CLOSING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP

Best Practices In Teaching

Mathematics

Funding provided by the

Claude Worthington Benedum Foundation

Spring 2006
300 Capitol Street, Suite 1100
Charleston, WV 25301
304-342-7850
www.educationalliance.org
CLOSING THE ACHIEVMENT GAP:

BEST PRACTICES IN TEACHING

MATHEMATICS

Spring 2006
 CLOSING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP:
BEST PRACTICES IN TEACHING MATHEMATICS

Introduction

Mathematics is a form of reasoning. Thinking mathematically consists of thinking

in a logical manner, formulating and testing conjectures, making sense of things, and

forming and justifying judgments, inferences, and conclusions. We demonstrate

mathematical behavior when we recognize and describe patterns, construct physical and

conceptual models of phenomena, create symbol systems to help us represent,

manipulate, and reflect on ideas, and invent procedures to solve problems (Battista,

1999).

Recent national test results provide continuing documentation of the need to

increase the focus on improving student achievement in mathematics. The National

Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) recently released the 2005 math scores

which reflected student achievement in the areas of measurement, geometry, data

analysis, probability and algebra. Nationally, only 30% of eighth graders were deemed

proficient. Although reflecting an increase from previous assessments, only 69% of the

eighth graders nationally demonstrated a basic skills level on the NAEP assessment

(Olson, 2005).

The need for effective instruction in mathematics was further documented in a

February 2006 study by the U.S. Department of Education. The study findings are based

on data from a nationally representative sample of students from the high school class of

1992 who attended a four-year college. The study found that taking a full schedule of

academically demanding courses in high school, including mathematics beyond

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Algebra II, was the single most significant pre-collegiate variable in determining if

students graduated from college. The study also found significant disconnects between

the high school curriculum and the expectations of the first year of college, suggesting

the need to increase the level of challenging academic content in high school. This need

to offer a more challenging high school curriculum is even more critical for poor and

minority students as they are less likely than higher socioeconomic and white students to

attend high schools that offer a challenging curriculum. States moving to increase unit

requirements for graduation must also attend to content requirements if they expect to

make a difference in student performance (Adelman, 2006).

Masini and Taylor (2000) report research documenting that the number of

mathematics topics covered prior to eighth grade is positively correlated to mathematics

achievement while the number of new topics presented at the eighth grade level is

negatively correlated to mathematics achievement. Regardless of math skills before high

school, taking algebra in the middle school is strongly related to achievement gains in

high school. The math curriculum must provide students with opportunities to learn math

at an early age.

The poor performance of U.S. students in math can be traced to the method used

to teach math at the elementary level. The focus is on specific problems and not on

building the foundations necessary for understanding higher level math. These

foundations can only be built with a mathematics program that teaches concepts and

skills, and problem-solving (Daro, 2006).

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 The Mathematics Reform Movement

The reform movement in mathematics education can be traced to the mid-1980’s

and was a response to the failure of traditional teaching methods, the impact of

technology on curriculum and the emergence of new approaches to the scientific study of

how mathematics is learned. Basic to the reform movement was a standards-based

approach to the “what and how” of mathematics teaching (Battista, 1999).

In the new mathematics, the focus is on problem solving, mathematical reasoning,

justifying ideas, making sense of complex situations and independently learning new

ideas. Students must be provided with opportunities to solve complex problems,

formulate and test mathematical ideas and draw conclusions. Students must be able read,

write and discuss mathematics, use demonstrations, drawings and real-world objects, and

participate in formal mathematical and logical arguments (Battista, 1999).

The driving force behind the standards-based approach to mathematics instruction

has been the standards developed by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

(NCTM). The Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, published by NCTM in

2000, outlines the principles and standards for developing a comprehensive school

mathematics program. The document delineates six guiding principles related to equity,

curriculum, teaching, learning, assessment and technology, and identifies five content and

process standards outlining what content and processes students should know and be able

to use. The content standards are organized around content strands related to numbers

and operations, algebra, geometry, measurement and data analysis and probability. The

process standards are organized around the areas of problem solving, reasoning and

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proof, communication, connections and representations (National Council of Teachers of

Mathematics, 2000).

A set of basic assumptions about teaching and schooling practices is implicit in

this reform movement. First, all students must have an opportunity to learn new

mathematics. Second, all students have the capacity to learn more mathematics than we

have traditionally assumed. Third, new applications and changes in technology have

changed the instructional importance of some mathematics concepts. Fourth, new

instructional environments can be created through the use of technological tools. Fifth,

meaningful mathematics learning is a product of purposeful engagement and interaction

which builds on prior experience (Romberg, 2000).

A recent concept paper published by the American Mathematical Society has

been influential in identifying some common areas of agreement about mathematics

education. The identified areas of agreement are based on three fundamental premises;

basic skills with numbers continue to be important and students need proficiency with

computational procedures, mathematics requires careful reasoning about precisely

defined objects and concepts, and students must be able to formulate and solve problems.

The areas of agreement emerging from these premises include:

• Mathematical fluency requires automatic recall of certain procedures and

algorithms.

• Use of calculators in instruction can be useful but must not impede the

development of fluency with computational procedures and basic facts.

• Using and understanding the basic algorithms of whole number arithmetic is

essential.

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 • Developing an understanding of the number meaning of fractions is essential.

• Teachers must ensure that the use of “real-world” contexts for teaching

mathematics maintains a focus on mathematical ideas.

• Mathematics should be taught using multiple strategies, however, the teacher is

responsible for selecting the strategies appropriate for a specific concept.

• Mathematics teachers must understand the underlying meaning and justifications

for ideas and be able to make connections among topics.

(Ball, Ferrini-Mundy, Kilpatrick, Milgram, Schmid, & Scharr, 2005).

Standards-Based Mathematics

Standards-based instruction in mathematics is designed to clearly identify what

students should learn at each level. Standards provide more than a curriculum framework

as they delineate the skills, concepts and knowledge that are to be mastered. For

successful standards-based implementation, teachers must understand the rationale for

using standards, know applicable national and state standards and use them as a basis for

planning instruction, and implement best practices instructional strategies. Essential

characteristics of an effective standards-based mathematics classroom include:

• Lessons designed to address specific standards-based concepts or skills.

• Student centered learning activities.

• Inquiry and problem solving focused lessons.

• Critical thinking and knowledge application skills

• Adequate time, space, and materials to complete tasks.

• Varied, continuous assessment, designed to evaluate both student progress and

teacher effectiveness. (Teaching Today, 2005a)

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 The implementation of a standards-based math curriculum brings with it some

special challenges. In addition to ensuring students are actively engaged, teachers should

adhere to the following guidelines:

• Create a safe environment where students feel comfortable.

• Establish clear procedures and routines.

• Provide both challenge and support.

• Use carefully assigned and well-managed cooperative groups.

• Make frequent real life connections.

• Use an integrated curriculum.

• Provide engaging educational experiences that are relevant to students.

• Present activities where students produce and share products.

(Teaching Today, 2005b, ¶ 3)

The Thomas B. Fordham Foundation has conducted three analyses of state

mathematics standards. The most recent study was released in 2005. Although the

weighting of the specific criteria has shifted, the same criteria: clarity of the standards,

content, sound mathematical reasoning, and the absence of negative features, have been

used to evaluate standards in each of the studies. Overall, only six states received grades

of A of B. Twenty-nine states received grades of D or F, and 15 received Cs. The report

identified nine major areas of concern including excessive emphasis on calculator use,

memorization of basic number facts, lack of focus on the standard algorithms, insufficient

focus on fractions, inadequate attention to mathematical patterns, counterproductive use

of manipulatives, overemphasis on estimation skills, improper sequencing of statistics

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and probability standards, and a lack of standards that appropriately guide the

development of problem-solving (Klein, 2005).

The study also offers suggestions for state policy makers seeking to strengthen

their K-12 math standards. These recommendations include the use of standards

developers who thoroughly understand mathematics, the development of coherent

arithmetic standards that emphasize both conceptual understanding and computational

fluency, avoid and rectify the nine major concerns related to math standards, and consider

borrowing a complete set of math standards from one of the states with high-quality

standards (Klein, 2005).

Best Practices

Sabean and Bavaria (2005) have synthesized a list of the most significant

principles related to mathematics teaching and learning. This list includes the

expectations that teachers know what students need to learn based on what they know,

teachers ask questions focused on developing conceptual understanding, experiences and

prior knowledge provide the basis for learning mathematics with understanding, students

provide written justification for problem solving strategies, problem based activities

focus on concepts and skills, and that the mathematics curriculum emphasizes conceptual

understanding.

Concurrently, the following best practices for implementing effective standards-

based math lessons should be followed:

• Students’ engagement is at a high level.

• Tasks are built on students’ prior knowledge.

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 • Scaffolding takes place, making connections to concepts, procedures, and

understanding.

• High-level performance is modeled.

• Students are expected to explain thinking and meaning.

• Students self-monitor their progress.

• Appropriate amount of time is devoted to tasks.

(Teaching Today, 2005b, ¶ 7)

The role of discovery and practice and the use of concrete materials are two

additional topics that must be considered when developing a program directed at

improving mathematics achievement. Sabean and Bavaria (2005) examined research

which suggested that such a program must be balanced between the practice of skills and

methods previously learned and new concept discovery. This discovery of new concepts,

they suggest, facilitates a deeper understanding of mathematical connections.

Johnson (2000) reported findings that suggest that when applied appropriately, the

long-term use of manipulatives appears to increase mathematics achievement and

improve student attitudes toward mathematics. The utilization of manipulative materials

helps students understand mathematical concepts and processes, increases thinking

flexibility, provides tools for problem-solving, and can reduce math anxiety for some

students. Teachers using manipulatives must intervene frequently to ensure a focus on

the underlying mathematical ideas, must account for the “contextual distance” between

the manipulative being used and the concept being taught, and take care not to

overestimate the instructional impact of their use.

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 Sabean and Bavaria (2005) have summarized research suggesting that the

development of practical meaning for mathematical concepts is enhanced through the use

of manipulatives. They further suggest that the use of manipulatives must be long term

and meaningfully focused on mathematical concepts.

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics has developed a position

statement which provides a framework for the use of technology in mathematics teaching

and learning. The NCTM statement endorses technology as an essential tool for effective

mathematics learning. Using technology appropriately can extend both the scope of

content and range of problem situations available to students. NCTM recommends that

students and teachers have access to a variety of instructional technology tools, teachers

be provided with appropriate professional development, the use of instructional

technology be integrated across all curricula and courses, and that teachers make

informed decisions about the use of technology in mathematics instruction (National

Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2003).

Acknowledging and responding to the varied learning styles of students is a

critical component of effective inquiry oriented standards-based math instruction.

Effective strategies for differentiating mathematics instruction include rotating strategies

to appeal to students’ dominant learning styles, flexible grouping, individualizing

instruction for struggling learners, compacting (giving credit for prior knowledge), tiered

assignments, independent projects, and adjusting question level (Computing Technology

for Math Excellence, 2006).

A 1998 meta-analysis of 100 research studies on teaching mathematics provided

support for a three-phase instructional model. In the first phase of the model, teachers

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demonstrated, explained, questioned, conducted discussions and checked for

understanding. Students are actively involved in discussions and responding to

questions. In phase two, teachers and student peers provide student assistance that is

gradually reduced while students receive feedback on their performance, corrections,

additional explanations, and other assistance as needed. In phase three, teachers assess

students’ ability to apply the knowledge gained while students demonstrate their ability to

recall, generalize or transfer what they have learned. Effective lessons do not require

students to apply new knowledge independently until they have demonstrated an ability

to successfully do so (Dixon, Carnine, Lee, Wallin, & Chard, 1998).

The recent results from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study

(TIMSS) have caused many teachers in the United States and Canada to take a closer

look at strategies and techniques used by Japanese teachers in teaching mathematics.

TIMSS results documented the advanced performance and more in depth mathematical

thinking of Japanese students. A central strategy in the success of the Japanese

mathematics teachers has been the use of Lesson Study, an instructional approach that

includes a group of teachers developing, observing, analyzing and revising lesson plans

that are focused on a common goal. This process is focused on improving student

thinking and includes selecting a research theme, focusing the research, creating the

lesson, teaching and observing the lesson, discussing the lesson, revising the lesson and

documenting the findings. A key element of the Lesson Study process is that it helps to

facilitate teachers working together using interconnecting skills across grade levels and

lessons (Teaching Today, 2006).

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 Professional Development, High Quality Teaching and Student
Achievement in Mathematics

A September, 2005 report, A Study of Professional Development for Public

School Educators in West Virginia, provides a framework for viewing the relationship

between professional development, teacher quality, and student achievement in

mathematics. The report, prepared by the National Staff Development Council for the

Legislative Oversight Commission on Education Accountability, notes that there is

conclusive evidence from current research that the single most critical factor in

improving student learning is teaching quality. Concurrently, the accountability

provisions of NCLB have substantially increased the pressure on states and school

districts to provide highly qualified teachers. A number of legislative and policy

initiatives have been implemented to ensure that teachers entering the classroom are high

quality. Experienced teachers, however, must look to professional development to expand

their content knowledge and assist in learning new standards-based instructional

strategies (National Staff Development Council, 2005).

The training and preparation received by many current teachers did not prepare

them to address the new student performance standards which stress higher-order

thinking and analytical skills and require teachers to teach the use of critical thinking,

problem solving and inquiry. Teachers are not able to teach what they do not know.

Consequently, the role of professional development in assuring quality teaching for

experienced teachers is critical (National Staff Development Council, 2005).

Using the concept of professional development and professional learning

interchangeably, the No Child Left Behind Act provides the following definition of high-

quality professional development:

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 Professional learning needs to give teachers and school leaders the skills

to support students’ mastery of states’ academic standards; enhance the

content knowledge of teachers in their teaching subjects; be integrated into

overall school and district improvement plans; be research based; align

with state student standards; and be sustained, intensive, and focused on

classroom practice. In fact, the legislation explicitly specifies that one-day

or short-term workshops do not qualify as effective professional

development. (U.S. Department of Education, 2002, p.13)

This definition is closely aligned with the professional development standards developed

by the National Staff Development Council (2001).

A recent research report, The Role of Professional Development for Teachers

(2005), published by the Education Alliance, provides additional support for the use of

the NCLB definition and NSDC standards. Synthesizing the current research on effective

professional development, the report concludes that effective professional development

for teachers is teacher driven, ongoing and sustained, school-based and job-embedded,

content-focused, focused on student needs and uses appropriate adult learning strategies.

Administrators in Boston and San Diego believe that a concentrated focus on

building students’ conceptual math skills and investing in professional development for

their elementary and middle school teachers were major factors behind their gains on the

most recent National Assessment of Educational Progress. Both school systems worked

to lessen the focus on memorizing facts, formulas and procedures, and increase the

emphasis on developing problem solving skills. The districts also provided additional

support for teachers by providing additional instructional materials such as curriculum

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maps and pacing guides. Other support strategies include the establishment of math

leadership teams and providing math coaches (Cavanagh, 2006).

Mathematics Instruction and Assessment

Johnson (2000) reported research suggesting that the impact of standards in

establishing external assessment expectations is profound. Understanding these standards

and their related assessments allows teachers to plan and adjust instruction accordingly.

Effective assessment of mathematics learning must be performance-based, use multiple

strategies and employ more open-ended assessment tasks than have been used in the past.

Effective assessment practices are essential to support mathematics instruction

that produces improved student performance. Teachers and students have been placed

under tremendous pressure to prepare students for the accountability measures and

standardized tests required by the No Child Left Behind legislation. Despite these

pressures, mathematics teachers must resist the tendency to rely on the results of

standardized tests only to measure student performance in mathematics (Computing

Technology for Math Excellence, 2006).

Assessment in a standards-based environment requires that students be judged in

terms of mathematical literacy, understanding of concepts and procedures, and the

application of mathematical knowledge in problem-solving situations. Since most

traditional assessment strategies were not designed for these purposes, new assessment

models must be developed. One such model, developed by the Organization for

Economic Cooperation and Development, focuses on assessing large ideas such as

change and growth, space and shape, and chance. The model also organizes the

assessment of thinking skills into three categories focused on tasks requiring simple

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computations and definitions, tasks requiring that connections be made to solve problems

and tasks requiring higher level mathematical thinking and analysis (Romberg, 2000).

Assessment strategies can be classified as diagnostic, formative or summative.

The manner in which teachers use assessment in their instruction is a major variable in

determining student achievement. Diagnostic assessment strategies are focused on

assessing students’ prior knowledge, strengths, weaknesses and skill levels. Formative

assessments are directed at providing immediate feedback and evidence of student

performance. Summative assessments are more comprehensive and are typically

administered at the end of a specific unit or timeframe (Computing Technology for Math

Excellence, 2006).

Assessment strategies can also be characterized as traditional or alternative in

nature. Multiple choice, true/false or matching tests represent traditional approaches to

assessment, whereas, strategies such as portfolios, journal writing, student self-

assessment, and performance tools may be considered alternative assessment strategies.

Traditional and alternative assessments may be used for diagnostic, formative or

summative purposes (Computing Technology for Math Excellence, 2006).

Best Practices Summary

Viewed from the classroom, mathematics instruction that is standards-based is

different from traditional mathematics instruction. Students approach mathematics

differently as they explore functions, develop formulas, and actively engage in

nonroutine problem-solving and interaction about mathematics. Students use calculators

for computational assistance and as tools for solving problems. This open and focused

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approach on problem-solving, reasoning and communication processes allows teachers

and students to learn from each other (Smith, Smith, & Romberg, 1993).

Research from the past 15 years provides a clear picture of the impact of a

standards-based math curriculum. Students who take rigorous mathematics courses are

much more likely to go to college than those who do not. The gateway to advanced

mathematics in high school is Algebra. We also know that achievement in mathematics is

based on the type of courses a student takes, not the type of school attended (U.S.

Department of Education, 1997).

As evidenced in this brief review of the literature related to teaching mathematics,

there is a literature basis for a set of best practices for use in teaching mathematics.

These recommended practices are summarized in the following chart.

Instructional Element Recommended Practices

Curriculum Design • Ensure mathematics curriculum is
based on challenging content
• Ensure curriculum is standards-
based
• Clearly identify skills, concepts and
knowledge to be mastered
• Ensure that the mathematics
curriculum is vertically and
horizontally articulated
Professional Development for Teachers • Provide professional development
which focuses on:
§ Knowing/understanding
standards
§ Using standards as a basis
for instructional planning
§ Teaching using best
practices
§ Multiple approaches to
assessment
• Develop/provide instructional
support materials such as
curriculum maps and pacing guides
• Establish math leadership teams

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 and provide math coaches
Technology • Provide professional development
on the use of instructional
technology tools
• Provide student access to a variety
of technology tools
• Integrate the use of technology
across all mathematics curricula and
courses

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Manipulatives • Use manipulatives to develop
understanding of mathematical
concepts
• Use manipulatives to demonstrate
word problems
• Ensure use of manipulatives is
aligned with underlying math
concepts
Instructional Strategies • Focus lessons on specific
concept/skills that are standards-
based
• Differentiate instruction through
flexible grouping, individualizing
lessons, compacting, using tiered
assignments, and varying question
levels.
• Ensure that instructional activities
are learner-centered and emphasize
inquiry/problem-solving
• Use experience and prior
knowledge as a basis for building
new knowledge
• Use cooperative learning strategies
and make real life connections
• Use scaffolding to make
connections to concepts, procedures
and understanding
• Ask probing questions which
require students to justify their
responses
• Emphasize the development of
basic computational skills
Assessment • Ensure assessment strategies are
aligned with standards/concepts
being taught
• Evaluate both student
progress/performance and teacher
effectiveness
• Utilize student self-monitoring
techniques
• Provide guided practice with
feedback
• Conduct error analyses of student
work

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 • Utilize both traditional and
alternative assessment strategies
• Ensure the inclusion of diagnostic,
formative and summative strategies
• Increase use of open-ended
assessment techniques

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 References

Adelman, C. (2006). The Toolbox Revisited: Paths to Degree Completion from High

School through College. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office

of Vocational and Adult Education.

Ball, D., Ferrini-Mundy, J., Kilpatrick, J., Milgram, J., Schmid, W. & Scharr, R. (2005).

Reaching for Common Ground in K-12 Mathematics Education. Washington,

DC: American Mathematical Society.

Battista, M. (February, 1999). “The Mathematical Miseducation of America’s Youth”

Phi Delta Kappan, 80 (6).

Cavanagh, S. (2006, January 11). Big Cities Credit Conceptual Math for Higher Scores.

Education Week, 1 (11), 15.

Computing Technology for Math Excellence. (2006). “Math Methology.” Retrieved

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Daro, P. (2006, February 15). Math Warriors, Lay Down Your Weapons. Education

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Dixon, R., Carnine, D., Lee, D., Wallin, J. & Chard, D. (1998). Report to the California

State Board of Education and Addendum to Principal Report Review of High

Quality Experimental Mathematics Research. Eugene, OR: National Center to

Improve the Tools of Educators.

Johnson, J. (2000). Teaching and Learning Mathematics. Office of Superintendent of

Public Instruction, Olympia, WA.

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Klein, D. (with Braams, B., Parker, T., Quirk, W., Schmid, W., Wilson, S., Finn, C.,

Torres, J., Braden, L., & Raimi, R.) (2005). The State of State Math Standards

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Masini, B.& Taylor, J. (2000). New evidence links curricula and instruction to

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http://nctm.org/about/position_statements/position_statement_13.htm

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OH: Author

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Olson, L. (2005, October 26). “NAEP Gains are elusive in Key Areas”. Education Week.

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Smith, S., Smith, M., & Romberg, T. (1993, May). What the NCTM standards look like

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Teaching Today (2005a). Standards-Based Instruction in Mathematics. Retrieved

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 November 11th, 2005 from http://www.glencoe.com/sec/teachingtody/subjects/

Standards_math.phtml

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standards.phtml

Teaching Today (2006). Using the Japanese Lesson Study in Mathematics. Retrieved

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japanese_lesson_study.phtml

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U.S. Department of Education. (1997). Mathematics equals opportunity. White Paper

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U.S. Department of Education. (2002). No Child Left Behind: A Desktop Reference.

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