MASCHINEN UND ANLAGEN

MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENTS

Calendering
Free surface
CFD

Theoretical Study of Operating
The velocity and pressure field forms
within the gap of a calender is numeri-
cally calculated. The numerical calcula-
Limits for the Calendering
tions are based on a decoupled calcula-
tion method for the free surface of the
bank. The transport equations for mass
Process
and momentum are solved numerically.
The position of the free surface of the
bank is determined by shifting it until it
matches a stream line. Parameters are
the gap height, the circumferential speed
of the rolls, the speed ratio, the feed mass
flow into the gap and the rheological Counter rotating rolls are used in calenders are too high can lead to mattness on its
behaviour of the polymer. All process to produce sheets and foils from polymeric surface [16]. Inside the bank, the shearing
parameters are subject to boundaries
due to the requirements to the quality of materials. The shaping of the sheets takes of the usually very viscous fluids leads to
the calendered sheet regarding surface place in the gap between the rotating rolls. the dissipation of mechanical energy. Be-
appearance, air bubble inclusions or A schematic representation of the three-di- cause of the dissipated energy flow the
mixing of the polymer. The calendering mensional flow and pressure fields inside temperature rises and the material of the
process itself requires limited operating the gap is shown in Fig. 1 as it was obser- produced sheet may decompose [17].
windows for the variation of the process
parameters in order to meet the product ved by Unkruer [1]. The polymer melt sticks So far the influence of the shape of the
quality requirements. These operating to the top roll and is conveyed into the di- bank and its volume on the sheet proper-
windows are discussed and graphically rection of the smallest gap. In front of the ties has been experimentally analysed. In
plotted. smallest gap a pressure maximum deve- this work the influence of the velocity field
lops. Because of the pressure gradient inside the bank on the properties of the
the material is conveyed backwards into produced sheet is analysed theoretically.
Theoretische Diskussion von the direction of the incoming material. For this reason the flow field in the calen-
This pressure induced flow is superposed der gap, including the free surface of the
Betriebsgrenzen für den Ka-
to the drag flow along the roll surfaces. bank, is calculated numerically using a Fi-
landrierprozess
This results in a bank formed by vortices nite Element Method. The relevant proces-
which are characteristic for the calende- sing parameters are the gap height be-
Kalandrieren
freie Oberfläche
CFD
ring process. Because of another pressure tween the rolls, speed, temperature and
Auf numerischem Wege werden die gradient directed in axial direction of the diameters of the rolls. An example of the
Geschwindigkeits- und Spannungsfel- rolls, the material is also conveyed into influence of the gap height on the bank
der und die sich im Verarbeitungs- these directions. The height of the bank is shown schematically in Fig. 2. The sheet
prozess einstellende Position der frei- decreases towards the ends of the rolls. with a constant height may be calendered
en Knetoberfläche berechnet. Die The first mathematical analyses [2 – 6] of with different gap heights. According to
Berechnung des Strömungsfeldes und
der sich einstellenden freien Oberflä- the velocity field within the calender gap the gap height a bank with a certain height
che erfolgt iterativ. Die Transportglei- are based on the model of Gaskell [7]. Bra- is formed. This marks different processing
chungen für die Massen- und Impuls- zinsky et al. [6] included the calculation of alternatives for the sheet properties.
ströme werden mit dem Programm the thickness of the calendered sheet as a
Polyflow gelöst. Die Lage der freien function of the height between the rolls in Theory
Oberfläche wird aus dem Ergebnis für
das Geschwindigkeitsfeld berechnet. the entry cross section. The first numerical
The velocity and stress fields are numerical-
Das Strömungsfeld und die Lage der calculations were made by Kipparissides
ly calculated for the volume of the gap be-
freien Oberfläche des Knets werden in and Vlachopoulos [8, 9] based on the lubri-
Abhängigkeit der Spalthöhe, der tween the calender rolls. The flow is assu-
cation approximation. This limitation was
Umfangsgeschwindigkeit der Walzen, med to be incompressible, isothermic and
overcome for the first time by Seeger et
deren Friktions-Zahl, der Durchmesser, stationary. The continuity equation gives
dem durch den Spalt geförderten al. [10]. Mitsoulis et al. [11] calculated
Massenstrom und den Fließeigen- the non-isothermal flow field numerically div ð~
vÞ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
schaften berechnet. Die Variationsbe- and the coordinates of the free surface
reiche aller Verfahrensparameter un- of the bank. Yao and Manas-Zloczower
terliegen aufgrund der Anforderun- [12] studied mixing in the calender gap.
gen an die Eigenschaften der kaland-
rierten Bahnen Grenzen. Mit Hilfe der They also include the free surface of the
S. Luther and D. Mewes, Hannover
berechneten Strömungsfelder werden bank. Three-dimensional calculations
Betriebsgrenzen bezüglich dispersiver without consideration of the bank were Corresponding author:
und distributiver Vermischung, Ober- made by Riest [13] for the first time. Dr. Sabine Luther
flächengüte, Lufteinschlüsse und Experimental results indicate, that the ve-
temperaturbedingter Defekte erläu- Deutsches Institut für
tert. Die Betriebsgrenzen kennzeich- locity and pressure field and the adjusting Kautschuktechnologie e.V.
nen Verarbeitungsfenster die qualita- form of the bank determine the properties Eupener Str. 33
tiv dargestellt und diskutiert werden. of the produced sheet [14]. Too low a pres- 30519 Hannover
sure can cause air bubble inclusions within Tel.: 05 11/8 42 01-0
the sheet [15], while pressure values which Fax: 05 11/8 38 68 26

KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005 149

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the three-dimensional flow field Fig. 2. Schematic representation of two processing alternatives for the
and the shape of the bank between two counter rotating rolls as it calendering of a sheet with constant height
was observed by Unkruer [1]

~
v means the velocity vector. The momen- pðx ¼ x2 Þ ¼ 0 ð6Þ h0
h*0 ¼ ; ð12Þ
tum balance gives h2
and for the boundary in the axial direction
q~
v grad ð~
vÞ ¼ div ðsÞ ÿ grad ðpÞ ð2Þ at the ends of the rolls l speed ratio:
pðz ¼ ÿW=2Þ ¼ 0: ð7Þ v
with the density q, the extra stress tensor s f¼ 2: ð13Þ
v1
and the pressure p. For a viscous fluid the No flow should occur perpendicular to the
extra stress tensor is calculated by free surface
s ¼ 2gD ð3Þ vn ¼ 0: ð8Þ Gap height and speed ratio
g is the viscosity and D the rate of deforma- The forces acting on the free surface vanish In Fig. 4 the bank height is presented as a
tion tensor. The rheological behaviour is function of the gap height for fluids with
sij ¼ 0; ð9Þ
assumed to be described by the Ost- non-Newtonian and Newtonian flow be-
wald-de-Waele relation. In this relation haviour. Varied parameters are the roll dia-
r ¼ 0: ð10Þ
the viscosity is a function of the second meters and the circumferential speeds of
invariant I2 of the rate of deformation ten- Herein vn represents the normal velocity at the rolls. Exclusively the rheological beha-
sor D the three dimensional free surface, sij the viour represented with the flow index af-
tangential shear stresses and r the surface fects the bank height. This result was
"rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi#nÿ1
1 tension. In axial roll direction at z ¼ 0 the also obtained by Brazinsky et al. [6], who
g¼K I ðDÞ ð4Þ flow field is assumed to be symmetric. The calculated the sheet thickness as a functi-
2 2
calculation of the free surface is done in a on of the upstream reservoir thickness and
with K as the consistency factor and n as numerically decoupled way from the solu- the flow index with the simplification of
the flow index. tion of the transport equations [18]. the lubrication theory. The results of Bran-
In Fig. 3 a representation of the grid and zinsky et al. are also given in Fig. 4. They
the applied boundary conditions are are in agreement with the FEM-calculati-
Results ons.
shown. The grid includes approx. 40 000
elements. At the location of maximum Several parameters are investigated which With increasing speed ratio at constant
pressure and behind the smallest cross sec- influence the three-dimensional form of line speeds V2 the circumferential speed
tion a grid refinement is necessary. The in- the bank and the processing windows. of roll 1 decreases. To achieve realistic
coming sheet has a constant height. The Analysed parameters are the rheological bank heights the gap height has to be in-
fluid velocity is identical to the circumfe- behaviour, the gap height of the smallest creased simultaneously. The increased gap
rential speed of the top roll. The mass cross section and the circumferential roll height leads to a reduced pressure within
flow rate becomes speed [18]. The diameters of both rolls the flow field. In Fig. 5 the computed ma-
are assumed to be identical. The following ximum pressure is presented as a function
_ ¼qv h W
M ð5Þ characteristic numbers are defined based of gap height and speed ratio. The maxi-
1 1 1
2 mum pressure decreases with increasing
on a constant sheet thickness and constant
h1 is the height of the incoming sheet, v1 line speed v ¼ v2: gap height and speed ratio. The diagram
the circumferential speed of the top roll l dimensionless bank height: shows, that the production of a sheet
and W the width of the calendered sheet. with a constant height and line speed
H
At the surface of the rolls there is no slip, H* ¼ ; ð11Þ can take place with variable speed ratios
h2
the pressure p is assumed to be constant at and gap heights. The range of alternative
the outlet cross section l dimensionless gap height: processing possibilities is shown in grey co-

150 KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005

Fig. 3. Three dimensional grid geometry used for the numerical calcula- Fig. 4. Bank heights as a function of the gap height
tions

Fig. 5. Maximum pressures as a function of the gap height and the Fig. 6. Isobars as function of the gap height and the line speed
speed ratio

lour. These different processing alternati- face defects and air bubble inclusions from maximum pressure and thus the probabili-
ves lead to different properties of the pro- each other. The circumferential speeds of ty for the occurrence of surface defects rise
duced sheet. High pressure leads to sur- both rolls are identical. The maximum pres- with increasing line speed and decreasing
face defects like mattness [16] or nerves sure and thus the tendency to surface de- speed ratio. The tendency to air bubble in-
[5]. Low pressures lead to air bubble inclu- fects rise with increasing line speed and clusions rise with decreasing line speed
sions in the sheet [15]. decreasing gap height. The decrease of and increasing speed ratio. The adjusting
the line speed and the simultaneous enlar- maximum pressure in the gap decreases.
gement of the gap height lead to a decrea- The increase of the line speed for equal
Air bubble inclusion and
sing pressure in the gap. The tendency to tendency to surface defects and air inclu-
surface structures
the inclusion of air bubbles rises. The pro- sions can take place with simultaneous in-
The processing parameters must be selec- duction of polymer sheets with a defined crease of the speed ratio. If the speed ratio
ted in such a way that the maximum pres- amount of surface defects and air inclusi- is increased from 1.1 to 1.2 at a constant
sure adjusting in the calender gap is nei- ons can take place with different line pressure p ¼ 260  105 Pa, this leads to an
ther too high nor too low for the calende- speeds and gap heights. The increase of increase of the line speed from 3.6 m/min
ring of a defective-free polymer sheet. In the line speed at constant maximum pres- to 4.7 m/min. The increase of the line
Fig. 6 the isobars are represented as func- sures takes place when simultaneously the speed amounts to 31 %. The increase is
tion of the gap height and the line speed gap height is increased. dependent on the gradients of the isobars.
for a polymer sheet with the height of In Fig. 7 the isobars are represented as
h2 ¼ 0.5 mm. The isobars boarder diffe- function of the speed ratio and the line
rent processing ranges with expected sur- speed for the bank height h ¼ 67. The

KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005 151

Fig. 7. Isobars as function of the speed ratio and the line speed Fig. 8. Mixing index within the flow field between two counter rotating
rolls (Z = 0)

Fig. 9. Volume fraction of the flow field with mixing index of k  0.5 Fig. 10. Shear stress within the smallest gap as function of the gap
und shear stress s  s (d ¼ 0,5 m; f ¼ 1,0) height and speed ratio

Dispersive mixing are compared. The mixing index is 1, if it is with high shear stress and also large mi-
a pure extensional flow and 0.5 for a pure xing indexes lead to a fast creation of a
During dispersive mixing agglomerates are
shear flow. For a pure rotational flow the good mixture.
broken and divided into small units. Disper-
mixing index becomes zero. In Fig. 8 the The fraction of volume with high mixing
sive mixing takes place at high shear and
computed mixing index is shown within efficiency is given by
extensional stresses. Breaking the
the flow field between two counter rota- Vmixing
agglomerates takes place, if the shear V*mixing ¼ ð15Þ
ting rolls for a viscous fluid. In the range
and normal stresses in the flow field are lar- V
of the symmetry plane between the rolls
ger than the cohesion forces. The shear
and within the smallest gap a high mixing Here the volume of the material Vmixing
and normal stresses are larger in exten-
index is computed. Along the roller surfa- where high mixing indexes of k  0,5
sional flows than in shear flows. Therefore
ces exist almost pure shear flow with va- and simultaneously high shear stresses
Yang and Manas Zloczower [19] describe
lues for the mixing index of k ¼ 0.5. Wi- s  s(d ¼ 0.5 m; f ¼ 1.0) [20] are calcula-
the dispersive mixing efficiency with the
thin the bank predominantly a rotational ted and normalized with the whole volume
mixing index:
  flow with a very low mixing index is pre- of the material within the calender gap. As
  sent. The rotational flow does not contri- base factor for the shear stress the avera-
D
k ¼     ð14Þ bute to dispersive mixing. ged calculated shear stress s for the roll
D þ W Besides the type of flow to characterize the diameter d ¼ 0.5 m with a speed ratio of
mixing efficiency the height of the shear f ¼ 1 is selected. High volume fractions
Here the values of the rate of deformation stresses arising in the flow field have to correspond to high mixing efficiencies. In
tensor D and the rotating speed tensor W be regarded. Volumes of the flow field Fig. 9 the volume fraction of effectively mi-

152 KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005

Fig. 11. Streamlines within the gap to calculate the material fraction mi- Fig. 12. Volume of the polymer flow mixed within the bank as function
xed inside the bank of the speed ratio and bank height

Fig. 13. Operation points of the same maximum dissipated energy flow Fig. 14. Processing window as function of the gap height and the line
as function of the speed ratio and the line speed speed for viscous polymers

xed material is shown as function of the ximum shear stress in the flow field increa- mer portion, which is not mixed within the
speed ratio for different roll diameters ses with increasing gap height. bank. The lower layer is mixed inside the
and a bank height H* ¼ 67. The results bank volume. In Fig. 11 the computed
show that with increasing speed ratio flow field with the two layers represented
Distributive mixing efficiency
and decreasing roll diameter the volume in different colours is shown.
fraction with high mixing efficiencies The distribution of the components in the The volume fraction of the polymer flow
slightly decreases. flow field occurs during the distributive mi- mixed within the bank is given by
Dispersive mixing improves with increasing xing process. In the flow field between the
shear stress. The maximum shear stress in a two counter rotating rolls distributive mi- h2;B
flow field is therefore another parameter xing takes place within the bank volume. h2;B *¼ ð16Þ
h2
for the evaluation of dispersive mixing effi- Only one part of the supplied mass flow
ciency in different flow fields [21]. The ma- is transported into the bank volume. For
ximum shear stress arises in the smallest example if the polymer supply is done with the height of the lower layer h2,B. In
gap at the surface of roll 1. At the location via the surface of the top-roll, the upper Fig. 12 this volume fraction is shown as
of the pressure maximum the shear stress layer of the incoming polymer is transpor- function of the speed ratio for different
almost drops to zero due to the small de- ted directly through the gap, while the po- bank heights. The volume fraction is inde-
formation speed. In Fig. 10 the shear stress lymer at the lower surface is transported pendent of the bank height with constant
within the smallest gap is shown as a func- into the bank volume. Therefore the calen- speed ratio. The computed volume fracti-
tion of the gap height and the speed ratio dered sheet consists out of two layers. The on is 50 % for a speed ratio of 1. Unkruer
at the surface of roll 1 and roll 2. The ma- upper layer of the sheet contains the poly- [1] observes portions between 50 and

154 KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005

 erfficient dispersive mixing. From the pro-
cessing window it can be taken that for ob-
taining a maximum line speed a large gap
height, i.e. a small bank height should be
selected.
In Fig. 15 is shown the processing window
as function of the speed ratio and the line
speed. The processing borders regarding
surface defects and cavities are given
with two isobars. Additionally a minimum
speed ratio should be exceeded. This ensu-
res a minimum volume fraction of mixed
material within the bank volume. With in-
Fig. 15. Processing creasing line speed and speed ratio the dis-
window as function
of the speed ratio sipated mechanical energy rises. The dissi-
and the line speed for pated energy leads to the rise in tempera-
viscous polymers
ture in the polymer. This can lead to
thermal damage of the calendered material
[17]. The decomposition becomes appa-
60 %. The computed values are in agree- gy flow represents an operation limit, since rent in the calendered sheet in form of scor-
ment with this values from unkruer. this is associated with a local rise in tempe- ched spots. The processing parameters,
The volume fraction of polymer mixed wi- rature and the decomposition of the poly- which lead to a constant, maximum energy
thin the bank rises with increasing speed mer. In Fig. 13 operating points of equal dissipation and a local rise in temperature,
ratio. This corresponds to observations maximum dissipated energy flow are re- represent therefore a further operation li-
from Hatzmann, Herner and Mueller presented as function of the speed ratio mit. A middle ranged speed ratio should
[14]. They observed a qualitatively higher and the line speed. With increasing line be selected to obtain a maximum line
mixing efficiency of the polymer with in- speed and speed ratio the maximum of dis- speed.
creasing speed ratio. sipated energy flow rises and thus the dan- With help of measurements of the opera-
ger of local decomposition of the polymer tion limits a processing window for the ca-
increases. lendering process may be calculated and
Thermal decomposition The volumetric expansion of the bank re- the process parameters to obtain a maxi-
Due to local high temperatures within the presents a further operation limit. During mum line speed can be selected.
gap the polymer might be damaged by the calandering with a very large bank
thermal decomposition [17]. The decom- height the material at the edge of the
position products form scorched spots at bank cools down. The cold material is
the surface of the calendered sheet. The transported through the smallest gap
Summary
heat build up develops in the gap due to and form surface defects in the calendered
the dissipation of mechanical energy. sheet [14, 22]. The bank volume is a The three dimensional velocity and pressu-
The heat flow resulting from dissipation is function of the gap height. For this reason re fields are numerically calculated in a ca-
Z a critical gap height should be exceeded. lender gap for viscous fluids by using the
Q_ diss ¼ Udiss dV: ð17Þ method of finite elements. The analysis in-
cludes the determination of the free sur-
V Processing windows
face of the calender bank. The shape of
With the assumption that the conductive The processing parameters gap height, line the bank and the streamlines inside the
and convective heat flow is negligible, speed and speed ratio are subject to boun- bank are a function of the flow index.
the local rise in temperature is proportional daries due to the quality requirements of Sheets of constant thickness can be calen-
to the dissipated energy flow the calendered sheet. Exemplarily in dered with the use of variable gap heights
Q_ diss Fig. 14 a processing window is represented and speed ratios. Increasing the gap
DT ¼ ð18Þ as function of gap height and line speed. heights result in decreasing pressures
V_ q c p
The borders are characterized by the iso- and diminished bank volumes. With larger
with the volume flow V_ , the density q and bars, which determine the quality of the speed ratios pressures will decrease at con-
the specific heat capacity cp. calendered sheet regarding surface defects stant sheet thickness, line speed and gap
The maximum of the dissipated energy and air inclusions. Further the calendering height. Different processing alternatives
flow is calculated within the smallest with very large bank volumes, i.e. small are graphically defined as processing wind-
gap, at x ¼ 0, close to the surface of roll gap heights, is not favourable since the ows. The limits of the processing windows
1, where the maximum shear stress arises. material at the edge of the bank cools are given by quality demanded properties
The maximum of the dissipated energy down and is transported through the smal- of the produced sheet. We conclude, that
flow increases with increasing line speed lest gap. At last a maximum gap determi- for an optimised production with high ca-
and speed ratio and decreases with increa- nes a minimum bank volume and therefore lender speeds, medium ranged speed rati-
sing gap height, i.e. decreasing bank a minimum shear stress in the smallest os and large gap heights which results in
height. A maximum of the dissipated ener- gap. This should be avoided to obtain an small bank volumes are recommended.

KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005 155

References [10] R. Seeger, R. Schnabel, E. O. Reher, Plaste [18] S. Luther, D. Mewes: Three-dimensional flow in
Kautsch. 29 (1982) 7, 406/413. the calender bank, Pol. Eng. Sci. 44 (2004) 9,
[1] W. Unkruer, Beitrag zur Ermittlung des Druckver- [11] E. Mitsoulis, J. Vlachopoulos, F. A. Mirza, Polym. 1642.
laufes und der Fließvorgänge im Walzspalt bei der Eng. Sci. 25 (1985) 2, 118/121. [19] W. Wang, I. Manas-Zloczower, Polym. Eng, Sci. 41
Kalanderverarbeitung von PVC hart zu Folien, Aa- [12] C.-H. Yao, I. Manas-Zloczower, Polym. Eng. Sci. (2001) 6, 1068/1077.
chen, Germany (1970). 36 (1996) 3, 305/310. [20] H.-H. Yang, I. Manas-Zloczower, Intern. Polymer
[2] J. M. McKelvey, Polymer Processing; John Wiley [13] K. Riest, Eine Konstruktionsumgebung für inte- Processing IX (1994) 4, 291/302.
and Sons, New York (1962). griertes Gestalten und Berechnen am Beispiel [21] J. M. Funt, Plastics and Rubber Processing 2
[3] S. Middleman, Fundamentals of Polymer Proces- von Kalandern, Fortschritt-Berichte VDI Reihe 3, (1977) 12, 127/130.
sing, McGraw Hill, New York (1977). VDI Verlag, Düsseldorf, Germany (1999). [22] R. A. Elden, A. D. Swan: Calendering of plastics;
[4] W. W. Alston, K. N. Astill, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 17 [14] G. Hatzmann, M. Herner, G. Müller, Kunststoffe Iliffle Books, London 1971.
(1973) 3157/3174. 65 (1975) 8, 472/476.
[5] J. S. Chong, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 12 (1968) 191/ [15] C. Kohlert, E. O. Reher, V. N. Krasovskij, A. M. Vos- The authors
212. kresenskij: Kalandrieren von Polymeren; Deut-
[6] I. Brazinsky, H. F. Cosway, C. F. Valle, R. Clark Jo- scher Verlag der Grundstoffindustrie GmbH, Leip- S. Luther is head of the processing department of
nes, V. Story, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 14 (1970) 2771/ zig, Germany (1992). the german institute of rubber technology and Prof.
2784. [16] J. L. Bourgeois, J. F. Agassant, J. Macromol. Sci. D. Mewes is head of the institute of process eng-
[7] R. E. Gaskell, J. Appl. Mech. (1950) 334/336. Phys. 14 (1977) 3, 367/385. ineering at the university of Hannover.
[8] C. Kiparissides, J. Vlachopoulos, Polym. Eng. Sci. [17] H. Gärtner:, Einfluß der Temperaturführung im
16 (1976) 10, 712/719. Kalandrierprozeß auf Qualität und Kosten von
[9] C. Kiparissides, J. Vlachopoulos, Polym. Eng. Sci. PVC-Hartfolien; Merseburg, Germany (1997).
18 (1978) 3, 210/214.

156 KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005