prioritizes health
centres by number of penta3-unimmunized children. Different programmes may use different antigens – follow national
guidelines on this.
Health centre name Analyse problem Prioritize health

centres
Annual target Doses of vaccine Unimmunized Highest number
population administered children of penta3
unimmunized
<1 year of age penta3 MCV1 penta3 MCV1
children is priority 1,
a b c a–b a–c and so on

2.2 Analysis of health centre data
Table 4.4 shows a format for analyzing health centre data from the preceding
12 months. The format identifies priority communities by indicators of access and
utilization. Data to complete this table should be taken from monthly reports or be
gathered from tally sheets and registers.
How to prioritize communities using health centre immunization data

• Use all available information to complete the analysis of health centre data – the
input of community and administrative leaders is needed to best assemble all
available information.
• List every community, including new ones and those that do not have regular access
to services (for example, urban slums, distant rural communities).
• Rank communities by number of unimmunized infants; the one with the highest
number of unimmunized children is ranked first (1) and so on. The community
ranked 1 has the highest priority, and so on.
• Look for any monthly variation in immunizations given in a community when

reviewing data from the preceding 12 months and note any seasonal changes in the
last column (for example, decreases during the rainy season).

(4)10
Table 4.4 Health centre data analysis: example format (to include data from all communities in the catchment area over the past 12 months)
Name of Target Penta3 Unimmunized Priority: Distance Number of Number of Main community characteristics:
community population doses given (missed penta3 highest from HC outreach outreach urban poor, semi-urban, rural,
<1 year of during the year doses) number of (km) visits visits migrant, ethnic minority, new
age unimmunized planned completed settlements, flooded in rainy season
(c) is 1, and so on during year during year and/or other relevant factors
a b a–b=c
3 Identifying barriers to access and

utilization
To identify and understand the issues that become barriers to access and utilization,
prioritized communities need visits from teams of health centre and district staff.
Community chiefs, leaders and volunteers must be engaged in evaluation visits. Permission
from community authorities is essential before conducting surveys, focus groups and
similar exercises to identify barriers. Two basic evaluation exercises are included here.
Module 7 (Partnering with communities) discusses information gathering in more detail.
3.1 Household survey of immunization status

Table 4.5 is a questionnaire format for evaluating the immunization status of children
aged 12–23 months by household. In a small community, a sample of five partially
immunized or unimmunized children may be sufficient; but in a larger community such
as an urban slum, where there may be different subgroups of people, a sample of at least
10 may be needed. Vaccine information given by households can be checked against the
immunization register. The questionnaire can be modified to meet local evaluation needs.
How to complete the household questionnaire

In the top section of the form:
• tally each household with eligible children visited
• tally the total number of children aged 12–23 months in the household
• tally the number of children with immunization cards.
Under “Immunization status of child”:
• for each child with an available card, tally whether they are fully, partially or never
immunized under “From card – tally”
• if the card is not available but the caregiver gives the immunization history (in
response to prompting questions), tally whether the child is fully/partially/never
immunized under “By recall – tally”.
In the lower part of the form:
• If a child is partially or never immunized, write the name of the child and ask the
caregiver the question, “Why was the child not fully immunized?”
• Mark the row with the choice that best matches the answer the caregiver gives.

After noting the answer to the question about a child not being fully immunized,
try to understand issues from the household’s point of view. For example, when a
caregiver says she is “too busy”, you may need to find out whether she may be able
to attend sessions at specific times, or whether there are additional problems such as
cancelled sessions that discourage people from going to the next one. Understanding
the situation will help in adding appropriate solutions to the workplan (this issue is
discussed further in Section 4 of this module).
Partially or never immunized children identified in this exercise should be added to

defaulter tracking lists.
Table 4.5 Household immunization status questionnaire assessing children aged 12–23 months
Date: Community name:

Distance from health centre (in km): Health centre name:
Tally Total
Number of visited households with
children 12–23 months of age
Total number of children
12–23 months of age
Number of children with
immunization cards
Immunization status of child From card – tally By recall – tally Total
Fully immunized for age
Partially immunized
Never Immunized
For each child who is partially or never immunized, ask only one question – “Why was the child not fully immunized?”
Then mark an “x” next to the reason that best matches the answer given
Child's name or
ID number
unaware of need for immunization

unaware of need to return for
2nd or 3rd dose
place &/or time of immunization unknown
Lack of information
fear of adverse reactions
incorrect ideas about contraindications
other
postponed until another time
no faith in immunization
Lack of motivation
rumours
other
place of immunization too far
time of immunization inconvenient
vaccinator absent
vaccine not available
caregiver too busy
Obstacles
family problem, including illness
of caregiver
child ill – not taken for immunization
child ill – taken for immunization
but not vaccinated
long waiting time
other

3.2 Community discussion
Table 4.6 is a guide to community discussions on barriers. It aims to gather information

on community perceptions and ideas for improvement and is meant to complement the
household survey. It requires the involvement of caregivers, community health workers
and community leaders. Interviews may be done with individuals or groups separately or
together as appropriate for the situation. The questions can be modified as needed and
the exercise is intended to take about an hour.
Table 4.6 Community discussion guide

Community description
Distance from health centre – km and time
Total population from health centre data
Total population from community leaders’ information
Results of household immunization status questionnaire
Number of children 12–23 months of age partially or
never immunized
Discussion with caregivers (done after completing the household survey) – suggested questions:
Where do you get immunizations? (Outreach/HC fixed site/other)
Where was your last child delivered?
If at home, what was your main reason for not using
a health facility?
Where do you take sick children? (Traditional healer/HC/district/
private/other)
How much does it cost to travel to the HC/district?
Do you have to pay any fees at the HC/district facilities?
When was the last outreach visit from the health centre to
your community?
What do you think the health facility can do to get children
fully immunized?
Discussion with community health worker(s) – suggested questions:
What supplies of medicines do you have in the community?
(ORS, antibiotics, paracetamol, antimalarials, etc.)
In what health programmes do you work?
(for example, ANC, nutrition, EPI, TB, malaria)
Do you have a mobile phone? Give number(s).
Are you informed in advance of outreach sessions?
If so, how?
How are the communities you work with informed about an
outreach session before and on the day of the session?
When did you last receive any training?
Do you do defaulter follow up for the immunization programme?
Discussion with community leader(s) – suggested questions:

What do you see as the main health problems in your community?
How can the health facility improve services for the community?

4 Identifying solutions and

preparing a workplan
Some people do not live within reach of health services, whether they are in permanent
shelter or mobile nomadic/seasonal migrant communities. In many countries,
geographical barriers are not the only, or even the primary, reason that limits access
and utilization of immunization services. Access is also made difficult by inconvenient
scheduling, lack of information and/or lack of opportunities. All these problems can be
solved relatively simply by improving scheduling, raising awareness and/or expanding
outreach.
This section is a guide to taking the information collected in Sections 1–3 and
planning solutions to overcome the identified barriers to access and utilization.
Solutions should be added to a workplan to guide a practical approach, and a
workplan should be developed for each priority community. The table in Module 6
(Monitoring and surveillance), Annex 6.1 lists common problems and possible
solutions. While not exhaustive, this may help to complete a workplan.
4.1 Outline solutions

Table 4.7 shows a format for outlining solutions at health centre, community and
district levels.
How to list identified solutions
• Hold a brainstorming session with key people from the health centre, community
and district to gather ideas. Be sure to include a session on how higher performing
health centres and communities have been able to solve their problems and achieve
improvements (this will give evidenced-based ideas).
• Get consensus on the main problems (not every problem) and list the priority ones.
To address the problems, limit priority problems to about three. Working on a
longer list of problems usually becomes too difficult for a practical approach.
• Choose practical and feasible activities to solve the prioritized problems, since:
–– health centre problem-solving activities should be within existing capacity and

resources
–– community activities may be limited to the capacity of its volunteers since

additional resources are often not available
–– district-level activities may provide support to the health centre with extra
technical or financial resources.

Table 4.7 Identified solutions list – example format

Community name: Village One
Main problems SOLUTIONS
Description of the main
problems identified for HEALTH CENTRE DISTRICT
COMMUNITY activities
the community activities activities
Example: Call the community chief Mobilize mothers and Ensure costs of outreach
Poor community or community worker by children by informing them sessions are budgeted
attendance at outreach mobile phone in advance of in advance and encouraging (transport and per diem)
sessions the session to confirm time attendance at session according to HC session
and place plan
4.2 Make a workplan to implement identified solutions
Table 4.8 shows a workplan format to follow planned health centre and community
activities over a six-month period.
How to complete the health centre workplan

• Complete one form for each person involved – the same form can be used for both
health centre staff and community workers.
• List the main health centre and community-level problem-solving activities from
the exercise given in Section 4.1, compiled on the form shown in Table 4.7.
Activities should be defined as specific tasks for the person named on the form.
• Make a schedule for completing the activities over the next six months (see
Table 4.8) – the person named on the form should track their progress as the
activities/tasks are completed each month.

(4)16
Table 4.8 Workplan to achieve identified solutions – example format
Name of health centre staff or community worker:
Schedule by month
ACTIVITIES
to be done by health centre staff
or community worker Month 1 Month 2 Month 3 Month 4 Month 5 Month 6
Example: Mobilize mothers and children by Do 1 week before Do 1 week before

informing them in advance and encouraging session session
attendance at session
5 Making a session plan

A session plan lists all communities served by the health centre and specifies how
frequently each community will be reached based on such factors as distance, target
population, workload and other relevant operational issues. This section provides an
example format and gives a simple method for choosing session frequency, scheduling
dates and organizing the supplies needed to complete a session plan that reaches every
community in a health centre catchment area. It is based on a maximum workload
of about 30 infants per vaccinator per session. It uses an immunization schedule that
requires a minimum of four contacts during the first year of life. The aim is to plan
sessions so that staff time is used efficiently.
5.1 Immunization session plan
Table 4.9 shows an example immunization session plan format. It compiles a list of
communities and the distances from the health centre that is responsible for their
immunization services. The type of session needed – fixed (at the health centre) or
outreach (at a site in the community) – for rural communities usually depends on the
distance of the community from the health centre or on the travel time needed if the
terrain is difficult. The type of session needed for urban communities may depend on
social factors or convenience for the groups being served. The frequency of sessions
needed depends on the number of infants expected at each session. The number of
infants an immunization programme should expect to serve in a community depends
on its total population. Table 4.10 is a simplified guide to choosing session frequency
based on total population – it gives the end result of calculations based on total
population and estimated proportions of infants in the total population (see Annex 4.1
for calculation details).
Table 4.9 Health centre overall session plan: example format

Note that this includes all communities, some of which may be scheduled for fixed sessions (at the health centre) and some for
outreach
Community name Distance from Type of session Total Session

HC in km (fixed or population frequency
outreach)

How to choose session frequency

Table 4.10 estimates the best use of staff time based on the number of vaccinators
expected to be available for each session in a range of population sizes. Find the total
population of the community to be served and choose the session frequency based
on the number of vaccinators available for the immunization team. The following are
some examples:
• for a community with a total population of 6000 and an immunization team with
two vaccinators per session, session frequency should be every two weeks
one vaccinator per session, session frequency should be monthly
one vaccinator per session, session frequency should be quarterly.
This table states that a reasonable workload is about 30 infants per vaccinator per
session. The maximum acceptable workload may vary depending on the national
schedule and immunization policies and strategies; follow national guidelines.
Table 4.10 Estimated immunization session frequency
Session frequency
(30 infants per vaccinator per session)
Total population of 1 vaccinator 2 vaccinators

community per session per session
5001–10 000 Weekly Every 2 weeks
3001–5000 Every 2 weeks Monthly
4- or 5-contact
2001–3000 Monthly Monthly
schedule
1001–2000 Monthly Quarterly
0–1000 Quarterly Quarterly
Reviewing and adjusting session plans

Session plans should be reviewed quarterly with corresponding monitoring data for
communities served (see Module 6 (Monitoring and surveillance), Section 4). Any
missed or incomplete sessions should be rescheduled and adjustments should be made.
The session frequency may need to change if population numbers change significantly.

5.2 Health centre outreach session plan
Every health centre should make, display and monitor an outreach schedule to show
the date and place of each session, the means of transport and the person responsible
for arranging it. It should also include a community contact person who will
communicate session dates and other reminders to the wider community. An example
format is shown in Table 4.11. Note that fixed sessions can be added to this if needed
to keep all on one sheet (leave the transport column blank or write “fixed” there).
Outreach sessions are often planned for rural communities that are 5–15 km from the
health centre and for urban populations who use convenient locations such as markets,
community centres and schools. Outreach sessions may also need to be planned to take
place before and/or after seasonal rains or other factors that make populations hard to
reach at certain times of the year. In some programmes, communities living more than
10 km away from the health centre may be served by mobile activities organized from
district level, as shown in Figure 4.2. Follow national and district guidelines for
microplanning.
Other activities, such as EPI Plus and maternal–child health interventions, may
be integrated in immunization sessions. Follow national guidelines on including
additional staff, logistics and financial resources as needed.
Figure 4.2 Illustration of fixed, outreach and mobile strategy service distance requirements
(example from WHO AFRO)
Establish outreach Mobile strategy

Pop 187
and mobile services
Pop 500
Outreach strategy
Pop 400
Pop 89
Pop 688
Fixed strategy
Pop 339
Pop 312
Pop 1898
x km 10 km 5 km
Health Center Pop 654
Pop 1125 Pop 221
Pop 675
Pop 99
Pop 211
Icons: Public Domain, Noun Project; Delivery Scooter by Luis Prado from the Noun Project

(4)20
Table 4.11 Health centre outreach session plan – example format
Community name Session Distance Transport Person Community Date(s)

frequency needed* responsible contact name & scheduled
for transport mobile phone # & done
Month 1**
Month 2
Month 3
Month 4
Month 5
Month 6
Month 7
Month 8
Month 9
Month 10
Month 11
Month 12
Date(s)
scheduled:
Date(s)
done:
Date(s)
scheduled:
Date(s)
done:
Date(s)
scheduled:
Date(s)
done:
Date(s)
scheduled:
Date(s)
done:
Date(s)
scheduled:
Date(s)
done:
Date(s)
scheduled:
Date(s)
done:
Date(s)
scheduled:
Date(s)
done:
Sessions
* In the transport column, write “overnight” if needed to complete sessions in the community. Leave the done:
transport column blank or write “fixed” in it if the community is served by fixed sessions at the health centre. Sessions
planned:
** Write all dates each month (for example, 2 dates if biweekly sessions)
% done
5.3 Immunization session supplies
Outreach teams must be sure to take sufficient supplies to complete the sessions
planned for each trip. Table 4.12 will help to organize supplies and can be used for
fixed sessions and for monthly ordering (see Section 5.4).
Table 4.12 shows supply calculations for a monthly session. The vaccines in this
example match current WHO recommendations – health centres should have their
own tables that match national immunization schedules. The quantity of supplies
is calculated for the number of infants expected per session. The number of infants
expected is based on the total population and session frequency indicated in Table 4.3.
Ideally, health centres should calculate the supplies needed for each session from lists of
infants compiled by reviewing immunization register appointments, defaulter tracking
and newborn infant lists (see Module 6 (Monitoring and surveillance), Section 1).
Note that Table 4.12 is a rough estimate of needs; numbers include an average 10%
excess and/or are rounded off to whole units. Each health centre should calculate
its supply quantities based on the national immunization schedule and any known
variations, such as increased numbers of infants in sessions where defaulters are
expected to catch up even if a list of expected infants is not compiled. Health centre
wastage rates and other similar factors should also be taken into account for both
vaccine vial and AD syringe numbers. Quantities may be rounded off based on
packaging and/or ease of dispensing from the pharmacy or stockroom.
Supplies for EPI Plus or other activities integrated with immunization sessions should
be added to the table and stock lists as directed by national guidelines.
Table 4.12 Estimated supplies for monthly outreach sessions

Total population of community 0–500 501–1 000 1 001–2 000 2 001–3 000 3 001–4 000 4 000–5 000
Expected number of infants 2 5 10 20 30 40

RV – single dose tube 1 3 5 10 15 20
OPV – 10-dose vial + dropper 1 2 3 5 6 7
PCV – single-dose vial 2 4 8 17 25 33
Pentavalent – single-dose vial 2 4 8 17 25 33
BCG – 20-dose vial + diluent 1 1 1 1 1 1
Measles – 10-dose vial + diluent 1 1 1 2 2 3

AD syringe – 0.5 ml 14 20 30 60 79 109
BCG AD syringe – 0.05 ml 3 4 8 12 15 20
RUP reconstitution syringe – 2 2 2 3 3 4
5 ml + needle
RUP reconstitution syringe – 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 ml + needle
Safety box 1 1 1 2 2 3
Other

5.4 Health centre monthly stock report
Monthly stock reports are needed to ensure adequate supplies and avoid stock-outs.
Table 4.13 shows an example format for a health centre stock report, giving an
estimated monthly consumption requirement based on expected immunization service
activities. The consumption figures should correlate with the total number of doses
used at sessions held during the month. This example matches the schedule given in
Table 4.12, but each health centre should report according to national guidelines.
Stock report data may be added to the monthly summary report, as shown in
Module 6 (Monitoring and surveillance), Section 3.
Table 4.13 Health centre monthly stock report – example format

Monthly stock report
Health centre name: Date report completed:
Stock month and year: Reported by:
Monthly Opening stock Order received Closing stock Order for next
consumption month
RV – single dose
OPV – 10-dose vial

+ dropper
PCV –
single-dose vial
pentavalent –
single-dose vial
BCG – 20-dose vial

+ diluent
Measles – 10-dose
vial + diluent
AD syringe – 0.5 ml
BCG AD syringe –
0.05 ml
RUP reconstitution
syringe –
5 ml + needle
RUP reconstitution
syringe –
2 ml + needle
Safety box
Other

6 Finding defaulters
Every health centre needs to plan to follow up defaulters or infants who miss scheduled
vaccinations, who thus fall into the unimmunized or underimmunized group. Refer
to Module 6 (Monitoring and surveillance), Section 1.4 for details on defaulter
tracking methods. This section is a brief reminder of how opportunities to complete
vaccinations can be linked to regularly scheduled immunization services.
6.1 Defaulter tracking list
An example defaulter tracking list is shown in Module 6 (Monitoring and surveillance).

This list should be completed regularly at the end of each session or monthly,
depending on health centre practice. A community worker or other staff should be
assigned to find defaulters and give them appointments for the next immunization
session. For outreach sessions, this list should be sent to the community at least a week
in advance.
6.2 Other opportunities
Immunization status should be reviewed at all health care visits. Children who are
due or overdue should be vaccinated immediately whenever possible. If vaccines are
not immediately available for administration during the same visit, the infant should
be referred to the earliest possible immunization session. The caregiver should be
informed of the time, date and location of the immunization session, and the infant’s
name should be added to the health centre defaulter tracking list to help ensure the
follow-up visit is made.

Calculations used in determining

Annex 4.1
needed session frequency
The following steps are needed to develop Table 4.10:
1. Calculate the annual target population and monthly newborn target
Since infants are the target population for immunization, calculating the number of
newborns expected in a year gives the annual target population for a programme:
(% infants in population or
Annual target population = (total population) x
expected birth rate)
The percentage of infants in the population, or the expected birth rate, should be
obtained from local data. If a specific local percentage is not available, the suggestion
here is to use 3% as an estimate for session planning. See Module 6 (Monitoring and
surveillance), Section 4.1 for further discussion on calculating targets.
Divide the annual target population by 12 to get the monthly newborn/infant target:
Monthly newborn target = (annual target population)/12
2. Calculate the expected number of infants per session
In order to choose the frequency of sessions, sessions, an estimate is needed of the

expected number of infants per session for a given community. This includes the
number of newborns presenting for first doses of vaccines and the number of infants
returning for follow-up doses. The number of infants returning for follow-up doses
depends on the number of contacts required by the national immunization schedule.
For example, for a four-contact schedule, each newborn will be added to the schedule
as a returning infant three times in later months during the year; this means that for a
monthly session, there should be three returning infants for every newborn expected
based on the monthly newborn target.
Table 4.14 shows the results of calculations based on the annual target population
and the monthly newborn target to determine the expected number of newborns
plus returning infants at individual sessions. A four-contact (minimum) schedule is
assumed. A choice among weekly, biweekly (every two weeks), monthly and quarterly
(every three months) is also assumed. Both the number of contacts and the choice of
sessions may vary in different programmes.

Note that the equations are:

Expected number of newborns and returning infants at a weekly session =
monthly newborn target
Expected number of newborns and returning infants at a biweekly session =
monthly newborn target x 2
Expected number of newborns and returning infants at a monthly session =
monthly newborn target x 4
Expected number of newborns and returning infants at a quarterly session =

annual target population
Table 4.14 Expected number of infants per session

Expected number of newborns and returning infants
at each session
(by session frequency for 4-contact minimum schedule)
Annual
target Weekly Biweekly Monthly Quarterly
Total population
population Monthly session session session session

(infants <1 newborn (once every (once every (once every (once every
year of age) target week) two weeks) month) 3 months)
(= total (= annual (= monthly (= monthly (= monthly (= annual
population target newborn newborn target newborn target target
x 3%) population/12) target) x 2) x 4) population)
10 000 300 25 25 50 100 300
5000 150 13 13 25 50 150
4000 120 10 10 20 40 120
3000 90 8 8 15 30 90
2000 60 5 5 10 20 60
1000 30 3 3 5 10 30
500 15 1 1 3 5 15
200 6 1 1 1 2 6
3. Choose session frequency based on acceptable workload per vaccinator
Table 4.10 uses 30 injections per session. Session frequency per immunization site can
be decided based on number of vaccinators available and acceptable workload.

5: Managing an immunization session
5
Managing an
immunization session
This module describes the tasks a health worker needs to perform to ensure the quality of
an immunization session. It starts with the preparation required at the health centre and the
immunization site before the infants arrive. It next discusses the communication needed
throughout each encounter with caregivers during the session. It then proceeds with assessment
of infants before vaccination, the correct technique for giving vaccines, and instructions for
closing sessions and recording data. It concludes with a newly developed checklist that can serve
as a reminder to ensure safety before, during and after immunization sessions.
This module touches on topics that are covered in more detail in other modules with references
given in the text. It focuses mainly on infant immunization, but the principles may be applied to
older age groups.
Contents
1. Preparing for the session.................................................................................(5)3
1.1 Plan the immunization session...................................................................................................... (5)3
1.2 Prepare the workplace...................................................................................................................... (5)3
1.3 Prepare supplementary materials and equipment................................................................... (5)5
1.4 Pack required vaccines and safe injection supplies.................................................................. (5)6
2. Communicating with caregivers......................................................................(5)9
2.1 Communication use.......................................................................................................................... (5)9
2.2 Communication tips........................................................................................................................ (5)10
2.3 Communicating accurate information....................................................................................... (5)10
2.4 Communicating potential adverse events................................................................................ (5)11
2.5 Communicating other measures to help keep children safe and healthy........................ (5)12
3. Assessing infants for vaccination..................................................................(5)14
3.1 Assess eligibility for immunization.............................................................................................. (5)14
3.2 Assess possible contraindications............................................................................................... (5)15
4. Giving vaccinations........................................................................................(5)17
4.1 Preparing to vaccinate.................................................................................................................... (5)17
4.2 Reconstituting vaccines................................................................................................................. (5)17
4.3 Making vaccination easier and more comfortable.................................................................. (5)19
4.4 Good general techniques.............................................................................................................. (5)19
4.5 Positioning the infant for vaccination........................................................................................ (5)20
4.6 Good oral administration technique........................................................................................... (5)23
4.7 Good injection technique.............................................................................................................. (5)23
4.8 Intradermal (ID) injection.............................................................................................................. (5)25
4.9 Subcutaneous (SC) injection in the upper arm........................................................................ (5)26
4.10 Intramuscular (IM) injection in infants....................................................................................... (5)27
4.11 Intramuscular injection in adolescents and adults.................................................................. (5)28
5. Closing the session.........................................................................................(5)30
5.1 Discard or store opened vials depending on vaccine type................................................... (5)30
5.2 Dispose of used vaccine vials and injection equipment safely............................................ (5)31
5.3 Leave the site clean and tidy......................................................................................................... (5)31
6. Recording data...............................................................................................(5)32
6.1 Complete the infant immunization and reminder cards....................................................... (5)32
6.2 Prepare a summary of the session............................................................................................... (5)33
6.3 Prepare a defaulter tracking list................................................................................................... (5)33
7. Using the immunization session checklist.....................................................(5)34

1 Preparing for the session

Preparation for sessions should be part of microplanning. This begins well before the
day of the session and should continue throughout the session to include feedback for
improving the planning of the next sessions.
The main objectives are: a) to inform the community in advance: the community
should be aware of the session and those who are due for immunization should know
about the location and time; and b) to set up the site for safe immunization: staff
should organize adequate quantities of vaccines, safe injection materials, safe disposal
containers and reporting tools as well as an adequate cold chain for conserving
vaccines.
Some of the preparation steps given below are covered elsewhere in more detail; see
references to other modules. The order of the steps may vary by site; for example, for
outreach sessions, vaccines have to be packed for transport at the health centre before
the workplace is prepared at the remote site. Community staff and/or volunteers
should set up as much of the outreach site as possible before the vaccinators arrive.
1.1 Plan the immunization session
Each health centre should have a session plan showing where and when immunizations
will be given. This session plan should be developed with and communicated to the
community as part of microplanning. Immunization sessions may be held daily, weekly,
every two weeks, monthly or quarterly at fixed or outreach sites. The frequency of the
sessions depends on the size of the community being served and the workload for staff, as
described in Module 4 (Microplanning for reaching every community), Section 5.
For outreach, health centre staff should get to know people in the community
and learn who can help with arranging the session, including choosing a suitable
time (for example, market day) and tracking children who are due and overdue
for immunization. Signs should be placed at the site to let people know when
immunizations will be given. Module 7 (Partnering with communities) contains details
on involving the community overall.
1.2 Prepare the workplace
The final arrangement of space for an immunization session will depend on whether
it is being held in a fixed health facility or outreach site, and whether other services
are being provided (for example, nutrition screening, antenatal care and/or health

education). Figure 5.1 shows an example of the basic requirements for a fixed or
outreach site.
The ideal site will be:
• easily accessible and identified with a sign stating “Immunization Clinic”;
• located in the same place each time;
• in a clean area, out of the sun, rain and dust;
• near a sheltered/shaded area where those needing vaccination can wait;
• large enough to provide space to have separate stations for registration and
assessment, immunization and record keeping and screening/education on other
health issues; and
• quiet enough for health workers to be able to explain what they are doing and to
give advice.
Figure 5.1 Immunization session: example workplace arrangement
Immunization session
Parents and infants Tuesday
Friday
Waiting area Entrance

(if possible in shade)
Exit
Registration
and screening
Vaccine carrier Safety box
Tally sheet
Vaccination Health education/
information and
return appointment
reminder
Table to prepare
vaccines

Whenever possible, the immunization station itself should be separated from other
activities so that crying children do not cause distress to those waiting. Ideally, the
whole circuit should have a separate entrance and exit, and be well marked with signs,
ropes and other visual aids through which community members or health workers may
guide those attending.
In practice, workplace situations are often less than ideal. Large numbers of people
crowding the area may cause safety issues, as well as confusion and stress, not just for
the health worker, but also for everyone concerned. Careful preparation and a positive,
welcoming manner help ensure a successful immunization session.
1.3 Prepare supplementary materials and equipment
A list of needed materials should be reviewed before all sessions (see Section 7 of this
module for a proposed checklist). Figure 5.2 shows an example immunization station.
Figure 5.2 Immunization station: example arrangement
Immunization Monitoring National EPI

checklist chart schedule
Safety box of needle

and syringe disposal
Box of reconstitution
syringes
Box of AD Seat for caregiver/child
syringes AEFI kit
Tally
sheet
Vaccine carrier Water container
and foam pad
Rubbish Soap
Basin

A basic list of supplementary items includes:
• Adverse Events Following Immunization (AEFI) kit
• water container, basin, soap, towel for hand washing and drying
• metal file to open ampoules, if needed
• immunization register
• new immunization/child health cards
• immunization tally sheets
• cotton wool
• container for rubbish that does not go into a safety box
• paper, pencils and pens
• table(s)
• stool(s)/chair(s)
• adhesive tape to repair vaccine carriers if needed.
1.4 Pack required vaccines and safe injection supplies
For sessions at the health facility, required vaccines should be taken from the fridge
beforehand to reduce the number of times the fridge is opened.
For outreach, enough vaccine has to be taken to meet demand since the refrigerator
will, of course, not be nearby during the session. Extra vaccine should be added to
meet unexpectedly high demand at the session. For example, an extra 10% can be
added to the estimated need. Ideally, the quantity of each type of vaccine should be
calculated from a list of children who are due and overdue. When such lists are not
available, the quantity can be estimated based on previous session demand, especially
if this is stable. Tables in Module 4 (Microplanning for reaching every community),
Section 5 show estimated numbers of infants and supplies needed for each session
based on example population data.
Verify that vaccines are safe to use
Before opening the refrigerator, estimate the number of each vaccine needed for the
session as noted above. When opening the fridge, first check the temperature and the
freeze indicator. If there has been freeze exposure, do the Shake Test on the freeze-
sensitive vaccines as described in Module 2 (The vaccine cold chain), Section 7.

Select vaccines from the refrigerator in the order given below.
1. Opened vials kept in the “USE FIRST” box in the fridge (if in agreement with
national multi-dose vial policy – see Module 2 for WHO policy).
2. Unopened vaccine vials that have been returned from outreach sessions or have
been outside of the refrigerator and returned (usually also in the USE FIRST box).
3. Vaccine vials with vaccine vial monitors (VVMs) that have started to change to a
darker colour but have not gone past the discard point, as shown in Figure 5.3.
In general, vaccines should be organized in the refrigerator by expiry date, with those
with the closest expiry date kept in front and used first.
When selecting vials from the refrigerator, check each vaccine and diluent vial/
ampoule and remember to:
• use only vials/ampoules in good condition; discard vials/ampoules that are damaged
and/or have no label
• discard any vials/ampoules that have passed their expiry date
• discard any vials/ampoules with VVMs past the discard point
• do not use any vials/ampoules with fluid that has changed colour or contains
particles: seek the advice of your supervisor if any are found.
Figure 5.3 How to read a vaccine vial monitor
Cumulative heat exposure
VVM start colour Discard point
The VVM start colour of the inner square is never pure-white, it is always Beyond discard point.
slightly purple and begins lighter in colour than the outer circle. From this point Square colour is darker
forward, the inner square starts to darken in colour, until the temperature and/ than the outer circle.
or duration of heat reaches a level which degrades the vaccine, at which time
the VVM’s discard point will be evident.
DO NOT USE THIS VACCINE

USE THIS VACCINE
INFORM YOUR SUPERVISOR

Include an adequate number of auto-disable syringes and safety boxes
Take one AD syringe for each dose of injectable vaccine and add 10% buffer stock.
Note that separate calculations for two types of syringes, AD and BCG AD, are needed
in most programmes. Take one reconstitution syringe and needle for each vial of
vaccine to be used. Take one safety box for every 100 AD syringes.
Ensure correct use of coolant packs and vaccine carriers
Do not use ice packs for vials that will be out of the cold chain for a limited time at
fixed or outreach immunization sessions as the risk of freezing is greater than the risk
of damage from heat for vials kept in a vaccine carrier for less than a day. Conditioned
ice packs are recommended to avoid freezing vaccines.
Keep open vials inserted in the foam pad of the vaccine carrier during immunization
sessions. Do not keep opened vials on ice.

2 Communicating with caregivers

Communication involves giving information verbally (including the tone of voice) and
non-verbally (body language). It is an essential part of vaccinator technique needed
from start to finish of the interaction with each child and caregiver. Communication
during the immunization encounter is also important for giving health education;
studies show that health workers are the primary source of such information for
caregivers.
This section describes how to prepare for the communication needed to accompany
the more technical activities described in Sections 3 and 4. It suggests how to make
good communication part of vaccinator technique and, in Figure 5.4, gives a general
sequence to match activities during the immunization encounter. The actual content
of communication ultimately depends on what caregivers want to know (their own
questions) and the key information that must be given, including when to return for
the next immunization.
Module 7 (Partnering with communities) contains additional discussion on

communication about immunization with community members and groups.
2.1 Communication use
Communication that welcomes, calms and reassures anxious children and adults makes
vaccination easier and more pleasant. While immunization sessions can be very busy,
taking time to give at least the minimum key information at each encounter improves
results for all.
Asking about families and showing interest and concern will, over time, build trust
and respect between health workers and communities. It may also bring to light health
problems in the community that need to be reported and addressed.
Most communication is non-verbal. It is conveyed in many ways: posture, facial

expression, gestures, eye contact and attitude, for example. Welcoming families to
an immunization session with a smile and a calm manner will reassure the anxious,
whereas arriving late can communicate a lack of respect. Being bad-tempered,
criticizing caregivers, using words that are unfamiliar to the community and hurrying
will increase anxiety and reduce the likelihood that people will return willingly for the
next sessions.

2.2 Communication tips
Show concern and empathy with the community and, even more importantly,
with each individual, treating them with respect and courtesy. Vaccinators have an
important role in protecting communities from vaccine preventable diseases, not only
by administering the vaccines, but also by creating trust so that children and adults are
willing to attend immunization sessions.
Working with different cultures often presents challenges and individual differences
occur within any culture. For an individual health worker, it may help if they:
• understand their own attitude to immunization
• maintain confidence in their ability to talk about the vaccines and the diseases they
prevent
• develop skills for giving one or more injections quickly, safely and with little
discomfort
• have a genuine interest in each individual
• listen without judgement – immunization may challenge people’s views of health

and well-being
• look beyond what is being said – the health worker should observe body language
and ask questions to check understanding of what is being said and felt
• check that the caregiver understands the information given, which should be
accompanied by giving written and other reminders as appropriate for the situation
• remain patient and kind.
2.3 Communicating accurate information
The essential elements of every encounter are highlighted in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 Essential elements of every encounter
ADVISE ALERT ARRANGE

on what is given for possible adverse events for when to return
and the response needed

Some caregivers will want detailed information while others will be happy to trust that
they are receiving appropriate care, and lengthy explanations may cause them anxiety.
Use words that are readily understood rather than technical terms. The following issues
may need to be covered, depending on individual needs and understanding:
• vaccine-preventable disease
• vaccines and their schedules, including the number of doses, their timing, the
importance of completing the series and due date(s) for the next dose(s)
• route of vaccine administration: oral or injectable
• potential adverse events and what to do if they occur
• explanation and reassurance in response to inaccurate information (for example,

contraceptive effect of vaccines)
• vitamin A, if needed and when
• importance of immunization cards and documents and what is written on them
• immunization session locations and times, especially for the next visit.
2.4 Communicating potential adverse events
The following points are important when talking about the potential adverse events of
any vaccine.
• Reassure the caregiver that reactions, such as fever, pain or swelling at the injection
site, and changes, such as the child being irritable or off colour, are common and
indicate a good response to the vaccine.
• Instruct the caregiver to give extra fluids in the form of breast milk or clean water.
• Instruct the caregiver that paracetamol may be given and specify the appropriate
dose and timing for the individual infant.
• Remind the caregiver to give extra hugs and attention, but to avoid pressure to the
injection site(s).
• Explain that placing a clean, cold, damp cloth can help to ease pain if there is a
local injection site reaction.
• Tell the caregiver to bring the infant to the health centre if the infant’s condition
worsens or the reaction continues for more than a day or two, since the infant may
develop an illness, unrelated to immunization, that needs treatment.

After BCG vaccine: Explain to the caregiver that the flat-topped swelling on the
infant’s arm is normal and indicates that the vaccine is working. Ask the caregiver to
return with the infant if the infant develops such signs as abscesses or enlarged glands.
After measles vaccine: Explain to the caregiver that a rash or fever may develop after
6–12 days. Other people will not catch the rash and it will go away on its own. The
caregiver should give the infant extra fluids and keep them cool.
See Module 1 (Target diseases and vaccines) for more details on vaccines and potential
adverse events.
2.5 Communicating other measures to help keep children safe and

healthy
Additional specific information to convey depends on the major concerns for children
in a community. In general, handwashing, exclusive breastfeeding for the first six
months of life and appropriate complementary feeding after the first six months
should be promoted. It is also important to explain to caregivers that even if their child
receives rotavirus and pneumococcal vaccines, the child may still develop diarrhoea or
pneumonia from other causes, and they should be aware of treatment methods and
danger signs.

Communication during each encounter

At the start
¾¾ Greet the caregiver in a friendly manner. Thank them for coming for vaccination and
for their patience if they had to wait.
¾¾ Ask the caregiver if they have any questions or concerns and answer them politely.
During assessment (see Section 3 of this module)

¾¾ Write the date of the vaccination(s) being given on the immunization card and explain
the disease(s) against which the vaccination(s) protect(s) in simple terms (in the local
language). If there is a poster or chart, use it to help your explanation.
¾¾ Mention possible adverse events and explain how to handle them (see Section 2.4 of
this module).
¾¾ Explain the need for the child to return for each contact in the immunization schedule
to be fully protected. Use the immunization card as an instructional guide, and
congratulate the caretaker if the child has completed a series.
¾¾ Write the date for the next vaccination on the immunization card and tell the
caregiver. If appropriate, associate the date with a well-known occurrence, such as a
holiday or seasonal event, that will help them remember to bring the child back.
¾¾ Ask the caregiver to repeat the date to be sure it is understood.
¾¾ Explain to the caregiver that if the child cannot come on the return date, they can
obtain the next vaccination at another location or another date close to the due date.
¾¾ Remind the caregiver to bring the immunization card when they bring the child back
for the next vaccination.
Proceed with vaccination, including explanation of positioning, as described in
Section 4 of this module
After vaccination
¾¾ Remind the caregiver when to return with the infant.
¾¾ In the event of any out-of-stocks of vaccine at the time of the session, inform the
caregiver where and when to return for the next doses.
¾¾ Remind the caregiver about other services given during immunization sessions, as
per national policy; for example, vitamin A supplementation or tetanus toxoid for
women.
¾¾ If immunization campaigns are planned in the coming months, inform the caregiver
about the date of the campaign, what vaccination is being given, and where the
vaccination site will be.
¾¾ Offer relevant print information to caregivers who are literate.
¾¾ Ask the caregiver if they have any questions or concerns and answer them politely.

3 Assessing infants for vaccination

Before administering a vaccine to an infant, it is important to check which vaccines are due.
3.1 Assess eligibility for immunization
Whenever an infant visits the health facility, they should be screened for immunization
and given all the vaccines needed. If there is no immunization session that day, the
earliest possible appointment should be made and explained to the caregiver. The steps
below should be followed at any health care visit as well as at any immunization session.
1. Verify the infant’s age on the immunization card
• If the infant does not have an immunization card, ask the caregiver for the infant’s age.
• If the caregiver does not know the infant’s age, estimate it by asking if the infant
was born during/around a notable community event, for example during a certain
season or celebration. A local events calendar can help with this.
2. Verify which vaccines the infant has received by reviewing the immunization card
• If the infant does not have an immunization card but has come to the health facility
before, check the register and fill out a new card. If the infant is new to the health
facility, ask the caregiver questions to prompt recall of each vaccine the infant
should have received and fill out a new card.
• Check for a BCG scar (usually on the left arm/shoulder) if there is no record or recall.
• Proceed to the next step with or without the card, recall or a scar. If immunization
status is in doubt and there are no known contraindications (see Section 3.2 of this
module), vaccinate the infant.
3. Verify all vaccines the infant needs at this session to allow efficient preparation
Follow the national schedule (see Module 1 (Target diseases and vaccines) for WHO
recommendations on each vaccine) remembering these general points:
• If the infant is eligible for more than one type of vaccine, it is safe to give the different
vaccines at different injection sites during the same session (see Section 4.10).
• Never give more than one dose of the same vaccine at one time.
• If the vaccine is overdue, do not restart the schedule. Simply provide the next
needed dose in the series.

• If there is a delay in starting the immunization schedule, give the vaccine(s) and an
appointment for the next dose at the interval recommended in the national schedule.
3.2 Assess possible contraindications
For the first dose of a vaccine, assess the general status of the child to rule out signs of
serious illness. For a subsequent dose in a vaccine series, ask the caregiver whether any
adverse events, including anaphylaxis, occurred following the previous dose(s).
All infants should be immunized except in these situations:
• Do not give a vaccine if the infant has had anaphylaxis (a serious allergic reaction)
or other severe reaction to a previous dose of the vaccine or a vaccine component.
• Refer to Table 5.1 for guidance on vaccinating HIV-infected children.
• Do not give a vaccine if the caregiver objects to immunization for a sick infant after
explanation that mild illness is not a contraindication. Ask the caregiver to come
back when the infant is well.
Table 5.1 Recommendations for immunization of HIV-infected children
Vaccine Asymptomatic HIV infection/HIV+ Symptomatic HIV infection/AIDS
RV Vaccinate Vaccinate
OPV and/or IPV Vaccinate Vaccinate
BCG Do not vaccinate Do not vaccinate
Pneumococcal Vaccinate Vaccinate
DTP-containing Vaccinate Vaccinate
Hepatitis B-containing Vaccinate Vaccinate
H. influenzae type b-containing Vaccinate Vaccinate
Measles- and/or mumps-

Vaccinate Do not vaccinate
and/or rubella-containing
Yellow fever Vaccinate Do not vaccinate*
Japanese encephalitis Vaccinate Vaccinate
Tetanus toxoid Vaccinate Vaccinate
Meningococcal Vaccinate Vaccinate
Influenza (inactivated) Vaccinate Vaccinate
HPV Vaccinate (always 3 doses) Vaccinate (always 3 doses)
* pending further studies

Immunizing sick infants

Many health workers do not like vaccinating an infant who is ill. Infants can have
many illnesses, but delaying immunization puts them at risk of vaccine-preventable
diseases when they could receive the protection safely.
• For infants with a minor illness and/or fever below 38.5 °C, vaccinate as usual. This
includes respiratory tract infections, diarrhoea and similar mild infections without
significant fever.
• For very ill infants who need to go to hospital, or infants who have a very high
fever, vaccinate if possible. A senior health worker may have to decide in each case,
but infants need protecting from diseases that could be transmissible in hospital
(measles, for example).
• For malnourished infants, vaccinate as usual. Malnourished infants do develop

immunity after vaccination, and when they do not receive vaccines, they are more
likely than well-nourished children to die from vaccine-preventable diseases.
Other conditions when infants should be immunized

The following are not contraindications and infants with these conditions or
circumstances should be immunized:
• allergies or asthma, with the exception of a known allergy to a specific component

of the vaccine as mentioned
• ongoing treatment with antibiotics
• family history of adverse events following immunization
• prematurity or low birth weight
• history of jaundice at birth
• ongoing breastfeeding
• recent or upcoming surgery
• chronic noncommunicable diseases of the heart, lung, kidney or liver
• stable neurological conditions, such as cerebral palsy or Downs syndrome
• family history of convulsions, seizures or fits.

4 Giving vaccinations
Immunization is a routine procedure for health workers, but can be frightening for
children and adults attending the session. There are many things a health worker can
do to make an immunization experience a safe and positive one. This section focuses
on techniques for injection preparation, the comfortable and safe positioning of
children, and the safe disposal of materials.
4.1 Preparing to vaccinate
Injectable vaccines can be ready to use or can require reconstitution (mixing)

with diluent. Oral vaccines may require manipulation of the packaging to enable
administration. With the increasing range of products and presentations available, the
aim of this section is to cover general principles that can be adapted to specific vaccines
in each programme.
Firstly, use aseptic technique to prepare vaccines:
• start with handwashing – use soap and water and dry your hands thoroughly
• work on a clean table
• prepare vaccines individually for each child; do not prefill syringes.
Whenever possible, prepare the vaccine away from the child and caregiver; be aware
that injection materials may cause anxiety. If this is not possible, turn away slightly
to shield the preparation. Try to talk to the caregiver while preparing injections as
showing interest in the caregiver is reassuring.
4.2 Reconstituting vaccines
Common vaccines that need to be mixed with diluent before use include BCG, yellow
fever, measles, MR and MMR. The correct diluent must be used (see box).

Points to remember about diluents

¾¾ Always use diluent from the same manufacturer as the vaccine.
¾¾ Diluent is not interchangeable, different vaccines have different diluents. Administering a
vaccine with the wrong diluent has led to serious adverse events, including death.
¾¾ Diluent should be cooled before being mixed with the vaccine.
¾¾ Vaccines should be reconstituted with diluent immediately before use.
¾¾ Unused reconstituted vaccine must be handled according to national multi-dose vial
policy; WHO policy is outlined in Module 2 (The vaccine cold chain).
Steps for reconstitution

1. For vials with VVMs, double check that the vaccine can be used.
2. Double check each vial/ampoule to make sure it is not past its expiry date, and read
the label carefully.
3. Open the vial. For a metal cap, use a file to lift the pre-cut centre and bend it back;
for a plastic cap, flip it off with your thumb or slowly twist it depending on the
specific instructions for the type of vial.
4. Open the glass ampoule by

holding the ampoule between Figure 5.5 Scratching and breaking the neck
the thumb and middle finger and of the vial
supporting the top with the index
finger; scratch the ampoule neck
with a file, then gently break off
the top, taking care to avoid injury
from the sharp glass (see Figure
5.5). If you injure yourself, discard
the ampoule since the contents
may have been contaminated.
Cover the wound before opening a
new ampoule.
5. Draw all of the diluent out with a new disposable reconstitution needle and syringe.
6. Insert the needle of the reconstitution syringe into the vaccine vial and empty all
the diluent– depress the plunger slowly to avoid frothing inside the vaccine vial.
7. Draw the fluid slowly and gently in and out of the vial several times to mix the
diluent and vaccine or gently swirl the vial to mix the diluent and vaccine. Take care
not to touch the rubber membrane or opening.

8. Remove the reconstitution needle and syringe and discard them in the safety box.
9. Put the reconstituted vaccine vial in the foam pad of your vaccine carrier.
4.3 Making vaccination easier and more comfortable
The way a health worker interacts with children and their caregivers has a huge impact
and they will respond positively to a friendly, welcoming attitude.
Recent recommendations for new vaccines and catch-up dose schedules often mean
giving two (or more) injections to an infant during the same session. Giving multiple
injections at the same time is, of course, more difficult, but it is a skill that must be
learnt. With practice, giving injections quickly and safely with little distress to the
infant and caregiver will become routine. Even the most experienced vaccinator should
take time to review their injection technique and seek out refresher materials that
might improve their skills. Vaccinators should also share their knowledge and learn
from each other.
4.4 Good general techniques
Welcome the family: Put them at ease by smiling and maintaining a kind, reassuring
manner. Ask if they have any questions or concerns and take time to answer them.
Complete the assessment as described in Section 3 of this module and, if more than
one injection is needed, explain this and confirm that the caregiver agrees that it is
better to vaccinate according to the schedule than to miss the opportunity.
Be prepared: After assessing the infant as described in Section 3 of this module,

prepare the necessary vaccines and place them close at hand in the order of
administration. The order in which vaccines should be given will depend on national
guidelines; see Table 5.2 for an example sequence.
Take time to position the infant with the caregiver: Explain what will happen. This
will help plan movements. Always have the infant’s whole limb(s) for injection bare
before starting. The vaccinator needs to move from one site to another, with minimum
delay. See Section 4.5 of this module.
Follow a preset sequence for administering the vaccines based on national

guidelines: National guidelines may specify the sites and the order in which to give
vaccines. Countries often choose one site for each vaccine (for example, pneumococcal
vaccine or PCV should always be given in the left anterior thigh and pentavalent
always in the right anterior thigh). Using the same site for each infant can help during
follow-up (for example, if the card is lost and recall questions need to be asked, or if
any adverse events occur). The order in which vaccines are given to each infant can

help make administering them easier; in general, the suggestion is to give oral vaccines
first, while the infant is still calm, and then follow with the injectable ones. The choice
of whether to give a new vaccine first or last usually depends on local factors. Table 5.2
shows a suggested order based on the current WHO schedule. Note that rotavirus
vaccine comes before polio since it has a larger volume and it may be better to give it
when the infant is most calm. Also note that some programmes may not use all the
vaccines listed in the table. Always refer to national guidelines.
Remember that spending a little time, particularly on welcoming and positioning, will
help the procedure go more smoothly and efficiently.
Table 5.2 Example sequence for giving infant vaccines based on current WHO schedule
Order in which to give Route Vaccine
the vaccine
1 Oral Rotavirus
2 Oral Polio
3 Injectable/ID BCG
4 Injectable/IM Pneumococcal
5 Injectable/IM Pentavalent or Hib-containing
6 Injectable/IM DTP, if not using pentavalent
7 Injectable/IM HepB, if not using pentavalent
8 Injectable/SC Measles- and rubella-containing
9 Injectable/SC Yellow fever
10 Injectable/SC Japanese encephalitis
11 Injectable/IM Meningococcal
4.5 Positioning the infant for vaccination
The choice of position will depend on the number of vaccines to be given, the age of
the child and the materials available. The aim of positioning is to keep the child still
and the caregiver and vaccinator comfortable. Table 5.3 shows different positions for
vaccinating. The first three are for infants and the fourth and fifth are for children aged
12 months or older and adolescents/adults respectively. Reviewing the positions and
picturing movements to give vaccinations will help you be more confident during the
actual immunization encounter. You should try different positions to find the one that
suits you best.
Check that the caregiver is willing to hold the child while the injection/s is/are given.
If they are not willing, ask someone else to help.

Table 5.3 Vaccination positions, their advantages and disadvantages

Position Illustration Directions for Advantages Disadvantages
caregiver
Cuddle Sit on a chair holding Infant’s arm and Delay between
position: the infant sideways on legs securely held injections if 2 IM
Semi-recumbent lap with one arm behind by caregiver. injections given.
on caregiver’s lap infant’s back. Infant comforted Possibility that
Tuck the infant’s inside by close contact secure restraint
arm around their own and eye contact may not occur after
back or against their with caregiver. position change.
body. Leg and arm
Bring their arm around injections possible
the infant’s back to hug without position
the shoulders and upper change.
body close to their body.
Tuck the infant’s legs
between their own to
secure them or hold
them with their other
arm.
Vaccinator should
position themself to
avoid strain while giving
vaccines at the correct
angle.
Bed position: Lay the infant, with Infant’s arms Vaccinator

Lying on back on both legs bare, on a flat held securely by responsible for
flat surface surface. caregiver. restraint of the
Stand on the other side Infant comforted legs.
of the bed and hold the by close contact
infant’s hands and arms. and eye contact
with caregiver.
Vaccinator should stand Injection in both
at the infant’s feet and legs possible
use non-injecting hand without change in
to gently cup the slightly position of infant.
bent knee of the leg to
receive the vaccine.

Position Illustration Directions for Advantages Disadvantages

caregiver
Upright Sit on a chair holding Infant’s arms and Security of
position: the infant sitting facing legs held securely leg restraint
Sitting upright straight outwards on by caregiver. dependent on
on caregiver’s their lap. Multiple injections caregiver – if too
lap, facing Rest the infant’s back possible without tight, muscles
straight against their chest. change in position. tense, if too loose
outwards leg may jerk out of
Encircle (hug) the infant’s
restraint.
upper body and arms
with one arm and use the No eye contact
other arm or their knees with caregiver.
to hold the infant’s lower
legs (lower legs and feet
one behind the other
between the caregiver’s
knees).
Vaccinator should stand

on the side of the first
injection and at the level
where it can be given at a
90 degree angle.
Straddle Sit on a chair holding the Child’s arms tucked Thigh muscles may
position: child facing them and securely under be tense.
Child >12 sitting astride their knees. caregiver’s arms. Vaccinator
months of age Encircle (hug) the child’s Child comforted by responsible for
vaccinated upper body and arms close contact with restraint of legs
sitting upright with their arms. caregiver. (unless caregiver
on caregiver’s If necessary, use one arm Multiple injections helps).
lap, facing to secure the child’s leg. possible without
towards them change in position.
with legs
straddling over Vaccinator should
theirs stand on the side of the
injection.
Independent See Section 4.11 of this Good access to Restraint, if

position: module. deltoid. required,
Adolescent/ dependent on
adult vaccinated vaccinator.
sitting on chair

4.6 Good oral administration technique
This example is based on one rotavirus vaccine and OPV, but it also applies to other
oral vaccines.
1. Position: Use the cuddle position on the caregiver’s lap with the head supported and
tilted slightly back. Vaccinator stands to one side (see Table 5.3).
2. Administration: Open the infant’s mouth by gently squeezing the cheeks between
your thumb and index finger using gentle pressure. Firm squeezing can cause
distress.
– For rotavirus vaccine in tubes, angle the tube towards the inner cheek.
Administer the entire contents by squeezing the tube several times.
– For OPV, let two drops of vaccine fall from the dropper onto the tongue. Do
not let the dropper touch the infant.
3. Disposal: Discard the used oral vaccine tube into the rubbish.
4.7 Good injection technique
Good injection technique includes administering all injectable vaccines with an auto-
disable (AD) syringe. To use AD syringes correctly, remember that the plunger of an
AD syringe can only go back and forth once; so:
• do not draw up air to inject into the vaccine vial when filling the AD syringe;
Summary of injection steps

1. Wash skin that looks dirty with water. Swabbing clean skin is not necessary.
Do not use alcohol to clean the skin before giving vaccinations.
2. Hold the syringe barrel between the thumb, index and middle fingers. Do not
touch the needle.
3. For intradermal (ID) injections, gently stretch and support the skin with the
thumb and forefinger. Lay the syringe and needle almost flat along the infant’s
skin. Gently insert the needle into the top layer of the skin (see Figure 5.6).
4. For subcutaneous injections (SC), gently squeeze the skin. Insert the entire needle
at a 45 degree angle (towards the shoulder) with a quick, smooth action (see
Figure 5.6).

5. For intramuscular injections (IM), gently stretch and support the skin between
thumb and forefinger. Push the entire needle in at a 90 degree angle with a quick,
smooth action (see Figure 5.6).
6. For all injections, depress the plunger slowly and smoothly, taking care not to move
the syringe around.
7. For all injections, pull the needle out quickly and smoothly at the same angle that
it went in.
8. For all injections, the caregiver may hold a clean swab gently over the site if it
bleeds after injection.
9. For all injections, dispose of the needle and syringe immediately in the safety box.
10. For all injections, soothe and distract the child when all the vaccines have been
given.
Figure 5.6 Needle positions for ID, SC and IM injections
Intramuscular Subcutaneous Intradermal
Dermis (skin)
Subcutaneous layer
Muscle

4.8 Intradermal (ID) injection
BCG is the only vaccine that is injected intradermally (into the layers of the skin) for
slow absorption. It is usually given in the left upper arm. To measure and inject the very
small dose (0.05 ml) accurately, a special syringe and needle are used (see Figure 5.7).
How to give BCG intradermally

1. Position: Cuddle position on caregiver’s lap (BCG recommended for infants only).
2. Administration:
Figure 5.7 BCG injection
– Hold the syringe barrel with
fingers and thumb on the sides
of the barrel and with the bevel
(hole) of the needle facing
upwards.
– Lay the syringe and needle

almost flat along the infant’s
skin.
– Insert the tip of the needle

under the surface of the skin
just past the bevel.
– Keep the needle close to the

skin at the same angle as you inserted it.
– Place your other thumb on the lower end of the syringe near the needle to hold
the needle in position, but do not touch the needle.
– Hold the plunger end of the syringe between the index and middle fingers. Press
the plunger in slowly with the thumb. If you feel no resistance to the plunger,
you are not in the right place and should reposition (see below).
– A pale flat-topped swelling with small pits like an orange peel should appear on
the skin.
– Remove the needle smoothly at the same angle as it went in.
– The caregiver may hold a clean swab gently over the site if it is bleeding. Do not
rub or massage the area.
– Soothe the infant.
3. Disposal: Discard the needle and syringe straight into the safety box.

When an intradermal injection is given correctly, the syringe plunger is hard to

push. If the plunger goes in too easily, the injection may be too deep. Stop injecting
immediately, correct the position of the needle, and give the remainder of the dose,
but no more. If the whole dose has already gone in, count the infant as having received
a dose of vaccine, even though it was given subcutaneously rather than intradermally.
Do not repeat the dose.
The risk of side effects, such as abscesses or enlarged glands, is greater if the vaccine is
given incorrectly, so the technique is very important. It is better to ask for help from a
supervisor or other colleague than to continue giving BCG incorrectly.
4.9 Subcutaneous (SC) injection in the upper arm
The injection is given into the layer below the skin on the upper arm. The exact
injection site (right arm or left arm) used for particular vaccines may be specified in
your country. Be sure to check and always use the side specified (see Figure 5.8).
How to give a subcutaneous injection

1. Position: The position depends on the age of the child, the number of vaccinations
to be given and what is easiest and most convenient for the vaccinator.
2. Administration:
Figure 5.8 Subcutaneous injection
– Hold the syringe barrel with fingers
and thumb on the sides of the barrel
and with the bevel (hole) of the
needle facing upwards.
– Quickly push the needle into
pinched-up skin; the needle should
point towards the shoulder at a 45
degree angle.
– Depress the plunger smoothly, taking
care not to move the needle under
the skin.
– Pull the needle out quickly and
smoothly at the same angle as it
went in.
– Soothe and distract the infant.
3. Disposal: Discard the syringe and needle straight into the safety box.

4.10 Intramuscular (IM) injection in infants
The muscle on the upper outer part of the thigh is large and safe for intramuscular
injections. See Figures 5.9 and 5.10.
In children aged less than 15 months the deltoid muscle of the upper arm is not safe
to use since it is not developed enough to absorb the vaccine and the radial nerve is
close to the surface. The deltoid muscle may be used in older children, adolescents and
adults (see Section 4.11).
How to give an intramuscular injection to an infant

1. Position: The position depends on the age of the child, the number of vaccinations
to be given and what is easiest and most convenient for the vaccinator.
2. Administration:
– Hold the syringe barrel with fingers and thumb on the sides of the barrel and
with the bevel (hole) of the needle facing upwards.
– Gently stretch and support the skin on the upper, outer thigh with the other
hand and quickly push the needle at a 90 degree angle down through the skin
into the muscle.
– Depress the plunger smoothly, taking care not to move the needle under the skin.
– Pull the needle out quickly and smoothly at the same angle as it went in.
– Soothe and distract the infant.
WHO recommendation on IPV administration and multiple IM injections

¾¾ For IM injections in infants below 12 months of age, the deltoid injection site (upper arm)
should NOT be used due to its inadequate muscle mass.
¾¾ When three IM injections are scheduled at the same time in an infant under 12 months of
age, it is correct and safe to give two injections in the same thigh as follows:
– one thigh – PCV + IPV, separated by 2.5 cm (shown in Figure 5.10);
– the other thigh – pentavalent

Figure 5.9 Intramuscular injection sites in infants Figure 5.10 Intramuscular injection
Lateral femural condyle
Injection site 1
Injection site 2
Greater trochanter
Source: New Zealand Ministry of Health
4.11 Intramuscular injection in adolescents and adults
Unlike infants, adolescents and adults may suffer stress of anticipation prior to
immunization. If they have had a previous bad experience, this anxiety may be more
severe. Observe the group waiting for immunization. Watch for signs of anxiety; if
anyone is crying, pale or showing any other signs of distress, it is best to take them
aside to be reassured, comforted and immunized first to reduce the potential for
anxiety to spread among the others.
Allow time for discussion about the vaccine and the disease(s) it protects against,
if this is what is wanted. Ask if there are any questions. Complete your own pre-
immunization check.
Unless it is against national policy, allow the person to choose in which arm they
would like to receive the injection. Choice gives a feeling of being in control in what
may be a frightening situation for them.
Talk quietly and be patient. They might like to have a support person with them, or a
fellow vaccinator who is able to calm and distract them.
Provide privacy for the administration of vaccines; a screen, even if just a curtain, will
help.
Explain what you will say when you are going to give the injection and how it may
feel. Some will liken it to a minor sting or prickle. Use words such as booster rather
than needle or shot.

Steps for intramuscular injections in adolescents and adults:
1. Position: Most will be comfortable sitting on a chair (see Table 5.3). Those who are
known to be prone to fainting may feel better lying down.
2. Administration:
– With your palm resting on their shoulder, hold the injection site gently with
thumb and forefinger. This touch is comforting to the person and it will alert
you of any potential movement. Talk about how important it is for them to
remain still and then distract them by chatting about non-related subjects like
their favourite school subject or hobby.
– Holding the barrel of the syringe and, using a dart-like (quick, smooth) action,
insert the needle at a 90 degree angle all the way down through the skin to the
muscle. Keep chatting while you do this. Distraction is an important aid to
reduce injection discomfort.
– Depress the plunger smoothly and steadily, taking care not to move the needle.
– Pull the needle out, quickly and smoothly, at the same angle as it went in.
– Do not rub the arm. A clean swab may be held over the site.
– Give comfort, reassurance and distraction.

5 Closing the session

Materials must be stored safely or disposed of after immunization sessions. Equipment
and sites must be cleaned and maintained for their next use.
5.1 Discard or store opened vials depending on vaccine type
Refer to national policy on open multi-dose vials and act accordingly; WHO multi-
dose vial policy is included in Module 2 (The vaccine cold chain).
After outreach sessions, the following steps are required for vaccines and supplies.
1. Pack the vaccine carrier:
– Check the coolant packs to make sure that the ice has not melted. If conditioned ice
packs have completely melted and/or the thermometer in the vaccine carrier shows a
temperature above +8 °C, all vaccines inside the vaccine carrier should be discarded
unless they have VVMs that show they are still safe to use; so check each vial.
– Place unopened vaccines and opened vials for which the multi-dose vial policy is
applicable inside the carrier.
– Put empty vials and opened vials of reconstituted vaccines in a separate container
for transport to a disposal site.
2. Return vaccines to the refrigerator:
– Return vaccines with acceptable VVMs to the use first box in the refrigerator. If
the conditioned ice packs in the vaccine carrier have melted during the trip back
to the health centre, discard the vaccine vials unless the VVMs indicate that they
are safe to use.
– Put the coolant packs from the carrier into the freezer and record the
temperature of the refrigerator.
3. Clean the vaccine carrier:
– Wipe the carrier with a damp cloth and check it for cracks. Repair any cracks
with adhesive tape and leave the carrier open to dry.
4. Return other supplies:
– For example, place immunization registers, unused AD syringes and

immunization cards in their designated storage areas.

5.2 Dispose of used vaccine vials and injection equipment safely
Safety boxes containing used needles and syringes must be disposed of properly – see
Module 3 (Ensuring safe injections).
5.3 Leave the site clean and tidy
Specifically after using an outreach site:
• Do not leave anything behind that might be a health threat to the community.
• Clean and return tables, chairs and other equipment to their owners.
• Thank the local people who have helped to organize the session and remind them of
the date of the next session.

6 Recording data
Accurate and reliable records are vital, not only for the individual child but also to
track the immunization status of communities through monthly and annual reporting
(see Module 6 (Monitoring and surveillance) for details). During a session, individual
immunization cards and health centre records – such as registers, reminder cards and
tally sheets – have to be completed. Tally sheets need to be totalled after the session
and these totals need to be added to programme monitoring data.
6.1 Complete the infant immunization and reminder cards
Follow these steps to complete infant immunization and reminder cards:
1. Write the date for each vaccine administered in its corresponding section on the card.
2. Mark the next immunization due date on the card if another dose is needed,
and ensure that the caregiver understands when and where to return for the next
dose(s) of vaccine(s).
3. If new vaccines are not included on immunization registers and/or cards, ask your
supervisor for instructions about how to record them on all reporting tools.
4. Use the immunization card to update the reminder card/due list kept in the health
facility as shown in Module 6 (Monitoring and surveillance), Section 1.
5. Return the immunization card to the caregiver.
6. Explain to the caregiver that the immunization card must be kept in good
condition since it is an important document for future health care visits.
7. Remind the caregiver that the card should be taken to all of the child’s health care
visits for review.
Do not miss any opportunity to immunize; health workers should be in the habit of
asking for and reviewing immunization cards for each child at each visit regardless of
the reason for coming.

6.2 Prepare a summary of the session
Calculate total numbers of vaccines given, supplies used and stock remaining
for inclusion in monthly report data, as described in Module 6 (Monitoring and
surveillance).
6.3 Prepare a defaulter tracking list
At the end of each session, use the immunization register and/or reminder cards to
make a list of children who were due for vaccines but did not attend the session. The
format for the list is shown in Module 6 (Figure 6.4). The list should be used for
defaulter tracking and for programme monitoring activities (as described in Modules 4
and 6). Inform community members who help with defaulter tracking of the infants
on the list; ask them to mobilize the defaulters for the next immunization session.

7 Using the immunization session

checklist
Figure 5.11 shows a checklist that can help ensure safety before, during and after
immunization. This checklist is a reminder of key points in preparation, vaccination
and closure of sessions that are described above, and is meant to reinforce positive
actions. Health workers should be familiar with national immunization schedules,
vaccine administration, waste disposal, data collection and other details of standard
operating procedure from relevant national programme documents and be able to
quickly recognize and complete the checklist items. A printed copy of this checklist
can be posted on a wall in the immunization area for easy viewing throughout sessions.

Figure 5.11 Immunization session checklist
Before For selected clients attending the After

the immunization session immunization session the immunization session
DID YOU: DID YOU: DID YOU:
Y N CHECK if sufficient quantities of vaccines and Y N GREET the client and caregiver? Y N CORRECTLY ASSESS if open vials can be used
diluents are available for the session? in the next session in accordance with national
Y N REVIEW the client’s immunization card? multi-dose vial policy?
CHECK vials for the following and take
appropriate action:
Y N DETERMINE eligible vaccinations based on the Y N DISCARD open vials that should not be used?
Y N Expiry dates? national schedule, client’s age and possible
Y N Open vial dates? contraindications? Y N RECORD date of opening on vials that can be
used and PLACE them in the “use first” box in
Y N VVM status? Y N RECONSTITUTE each vaccine with its matched the refrigerator?
Y N Freezing status? diluent (for lyophilized vaccines)?
Y N RETURN unopened vials to the refrigerator?
Y N PLACE vials in the appropriate place in the Y N FILL syringes just before administration using
immunization area? aseptic technique? Y N COMPLETE session summary report?
ENSURE sufficient supplies are available for Y N ADMINISTER each vaccine according to Y N LIST the names of children who missed
the session including: recommended technique and correct injection vaccination and require follow up?
Y N Auto-disable (AD) syringes? site?
Y N HANDLE full safety boxes correctly?
Y N Reconstitution syringes? Y N IMMEDIATELY DISPOSE needles/AD syringes in
Y N Safety box? safety boxes after each injection? Y N TAKE appropriate action to ensure sufficient
vaccine stock for the next session?
Y N AEFI kit? Y N RECORD all vaccinations in register, tally sheet
Y N Immunization register? and immunization card? Y N INFORM COMMUNITY of date and time of
next session?
Y N Immunization tally sheets? Y N COMMUNICATE key messages, including
Y N Blank immunization cards? potential AEFIs and date of next visit?
Y N WASH your hands with soap?
(5)35
6: Monitoring and surveillance
6
Monitoring and
surveillance
This module explains how to collect and report data for the monitoring of immunization services
and the surveillance of vaccine-preventable diseases and adverse events following immunization
(AEFI). Monitoring and surveillance are included together since data from both are usually
reported in a summary form forwarded to central levels. The process of recording the data is
described first. This is followed by a description of the summary reporting process and the ways
in which these data can be analysed and used.
Monitoring of immunization services helps to improve performance and identify and solve any
problems of access and utilization detected in communities with high numbers of unimmunized
children. Surveillance of vaccine-preventable diseases helps guide disease control activities
by detecting outbreaks, identifying high-risk groups or areas and monitoring the impact of
immunization services. Surveillance of AEFI cases helps to identify the causes of adverse events
and, if needed, triggers a review of proper vaccine handling and administration.
Examples in this module focus on infants, but the methods can be applied to older age groups.
The examples show paper-based recording and reporting, but data collection principles apply
to other modalities. While the use of electronic tools for district data monitoring is encouraged
by WHO, their implementation and instructions for use will depend on national or central
authorities and objectives.
Contents
1. Tools for monitoring ....................................................................................... (6)3
1.1 The immunization register ............................................................................................................. (6)3
1.2 The immunization card ................................................................................................................... (6)6
1.3 The tally sheet .................................................................................................................................... (6)8
1.4 The defaulter tracking list ............................................................................................................. (6)11
2. Tools for surveillance .................................................................................... (6)15

2.1 The vaccine-preventable disease tally sheet ........................................................................... (6)15
2.2 The disease-specific case investigation report form .............................................................. (6)16
2.3 The line list ........................................................................................................................................ (6)18
2.4 The AEFI report form ...................................................................................................................... (6)21
3. Monthly summary reports ........................................................................... (6)25

3.1 Immunization programme monitoring data ........................................................................... (6)25
3.2 Vaccine-preventable disease surveillance data ...................................................................... (6)28
3.3 AEFI surveillance data .................................................................................................................... (6)28
3.4 Additional information .................................................................................................................. (6)28
3.5 Data and report storage ................................................................................................................ (6)29
4. Analysis of monitoring data ......................................................................... (6)31

4.1 Vaccination coverage charts ........................................................................................................ (6)31
4.2 Vaccination coverage data analysis ............................................................................................ (6)34
4.3 Improvement of services .............................................................................................................. (6)37
5. Analysis of surveillance data ........................................................................ (6)38

5.1 Vaccine-preventable disease case number charts ................................................................. (6)38
5.2 Analysis of vaccine-preventable disease data ......................................................................... (6)40
5.3 Analysis of AEFI data ...................................................................................................................... (6)42
Annex 6.1 Common problems associated with poor access and utilization,
and possible solutions ....................................................................................... (6)43
Annex 6.2 Immunization service supervisory visit checklist .......................... (6)45

1 Tools for monitoring

Every health facility needs a system of recording data for monitoring immunization
services. Systematically and regularly recording the vaccinations given at each session
ensures that services meet coverage targets (see Section 3 of this module), identifies
defaulters and helps to actively follow up all those who need to complete their
vaccinations.
The tools required for effective monitoring were introduced in Modules 4

(Microplanning for reaching every community) and 5 (Managing an immunization
session) and are discussed in more detail here. They are:
• the immunization register
• the immunization card
• the tally sheet
• the defaulter tracking list.
1.1 The immunization register
The immunization register is used to record the immunizations received by each child.
It is a book or a form that stays in the health facility. Its main purpose is to keep track
of the immunization services provided to each infant over time. It lists each infant on a
separate line and is important for several reasons:
• It is the health facility’s primary source of information on a child’s immunization

status and needed vaccinations. This information is particularly helpful if an infant
attends for a follow-up visit without their immunization card.
• It helps identify infants who miss scheduled vaccinations and who need to be added
to the defaulter tracking list.
• It is a source of data for monthly and other reports.
Health facilities may keep separate registers for each community that they serve; they
may also use specific registers for outreach activities and/or children who present from
outside their catchment area.

What information is commonly included in the immunization register?

An immunization register usually includes the following information:
• unique identification number
• registration date (usually the date of the first visit)
• name of infant
• infant’s birth date
• infant’s sex
• name, address and phone/mobile number of caregiver(s)
• dates and doses of vaccinations and vitamin A supplementation given (if applicable)
• protected at birth (PAB) status, which indicates whether or not the infant was
protected for neonatal tetanus.
The immunization register can also be used as a birth register. As soon as an infant is
born in the community, their name can be entered in the register even before receiving
any vaccinations. This will help to follow up new infants along with older ones on the
defaulter tracking list.
Two different infant immunization register examples are shown in Figure 6.1.
• With both examples, a new month can be started at the top of the next page even if
there are some lines left on the current page. For example, on 31 January there may
be five lines blank on the current page but on 1 February registration of new infants
should start at the top of the next page. This will make it easier to find infants
returning without their immunization cards and to compile defaulter tracking lists
(see Section 1.4 of this module).
• The first example (A) is organized by vaccine and the doses required for the series.
With this format, it is easy to see whether an infant is fully immunized with each
antigen.
• The second example (B) is organized by vaccines that are usually given in the same
visit when following the example immunization schedule. With this format, it is
easy to see which doses are needed each time an infant comes to a session. It is also
easy to see which infants have missed vaccinations and need to be included in the
defaulter tracking list (see Section 1.4 of this module).
These are suggestions. Any format used should match national guidelines and be
coordinated with the method used to track defaulters, as described in Section 1.4 of
this module.

Figure 6.1 Infant immunization register examples
Note that these examples are for a 4-dose OPV, 2-dose RV and 3-dose PCV schedule. The register format always depends on the vaccines that are included in the national immunization schedule.
A. Format organized by vaccine series

Village: Name of health facility:
MONTH and YEAR:
PAB HepB polio (OPV &/or IPV) RV pentavalent PCV Vit A Remarks –
Name of Address
ID Name of from (<24h completed/
Sex mother/ and mobile/ BCG
MCV1
MCV2
DOBb
No infant/child NT* or OPV0 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 died/
caregiver phone number
(Y/N) >24h)** moved
Registration
datea
a
Usually date of first visit
b
DOB: Date of birth
* Protected at birth from Neonatal tetanus – ask mother at penta1 contact
** Only 1 birth dose of HepB is required; write if given <24h or >24h after birth
B. Format
Village: organized by immunization contact and doses of all vaccines of health facility:
Namerequired at each contact
MONTH and YEAR:
Birth doses PAB 1st doses 2nd doses 3rd doses Vit A Remarks –
Name of Name of Address completed/
ID Sex HepB from
infant/child caregiver and mobile/ died/
DOBb
OPV PCV PCV PCV
MCV1
MCV2
No BCG (<24h NT** RV1 RV2 1 2 3

phone number 0 1 2 3 moved
Registration
datea
polio1
polio2
polio3
penta1
penta2
penta3
or >24h)* (Y/N)
a
b
DOB: Date of birth
* Only 1 birth dose of HepB is required; write if given <24h or >24h after birth
(6)5
** Protected at birth from Neonatal tetanus – ask mother at penta1 contact
How to complete an immunization register

Infants should be registered as soon as they arrive at the health facility or outreach site.
Fill in all information except the space provided for vaccinations. Vaccinations should
be marked only after being administered.
Use a unique identification number on the register for each infant and write the same
number on the immunization card. A unique identification number is easier to locate
in the register if the immunization card is available during follow-up appointments.
Do not create a new entry in the register each time the mother brings the infant
for immunization. Ask the caregiver for the immunization card and look for a
corresponding entry in the register. If the immunization card is not available, ask
the caregiver for the child’s name, age and the month and/or other details of the first
immunization, then locate their line in the register.
For every new infant (never immunized), create a new entry in the register and a new
immunization card. For an infant who has come to the health facility for the first time
but has received immunizations in another facility, create a new entry in the register,
ask for the immunization card and write immunizations that the infant has already
received in the register. If there is no immunization card, review the vaccines the child
should have received (by age according to the national immunization schedule) with
the caregiver and record the ones they can recall being given. If the caregiver is not able
to recall the vaccines given, the immunization schedule should be started again (see
Module 5, Section 3 on assessing eligibility for immunization).
Key points
¾¾ Fill in all information on the register line for each infant.
¾¾ Mark vaccinations in the register only after they are given to the infant.
¾¾ When an infant returns for a follow-up visit, find the register line for the infant
using the immunization card (or the infant’s name and age and/or month of first
vaccination if the card is not available).
1.2 The immunization card
The infant immunization card is used to record the immunizations a child has
received. It may be a separate document or part of a general infant or mother/
child health record, such as a Road to Health Card or Child Health Booklet, and is
important for several reasons:
• it serves to remind caregivers to return to the clinic for the next dose(s) of vaccine(s)
• it helps the health worker determine an infant’s immunization status

• it is useful when health workers conduct coverage surveys.
The specific format of the immunization card depends on the vaccines that are
included in the national immunization schedule. Examples of immunization cards are
available from the vaccination card repository at www.immunizationcards.org.
Key points
¾¾ Remember that the immunization card may be the only record of immunization
status available for health workers if registers are not well maintained or if
families move from one health facility to another.
¾¾ Each infant should have a card with vaccinations marked correctly.
¾¾ Review Module 5 for the process of filling and explaining the card to caregivers
during the immunization encounter.
What information is commonly included on an immunization card?

An immunization card usually includes the following information:
• unique identification number (which is the same number written in the

immunization register as shown in Figure 6.1)
• infant’s name
• infant’s birth date
• infant’s sex
• name and address of caregiver(s), including mobile/phone number if available
• date, dose and lot number of each vaccine given
• date and dose of vitamin A supplementation given, if applicable
• PAB status (infant protection at birth from neonatal tetanus)
• date, dose and lot number of each TT vaccine given to the mother (optional; see
Annex 6.1)
• due date for next immunization(s)
• country immunization schedule (optional)
• growth monitoring chart (optional).

The infant’s caregiver should be reminded to keep the immunization card in a safe
place and to take it to all immunization and other health care visits.
How to use an immunization card

Complete the card by writing down the date for each vaccine administered or vitamin
A supplement given. Include doses of TT given to the mother if she is eligible and the
card has space to enter it (this will depend on national protocol and there may be a
separate women’s immunization card).
Mark the next appointment date on the card and tell the caregiver when and where to
return for the next vaccination.
Key points
¾¾ Remember to mark the next appointment date on the immunization card. Make
sure that the appointment corresponds to a planned immunization session.
¾¾ Inform the caregiver of the next appointment verbally as well as in writing on
the card.
¾¾ Always return the immunization card to the caregiver.
¾¾ Remind the caregiver to keep the immunization card in a safe place and to take it
to all health care and immunization visits.
1.3 The tally sheet
Tally sheets are forms that are marked every time a health worker administers a dose
of vaccine. They are used to monitor performance and complete monthly reporting.
Ideally, a new tally sheet should be used for each session, but weekly or monthly sheets
are also found in some programmes. An example is shown in Figure 6.2.
What information is commonly included on a tally sheet?

Tally sheets record vaccinations actually given by marking them after an infant receives
a dose. The dose is recorded in the immunization register and on the immunization
card and the caregiver is informed of which vaccinations were given (see Module 5,
Section 2 for more on communicating with caregivers).
How to use a tally sheet

Mark the tally sheet next to the dose received (there are various ways of making
tally marks, for example: or ). Tally sheets with preprinted symbols that can be
marked through may help to ensure more accurate counting of totals for reports (for
example, a line can be drawn through each “0” in Figure 6.2 after each dose given). If

preprinted sheets are not used, all vaccinators in a health facility should use the same
type of tally marks to make it easier to count the totals.
In Figure 6.2, after vaccinating an infant (who is by definition less than one year of
age), place the mark in the column headed “Age <1 year”. After vaccinating an older
child, place the mark under “Age >1 year”.
Figure 6.2 Tally sheet example

The specific format of the tally sheet depends on the vaccines that are included in the national immunization
schedule. HPV and other vaccines given to older age groups may be recorded on separate tally sheets.
Immunization session tally sheet
Name of health facility: Date of session:
Place of session: Type of session: fixed/outreach/mobile
Name of staff completing tally:
Scheduled vaccinations Delayed vaccinations
(done on time) (done when late/overdue)
Vaccine Age <1 year Age >1 year
Vaccine
lot # tally total tally total
BCG 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
HepB (<24h or >24h) 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
OPV0 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
polio (OPV &/or IPV)
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000

polio1 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
polio2 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
polio3 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
polio3+ 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
RV1 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
RV 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
RV2 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
pentavalent1 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
pentavalent
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
pentavalent2 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
pentavalent3 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
PCV1 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
PCV PCV2 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
PCV3 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
Age 9–12 months Age >12 months
MCV1 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
Age 15–18 months Age >18 months
MCV2 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
Age <1 year Age >1 year
Vitamin A 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
Women Pregnant women Non-pregnant women
TT1 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
TT2 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
TT3 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
TT4 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
TT5 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
TOTAL TT
TOTAL TT2+TT3+TT4+TT5

HPV immunization session tally sheet

Name of health facility: Date of session:
Place of session: Type of session: fixed/outreach/mobile
Name of staff completing tally:
Scheduled vaccinations Delayed vaccinations
(done on time) (done when late/overdue)
Vaccine lot # Girls aged 9–13 years Girls aged >13 years
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
HPV1 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
HPV2 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
HPV3 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
If a dose of vitamin A is given, mark it on the tally sheet.
At the end of each immunization session, add up the number of marks recorded
during the session. This gives the total number of immunizations given with each
antigen and each dose in its series. Keep the tally sheet for the supervisor to review.
Table 6.1 describes some common errors in tallying.
Table 6.1 Common mistakes in tallying
Mistake in tallying Possible problem Correct practice

that may occur
Tallying before the vaccination is The child may not receive the Give the dose first then mark it on
given vaccination the tally sheet
Tallying at the end of a session Wasted doses may be counted Tally each dose given (as above)
according to number of doses
contained in the used vials
Tallying all vaccines under one age Will result in inaccurate coverage Separate tally for under 1 and
group (to include those outside the data over 1 year old
targeted age)

1.4 The defaulter tracking list
The term “defaulter” refers to individuals who miss scheduled vaccinations for any
reason, including health facility problems, such as cancelled sessions or vaccine stock
outs. Defaulters need to be followed up and mobilized to attend the earliest available
session, since the goal is to complete any missed vaccinations. A tracking list, such as
the one shown in Figure 6.3, should be filled in after each immunization session or
at least monthly as described below. It should be given to the person(s) tasked with
finding defaulters.
What information is commonly included on a defaulter list?

A defaulter tracking list usually includes the following information:
• infant’s name
• caregiver’s name
• caregiver’s contact information, including phone/mobile number(s)
• infant’s age in months
• vaccinations needed.
Figure 6.3 Defaulter tracking list example

Date:
Health centre name: Community name:
Infant’s name Caregiver’s name Caregiver’s contact Infant’s Vaccinations

information age in needed
(include phone/mobile months
number if available)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Defaulters can be listed by reviewing different immunization records. Two suggested

methods are:
Listing defaulters using the immunization register

At the end of each month, review the immunization register to identify infants who
may have failed to receive vaccinations when due. For example, in March check
to see that any infant who received a pentavalent1 dose in February returned for
pentavalent2 (in March) when it was due. Add the names of any infants who missed
vaccinations to the defaulter tracking list. Names should be listed for tracking and
follow-up as soon as possible after a missed appointment.
Figure 6.4 shows a completed example of the register shown in Figure 6.1 (A). Note
that looking at each line helps visualize which infants have missed vaccinations and so
should be added to the defaulter tracking list.
Figure 6.4 Infant immunization register example for defaulter tracking

In this example, the immunization register is reviewed regularly so that any child who misses an appointment can be added to the defaulter tracking list as
soon as possible. The notes below review register lines individually.
Village: Here Name of health facility: Your health facility

MONTH and YEAR: Jan 2013
Birth doses 1st doses 2nd doses 3rd doses Vit A

PAB
Registration
Address from
ID Name of Name of
MCV1
MCV2
DOBb
Sex and mobile/ HepB

NT** Remarks
penta1
penta2
penta3
No infant/child caregiver
polio1
polio2
polio3
(<24h PCV PCV PCV

datea
phone number OPV0 BCG (Y/N) RV1 3!6 1 2 3

or 1 2 3
>24h)*
511 3/1 Baby One 1/1/13 F Mom One Nearby St, ph 555667 1/1 1/1 1/1, <24h y 15/2 15/2 15/2 15/2 15/3 15/3 15/3 15/3 18/4 18/4 18/4 21/10 21/10
defaulter tracking done
512 10/1 Boy Two 5/1/13 M Mother Two Far St, ph 555551 10/1 10/1 10/1, >24h y 21/2 21/2 21/2 21/2 21/3 21/3 21/3 21/3 – moved out of area
513 10/1 Girl Three 7/1/13 F Father Three Middle Rd, ph 333335 10/1 10/1 10/1, >24h y 21/2 21/2 21/2 21/2 21/3 21/3 21/3 21/3 25/4 25/4 25/4 31/10 31/10
514 10/1 Baby Girl Four 10/1/13 F Mama Four Square St, ph 111117 10/1 10/1 10/1, <24h n 21/2 21/2 21/2 21/2 21/3 21/3 21/3 21/3 25/4 25/4 25/4 21/10 21/10
515 17/1 Boy Five 6/1/13 M Mum Five Round Rd, ph 777559 10/1 10/1 10/1, >24h n 21/2 21/2 21/2 21/2 21/3 21/3 21/3 21/3 25/4 25/4 25/4
newborn moved
516 17/1 Baby Boy Six 17/1/13 M Dad Six Circle St, ph 666553 out of catchment
517 17/1 Girl Seven 5/11/12 F Mom Seven Line Rd, ph 221255 5/11/12 5/11/12 5/11/12, y 17/1 17/1 17/1 17/1 21/3 21/3 21/3 21/3 23/5 23/5 23/5 22/8 22/8
<24h
518 17/1 Girl Eight 16/1/13 F Mama Eight Park Pl, ph 332211 17/1 17/1 17/1, >24h y 21/2 21/2 21/2 21/2 21/3 21/3 21/3 21/3 25/4 25/4 25/4 31/10 31/10
defaulter tracking done
519 24/1 Baby Nine 19/1/13 M Mother Nine City Lane, ph 991119 24/1 24/1 24/1, >24h y 7/3 7/3 7/3 7/3 – family declined
a
b
DOB: Date of birth
* Only 1 birth dose of HepB is required; write if given <24h or >24h after birth
** Protected at birth from neonatal tetanus – ask mother at penta1 contact

Note that:
• This example is typed for clarity. A handwritten register may be used.
• This is a register for a single village. Addresses may need to be written in more detail
if more than one village is included in the same register.
• It shows the first page for a specific month: January 2013. The identification
numbers are continued from the previous year and this is why the ID No column
starts with the number 511.
• ID No 511 was born on 1/1/13 but added to the register on 3/1.
• ID No 512 did not return after receiving his second doses. He was added to the
defaulter tracking list and found to have moved out of the catchment area.
• ID No 515 has not received a dose of the measles vaccine (MCV1) and is still
under defaulter tracking.
• ID No 516 was born at home and registered after the health worker was notified by
a community volunteer. Defaulter tracking found that the family subsequently left
the catchment area.
• ID No 517 received birth doses in the hospital on 5/11/12 but then presented at
irregular intervals for follow-up. She is now up-to-date.
• ID No 513, 514 and 518 are up to date according to the example immunization
schedule used in this module.
• ID No 519 did not return after his first doses. Defaulter tracking found that the
family declined any further immunizations.
• The last line is blank since the next infant was added in February, which starts on a
new page (not shown).
Listing defaulters using reminder cards

Reminder cards are copies of infants’ immunization cards that can be filed in a
box by the month when the next vaccination is due (see Figure 6.5). For example,
when an infant receives pentavalent1 in January, mark it on the reminder card and
place the card behind the February divider, since this is when pentavalent2 is due.
In February, if the infant receives pentavalent2, update the reminder card and place
it in the March section when pentavalent3 is due. If the infant does not come for
pentavalent2 in February, or does come but does not get vaccinated (due to stock-outs
or other reasons), the card will remain in February. At the end of each month, review
all the reminder cards remaining and add the names of the infants who have missed
vaccinations to the defaulter tracking list.

Figure 6.5 Box for filing reminder cards
December
November
October
September
August
July
June
May
April
March
February
January
Immunization
reminder cards
How to use the defaulter tracking list

The defaulter tracking list will be effective only if every infant receives vaccinations
that are overdue. Listing defaulters regularly every month makes it easier to find them
and follow them up. To follow up defaulters, caregivers may be contacted directly
(for example by phone or text messaging) or with the help of other community
members. Module 7 (Partnering with communities) gives more detail on working with
communities.

2 Tools for surveillance

Just as every health facility needs a system of recording immunization data for
monitoring, it also needs a system of recording surveillance data on vaccine-
preventable diseases and adverse events following immunization (AEFIs).
National- or central-level authorities should provide a list of diseases, the forms to be

completed and a protocol describing how cases should be reported.
AEFI reporting is included routinely in summary reports, but may also require
immediate notification by phone to relevant managers and authorities as directed by
national or central-level guidelines (see Section 2.3).
The main tools used for surveillance in health facilities are:
• the vaccine-preventable diseases or integrated communicable diseases tally sheet
• the disease-specific case investigation report form
• the line list
• the AEFI report form.
2.1 The vaccine-preventable disease tally sheet
Vaccine-preventable disease cases should be tallied when they are seen at a health
facility or outreach site. The total number for each type of disease should be added
for reporting to central levels. This is often done monthly in a summary form. An
example monthly summary form is shown in Figure 6.10 and discussed in Section 3
of this module. Copies of the second page of the form in Figure 6.10 may be made for
daily or weekly tallies at health centre and outreach sites and then be compiled for the
monthly report.
What information is commonly included in a vaccine-preventable disease

tally sheet?
The vaccine-preventable diseases included in the tally should match the list of diseases
that must be reported to national or central authorities. A case definition for each
disease on the list should be obtained from national or central level to help make the
reporting more accurate. Age, sex and vaccination status of the patient are usually
required. Health centre consultation registers should be adapted as needed to allow
space for this and/or other information required by national authorities.

How to use a vaccine-preventable disease tally sheet

If cases of vaccine-preventable diseases are tracked in curative service tally sheets daily
or weekly, take the numbers from the matching lines on these sheets to calculate
the monthly tally, which is then used in the monthly summary report. If curative
service visits are entered in a register without being added to tally sheets, review
the consultation register for the total number of cases of each vaccine-preventable
disease each month. If no consultation register is kept or if curative care for cases is
done within immunization services, keep line lists for vaccine-preventable diseases as
described in the next section and tally them for the monthly summary.
Use the tally to review trends in cases of specific reportable diseases, and proceed
with reporting as required by country policy. Some diseases may need to be reported
immediately on a case-by-case basis.
2.2 The disease-specific case investigation report form
Certain vaccine-preventable diseases require immediate investigation and reporting

to the next higher level. National guidelines should specify which diseases should be
investigated and reported on disease-specific forms if health centre staff identify a
suspected case. Case definitions should be included in national guidelines. Staff should
have access to forms showing all the information they need to aid in completing the
disease-specific report. Figure 6.6 shows an example for a suspected case of neonatal
tetanus.
What information is commonly included in a disease-specific case

investigation form?
The information needed will vary by disease but, in general, the following minimum
information is needed:
• patient’s name, date of birth, age and sex
• patient’s address (of their caregiver for children) and mobile/phone number if
available
• patient’s immunization status with dates of relevant vaccine doses
• mother’s immunization status, if relevant (for example, in suspected cases of

neonatal tetanus)
• other risk factors for the suspected disease, if relevant
• description and start date of symptoms of suspected disease
• laboratory results, if relevant

• treatment and outcome
• conclusions about the case; for example, suspected, confirmed, discarded or unable
to classify.
How to use a disease-specific case investigation form

Investigation is done face-to-face with the patient and caregiver in the home,
community and/or hospital. High-quality information is needed since district and
higher levels use this type of report to decide whether public health action is necessary.
All questions on the form should be completed and promptly sent to the person
responsible for evaluating the reports and deciding whether further action is needed.
Cases should be tallied for monthly summary reports along with other vaccine-
preventable diseases.
Figure 6.6 WHO neonatal tetanus case investigation report form
Investigator’s name: Investigation date:
Case identification and household location

Name of respondent: Relationship to baby:
Address of respondent:
Baby’s date of birth: __/__/__ Baby’s date of death: __/__/__
Age at death in days: _____ Sex of baby: Male:  Female: 
How many pregnancies has the mother had (regardless of outcome, including this one)?
Mother’s immunization status

Does the mother have an immunization card? Yes:  No: 
Immunization history by: Card:  Memory:  Both:  Unknown: 
How many TT doses did the mother receive during the last pregnancy:
How many TT doses did the mother received before the last pregnancy (on any occasion):
If by card, give dates: 1. __ /__ /__ 2. __ /__ /__ 3. __/__/__ 4. __/__/__ 5. __/__/__
Mother’s antenatal care history

How many antenatal care visits were made during this last pregnancy?
Delivery practices
Place of delivery? Health facility:  Home:  Outside:  Other:  Unknown:

Who assisted with the delivery? Doctor:  Midwife:  Nurse:  TBA: 
Relative:
 Nobody:  Other:  Unknown: 
On what surface was the baby delivered?
What was used to cut the cord?
Was any substance put on the cord stump? Yes:  No: 
If yes, specify:


Baby’s signs/symptoms – ask respondent to describe in open-ended questions and record the
findings below. Do not ask the questions literally.
Did the baby suckle normally for at least the first 2 days of life? Yes:  No:  Unknown: 
Did the baby stop suckling after the first 2 days? Yes:  No:  Unknown: 
Baby’s age at which illness was suspected by the mother/informant: Days: ___ Unknown: 
Did the baby have the following signs:
Spasms when stimulated by touch, sound or light? Yes:  No: 
Developed “pursed lips” and/or clenched fists? Yes:  No: 
Become rigid or stiff as illness progressed? Yes:  No: 
Had tremors, fits or stiffness? Yes:  No: 
Ask the mother to describe the baby’s illness, and record the responses on the back of this form.
Treatment and outcome

Was the sick baby taken to a health facility? Yes:  No:  Unknown: 
If yes, give name of health facility:
What was the final outcome for the baby? Alive:  Dead:  Unknown: 
Final diagnosis by the health facility:
Visit the health facility if there is doubt whether the case died of neonatal tetanus.
Case response
Has the mother received TT since the birth of this baby? Yes:  No:  Unknown: 
Did other women in same locality receive TT in response to the case? Yes:  No:  Unknown: 
Conclusion
What does the respondent say was the cause of the baby’s death?
On the basis of the evidence, was this a case of neonatal tetanus?
Confirmed case:  Suspected case:  Discarded case:  Unable to classify: 
Comments:
2.3 The line list
During specific disease outbreaks, suspected cases may need to be listed individually,
with details of the history including immunization status and management of each
patient. This information is sometimes required to provide data for the vaccine-
preventable disease tally, as discussed in Section 2.1. It is more often needed
for surveillance where information has to be collected and reported, sometimes
immediately by phone, to guide prompt outbreak control response.

What information is commonly included in a line list?

A line list usually includes the following information:
• unique case identification number

Note: This number is used to put the cases in order; for example, “1” for the first case that you register, “2” for the
second, and so on. The same number should be used on follow-up visits for the same case. Do not enter the same
case more than once even if the patient returns to the health facility for follow-up. This number is not linked to the
immunization register or the AEFI cases (see Section 2.4) in any way.
• patient’s name
• patient’s address (of her/his caregiver for children) and mobile/phone number if
available
• patient’s date of birth
• patient’s sex
• date of onset of symptoms
• date of first presentation to the health facility
• vaccination status
• relevant symptoms (based on the standard case definition of the disease)
• date and results of any laboratory confirmation tests (also based on the standard
case definition
• treatment given (may not be required for all diseases)
• final diagnosis and outcome.
Figure 6.7 shows an example line list for suspected measles cases.
How to use a line list

After determining that a case meets the standard case definition of a reportable disease,
start with the case identification number and fill in all the items across the line for
that case. The format of the line list may vary by disease and disease control activity
requirements, but the column headings should be a guide to filling it in correctly.

(6)20
Figure 6.7 Health centre level measles line list example
Line list – Measles suspected cases

Health centre: Date list started:
District: Date list ended:
# Date Date Symptoms (Y or N)
measles Possible Lab Lab
Case Date of of first
Name Address/contact details vaccine source of Sex specimen specimen
ID # doses of birth rash visit
infection* (date) results

fication***
onset to HC
Fever
received
Cough
Outcome**
Coryza
Final classi-
Conjunc-
tivitis
* Possible source of infection = contact/relationship &/or Case ID #

** Outcome: R = recovery; S = recovery with sequelae; M = mortality
*** Final classification: C = clinically confirmed; E = confirmed by epidemiologic linkage; L = laboratory confirmed; D = discarded
2.4 The AEFI report form
AEFIs need to be reported individually and tallied for the monthly summary report
(see Section 3). The WHO definitions of AEFI and AEFI categories are given in the
box below. With investigation, an AEFI should fall into one of the five categories.
Investigation is usually carried out based on an initial health facility report of a
suspected AEFI (discussed further below).
WHO definition of AEFI and AEFI categories

Adverse event(s) following immunization (AEFI) are defined as “any untoward
medical occurrence that follows immunization and which does not necessarily have
a causal relationship with the usage of the vaccine.” The adverse event may be any
unfavourable or unintended sign, abnormal laboratory finding, symptom or disease.
AEFIs are grouped into five categories:

1. Vaccine product-related reaction: An AEFI that is caused or precipitated by a
vaccine due to one or more of the properties of the vaccine product itself.
Example: Extensive limb swelling following DTP vaccination.
2. Vaccine quality defect-related reaction: An AEFI that is caused or precipitated
by a vaccine that is due to one or more quality defects of the vaccine product,
including its administration device as provided by the manufacturer.
Example: Failure by the manufacturer to completely inactivate a batch of
inactivated polio vaccine leads to cases of paralytic polio.
3. Immunization error-related reaction: An AEFI that is caused by inappropriate
vaccine handling, prescribing or administration and thus by its nature is
preventable.
Example: Transmission of infection by contaminated multi-dose vial.
4. Immunization anxiety-related reaction: An AEFI arising from anxiety about the
immunization.
Example: Vasovagal syncope (fainting) in an adolescent during/following
vaccination.
5. Coincidental event: An AEFI that is caused by something other than the vaccine
product, immunization error or immunization anxiety.
Example: A fever occurs at the time of the vaccination (temporal association) but
is in fact caused by malaria. Coincidental events reflect the natural occurrence
of health problems in the community with common problems being frequently
reported.

National or central authorities should provide a list of suspected AEFIs that must
be reported immediately by telephone to a manager who has the responsibility to
investigate them. Figure 6.8 gives a guide on what to report immediately from health
facility level. In general, any AEFI that is of concern to the parents or to the health
worker should be reported. Note that serious AEFIs (as given in Figure 6.8) are those
that are life threatening or result in hospitalization, disability or death.
The objective of AEFI surveillance is to detect, understand and communicate so as to

prevent future problems. It is important to avoid blaming the vaccine first. AEFIs may
occur in any setting, since there is no perfect vaccine and it is not possible to predict
reactions. Health workers should not hesitate to report AEFIs for investigation.
Figure 6.8 General guide for AEFI reporting from health facility level
Serious AEFIs
Signals and events associated with a newly introduced vaccine
AEFIs that may have been caused by an immunization error

In particular,
health workers
must report: Significant events of unexplained cause occurring within 30 days after vaccination
Events causing significant parental or community concern
Swelling, redness, soreness at the injection site IF it lasts for more than 3 days or
swelling extends beyond nearest joint
What information is commonly included in an AEFI report?

An AEFI report usually contains the following information at a minimum:
• AEFI reporting identification number

Note: This number is used on the AEFI reporting form. The same number should be used on follow-up visits for the
same case. This number is not linked to the immunization register or the line list in any way.
• patient’s address (of her/his caregiver for children) and mobile/phone number if
available
• reporter’s address and mobile/phone number, if different from those of the patient
or caregiver
• patient’s date of birth
• patient’s sex

• date and time of onset of AEFI
• description of the event and the outcome from the patient or reporter
• details of all vaccines given and diluents used, including generic and brand name,
batch number and time of vaccination.
Figure 6.9 shows an example AEFI report format.
How to use an AEFI report

Once aware of a possible AEFI that must be reported and investigated, record the
minimum information listed above and contact the person given the responsibility to
follow up these cases, according to national and health centre procedure.
Tally the AEFI reports for the monthly summary by type. The example given in
Section 3 of this module asks for the total number of serious and non-serious events
during the month. National authorities should provide guidance on which AEFIs
should be included in which category in summary reports.

Figure 6.9 WHO AEFI report form

AEFI Reporting ID Number:
REPORTING FORM FOR ADVERSE EVENTS FOLLOWING IMMUNIZATION (AEFI)
*Patient name: *Reporter’s name:

*Patient’s full address :
Institution/designation, department & address:
Telephone:
Sex: M F
*Date of birth (DD/MM/YYYY): __ __ / __ __ / __ __ __ __ Telephone & e-mail:
OR Age at onset: years months days
OR Age group: < 1 year 1 to 5 years > 5 year s
Health facility (or vaccination centre) name:

Dose
*Date of *Time of
*Name of vaccines received (e.g. 1st, *Batch/lot number Expiry date
vaccination vaccination 2nd,etc.)
*Adverse event (s): Describe AEFI (signs and symptoms):

Severe local reaction >3 days beyond nearest joint
Seizures febrile afebrile
Abscess
Sepsis
Encephalopathy
Toxic shock syndrome
Thrombocytopenia
Anaphylaxis
Fever ≥38°C
Other (specify)................................
Date & Time AEFI started (DD/MM/YYYY):
__ __ / __ __ / __ __ __ __ Hr Min
Was the patient hospitalized? Yes No
Date patient notified event to health system (DD/MM/YYYY):
__ __ / __ __ / __ __ __ __
*Outcome:
Recovering Recovered Recovered with sequelae Not recovered Unknown
Died If died, date of death (DD/MM/YYYY) __ __ / __ __ / __ __ __ __ Autopsy done: Yes No Unknown
Past medical history (including history of similar reaction or other allergies), concomitant medication and other relevant information
(e.g. other cases). Use additional sheet if needed:
First decision making level to complete:

Investigation needed: Yes No If yes, date investigation planned (DD/MM/YYYY):
__ __ / __ __ / __ __ __ __
National level to complete:
Date report received at national level (DD/MM/YYYY): AEFI worldwide unique ID:
__ __ / __ __ / __ __ __ __
Comments:
* Compulsory field

3 Monthly summary reports

The immunization monitoring and vaccine-preventable disease and AEFI surveillance
data collected with the tools described in Section 2 need to be consolidated into a
summary form, either manually or electronically, for transmission from the health
facility to the district level. Districts compile data for use by and transmission to the
next level, and eventually to central level. At each level the data should be analysed and
used to improve the programme, as discussed in Section 4. The format of the summary
report should be defined at national or central level and should be standard for all
health facilities. The frequency of reporting should also be determined by national
authorities. This section discusses a monthly report, but reports may be done weekly,
quarterly and/or annually based on local requirements. A monthly summary report
example is shown in Figure 6.10.
Copies of reports with dates and signatures are sent to the next central level and the
originals stored at the health facility (see Section 3.5).
Health workers should ensure that reports are:
• Complete. All sections of the summary reports should be filled in and no parts
left blank. All reports due from different services and/or outreach sites should be
received and their data included in the summary report.
• Timely. All summary reports should be submitted to the next level before the
assigned deadline. Summary reports completed and submitted on time help to
ensure prompt and effective disease control response.
• Accurate. All summary reports should contain figures that correspond to the actual
figures from the health facilities and that are double-checked for correct calculations
and totals.
District, province and national levels should keep track of the completeness and
timeliness of reporting by more peripheral levels and remind them of missing or late
reports. Timeliness and completeness of reporting should be used as an indicator for
measuring the performance of health facilities.
3.1 Immunization programme monitoring data
In Figure 6.10, page 1 is a summary of immunization programme monitoring data.

The vaccine tally is the source of data for completing this part of the summary report.
Monthly totals should be entered into the corresponding sections of the form.
Selected programme information can be presented in graph form for display in the
health facility; see Section 4 of this module.

(6)26
Figure 6.10 Monthly summary report example, page 1
Health facility: District: Month/Year:
Sessions planned: Sessions held: Infant population:
Infants Vaccinations and Vit A given to children <1 year of age Vaccinations and Vit A given to children >1 year of age MCV2 Others
PAB**
Place of Session HepB polio (OPV and/or IPV) RV PCV pentavalent polio (OPV &/or IPV) PCV pentavalent Age 15–18 Age >18
from BCG MCV1 Vit A Others MCV1 Vit A
No Date session typea NT <24h >24h OPV0 1 2 3 3+*** 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 3+** 1 2 3 1 2 3 months months
1
2
3
4
5
7
8
9
10
11
12
Total
* Session type: fixed or outreach
** Protected at birth from neonatal tetanus (based on TT vaccination status of mother)
*** Combination IPV/OPV schedules may require a final dose of OPV with IPV – follow the national schedule
Vaccination given Vaccination given

Place of Session HPV for girls aged 9–13 years HPV for girls aged >13 years
No Date to pregnant women to non-pregnant women
session type
HPV1 HPV2 HPV3 HPV1 HPV2 HPV3 TT 1 TT 2+b TT 1 TT 2+b
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Total
b
TT2+ = TT2+TT3+TT4+TT5
Figure 6.10 (continued) Monthly summary report example, page 2
Compiled vaccine-preventable diseases report Stock report

Start Received** End
Age Sex Vaccination status
Target Number Item balance** balance**
Total of
diseases Vaccination deaths
<1 year 1–4 years >5 years Doses
M F status RV
0 1 2 3 3+ unknown OPV
Polio/AFP PCV
Measles Pentavalent
Diphtheria BCG
Pertussis Measles
Neonatal tetanus Others (vitA, YF)
Other tetanus AD syringes (BCG)
Other diseases* AD syringes (others)
Safety boxes
Immunization cards
Adverse events following immunization

(AEFI) report*** Notable activities during the reporting period
(report serious events immediately (supervisory visits, training events,
to your supervisor for further investigation) social mobilization activities, etc)
Type of event Number of cases Date of report:
Serious events (A)
Non-serious events (B) Name of reporter:
Total AEFI (A+B)
Additional comments (if any): Designation:
Signature:
* Other vaccine preventable diseases (yellow fever, JE, etc) according to region
** Enter vaccine vial size where applicable; count the number of vials and multiply by doses per vial to give the number of doses
*** Follow country policy on adverse event reporting – serious events, particularly death, usually require immediate reporting
(6)27
3.2 Vaccine-preventable disease surveillance data
In Figure 6.10, page 2 shows a compiled vaccine-preventable diseases report in the

upper left block. The vaccine-preventable disease tally and line lists are the sources
of data for this part of the summary report. Monthly case totals for each vaccine-
preventable disease should be entered into the corresponding sections of the form.
Zero reporting
If there are no cases of a disease during the reporting period, the number zero should
be reported in the summary. This is called “zero reporting” and is important, since it
shows an absence of cases presenting to the health facility rather than a forgotten point
in data collection.
3.3 AEFI surveillance data
The AEFI surveillance data part of the summary records any AEFI reports collected
during the month. The reports should be tallied by the type of reaction (serious or
non-serious in the example used here) and entered into the corresponding section
of the form. The details should have been provided to the person responsible for
conducting an investigation according to the immediate reporting requirements
discussed in Section 2.
3.4 Additional information
Vaccine usage and wastage patterns

The usage and wastage of vaccine will vary greatly from one session to another. It is useful
to monitor these patterns regularly at all immunization points to improve supply and
avoid stock-outs. Stock cards provide the data for this part of the summary report. The
number of vaccine vials in stock at the start of the month (start balance), the number
received during the month (received) and the number of vials in stock at the end of the
month (end balance) should be entered into the corresponding boxes in the form.
Vaccine stock data should be recorded and reported regularly since this information
may be needed at the district level. The stock data can be used in vaccine usage and
wastage calculations, as shown below. Note that the formula shown uses the number
of doses. The stock cards may track only the number of vials. In this case, the number
of doses can be calculated by multiplying the number of vials by the number of doses
per vial.

Vaccine usage rate (%) =
No of infants immunized during the period

× 100
((No of usable doses + No of doses received) at the beginning of the period) –
(No of usable doses in stock at the end of the period)
Vaccine wastage rate (%) = 100 – (vaccine usage rate)
Specific problems encountered during the reporting period

A narrative description of any problems, such as stock-outs, transportation problems,
cold chain failure, etc., should be added as needed to prompt review and improvement
of service-related issues.
Specific data required by national policy

This may include:
• sex of infants immunized and sex of disease cases
• tally of other interventions during immunization sessions (such as provision of

mebendazole or antimalarials)
• immunization campaign activities conducted during the reporting period.
3.5 Data and report storage
For purposes of verification and retrieval, data must be stored at each different level.
Data can be stored in hard copy or electronically. At the health facility, tally sheets,
registers and reports should be stored for a specific period (on average three years)
depending on national standard operating procedure. Where higher administrative
levels use computers, back-ups (hard copies and/or electronic copies) must be kept
to avoid data loss in the case of system failure. Stored records are also useful for
supervisory visits and immunization service reviews.

Types of data to store

The following types of data should be stored at each health facility for a period of
three years or as long as required by national policy.
¾¾ Immunization registers
¾¾ Copies of vaccination cards (if applicable)
¾¾ Tally sheets
¾¾ Defaulter tracking lists
¾¾ Monthly reports
¾¾ Target population data files (information used in microplanning – see Module 4)
¾¾ Immunization monitoring charts (see next section)
¾¾ Case/outbreak charts and reports
¾¾ Supervisory visit reports
¾¾ Stock cards
¾¾ Cold chain maintenance records.

4 Analysis of monitoring data

Data collected and summarized in reports are useful only when analysed and
interpreted regularly and used to improve service delivery. This section describes the
initial analysis of monitoring data that begins at health facility level.
4.1 Vaccination coverage charts
Creating a chart showing doses administered and dropout rates is a simple, effective
way to monitor immunization service progress. This type of chart tracks monthly
progress towards immunization service goals. The number of doses administered can
be compared to the number of infants eligible to receive them, and target population
dropout rates can be calculated. The dropout rate compares the number of infants who
completed the immunization schedule for a selected vaccine to the total number who
failed to finish the course.
Every health facility should display a current monitoring chart on a wall where all staff
can see it. Charts can be produced at every level of the health system by combining
data manually or electronically. Figure 6.11 shows a completed monitoring chart.
How to make a monitoring chart showing doses administered and dropouts

Vaccine doses administered and dropout rates can be charted using the following steps
(refer to Figure 6.10 and note that some of these calculations are shown in Module 4).
1. Calculate the annual and monthly target population who should receive
immunization services
Annual target population = total population × % infants in population
Aim to vaccinate every infant in the catchment area, including those who are hard
to reach. Use existing population data for infants obtained from national statistics
offices, ministry of health planning sections or community censuses. If data are not
available, estimate the number of infants by multiplying the total population by
3% (or the percentage of infants in the population suggested by national/central
authorities, if applicable). Always use the most precise percentage available: a
measured, specific percentage for calculating the number of infants is preferred.
Data for peripheral health facility calculations are often difficult to find and more
accurate targets can be set by: a) immunization staff and district supervisors, who
may need to discuss and agree on target population adjustments based on local
knowledge and past experience; and b) drawing the past year’s results on the current
year’s chart in order to follow progress from year to year.

The monthly target population is the annual target population number of infants
calculated above divided by 12.
Monthly target = annual target population/12
Example calculation: If the total population is 3900, then the annual target population
of infants is 3900 × 3/100 = 117; and the monthly target is 117/12 = 10.
2. Label the chart and draw the ideal monthly target line
– Complete the information on the top of the chart by adding the area and year.
– Label the left (and/or right) side of the chart with the monthly target numbers.
– Label the boxes at the bottom with the selected vaccine.
– Draw a diagonal line from zero to the top right-hand corner to show the ideal
rate of progress from month to month using the cumulative monthly target
numbers.
3. Plot immunization data on the chart
– Locate the space for the month being recorded in the row of boxes underneath
the graph and enter the monthly total of vaccine given.
– Calculate the cumulative total for the current month as shown:
– Current cumulative total = current month’s total doses + previous month’s

cumulative total doses
Note that cumulative means the total number of doses of vaccines given in the current
month plus the monthly totals for the current calendar year; for example, the cumulative
number of penta3 doses given by the end of March is the total number of doses given in
January plus the total number given in February plus the total number given in March.
4. Enter the current cumulative total on the right side of the month being
recorded
– Make a dot on the graph corresponding to the cumulative total recorded on the
right side of the month being recorded; the dot should line up with the correct
monthly number on the left side of the chart.
– Connect the new dot to the previous month’s dot with a straight line.
– Repeat every month until the end of the year.
– Plot other immunizations given on the same chart, as needed.

5. Calculate the total number of dropouts between the first and last dose of the
same vaccine series.
Number of dropouts = (cumulative total for the first dose) – (cumulative total for
the last dose of the vaccine series)
Dropout rate (%) = (number of dropouts/cumulative total for the first dose) × 100
The dropout rate can be seen easily in the doses administered chart: it is the gap
between the lines for the first and last dose of a vaccine.
Example calculation: If all 117 infants in the annual target population received penta1,
but only 100 finished all three doses during the year, then:
Number of dropouts = (117) – (100) = 17
Dropout rate = [17/117] × 100 = 14.5%
Figure 6.11 Monitoring chart example showing pentavalent1 and pentavalent3 data
Number of children
10*12 = 120
10*11 = 110
10*10 = 100
10*9 = 90
10*8 = 80
10*7 = 70
10*6 = 60
10*5 = 50 pentavalent1 coverage

pentavalent3 coverage
10*4 = 40
10*3 = 30
10*2 = 20
10*1 = 10
10*0 = 0
Fill in at the end of Cum Cum Cum Cum Cum Cum Cum Cum Cum Cum Cum Cum
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
each month Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Total

Total immunized
pentavalent1 6 6 4 10 6 16 6 22 7 29 7 36 5 41 5 46
Total immunized
pentavalent3 4 4 3 7 6 13 6 19 6 25 6 31 5 36 5 41
Dropout (DO)
(Penta1–Penta3) 2 3 3 3 4 5 5 5
Dropout %
(D)/Penta1)*100 33 30 19 14 14 14 12 11

4.2 Vaccination coverage data analysis
Full analysis requires data to be compiled by area. Figures 6.12, 6.13 and 6.14 suggest
how to compile and analyse vaccination coverage data. The first part of the process
shown below is also shown in Module 4, which focuses on prioritizing areas by the
number of unimmunized children during microplanning. The additional calculations
given in Figures 6.12 and 6.13 are included here to help define problems that cause
children to remain unimmunized. Defining problems in detail helps identify potential
solutions (see also Annex 3).
How to complete the compilation and analysis table

1. List each geographic area or community served in Column a.
2. List the target population numbers for infants less than one year of age in
Column b.
3. Enter the number of doses of each vaccine type administered to the target group
during the preceding 12-month period in Columns c, d and e. The vaccines used
for analysis will vary by programme.
4. Calculate immunization coverage as follows: Immunization coverage is the total

number of infants who have received all required doses of a selected vaccine in the
preceding 12 months divided by the annual target population.
Figure 6.12 Sample format for compilation and analysis of health facility data
Compilation of immunization coverage data

for the previous 12 months Analysis of problem
Prioritize –
highest
number of
Community Annual Unimmunised penta3
target Doses of vaccine administered Immunization coverage (%) (number) Dropout rates (%) Identified problems
name population unimmunized
children
penta1 - penta1 - Access Utilisation is #1,
Children ≤1 penta1 penta3 MCV1 penta3 MCV1 penta3 MCV1 (good, (good,
year of age penta1 penta3 MCV1 (c/b)*100 (d/b)*100 (e/b)*100 (b-d) (b-j) and so on
(c-d)/c*100 (c-e)/c*100 poor) poor)
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o

Immunization coverage (%) = (number of infants with all required doses

of the selected vaccine during the last 12 months)/
(annual target population) × 100
Example calculation for the table in Figure 6.12:

immunization coverage (%) in Column g = (infants with all required doses of
pentavalent in the last 12 months in Column d)/(annual target population in
Column b) ×100 = (100)/(117) × 100 = 85%
5. Calculate the number of unimmunized:

Unimmunized number = (annual target population) – (doses of vaccine
administered)
unimmunized pentavalent3 in Column i = annual target population in Column b –
doses of pentavalent3 administered in Column d = (117) – (85) = 32
6. Calculate the dropout rate.
The dropout calculation for any vaccine is shown in Section 4.1.

dropout rate pentavalent1 – pentavalent3 = column k = ((doses of pentavalent1 in
column c) – (doses of pentavalent3 in column d))/(doses of pentavalent1 in column c) ×
100 = (105) – (85)/105 × 100 = 19%
7. Identify and categorize problems for each area.
In Column m, enter the quality of access (good = coverage 80% or better; poor =
coverage less than 80%) based on pentavalent1 coverage in Column f. Note that
the 80% cut-off is suggested here as a general indicator and programmes may use
different cut-offs to define good and poor coverage based on national policy.
In Column n, enter the quality of utilization (good = dropout rate less than 10%;
poor = dropout rate 10% or more) based on the pentavalent1–pentavalent3
dropout rate given in Column k. Note that the 10% cut-off is suggested here as a
general indicator and programmes may use different cut-offs to define good and
poor dropout rates based on national policy.
In Column o, use your data to prioritize communities for problem solving. Rank
the community that has the most unimmunized infants (not necessarily the lowest
coverage) as the highest priority (#1) Figure 6.14 illustrates this principle.

Figure 6.13 Access and utilization problem analysis flowchart and graph
Note that coverage and dropout rates for any vaccine can be used; the choice may be set by national policy or
made at more local levels
What proportion of children have ACCESS to immunization

services? Or, what is the vaccine coverage?
HIGH VACCINE COVERAGE = LOW VACCINE COVERAGE =

≥ 80% = good access < 80% = poor access
What proportion of children COMPLETE the immunization schedule?

Or, what is the dropout rate?
LOW DROPOUT RATE = HIGH DROPOUT RATE = LOW DROPOUT RATE = HIGH DROPOUT RATE =
≤ 10% = good utilization > 10% = poor utilization ≤ 10% = good utilization > 10% = poor utilization
GOOD ACCESS & GOOD ACCESS & POOR ACCESS & POOR ACCESS &
GOOD POOR GOOD POOR
UTILIZATION UTILIZATION UTILIZATION UTILIZATION
Figure 6.14 Prioritizing districts according to total unimmunized infants (completed

example using measles vaccine coverage)
District name Population Population Measles Unimmunized Priority

under 1 year coverage infants
under 1 year
A 100 000 4 000 50% 2 000 2
B 75 000 3 000 60% 1 200 4
C 120 000 4 800 70% 1 440 3
D 10 000 400 20% 320 5
E 250 000 10 000 75% 2 500 1

4.3 Improvement of services
Problems can be broadly associated with access and utilization and the categories in
Figure 6.13 indicate the different combinations of the two issues. Problems may be
related to one or more communities or areas or may apply to the entire district.
Access problems result in infants missing immunization sessions and may be due to:
• sessions not being held as planned
• session site and times being inconvenient or not advertised
• cultural, financial, racial, gender or other barriers preventing access to and use of
immunization services.
Utilization problems result in infants not coming back to complete the full series of
immunizations and may be caused by:
• caregivers’ lack of information about the complete immunization schedule
• missed opportunities for vaccination
• other problems leading to caregivers not returning due to vaccinations not being
given as expected; for example supply shortages, delayed doses due to incorrect
assessment of contraindications or other problems in the relationship between
health workers and the community.
The table in Annex 6.1 lists commonly encountered problems. It is not exhaustive but
can serve as a guide to finding solutions.
The microplanning process includes identifying possible solutions as described in

Module 4. Discussion should occur at community and health facility level, and
also at district or more central levels as needed. Solutions should be prioritized for
implementation. Those that affect the district level should generally come before those
that affect more local levels. At any level, changes are likely to be more feasible when
implemented with available resources.
Supervisory visits from more central levels can also be helpful in identifying problems
and solutions. Annex 6.2 shows an example checklist for such visits. Like the table
in Annex 6.1, it is not exhaustive but can serve as a guide for health workers and
supervisors.

5 Analysis of surveillance data

Just as monitoring data are useful only when they are regularly analysed for the
purpose of improving service delivery, disease surveillance and AEFI data collected and
summarized in reports are useful only if regularly analysed and interpreted to guide
disease control activities. In fact, surveillance data may need more immediate reporting
and analysis based on national policy, as discussed in Section 2. The initial analysis of
surveillance data that begins at health facility level is described here.
5.1 Vaccine-preventable disease case number charts
The objective of surveillance is to:
• report vaccine-preventable diseases according to national protocol; reports may be

required monthly, weekly or as needed for outbreak response
• understand the data collected as a guide for response.
In addition to predicting or detecting outbreaks, identifying high-risk populations

or areas and monitoring the impact of immunization services, surveillance data can
highlight system weaknesses, determine disease burden in a community and document
circulating strains of pathogens.
Case numbers can be presented in graphs for display in the health facility. Trends in
disease occurrence (usually incidence) are easy to visualize and compare to immunization
data in this format. Graphs of trends that become outbreaks are also called “epidemic
curves”. Keeping updated graphs will allow comparisons between seasons and years and
alert to any increases in the number of cases or other relevant trends.
How to make a surveillance chart showing the number of cases per month
Figure 6.15 illustrates a measles surveillance chart. This example shows cases by month,
but weekly or more frequent reporting may be required by local and national authorities.
1. Label the chart.
– Complete the information on the top of the chart by adding the health facility/
area name and year.
– Label the left (or right) side of the chart with the name of the disease and
number scale for cases.
– Label the boxes at the bottom with the months.

2. Plot case data on the chart.
– Locate the space for the month you are recording in the row of boxes underneath
the graph and enter the monthly total of cases.
– Make a dot on the graph corresponding to the number scale.
– Connect the new dot to the previous month’s dot with a straight line (line graph
not shown); or fill the column from 0 up to the case number for that month to
make a bar chart (as shown).
– Repeat every month until the end of the time frame.
Figure 6.15 Chart showing the number of measles cases reported per month
10
8
Number of measles cases
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Number of cases 2 2 3 7 9 5 3 0 1 1 2 2
Month

5.2 Analysis of vaccine-preventable disease data
Surveillance data can be used to show trends and alert to possible outbreaks, as in the
example above. Further analysis of the trends may include a breakdown of cases by area
or by age and sex to better identify those at high risk and to define a targeted response.
This type of analysis is often conducted at district or more central levels, but can begin
with individual health facility data.
High-risk or most-affected areas in the health facility catchment can be analysed

simply by tracking cases on a map, as shown in Figure 6.16. Cases can be marked on
the district and health centre catchment area maps prepared for microplanning, as
described in Module 4.
Figure 6.16 Example of a catchment area map showing origins/places of residence of

measles cases presenting in April–May 2012
Each “×” represents one case
Table 6.2 shows the age and sex distribution of cases during an outbreak in a certain
area. This is useful for evaluating an unidentified disease or an unusual pattern of a
familiar disease, for example, measles cases occurring in older age groups.

Table 6.2 Age and sex distribution of cases in a disease outbreak
Age 0–5m 6–11m 1–4y 5–9y 10–14y 15–34y 35–64y 65+y Total
Male 1 1 0 0 5 26 15 3 51
Female 2 2 0 0 6 35 15 5 65
Total 3 3 0 0 11 61 30 8 116
Case data can be compared with immunization data to illustrate disease patterns or
evaluate the impact of control activities. This is usually done over a longer time frame
and from district or higher levels using population-level measures, such as incidence.
Accurately reported peripheral health facility-level data is needed throughout. Figure
6.17 compares measles case numbers (charted as incidence per 100 000 people) after
immunization services were improved in a district and high coverage was maintained.
Figure 6.17 Comparison of measles incidence and vaccine coverage over time (district-level
data)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Year
measles incidence (cases/100 000) % vaccine coverage by 1y
in District Z in District Z

5.3 Analysis of AEFI data
Health facility-level AEFI reporting can be compiled at district and more central levels
for analysis by specific vaccine, for comparison with expected rates of adverse events in
vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals, and to facilitate investigation and response
to serious AEFIs.
Analysis of multiple AEFI reports can help health authorities clarify whether observed
reaction rates are higher than expected and, if so, are more likely to be related to the
vaccine than to coincidence. Comparisons of reaction rates are made with published
studies if possible. But studies are often not ideal for comparisons. Data from AEFI
reporting are important on vaccines being used in immunization programmes.
This is called “vaccine pharmacovigilance”.
To help strengthen capacity to introduce vaccines in Member States, WHO

Information Sheets on Observed Rates of Vaccine Reactions are available online.
They provide details on selected vaccines that are relevant to the analysis of
reported events. For further information visit the website at:
http://www.who.int/vaccine_safety/initiative/tools/vaccinfosheets/en/index.html.

Annex 6.1 Common problems associated with

poor access and utilization, and
possible solutions
Examples of common problems Examples of solutions: activities to be included in health facility workplans
Stock-outs of vaccine(s), AD syringes, • Request immediate supplies from district level.

Supply quantity
diluents, safety boxes, immunization • Review stock recording system (Module 4, Section 5).
cards
• Review vaccine usage and wastage rates and take action (Module 6, Section 3).
• Review method of estimating needs (Module 4, Section 5).
• Expired vaccine(s) • Review stock recording system (Module 4, Section 5).

Supply quality
• VVMs show that vaccine has • Review method of estimating needs (Module 4, Section 5).
reached the discard point • Review management of cold chain equipment (Module 2).
• Frozen DTP- and HepB-containing
vaccines in refrigerator
Some staff are not using correct Inform supervisor and select subjects for on-the-job training/supportive supervision, for example:
protocols/procedures • using AD syringes (Module 5)
Staffing quality
• new vaccines (Module 1)

• reading vaccine vial monitors (Modules 2 and 5)
• implementing multi-dose vial policy (Module 2)
• interpersonal communication skills.
Irregular supervisory visits • Include supervisory visit schedule in district workplans.
Vacant positions; general staff • Inform supervisor and district authorities and take steps for recruitment.
quantity
shortage
Staffing
• Request temporary assignment from district level and consider volunteers for some duties. Schedule rotation of staff
in the interim.
• Ensure staff are available for each session (Module 4).
Poor attendance at sessions and poor • Meet with the community to discuss possible reasons for low attendance and suggested solutions (Module 7).
utilization in some areas • Consult the community and change the schedule to make sessions more convenient (Module 4, Section 5 and
Module 7).
• Check whether all planned sessions have been held. Aim to improve reliability by holding all planned sessions
(Module 4).
• Screen all infants for immunization whenever they visit the health facility and give all of the vaccines they are eligible
to receive (Module 5, Section 3).
Service quality and demand
• Review use of true contraindications to ensure that infants are not missed (Module 5, Section 3).
• Consider conducting a missed opportunities study to understand the reasons for low utilization.
Mothers lose or do not bring the • Set up a defaulter tracking system to keep complete records (register, reminder cards) at the health facility and take
immunization cards these along during outreach sessions (Module 6, Section 1).
• Provide new cards and update from other records – do not restart schedule because of lost cards if the vaccinations
given are recorded in the register (Module 6, Section 1).
Parents fear adverse events and/ • Inform parents about benefits of immunization and reassure them about vaccine safety (Module 1).
or there are rumours that Injection • Review safe injection practices: ensure AD syringes supply and use safety boxes and safe disposal practices (Module 3).
practices are not 100% safe
• Meet community to discuss rumours (Module 7, Section 4).
• Review information on AEFI (Modules 1 and 6) and how to report AEFI cases (Module 6, Section 2).
• Arrange information brief sessions with media, leaders, community influencers (Module 7).

Examples of common problems Examples of solutions: activities to be included in health facility workplans
Unreliable information about • Request a list of all households, families and newborns from each community (Module 7).
catchment population • Map the catchment area to include all populations (Module 4, Section 1).
• Compare population data from various sources including data from National Immunization Days (NID) or polio activities
(use the NID <5 years population and divide by 5 for infant target).
• Take the newborn register during house-to-house campaigns – register all newborns found and give them an
immunization card.
Inaccurate coverage data • Check record keeping and reporting systems for completeness (Module 6, Sections 1–3).
Service quantity and demand
• Review all tally sheets and reports (Module 6, Sections 1–3) – does the numerator include all areas?
• Organize and complete refresher training for staff.
Some areas are distant and • Discuss with supervisor and organize mobile team approach from district/province – minimum 4 sessions per year
underserved (Module 4).
• Discuss service with the communities and arrange adequate sessions, dates and times (Module 7).
Transport not available for some • Identify sessions that were not held due to lack of transport.
outreach sessions • Look for alternative means of transport, such as public transport, sharing with other programmes and/or taxis.
• Request a vehicle from the district/next higher level.
Poor attendance at antenatal care • Promote the value of antenatal care, including TT immunization, during any contact with pregnant women.
(ANC) clinics and/or poor TT2+ • Inform the community about dates of ANC clinics. Find out if session timing or location is inconvenient. If so, make
coverage appropriate changes in next quarter’s workplan.
• Use all opportunities to give TT immunization including when mothers accompany infants for childhood immunizations.

Immunization service supervisory

Annex 6.2
visit checklist
Question Yes/ Problem Corrective action Corrective action
No observed and/or on-site longer term
comments
Is the session organized efficiently?
Are immunization cards in use for

every infant and pregnant woman?
Is the register used for recording

information on each child/mother/
pregnant woman?
Are caregivers advised on when to

return?
Does the health facility have a

monitoring chart displayed?
Does the health facility have a map of

the catchment area displayed?
Does the health facility have a

workplan for the quarter?
Are planned sessions monitored for

completeness/timeliness?
Is there a system for tracking

defaulters?
Does the health facility display a spot

map of measles cases?
Is a temperature monitoring chart in

use?
Are the vaccines stacked properly

inside the refrigerator?
Are there any expired vaccines inside

the refrigerator?
Are there any vaccines with VVM

reaching the discard point?
Do the health workers know how

to read and interpret the VVM? (Ask
them to describe VVM changes and
what they mean)

Question Yes/ Problem Corrective action Corrective action

No observed and/or on-site longer term
comments
Do the health workers know when

and how to perform the Shake Test?
(Ask them to demonstrate how to
do it)
Is there an adequate supply of AD

syringes for the planned sessions?
Are AD syringes used for every

immunization?
Is the injection technique

appropriate?
Is each used AD syringe and needle

disposed of in a safety box?
Are immunization posters displayed

on the health facility wall(s)?
Is there a schedule of community

meetings?
Are community volunteer(s) involved

with immunization services?
Is there a stock register?
Does the stock register show

adequate vaccines and supplies?

7: Partnering with communities
7
Partnering with
communities
This module aims to motivate health workers to partner with communities and improve access to
and utilization of immunization services. It builds on the previous modules to provide additional
details to guide health staff and communities as they work together to plan, provide services,
promote these services, improve service quality, track eligible children and address resistance to
immunization.
There is no single formula for establishing beneficial partnerships with communities.
Partnering will and should be different in different places depending on local needs, resources
and capabilities. This module is based on general principles and should be used as a guide to
immunization service activities at the local level.
Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................... (7)3
1.1 Definition of partnering .................................................................................................................. (7)3
1.2 Benefits of partnering with communities .................................................................................. (7)3
2. Get started ...................................................................................................... (7)5

3. Learn about the community ........................................................................... (7)6
3.1 Decide who to talk to ....................................................................................................................... (7)6
3.2 Ask more questions .......................................................................................................................... (7)7
3.3 Choose methods for information gathering .............................................................................. (7)8
4. Plan services with communities ......................................................................(7)9

4.1 Invite participation in microplanning .......................................................................................... (7)9
4.2 Define respective responsibilities ............................................................................................... (7)10
4.3 Make arrangements to inform all community members ...................................................... (7)11
5. Involve communities in monitoring and surveillance ................................. (7)12

5.1 Track children and their immunization status ......................................................................... (7)12
5.2 Report diseases ............................................................................................................................... (7)13
5.3 Exchange monitoring and surveillance information with communities .......................... (7)13
6. Inform and engage community members ....................................................(7)15

6.1 Inform caregivers ............................................................................................................................ (7)15
6.2 Engage community members in communication roles ........................................................ (7)15
6.3 Engage traditional and religious leaders .................................................................................. (7)16
6.4 Engage schools and other potential collaborators ................................................................ (7)17
6.5 Engage the media ........................................................................................................................... (7)17
7. Address resistant groups .............................................................................. (7)18

7.1 Understand reasons for resistance ............................................................................................. (7)18
7.2 Respond to resistance .................................................................................................................... (7)18
Annex 7.1 Community meetings ...................................................................... (7)21

Annex 7.2 Checklist for NGO involvement in immunization ........................... (7)24

1 Introduction
1.1 Definition of partnering
Partnering with communities for immunization refers to supportive, coordinated

action that can be taken by health workers and community members towards
achieving their shared goal of providing accessible, reliable and friendly services that
are used appropriately by all. It is based on the principle that when communities are
involved in planning, providing and evaluating services, they will develop stronger
trust and ownership of those services.
The term community usually refers to a grouping of people by geography (such as

a village) or choice (such as a religion). In this module, the term emphasizes the
individuals and groups who should be involved in planning, providing and evaluating
immunization services. This includes not only individual community members and
leaders, but also community-based social or professional groups and nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs).
1.2 Benefits of partnering with communities
Increased immunization coverage

Several studies, including the 2007 multiagency evaluation of the Reaching Every
District strategy in Africa, have shown that community involvement can help
immunization programmes increase their coverage and reduce dropout rates.
Greater equity for underserved populations

Immunization programmes need to provide more equitable access to services. This
involves reaching out to under- or unimmunized groups and addressing such issues as:
• incomplete understanding of the purpose and importance of immunization, and

when children should be taken for vaccination
• poor or disrespectful treatment from health workers during service contacts
• inability to pay transportation and/or other costs
• lack of available time during immunization hours, often due to other obligations to
support the family livelihood and traditions.

To achieve the equitable utilization of services, health services and their community
partners must make special efforts through strong community links to improve access
for families who have little formal education; who are of minority, new immigrant or
displaced status; and/or who are poor.
Satisfaction for health workers and community members

Partnering can increase job satisfaction and enthusiasm for the health professional.
Positive feedback from the community is a personal benefit to staff. Any feedback –
even complaints that may come up when communities are asked for opinions – can be
used to continuously improve services to the benefit of all.
Building a sense of joint responsibility for child health can provide many psychological
and practical benefits on the community members involved. People change from
being passive recipients of services to partners who have a role to play in health service
achievements. Community members have the opportunity to gain:
• knowledge and understanding of immunization, diseases and public health
• skills in collecting and analysing information, educating and counselling fellow

community members, and facilitating discussions and meetings
• confidence from seeing how they can contribute to improving services and how
they can effectively support programmes.

2 Get started
Microplanning activities and data analysis discussed in Modules 4 (Microplanning for
reaching every community) and 6 (Monitoring and surveillance) are the starting steps for
partnering with communities.
1. Review your programme’s immunization coverage. Complete the exercise in

Module 4, Section 2 (Table 4.3) to identify priority communities based on the
number of unimmunized children.
2. Analyse service accessibility, reliability and client orientation. This will help
better define whether children remain under- or unimmunized due to poor
access and/or utilization and gives a starting point for the community partnering
discussions given in Step 4 below. Refer to Module 4, Sections 2 (Table 4.3) and
3, and Module 6, Section 4 (Figure 6.12).
3. Prepare an inventory of your potential community partners. In addition to

caregivers, community workers and community leaders, there may be others who
are already involved in health services and interested in partnering. Examples
include:
– community-based traditional health providers
– religious leaders and groups affiliated with religious institutions (mother’s

groups, youth groups)
– other organized health groups (health committees)
– teachers, parent–teacher groups, school health programmes
– local staff or groups associated with other areas of social and economic
development, such as agricultural extension workers
– NGOs.
4. Share immunization programme information. Meet with the community

partners who seem to be the strongest, most motivated and best able to help with
immunization activities and ask them to comment on the findings obtained in
Steps 1 and 2 above. Meetings can be organized specifically for this purpose or this
can be done at scheduled health centre microplanning sessions. Note that while
interacting primarily with formal leaders may be easiest and most convenient,
relying only on leaders may be problematic because they may not represent the
entire community. Formal leaders may not always prioritize the needs of all
groups, including women and children. Evaluate this in the local context and act
accordingly.

3 Learn about the community

Understanding the community and its needs is essential. Module 4 contains household
and community discussion questionnaires to start gathering information to feed
into the microplanning process. This section is a guide to more in-depth community
discussion to complement the information from those questionnaires.
Effective partnering depends on clear and open communication between health

staff and communities. As part of the initial engagement, and at least once a year
afterwards, health centre staff should consult with community leaders and members in
open meetings. This will increase opportunities for:
• gathering valuable community feedback on services
• assessing current collaboration
• exploring and planning new ways to partner
• preventing misunderstandings and/or rumours
• effectively addressing challenges to the programme, including rumours.
When community partners feel respected and listened to, they develop a growing sense
of trust and ownership, and are more likely to increase their appropriate utilization of
services.
3.1 Decide who to talk to
In planning information gathering, first consider who to talk to. Be sure to include
people from different areas or groups in the catchment and include those that:
• have persistently low coverage and/or high dropout rates (for example, people in
remote communities or in dense urban areas)
• are particularly difficult to reach (for example, nomads, migrant families, homeless
families, street children, urban slum dwellers)
• are more likely to avoid some or all vaccinations (for example, highly educated
people, religious or traditional sects, ethnic minorities, persons without proper
official documentation).

It is often useful to plan separate meetings with caregivers whose children are fully
immunized and those whose children are under- or unimmunized to try to understand
the factors affecting each group.
3.2 Ask more questions
The following questions on community perceptions and experiences should add more
information to the answers already obtained in the Module 4 questionnaires.
• What is the purpose of immunization?
• When should immunization be done?
• Do you consider it important to get your children fully immunized?
• Do you have any beliefs or concerns about immunization that you would like to
discuss?
• If you (and/or others you know in the community) reject immunization, what are
the reasons and where/to whom do you look for guidance on your decision?
• Do you think immunization services are easy to get to and to use? Why or why not?
• Do you think health workers explain immunization services and answer your
questions well?
• How common are cancelled immunization sessions?
• Have you ever taken your child for immunization but then had to go home without
all the vaccination doses being given? What was the reason for vaccinations not
being given?
• Do you take your children back for vaccinations after a cancelled session or a
missed vaccination?
• Where do unimmunized children/groups live?
• Do people move in and out of the community in ways that may make them miss
immunization sessions? (Examples are seasonal workers, nomadic groups, returning
refugees.)

3.3 Choose methods for information gathering
Different information gathering methods will give different data that can be compared
to form a more complete picture of the community. Start with any past studies and
social data that may apply to the local context and then complete the exercises given in
Module 4. In addition, one or more of the following may be used:
• separate group discussions with men and women (if mixed groups limit
participation)
• observation of vaccination sessions and interactions between health workers and

caregivers and their children
• short exit interviews with caregivers for immediate feedback on their experience and
their understanding of key information, such as the date of their next appointment.
Try to speak to people directly rather than having others speak on their behalf. For
example, learn about mothers’ current perceptions and experiences with immunization
directly from mothers themselves rather than from community leaders. Try to limit
group sizes to 12 people or less.
Refer to Annex 7.1 for more details on conducting a community meeting.

4 Plan services with communities

Community participation in immunization service planning is important for
promoting a sense of ownership and accountability. Involve community partners
in regularly scheduled programme microplanning and evaluations. Hold quarterly
update and feedback meetings in larger communities and annual meetings in smaller
communities. These provide opportunities to learn about current community
perceptions of services, to inform community leaders about the programme and to
plan activities that build community engagement while addressing relevant needs and
concerns.
4.1 Invite participation in microplanning
Explain the purpose and importance of microplanning to community partners and

invite representative caregivers, leaders, NGOs and others from the inventory given in
Section 2 to participate.
For better microplanning, health workers should consult with communities on the
location, schedule and services offered in fixed and outreach sites. Communities
should be encouraged to give input on the following:
• Should outreach sites be moved to reach more children?
• Are special sessions (evenings/weekends) needed if caregivers are unable to attend

during routine vaccination times?
• Do any seasonal changes (heavy rains/mud, high water, snow) need to be kept in
mind for scheduling?
• Can convenient gathering points and times (such as market days) be used to
maximize attendance at immunization sessions?
Microplanning should include budgeted activities to promote partnering; for example:
• information exchange with communities
• mobilizing families for immunization
• obtaining community feedback on immunization services
• providing non-financial incentives for community volunteers to assist in service

provision and monitoring.

Microplans may integrate other high-priority services with immunization according

to national guidelines and/or community needs (see Module 1 (Target diseases and
vaccines), Section 18). These might include:
• vitamin A supplementation
• deworming
• trachoma diagnosis and treatment
• Integrated Management of Childhood Illness
• general diagnosis, treatment and referral
• child growth assessment, nutrition counselling and food supplement distribution
• distribution of insecticide-treated bed nets
• antenatal and postnatal consultations
• family planning services
• supervision and other support to community health workers.
4.2 Define respective responsibilities
Work with each community to agree on its responsibilities for managing outreach
sessions. Community responsibilities may include mobilizing those on the due list
and setting up the immunization site before the session; and recording data, providing
health education and assisting patient flow during the session itself (see Module 5
(Managing an immunization session)). Community responsibilities should also be
discussed during microplanning sessions and changes made as needed based on
feedback.
Many NGOs can provide essential support for mobilizing and informing
communities, session logistics and defaulter tracking. Community NGOs often
provide services to marginalized and hard-to-reach populations and so can help ensure
participation in immunization and other health care services. NGOs can also advocate
for recognizing vaccination as a child right and for programme financing at different
government levels. Annex 7.2 contains a checklist for the evaluation of NGO activities
and to help define their possible responsibilities in assisting immunization services.

4.3 Make arrangements to inform all community members
Health staff, community representatives and caregivers should plan how to inform
community members about important information. This includes the following.
• Upcoming outreach services. For example, one country developed an effective

community awareness system using flags, putting up three flags three days before
the immunization session, two flags two days before, one the day before, and finally
a vaccination flag on the actual day.
• Changes in outreach or facility-based service schedules. For example, if outreach

services must be postponed or rescheduled, SMS or mobile phone calls to
community workers may be the fastest way to spread the message. A hand-written
note sent with a mini-bus or taxi driver to a community leader may also be
effective. Timely communication about cancelled or postponed sessions is essential
for maintaining public confidence and use of services.
• The start of a session. Use any methods that are appropriate and practical locally,
including SMS alerts, whistles, horns, drums, megaphones and loudspeakers, to
inform the community that the session is about to start.

5 Involve communities in monitoring

and surveillance
In addition to microplanning and outreach session management, health workers
should involve community members in monitoring and surveillance of services. This
usually requires the following steps:
• identifying community volunteers
• defining their responsibilities (in collaboration with them)
• training them and providing the required tracking or teaching materials
• providing supportive supervision and mentoring, as needed
• giving them feedback on the impact of their efforts
• providing needed incentives (for example, badges, caps, thank-you letters,

appreciation festivals).
This section describes the monitoring and surveillance activities that can be part of
efforts to partner with communities.
5.1 Track children and their immunization status
Community members can play an extremely useful role in tracking children’s

immunization status and in alerting and motivating caregivers. They can:
• identify target populations in collaboration with health workers
• list infants and mothers (including newborns and pregnant women) who need to
be added to immunization registers (see Module 6 (Monitoring and surveillance),
Section 1)
• make home visits to give dates and times of fixed and outreach sessions and
encourage attendance
• explain the importance of immunization and help caregivers interpret

immunization cards
• collaborate with health workers to keep track of new and defaulter infants who
need to complete immunization series (see Module 6 (Monitoring and surveillance),
Section 1).

5.2 Report diseases
Community members can also contribute by identifying and referring suspected cases
of reportable diseases to their local health facilities (see Module 6 (Monitoring and
surveillance), Section 2 for details on reporting vaccine-preventable diseases). Health
care facilities should provide clear aids to support this function.
5.3 Exchange monitoring and surveillance information with

communities
Community feedback on services
Establish systems for collecting feedback from the community. These may include
exit interviews, quarterly or annual meetings to discuss immunization and other
health services or, in some settings, a feedback box, website or mobile phone
number for comments and suggestions by text. Community feedback can reveal and
help correct health worker practices that discourage caregivers (see box below and
Module 5 (Managing an immunization session), Section 2). Feedback can also help to
highlight health system problems that result in missed opportunities, leaving children
unvaccinated and caregivers frustrated. Examples of such problems include:
• too many attendees at a session or too few children present to warrant opening a
multi-dose vial
• vaccine stockouts
• restricted dates/times for offering vaccines
• health workers postponing vaccination of a mildly ill child or hesitating to give

multiple injections at the same visit.
Health staff can immediately address such problems when they are identified, discuss
issues further with community representatives in microplanning sessions, and provide
feedback on planned and achieved improvements.
Health service feedback to communities

It is essential to give feedback to communities to promote effective partnering. This
should be given regularly in meetings, and should include information on coverage
and dropout rates as well as notifying cases of vaccine-preventable diseases in the
community and/or district.
Feedback meetings provide opportunities for health centres to acknowledge and

thank the community for their contributions, as well as for the community to
acknowledge and thank the health workers. These meetings also provide opportunities
to acknowledge caregivers whose children are fully immunized.

The importance of respect

Treatment of and communication with caregivers at the time of vaccination can
significantly affect their willingness to return for subsequent doses. Some points on
encouraging caregivers are mentioned in Module 5 (Managing an immunization
session), and are worth reviewing here.
Health centre staff can help improve immunization coverage by:

¾¾ beginning and ending vaccinations at scheduled times
¾¾ shortening waiting times as much as possible (see if community volunteers can
help)
¾¾ attending to all children and caregivers who come during normal vaccination
hours
¾¾ showing respect and courtesy to children and caregivers
¾¾ giving information or advice in a language that is easy for the caregiver to
understand
¾¾ listening to concerns with empathy.
Be careful to avoid criticism of the caregiver verbally and/or with body language.
Treating people respectfully and kindly can be difficult if a health worker:

¾¾ feels overworked, underpaid and/or underappreciated
¾¾ perceives her/himself as different from the community, perhaps because of
professional or educational status and/or being from another ethnic group
¾¾ considers some caregivers to be ignorant, lazy and/or illiterate.

6 Inform and engage community

members
6.1 Inform caregivers
In effective immunization programmes, caregivers have a basic understanding of the

purpose of immunization, its importance and where and when it is available. They
should also have basic information on possible adverse events and how to handle
them. This understanding can be built through education at health facilities and
in communities. Information can also be passed on via radio, print and other mass
media. Although caregivers do not need to become immunization experts to have
their children vaccinated, they should have the opportunity to learn more about
immunization, vaccine-preventable diseases and any related concerns.
Communication during immunization sessions is discussed in Module 5 (Managing

an immunization session). The immunization card itself can be used as a teaching aid as
well as a vaccination due date reminder.
6.2 Engage community members in communication roles
Well-oriented community members can play a key communication role, especially

during busy immunization sessions. For example, trained community volunteers can
staff an information table at which caregivers stop after their children are vaccinated.
Volunteers can reinforce key information about return dates and possible adverse
events, and respond to any questions or concerns.
Organized community groups (health volunteers, teachers, religious groups, youth

groups) can play a particularly useful role in reminding others about immunization
sessions and mobilizing families whose children are due or overdue for vaccinations.
Health facility staff should support community educators by training them on key
information and providing support materials, such as question and answer booklets,
flip charts or, if appropriate, PowerPoint presentations and links to reliable, science-
based websites. The box below suggests key information that should be made available
to community members so they can make an informed decision about vaccinating
their children.

Key information about immunization

Besides basic information on the purpose and benefits of immunization, the
vaccines and diseases, and the days, times and places where vaccination is offered,
communities should understand the following points.
¾¾ Every child has a right to be immunized and it is the duty and responsibility of
parents to take their children for immunization.
¾¾ Immunization saves the lives of millions of children every year by preventing
serious illnesses.
¾¾ Immunization is free and available at health facilities and outreach sites (specify all
relevant sites, including NGOs, if applicable).
¾¾ Immunization is an easier step than treatment of any vaccine-preventable
disease.
¾¾ Immunization helps caregivers since they do not have to take time off work to
care for a child sick with a preventable disease.
¾¾ Vaccines are safe and effective and have been tested and approved by regulatory
authorities, ministries of health, WHO and the United Nations Children’s Fund.
¾¾ It is safe to vaccinate a child who has a mild illness, a disability or malnutrition.
¾¾ Caregivers should take the immunization card every time they take their children
to a health facility or outreach site. A child’s immunization status should be
reviewed every time they have a health care visit for any reason.
6.3 Engage traditional and religious leaders
Traditional and religious community leaders can promote immunization and provide
practical information, such as session locations and schedules. Provide written
information on immunization and other health topics for these leaders to read
during community announcements and after religious services. In places where there
is resistance to vaccination based on traditional or religious beliefs, it is essential
to engage these leaders since their cooperation is usually needed to help improve
acceptance of services (see Section 7 of this module).

6.4 Engage schools and other potential collaborators
The school system and teachers should be engaged to teach children about
immunization for several reasons:
• older, school-age children are the target for some vaccines (for example,
HPV vaccine) and campaigns
• students who are well-informed about immunization are more likely to have their
own children immunized when they become parents
• well-oriented, older students can check the immunization cards of younger children
in their own and neighbouring families and urge the caregivers to take their
children for any missing vaccinations.
Parent–teacher association (PTA) meetings or similar occasions can provide

opportunities for health staff and community educators to remind parents about the
importance of immunization and to relay practical information. Where active, PTAs
may help track and follow up children who have missed vaccinations or those who
have dropped out of school, but may need follow-up.
In some countries, tetanus, diphtheria, HPV and some other vaccinations are given
in schools. This requires good coordination between education and health officials for
the delivery of both information and vaccination. Education officials and teachers may
also serve as volunteers during national or subnational vaccination days or campaigns.
6.5 Engage the media
Health staff (often from district level) can actively engage with local mass media
(radio, television, mobile phone companies) to inform people about the availability
and impact of immunization services. Media can be responsible, proactive partners for
health services. Health staff and community members can discuss immunization in the
local media; for example, community leaders can promote immunization and parents
can share experiences with vaccine-preventable diseases in unimmunized children
during radio interview shows.
It is important to note that the media is usually most effective as a secondary channel
of information to build on information provided through personal communication
with trusted individuals, as described above. Ideally, mass media messages should be
tested and validated using appropriate research methods before being spread widely.

7 Address resistant groups

In many places throughout the world, the most common reasons for children
not being vaccinated are service-related: services are difficult to access, offered at
inconvenient times, unreliable and/or unfriendly, and caregivers often lack specific
information on when and where to take their children for vaccination. When vaccine
resistance or hesitancy is the reason children remain unvaccinated, this needs to be
addressed immediately.
7.1 Understand reasons for resistance
Resistance may be based on religious beliefs, anti-vaccination information

(disseminated via the Internet, in print and/or interpersonally), lack of understanding
of the benefits of vaccination, rumours based on misinformation or false assumptions,
or publicity on deaths or other serious events that are assumed to be related to
vaccination. Anti-vaccination information may be disseminated by people with
political or economic motives as well as by people who simply mistrust science or the
government. Vaccine refusal or hesitancy may also result from a negative experience
(personal, family or friend’s).
7.2 Respond to resistance
Accurate, positive information should be given in response to resistance. Avoid

repeating misinformation since some people may misinterpret it again. Where there
is widespread or growing fear or rejection of immunization, a prompt, strong, well-
grounded response is essential. The first step is learning about the issue(s) at hand:
• What people or types of people are rejecting immunization?
• For what reason?
• Who or what is influencing them?
• What is motivating those influencers?

Regardless of the cause, significant resistance is a situation that often requires the local
health facility to seek assistance from the district or national health authorities. Under
the direction of these authorities, health centre staff can:
• meet with key opinion leaders (politicians, traditional and religious leaders,
community leaders, other health workers)
• organize meetings at sites where the individuals or groups are comfortable and feel
at ease to ask questions
• encourage community members to watch and talk about any national mass media
response.
In many cases, communication activities must be complemented by actions to make

vaccination services more friendly, acceptable and convenient, and to increase the
involvement of leaders from resistant groups.
Immunization programmes should have procedures and plans ready for adverse events
and crises in public confidence. Any serious illness or death following vaccination
should be thoroughly investigated as quickly as possible and the public should be
urged not to jump to the conclusion that the vaccination was the cause (see Module 6
(Monitoring and surveillance), Section 2.4).
The more trusting the relationship is between health services and communities, the less
likely that the problem of resistance will arise. But if it does, a trusting relationship will
make it easier to respond to community concerns or vaccine resistance.

How to respond to rumours and misconceptions about immunization

¾¾ Act swiftly to identify the source of the rumours and understand their contents.
Listen to what they are saying. Try to understand their starting point.
¾¾ Identify the people and organizations responsible for fabricating and spreading
the rumours and design strategies to interact with them.
¾¾ Collect good data and facts about immunization to prepare responses to
rumours.
¾¾ Determine the reasons behind the creation of these rumours (for example, is
it lack of information, religious/cultural opposition, specific beliefs or mere
propaganda?).
¾¾ Turn the rumour around by going to the source and asking the people what
solution they can offer to dispel the rumour.
¾¾ Target key and credible opinion leaders in the affected area (community leaders,
religious leaders, elders, clan leaders), inform them about immunization and seek
their support for the promotion of services.
¾¾ Identify appropriate occasions on which to disseminate facts about immunization
(for example, village meetings, religious gatherings, cultural and social functions
such as fundraising).
¾¾ Involve NGOs, civil society organizations and respected leaders to disseminate
accurate information on immunization.
¾¾ Coordinate with the district health authority to conduct a mass media campaign
to spread accurate information on immunization (via radio, for example). In
particular, seek out media that have already misinformed the public and involve
them in an accurate campaign.
¾¾ Train community members who can support the dissemination of accurate
information at various places/events.

Annex 7.1 Community meetings

In addition to involving community leaders, volunteers and others regularly, health
centre staff should meet at least once a year with as many catchment area communities
as possible. Work with local leaders to invite everyone with an interest in child health
and to ensure that women and religious and ethnic minorities attend. The purpose
of these meetings is to exchange information. This includes providing updates on the
immunization programme and the importance of using its services, ask for honest
feedback and suggestions, and invite any questions or concerns about immunization.
Discuss ways to strengthen partnering for immunization. Adapt the advice below as
needed based on local factors.
Scheduling the meeting

• Propose a meeting and explain its purpose to different community leaders and
groups. If they agree, ask them to suggest the best time and place. Try to ensure that
different community subgroups (for example, men or women or particular political
parties, religions, social classes or ethnic groups) are represented, either in combined
or separate meetings, as appropriate.
• Discuss and reach agreement on the objectives of the meeting. For example: to
get their feedback on health services; to inform people about immunization and
what it takes to protect their children; and/or to discuss how they might assist with
promoting, providing or evaluating immunization services. Invite their suggestions.
• Ask the community representatives to inform others about the meeting and let
them know what you will provide (for example, health education materials on
immunization and drinks or snacks).
Facilitating the meeting

A health worker can facilitate the meeting, either alone or together with one or
two community representatives. The facilitators should dress appropriately for the
community setting.
• Have everyone sit in a circle or in a similar arrangement that allows participants to

see each other. The group can sit on chairs, benches, the ground or any appropriate
seating. The facilitators should sit in similar seating and on the same level as the
community participants.
• If culturally acceptable, encourage women not to stand at the back of the crowd
but to come forward and participate actively. While men’s opinions are important,
women are likely to have greater experience with immunization services. In some
settings, separate meetings with men and women may be necessary.

• Open the meeting by thanking people for organizing it and attending.
• Explain the objectives clearly. The general objective is to improve immunization

services and their use to keep the community’s children as safe from vaccine-
preventable diseases as possible. There should also be more specific objectives, such
as gathering feedback or choosing tasks during immunization sessions. Ask if these
are clear. Ask for comments and suggestions for additional objectives.
• Explain that the objectives will be achieved only when everyone participates.
Emphasize that all opinions are welcomed without judgment.
• If appropriate, ask someone from the community and someone from the health
services to take notes. After the meeting, they can sit together to make the official
notes for future reference.
• Speak loudly and clearly. Avoid medical or public health terms and speak in the
language that the participants are most comfortable using.
• Do your best to get everyone to participate, particularly groups or individuals who

seem shy or possibly afraid to speak up.
• Ask a lot of questions and encourage wide participation to gather feedback on

services.
• If informing the community about immunization or services, be sure to confirm

people’s understanding and encourage them to express their doubts and ask
questions. Ask them questions too and then add to what the participants say
without moving into a lecture.
• If exploring whether the community can assist with some aspect of immunization
services, first encourage brainstorming on various ideas. Ask how many people agree
or disagree with certain points or ideas. Ask if informal voting is needed to clarify
the majority opinions or suggestions.
• Just before ending the meeting, ask for volunteers to summarize what was said and
agreed.
• Review the specific commitments made by both the health services and the
community.
• Review how the commitments will be monitored.
• Agree on a time or tentative times for a follow-up meeting.
• Thank everyone for attending and participating.

After the meeting:

• If notes were taken, arrange for them to be finalized and disseminated.
• Be certain to monitor the commitments made at the meeting.
• If particular problems – either in health services or in community perceptions –

emerge from the discussions, try to address them as soon as possible in microplans
and/or in actions for health staff and community partners. Make the district/central
levels aware of any problems that they may need to help address or activities that
they may need to support.

Annex 7.2 Checklist for NGO involvement in

immunization
NGO involvement in immunization
NAME OF NGO: ______________________ DISTRICT: _______________
For routine immunization services at fixed or outreach sites (NOT for polio national immunization days or
other supplemental immunization activities [SIAs]).
Does the NGO: Circle Y (yes) or N (no)
Organize and directly immunize at NGO immunization sessions at fixed or outreach sites? Y N
Advocate with government for delivery of immunization services? Y N
Coordinate with government health facilities about schedule of outreach services? Y N
Announce visits of immunization teams (e.g. “town-criers”, flags)? Y N
Maintain/update community-held registers (lists) of newborns? Y N
Use community-held registers (lists) to record each child’s immunizations? Y N
Use registers (lists) to identify defaulters to reduce drop out? Y N
Target/educate individual community members to get their children immunized? Y N
Publicly recognize parents of children who complete immunizations? Y N
Monitor immunization coverage in geographic catchment areas (e.g. community, parish)? Y N
Provide in-kind or financial support for government immunization (e.g. transport, salary top-ups,
lodging, meals)? Y N
Provide other technical support for government immunization (e.g. cold chain, logistics)? Y N
Discuss the immunization programme and its progress with community committees or members,
including families who have concerns about immunization, how people feel about services? Y N
Describe other involvement:

Department of Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals
Family and Child Health
World Health Organization
CH-1211 Geneva 27
Switzerland
Fax: +41 22 791 4227
Email: vaccines@who.int
Or visit our website at http://www.who.int/vaccines-documents
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Immunization in Practice

A practical guide for health staff

Ensuring safe injections

Microplanning for reaching

1.3 Prepare supplementary materials and equipment

Figure 5.2 Immunization station: example arrangement Managing an

Safety box of needle

Module5_Proof4.indd 5 03/09/2015 17:32

Immunization in practice: a practical guide for health staff – 2015 update.

1.Vaccination. 2.Immunization Programs. 3.Vaccines. 4.Cold Chain. 5.Injections – standards. 6.Handbooks.

ISBN 978 92 4 154909 7 (NLM classification: WA 115)

© World Health Organization 2015

Immunization in practice iii

Module 4: Microplanning for reaching every community

Abbreviations and acronyms

ORS Oral rehydration solution

Ms Jhilmil Bahl coordinated the development of this publication for WHO

Immunization in practice vii

viii Immunization in practice

(1)2 Immunization in practice

Immunization in practice (1)3

8. Mumps .......................................................................................................... (1)37

9. Pertussis ....................................................................................................... (1)40

(1)4 Immunization in practice

11.6 What is polio vaccine? ................................................................................................................... (1)49

Immunization in practice (1)5

15.4 What are the complications of tetanus? ................................................................................... (1)65

(1)6 Immunization in practice

Diphtheria is caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae. This bacterium

1.2 How is diphtheria spread?

1.3 What are the symptoms and signs of diphtheria?

1.4 What are the complications of diphtheria?

The most severe complication of diphtheria is respiratory obstruction followed by death.

1.5 What is the treatment for diphtheria?

Immunization in practice (1)7

1.6 How is diphtheria prevented?

The most effective way to prevent diphtheria is to maintain a high level of

1.7 What are diphtheria-containing vaccines?

Diphtheria-containing vaccines include: the combination with tetanus toxoid (DT/

Diphtheria-containing vaccines are administered as 0.5 ml doses given intramuscularly

(1)8 Immunization in practice

1.9 When are diphtheria-containing vaccines administered?

Diphtheria-containing vaccine should be included in infant immunization

Key points about diphtheria

Immunization in practice (1)9

Table 1.1 Diphtheria-containing vaccine summary

Total number of doses 3–5 – see schedules

Schedule – For infant immunization doses:

Schedule – For previously unimmunized individuals 7 years of age and older:

Contraindications Anaphylaxis or hypersensitivity (allergy) after a previous dose

Special precautions None

Injection site Anterolateral (outer) thigh in infants

Injection type Intramuscular

Storage Between +2 °C and +8 °C

(1)10 Immunization in practice

2 Haemophilus influenzae type b

Haemophilus influenzae is a bacterium found commonly in the nose and throats of

2.2 How is Hib spread?

2.3 What are the symptoms and signs of Hib disease?

2.4 What are the complications of Hib disease?