POTHOLES:

Technical guide to their causes,

identification and repair
POTHOLES: A technical guide to their causes,
identification and repair

CSIR Project Team:

Dr Phil Paige-Green (project leader)
Amrita Maharaj
Julius Komba

Note: This comprehensive technical guide on potholes, their

causes, identification and repair is accompanied by a short,
non-technical guide. The short document summarises the main
causes of typical potholes and ways of limiting their formation.
The non-technical guide is aimed at people not directly
involved in the technical aspects of infrastructure engineering
of roads.
An e-book published by CSIR Built Environment

December 2010
Copyright © CSIR 2010
ISBN 978-0-7988-5594-5

Both publications are available free of charge:

Download the documents in PDF format at www.csir.co.za.pothole_guides
or contact CSIR Built Environment:
Tel 012 841 2871 • Email lsibanyoni@csir.co.za
 foreword

We have great pleasure in presenting this technical guide on potholes,

their causes, identification and repair.

Over the past few years, the development of potholes in South African roads has
accelerated considerably, leading to serious concern and wide media coverage.
The increase in pothole damage can be attributed primarily to reduced preventative
maintenance being applied to many roads, combined with particularly wet periods
during rainy seasons and rapidly increasing numbers of heavy vehicles.

This guide describes the causes of typical potholes and uses a decision key system to
identify the appropriate repair methods. Various methods are described to ensure that repair
work is appropriate for the specific type of pothole and that the pothole will thus not form
repeatedly due to failure to address the cause. Mechanisms for quality control of pothole
repairs are presented. A standard form for use by inspectors during the field rating of
potholes and identification of repair methods is included.

A short companion brief on potholes, their causes and prevention has also been produced.
This is targeted at administrators and non-technical management officials.

Given the extent of the pothole situation countrywide, we believe the CSIR has an
obligation, and is also ideally positioned, to produce such a guideline document. Both
documents are available freely for use by the various authorities and interested parties.
In this way the CSIR wants to ensure all those responsible for roads have access to the
guidelines. We hope that the application of the information presented here will result in
the formation of fewer potholes and more effective corrective actions.

Hans W Ittmann
Executive Director: CSIR Built Environment

1
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Chapter 1 – INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 4

Chapter 2 – CAUSES OF POTHOLES..................................................................................... 6

2.1 Asphalt....................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Thin bituminous-surfacing seals...................................................................... 10
2.3 Unusual forms of pothole development............................................................ 19
2.4 Reinstated service trenches........................................................................... 19
2.5 Failure of existing patches............................................................................ 19
2.6 Mechanisms of pothole development............................................................. 20
2.7 Location of potholes.................................................................................... 20
2.8 Non-labour-based repair.............................................................................. 23

Chapter 3 – CLASSIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT............................................................. 24

3.1 Classification............................................................................................. 24
3.2 Management............................................................................................. 26

Chapter 4 – REPAIR/CORRECTION...................................................................................... 27
4.1 Background.............................................................................................. 27
4.2 Safety and traffic control.............................................................................. 28
4.3 Preliminary treatment................................................................................... 28
4.4 Materials for filling potholes.......................................................................... 31
4.5 Pothole repair methods................................................................................ 33

Chapter 5 – QUALITY CONTROL......................................................................................... 39

5.1 General................................................................................................... 39
5.2 Control..................................................................................................... 39
5.3 Field test equipment.................................................................................... 41

Chapter 6 – CONCLUSIONS.............................................................................................. 42

REFERENCES...................................................................................................................... 43

APPENDIX A: Standard form for the field assessment

and categorisation of potholes............................................................. 44
APPENDIX B: Key to the identification of pothole repair measures.............................. 46

2
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Localised ponding of water from seepage in the adjacent area during the dry season
(note the presence of hydrophilic plants near the road)..................................................................................... 7

Figure 2: Typical fatigue-cracking of asphalt leading to a pothole.................................................................................... 7

Figure 3: Cracking of asphalt resulting from ageing...................................................................................................... 8

Figure 4: Typical reflection-cracking of stabilised material through a G1 base and 30 mm of asphalt

(mostly sealed).......................................................................................................................................... 8

Figure 5: Typical shallow failure of asphalt at the interface with older asphalt.................................................................... 9

Figure 6: Initiation of potholes as a result of overloading of a stabilised base – initial cracking

followed by pumping and then potholes...................................................................................................... 10

Figure 7: Development of potholes on a low-volume road with thin bituminous surfacing

and insufficient preventative maintenance.................................................................................................... 11

Figure 8: A typical pothole formed under a thin surfacing with a granular base................................................................ 12

Figure 9: A pothole resulting from large stones in the base beneath the seal.................................................................... 12

Figure 10: A typical pothole resulting from a weak upper-layer of stabilised material........................................................... 13

Figure 11: A pothole resulting from lamination, carbonation and weak layers in the top of a stabilised base material............... 13

Figure 12: Fatigue cracking of a thin bituminous seal with pothole formation..................................................................... 14

Figure 13: A pothole (filled with roadside material) resulting from unsealed cracks in a thin bituminous surfacing...................... 15

Figure 14: A typical pothole formed as a result of carbonation of a stabilised base............................................................ 16

Figure 15: The initiation of potholes due to a lack of prime............................................................................................ 16

Figure 16: A pothole developing as a result of excessive soluble salts in the pavement base layer......................................... 17

Figure 17: Repaired potholes caused by mole-rats........................................................................................................ 17

Figure 18: A typical pothole formed adjacent to a service trench.................................................................................... 17

Figure 19: Failure of a patch within one year of repair – note standing water adjacent to the road in this area........................ 18

Figure 20: Strongly-cemented gravel patches.............................................................................................................. 18

Figure 21: A patch using strongly-cemented gravel (almost concrete).

Note cracking in the road due to differential stiffness between the patch and the road......................................... 18

Figure 22: Shear failure in the base (note heaving of the asphalt adjacent to the yellow line)
and a patched pothole that formed............................................................................................................ 21

Figure 23: Enlargement of an unrepaired pothole through ravelling and whip-off................................................................ 21

Figure 24: Moisture/traffic-associated cracking in the outer wheel track leading to potholing and extensive patching............... 22

Figure 25: Potholes resulting from construction deficiencies............................................................................................ 22

Figure 26: Long, linear development of potholes, resulting from inappropriate layer materials............................................... 23

Figure 27: Repeated repair of potholes due to the fundamental problem (subsurface drainage) not being addressed................ 27

Figure 28: The effective use of a geosynthetics crack-sealing strip to seal the edges of a patch............................................. 28

Figure 29: A typical pothole-patching operation on a rural road..................................................................................... 37

Figure 30: A poorly-finished and untidy patch............................................................................................................. 40

Figure 31: A well-executed and aesthetically-pleasing rectangular patch next to a less effective ’circular’ patch........................ 40

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CMA Cold-mix asphalt
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
HMA Hot-mix asphalt
SAMI Stress Absorbing Membrane Interlayer
RCCD Rapid Compaction Control Device

3
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The unprecedented development of potholes during the 2009/2010 summer rainfall
season on particularly the South African provincial and metropolitan roads with
bituminous surfacings led to widespread concern among road users and significant
media reporting.

Numerous claims were laid against road The internet has literally millions of references
authorities for vehicle damage caused by to potholes, mainly from the United States and
potholes and even for serious vehicle accidents generally associated with the spring thaw that
resulting from excessively large potholes. occurs in cold regions. In these regions, moisture
in the pavement freezes during winter with an
Potholes have always been a problem on
increase in volume and a consequent decrease
sealed/paved roads, but never to the extent
in material density. As the frozen pavement layers
experienced during the summer of 2009/2010.
thaw out in spring, the moisture content of the
The causes of the large increase in the degree
material increases (often to saturation), which
and extent of potholes during this period were
decreases the pavement support. Under traffic
many, but can probably be attributed mainly to
loading, high pore water pressures develop in
the following:
the wet materials with subsequent failure of the
• Insufficient routine, periodic or preventative material. The climate in South Africa, however, is
maintenance leading up to the summer; such that this problem can be considered minimal
• Unusually wet conditions for sustained periods; and not an important contributor to the overall
pothole problem.
• Ineffective or no repair of existing potholes.
There is no doubt that water is the primary cause
The actual costs of potholes in South Africa in
of potholes, with the access of water into the
terms of damage to vehicles and accidents
road structure to cause the potholes being mostly
caused directly by potholes and other road-user
a function of the surface condition. A lack of
effects have not been quantified, but probably
periodic and/or preventative maintenance of
run into many millions of rand. It should, however,
roads often leads to the development of surface
be noted that this problem is not unique to South
cracks, which allow rapid ingress of water into
Africa. The costs of similar problems over the
the structural layers during rainfall.
wet period in the United Kingdom have been
estimated as in excess of £10 billion (about As road budgets are constrained and
R120 billion) (World Highways, June 2010). preventative maintenance is reduced or
This is four times more than the entire annual road prolonged, the potential for the development
budget for South Africa. It is anticipated that it of potholes during wet weather increases
might take 15 years to ‘fix’ the pothole problem significantly. The main objective in reducing
in the United Kingdom. pothole formation is thus to ensure that

4
preventative maintenance is applied timeously The information in this document, however,
and to the appropriate standards. For the concentrates on the occurrence of potholes on
foreseeable future, however, this is unlikely to bituminous roads.
be achieved fully and optimum techniques for
repairing potholes should be implemented. This book provides a guide to the primary causes
of potholes affecting bituminous roads in South
The majority of roads in South Africa are surfaced Africa, the means of classifying them for repair
with bituminous surfacings, which are more purposes and suggested repair methods.
prone to potholing than concrete roads, although
potholes can and do form in concrete roads.

5
 CHAPTER 2
CAUSES OF POTHOLES
Although the presence of water is the primary cause of potholes, their formation differs
somewhat depending on the road pavement structure and materials used. Potholes can,
of course, also result from diverse, non-structural causes such as diesel (or other chemical)
spillages; mechanical damage to surfacings from vehicle rims and/or accidents and
fires; damage caused by falling rocks in cuttings; animal hooves on road surfaces in hot
weather; and poor road design over certain subgrades, e.g. expansive, collapsible and
dispersive soils.

The majority of potholes form in the wet or rainy treatment or chip seal). These differences are
season, but it is not uncommon for potholes to discussed here.
develop and deteriorate during the dry season
due to not only the action of traffic, but also 2.1 Asphalt
temporary wet conditions resulting from localised Where asphalt is used on roads in South Africa,
irrigation, ponding and/or seepage of water, etc. it is typically between 25 and 50 mm thick, unlike
(Figure 1). The latter can usually be identified by the thick asphalt surfacings (and bases) used
the presence of water-loving (hydrophilic) plants in commonly in many northern hemisphere countries
the area. (100 mm plus).

Potholes also occur commonly as a result of Potholes in asphalt originate in two ways. They
poor reinstatement of service trenches that are are caused either by cracking of the asphalt as
excavated through bituminous-surfaced roads. a result of fatigue or ageing (binder shrinkage)
These are dealt with separately in this document. that allows water into the support, or by the
penetration of water to a less permeable interface
Potholes may be accompanied by severe cracking
within the asphalt layer, resulting in stripping of the
and deformation or distortion of the surfacing
asphalt.
around the pothole, indicating a deeper-seated
cause for the pothole formation. Where little
2.1.1 Cracking of asphalt surfacing
deformation is observed in the vicinity of the
The cracking of asphalt surfacings is typically
pothole, the cause is more likely to be the entry
the result of poor support (unsuitable material
of water through surficial cracks in the road
types or thicknesses, or excessive water), resulting
pavement and deterioration of only the surfacing
in fatigue-cracking of the asphalt (Figure 2).
and upper structural layers of the pavement.
In addition, environmental cracking can occur
Primary differences in pothole formation arise from due to ultraviolet light from the sun, heat, oxidation
whether the bituminous pavement surfacing is or some other cause that has resulted in shrinkage
asphalt or a thin bituminous-surfacing seal (locally of the asphalt (Figure 3). Furthermore, reflection
called ‘chip and spray’, surface dressing, surface cracking due to the shrinkage of underlying
6
Figure 1: Localised ponding of water from seepage in the adjacent area during the dry season (note the presence of
hydrophilic plants near the road)

stabilised materials as the cementitious stabiliser above, or build up beneath the pavement as
hydrates also leads to cracking (Figure 4). a result of poor drainage in the area.

An underlying weakness in the support layers Potholes associated with environmental and traffic
usually results in high surface-deflections under cracking usually start as spalling of the asphalt
traffic loading, particularly if the material adjacent to the crack, which then enlarges with
becomes wet. Moisture may penetrate the time and traffic to develop a pothole. If the cracks
pavement layers through incipient cracks from are sealed or the spalling is repaired in time, no

Figure 2: Typical fatigue-cracking of asphalt leading to a pothole

7
 Figure 3: Cracking of asphalt resulting from ageing

Figure 4: Typical reflection-cracking of stabilised material through a G1 base and 30 mm of asphalt (mostly sealed)

8
significant damage will occur to the pavement, but surface area enlarges and the underlying asphalt
if left open, the access of water through the cracks is abraded, leading to the development of
results in deeper deterioration of the road. deeper potholes that are more difficult to repair.

Irrespective of the cause of the cracking, water

entering the road through the surfacing can lead 2.1.3 Traffic loading

to the rapid development of potholes during wet Heavy traffic loading (in excess of the

weather, as seen frequently in recent years. pavement design loading) causes excessive
road deflections that result in fatigue failures.
Repeated high deflections, or even a few passes
2.1.2 Water penetration into the asphalt
by overloaded vehicles, cause the road surface
The separation of asphalt overlays from underlying
to crack, allowing water to flow through these
asphalt (or other bituminous seals) as a result of
cracks into underplaying layers (base/sub-base),
permeability inversions and/or moisture effects at
which causes loosening of the material.
the interface or possibly the presence of a stress-
This loose material can then be pumped out of
absorbing membrane interlayer (SAMI), results in
the road leaving the upper layers unsupported,
the stripping of the asphalt and the development of
which eventually collapse to form a pothole
typically shallow potholes (Figure 5).
(Figure 6). Overloading control is thus an
It should be noted that the underlying material essential part of preserving road functionality and
exposed in the pothole is frequently old and dry reducing general pothole formation. This entails
asphalt, which is more susceptible to ravelling the effective control of traffic loading to ensure
than the newer asphalt at the surface. If this type that it does not exceed the design loading, e.g.
of pothole is not sealed or repaired quickly, the by means of signage and enforcement.

Figure 5: Typical shallow failure of asphalt at the interface with older asphalt

9
 Figure 6: Initiation of potholes as a result of overloading of a stabilised base – initial cracking followed by pumping
and then potholes

2.2 Thin bituminous-surfacing seals Thin bituminous-surfacing seals (possibly apart

Thin bituminous-surfacing seals such as single and from slurry seals) are considered to be quite
double seals, Cape seals and slurry seals are the flexible if maintained properly. Such seals can
more common types of bituminous surfacing used absorb relatively high deflections for some
in South Africa. They are generally durable seals time before cracking, especially when they are
but their performance depends on the underlying constructed using modified binders. However,
material, which is often moisture-sensitive and once cracking starts, the access of water into
susceptible to rapid deterioration in the presence the pavement structure is rapid and failure (loss
of water. Slurry and single (or even double) of surfacing and upper structural layers) occurs
sand seals on their own are very thin and more over a much wider extent than when subjected to
prone to irregularities in the top of the base localised ‘breakthrough’. Greater depths of the
punching through the seal than other seals and pavement are affected much quicker. Potholes
forming potholes (Figure 7). These need careful can also develop in thin bituminous seals as a
preventative maintenance to retain the integrity of result of extreme loss of aggregate.
the seal over the design period.
2.2.1 Loss of surfacing (‘surface breakthrough’)
In nearly all cases, the propagation of potholes The localised loss of surfacing, usually leading to
in thin surfacings progresses from the top, once relatively small potholes that are not very deep
water is allowed to access the underlying material, initially, is often caused by mechanical damage
whether it is crushed stone, natural gravel or to the surfacing. However, surfacings that contain
cemented gravel. impediments such as stone loss, localised weak
10
Figure 7: Development of potholes on a low-volume road with thin bituminous surfacing and insufficient preventative
maintenance

aggregate, aggregate containing sulphides Where this happens, both wear-and-tear under traffic
or large stones may develop small potholes at and the entrance of water will result in the formation
these sites. Thin bituminous seals such as sand of potholes, in a similar manner to those developed
and slurry seals, which are usually less than from mechanical damage to the surfacing (Figure 7).
5 mm thick – which is similar to the typical
irregularity permitted in newly-constructed bases Other potholes in thin surfacings can result from
(COLTO, 1998) – can be broken through easily localised weaknesses in the base material or
under traffic as they may consist solely of a thin construction (Figure 8), large stones beneath the seal
bitumen layer if a 5 mm irregularity (a small (Figure 9), underlying weak layers (Figure 10) or
protruding stone, for instance) exists in the base. surface laminations in stabilised bases (Figure 11).

11
 Figure 8: A typical pothole formed under a thin surfacing with a granular base

Figure 9: A pothole resulting from large stones in the base beneath the seal

12
Figure 10: A typical pothole resulting from a weak upper-layer of stabilised material

Figure 11: A pothole resulting from lamination, carbonation and weak layers in the top of a stabilised base material

13
 Figure 12: Fatigue cracking of a thin bituminous seal with pothole formation

14
2.2.2 Cracking Only appropriate materials should be used for
With time, bituminous surfacings will crack pothole filling, even when done as a temporary
without ongoing preventative maintenance, measure.
primarily as a result of oxidation and drying of
the bitumen binder, but also through fatigue as 2.2.4 Poor adhesion between base and seal
the pavement deflects under traffic (Figure 12). The development of potholes commonly results
Routine preventative maintenance such as the from a lack of adhesion between thin surfacings
periodic application of fog sprays, timeous and the base course, particularly stabilised
resealing and the sealing of cracks will avoid this. ones. This is demonstrated clearly in Figure 14,
At present this is generally not practiced in where carbonation of the upper portion of the
South Africa. base resulted in a thin layer of loose material
between the base and the seal. The passage
2.2.3 Poor repairs of heavy traffic caused lateral movement of the
Although highly undesirable, it is not uncommon seal, extension cracking and the development of
for potholes to be repaired with material obtained potholes.
from the roadside (Figure 13). This should never
be done, as subsequent sealing of the pothole Sometimes the poor adhesion between the
often involves removal of some of the upper (poor) base and seal can be the result of a localised
material and replacement with asphalt. This new loss of prime prior to sealing. This too leads to
asphalt is directly underlain by a weak, water- stripping of the surfacing in these areas and the
sensitive material which will fail rapidly when wet. development of potholes (Figure 15).

Figure 13: A pothole (filled with roadside material) resulting from unsealed cracks in a thin bituminous surfacing

15
 Figure 14: A typical pothole formed as a result of Figure 15: The initiation of potholes due to a lack of
carbonation of a stabilised base prime
16
Figure 16: A pothole developing as a result of Figure 17: Repaired potholes caused by mole-rats
excessive soluble salts in the pavement base layer

Figure 18: A typical pothole formed adjacent to a service trench

17
 Figure 19: Failure of a patch within one year of repair – note standing water adjacent to the road in this area

Figure 20: Strongly-cemented gravel patches Figure 21: A patch using strongly-cemented gravel
(almost concrete). Note cracking in the road due to
differential stiffness between the patch and the road

18
2.3 Unusual forms of pothole normally carried out by the relevant municipal
development authority or contractors appointed specifically
Potholes can be formed by a number of other for this. In either case, the quality of repair of
causes. An unusual cause of loss of bond these trenches is often not done by road repair
between the base and a bituminous surfacing ‘specialists’ and thus seldom meets the required
is the presence of excessive soluble salts in standards. This results in settlement of the
the pavement. If water evaporates through the surfacing (leading to ponding of water, cracking
surfacing (either as a result of high permeability and potholes), cracking or opening of the joins
or the presence of any defects – cracks, between the new trench and the adjacent
excessive voids, etc.), soluble salts can be existing seal and the development of potholes
deposited between the seal and the base at (Figure 18).
these points. This will cause a loss of bond
(Netterberg, 1979) and lead to potholes. These Repair of these problems should follow the

potholes are not considered part of routine same process as for any other similar potholes

maintenance and cannot be repaired following described later in this document.

the methods described in section 4. Special

treatments are usually required – these are not 2.5 Failure of existing patches
described in this document. Many instances are observed where pothole
patches have failed. This is normally the result
In certain areas of South Africa, potholes have
of either the original cause of the problem not
also been caused widely by mole-rats. These
being addressed, or the effect of poor patching
animals tunnel under roads (particularly in
workmanship.
sandy areas), causing the collapse of the road
surface above the tunnels and particularly where Where patches fail (as illustrated in Figure
cavities are excavated and where the excavated 19), the full classification and repair process
material is ejected at the surface (molehills) described later should be followed. In most
(Figure 17). These potholes can be quite deep cases, the size of the new patch is likely to
and often need specialised attention, which is exceed the size of the original patch in order to
also not covered in this document. eliminate the primary cause of the problem.

2.4 Reinstated service trenches The repair of patches using strongly-cemented

Trenches are regularly excavated across many materials is not recommended (Figure 20).
urban and occasionally some rural roads to The patch is usually significantly stiffer than the
install or repair various underground services surrounding material, starts to ‘rock’ under traffic
such as electric cables, water reticulation and results in failure of the surrounding contact
systems, sewage pipes, etc. These works are areas (Figure 21).

19
 2.6 Mechanisms of pothole development exceeds the strength of the material, shear
A well-constructed and maintained, intact, failure may also occur – the depression formed
flexible bituminous seal should not develop in this way usually leads to a pothole over time
potholes. It may deform as the underlying layer (Figure 22). It is sometimes seen that the exposed
fails, but without the development of cracks in material in potholes starts to ravel (especially
the seal or actual loss of the seal, potholes will when the plasticity is low) and de-densify as
not develop. Preservation of the seal in a good the pothole enlarges. This material, apart from
condition (with regular application of fog sprays having a low shear-strength, is also subject to
and reseals) will thus avoid the formation of whip-off and loss of material from the pothole
potholes. under rapidly moving traffic (Figure 23).

The majority of potholes in roads are associated In addition to the direct stress/loading effects,
with wet conditions, while water in the it is also possible that the seal/base interface
pavement structure will seldom cause distress or becomes weakened and more prone to abrasion
potholes without the application of loads from under wheel movement, resulting in enlargement
vehicles. Once the pavement is loaded, shear and deepening of the pothole. As the pothole
failure of the material in contact or close to the becomes deeper, the impact of vehicle tyres
loaded tyre will occur. This is caused by the on the weakly-supported edge of the pothole
applied stresses exceeding the shear strength results in collapse or disintegration of the seal
of the material, which at this stage is usually and accelerated enlargement of the pothole to
saturated and subjected to effective stresses potentially dangerous conditions.
with high pore-water pressures (a phenomenon
exacerbated by rapid loading). 2.7 Location of potholes
The actual location of potholes within the road
If the material is only moist and not saturated,
carriageway can be a useful indication of the
but the total stress exerted by the wheel load
origin or cause of the pothole. The majority of
potholes seem to occur in the outer wheel paths
of single carriageway roads leading to extensive
patching (Figure 24). These can usually be
attributed to the effects of increased moisture in
the subgrade and pavement layers during the
wet season. This results from seasonal moisture
fluctuations within the outer 600 to 1 200 mm of
the carriageway, as described by Emery (1992).
This effect is probably exacerbated by the extra
load on the outer wheels of heavy vehicles as a
result of the road camber.

20
Figure 22: Shear failure in the base (note heaving of the asphalt adjacent to the yellow line) and a patched
pothole that formed

Figure 23: Enlargement of an unrepaired pothole through ravelling and whip-off

21
 Figure 24: Moisture/traffic-associated cracking in the outer wheel track leading to potholing and extensive patching

Figure 25: Potholes resulting from construction deficiencies

22
Potholes that develop along the centre-line of the Potholes between the centre-line and the outer
road are frequently the result of poor sealing/ wheel track, in the zone of moisture equilibrium,
bonding of joins between successive runs are generally the result of unsealed cracks, poor
during the sealing process. Water can enter bonding between the base and seal, or localised
the pavement along these joins, weakening areas of poor construction or material quality.
the material and forming potholes. Other
construction deficiencies (e.g. localised areas 2.8 Non-labour-based repair
of poor compaction because they are too wet The majority of pothole repairs will normally
during construction, material segregation, lack be undertaken using teams of road workers,
of bond between base and seal, etc.) can usually with a mechanical compactor. However,
also lead to potholes not directly relating to the when potholing becomes extensive or affects
seasonal moisture movements (Figure 25). The long, linear sections of road (Figure 26), it may
width of the road and whether the shoulders are be more effective to use a small recycler or
sealed can also affect the location of potholes. milling machine to remove the affected area
On narrower roads, the inner wheel paths in and replace the material with an appropriate
the two directions may overlap, resulting in an repair material. This process is not discussed in
effective doubling of the load in this area and this document and should follow conventional
possible development of potholes. recycling or large repair procedures.

Figure 26: Long, linear development of potholes, resulting from inappropriate layer materials

23
 CHAPTER 3
CLASSIFICATION AND
MANAGEMENT
3.1 Classification usually attributed to marginal or poor material
Prior to any successful pothole repair, it is quality, resulting in excessive moisture sensitivity
essential to have identified and classified the of the material strength. This key is followed
cause of the problem. The surficial repair of numerically with reference to various correction
potholes, without attending to the fundamental or repair techniques described in Section 4.
causes, is normally a complete waste of time
It is important to classify asphalt pavements with
and resources – incorrectly repaired potholes are
care. If the asphalt has been resealed with a thin
likely to fail again soon after repair (Figure 19).
bituminous surfacing (slurry and chip seals are
To assist with the identification of the causes common applications over asphalt), the pothole
of potholes, the decision key process shown in should be classified as an asphalt pothole for
Table 1 can be used. Table 1 shows that the repair-identification purposes. The application
classification process is purely visual, except of asphalt overlays on top of old surfacing
for Key point 10, where it is necessary to seals is rare, but could occur. In these cases,
determine whether the top of a cementitiously- the surfacing would be classified as asphalt for
stabilised base has carbonated. This requires pothole cause-identification purposes. It is also
the application of a small quantity of dilute commonly seen on older roads that numerous
(5N) hydrochloric acid. If the acid effervesces chip seals have been applied over the years,
(or fizzes) vigorously, this is a strong indication resulting in an effective seal of 25 mm thickness
of excessive carbonation. The use of or greater. These seals should still be classified
phenolphthalein to confirm the absence of severe as thin bituminous seals and not as asphalt for
carbonation may also be necessary. repair purposes described in Section 4.

Similarly, the determination of whether the Potholes are seldom deeper than 150 or
subgrade is excessively wet requires some 200 mm, as they then become serious safety
judgement, which is gained with experience. hazards and are generally repaired or filled
An assessment of whether water-loving vegetation with local materials at that stage. The failure
or evidence of ponding is present in the area of layers beneath (or even within) the sub-
(see Figure 1) will usually be an initial guide base is thus very seldom visible from the
to whether excessive moisture (not necessarily surface. Potholes associated with failures of
seasonal moisture fluctuations) is the cause of deeper materials tend to be manifested by
problems. Seasonal moisture fluctuations in the visible surface deformation (rutting, shearing,
outer zone of the road adjacent to unsealed mounding, depressions, etc.). Evidence of this
shoulders are a necessary and expected part indicates the need for deep repairs, as discussed
of road performance. Failure in this zone is in the following sections.

24
Table 1: Key to the decision process for the repair of potholes

Key Defect Repair action Go to

Surfacing is asphalt 2
1
Surfacing is thin bituminous seal 4

Pothole is deeper than asphalt wearing

3
course
2
Bottom of pothole is within asphalt wearing
Shallow asphalt (HMA or cold mix)
course

Pothole caused by cracking due to fatigue of Deep repair after sub-soil drainage
asphalt installation
3
Pothole caused by localised surface water
Medium-depth asphalt repair
ingress with no associated crocodile cracking

Pothole has exposed an unstabilised base 5

4
Pothole has exposed a stabilised base 10

Pothole is not associated with cracks 6

5
Pothole is associated with cracks 8

Pothole affects seal and top of base

Shallow surface repair
6 only (< 50 mm)

Pothole extends > 50 mm into base 7

Pothole affects only the base Medium-depth repair

7
Pothole extends below the base 8

Pothole does not affect entire pavement

Medium-depth or deep repair
8 structure (only base and sub-base)

Pothole affects entire pavement structure 9

Pothole is the result of saturated subgrade or Deep repair after sub-soil drainage
support installation
9
Pothole is the result of poor material – no
Deep repair
evidence of excessive subsoil water

Top of base has carbonated and is weak 11

10 Top of base has not carbonated excessively
Shallow surface repair
and is still strong

Pothole is associated with crocodile cracking Deep repair

11 Pothole is not associated with crocodile
Medium-depth repair
cracking

25
 3.2 Management
For effective management and control of or prolonged rainfall. The assessor should be
potholes, particularly during the wet, rainy able to classify the nature and cause of the
season when large potholes can form literally pothole on site and make a recommendation
overnight and a rapid response is necessary, (using Table 1) as to how it should be repaired.
it is essential that a coordinated reporting
For effective repairs of potholes, it is essential
system be implemented.
that the correct resources are readily available.
Probably the most effective system is the one Equipment such as picks and shovels,
currently in use by the South African National compactors, a diamond-saw for cutting of
Roads Agency Ltd (SANRAL), making use surfacing, drums of bitumen emulsion and
of appropriate notice or sign boards with a pockets of approved cold-mix asphalt (as
telephone number that is operational 24/7. discussed in section 4.4.1) must be readily
This does, however, require that the public is available to the repair teams. A range of
made aware of the system and has confidence appropriate compaction equipment (hand
that reports will be responded to timeously. It rammers, small plate compactors and/or
also requires trained stand-by maintenance pedestrian rollers, as necessary) should also
crews to repair potholes immediately after be available.
information has reached the specific road
Appendix A provides a standard form for
authority.
the field assessment of pothole types and
A more arduous and costly system would recommendations of the repair actions. This
normally involve regular inspections by can be used by field evaluators to assess each
suitably-trained staff of the road authority, of the parameters necessary for the decision
particularly during and after periods of heavy process for pothole repair required in Table 1.

26
CHAPTER 4
REPAIR/CORRECTION
Prior to any pothole repair, it is essential to have identified the cause of the problem
as described in the previous section.

4.1 Background The fundamental principle relating to pothole

Other than for shallow potholes affecting the repair is to produce a patch with a deflection
surfacing only, without repairing or attending under traffic similar to the adjacent road.
to the fundamental problem, pothole repairs Significant differences in deflection will lead
will rarely be successful and will require to cracking at the interface of the patch,
repeated repair (Figure 27). During this time the as frequently seen at the junctions between
degree and extent of the potholes will increase manholes in the road (essentially deep and stiff
significantly. The overall riding-quality of the road enough to avoid any deflection under traffic)
generally decreases simultaneously. Aspects and the adjacent road. Any cracking that
relating to attending to the fundamental problems develops between patches and the road under
are included in this section of the document under traffic loading will lead to ingress of water and
the different repair techniques. additional potholing.

Figure 27: Repeated repair of potholes due to the fundamental problem (subsurface drainage) not being addressed

27
 4.3 Preliminary treatment
The area to be patched must be marked using
chalk, spray paint or crayons ensuring that the
entire ’failed’ area together with some sound
area is included. It is essential that the marked
area includes the whole area affected by the
pothole and any associated distress. This is
often the primary distress (cracking, spalling,
etc.) that led to the formation of the pothole in
the first instance.

The patch should be marked using straight lines

as these can be cut more neatly than round
or oval patches. A diamond saw should be
used to cut through the surfacing and to give
a neat and clean, well-shaped patch. Once
the surfacing has been cut, the material to be
replaced can be excavated using a pick and
Figure 28: The effective use of a geosynthetic crack- spade or jackhammer, if necessary.
sealing strip to seal the edges of a patch

The majority of patches will normally be

When the extent of the potholes is large or the rectangular with sides parallel to the edge of
degree of failure is severe, a decision needs to the road. This is certainly recommended for
be made whether the repair of the potholes is large patches of more than 1 m in dimension.
justifiable economically and what the options are. Experience has shown that for smaller areas,
Typically these would be to either implement a a diamond-shaped patch with the upper and
holding action (e.g. patch and place a bitumen lower apices in the direction of traffic movement
rubber seal) or whether to rehabilitate the road tends to be more effective and durable. The
or parts of the road (e.g. in situ recycling). This impact of tyres on the edge of such patches
decision is best made by a specialist pavement is not uniform and the stresses appear to be
engineer, who should be consulted. absorbed differentially, reducing the tendency
of the patch to crack at the edge or deform
4.2 Safety and traffic control longitudinally. Round patches would probably
Potholes can occur in all areas of all types of road. have similar benefits, but are more difficult to
Their repair thus poses significant safety issues. The construct with a reasonable aesthetic quality.
normal safety precautions relating to the provision
and visibility of safety apparel, appropriate safety The join between the patch and the existing
vests, safety training of patch-repair teams and road is the area that fails most frequently, with
the use of appropriate traffic-control measures an open crack developing that allows the
are absolutely essential. Details in this regard are access of water and premature failure of an
not dealt with in this document and should follow otherwise satisfactory patch. The application
conventional safety requirements. of a geosynthetic crack-sealing strip over these
28
29
30
joins, using a layer of bitumen emulsion to 4.4.1 Cold-mix asphalt (CMA)
stick the strip and a second layer on top of This is the material mostly used for small to
the strip to ‘waterproof’ the geosynthetic, has medium potholes. The material is usually
been shown to be a good means of minimising available in bags (25 to 40 kg) from commercial
damage at this interface (Figure 28). Blinding suppliers. Most cold-mix materials cannot be
with some coarse sand ensures that the bitumen supplied in bulk, as the majority make use of
does not stick to vehicle tyres. bitumen emulsion or cut-back bitumen as the
binder. The binder needs to be sealed from
The excavated hole will need to be well- drying out (loss of cut-back) or the ‘breaking’ of
cleaned prior to any repair. The depth of the the emulsion. Even bags that are torn or broken
material that needs to be removed depends on may result in unsuitable materials for patching
the cause of the pothole (see section 4.5) and potholes after a relatively limited time. Most
the material in which it occurs. It is necessary products have a specified shelf life and care
to remove all loose and unbonded material as should be taken to ensure that the material is still
well as material that has been affected by the in a workable condition.
pothole, whether it is de-densified, sheared or
excessively moist. Once this is complete, the There are numerous commercial suppliers of
hole should be cleaned of all loose material by CMA in South Africa. The products have a wide
sweeping it. Without ensuring that all unsound variety of mixes, components and properties and
material is removed, even the best repair of thus potential uses. No general recommendations
the pothole will soon be affected by continued regarding their use can therefore be made.
failure of material outside the pothole patch.
No standard specification for the requirements
4.4 Materials for filling potholes or properties of CMA is available, but Agrément
Small potholes are usually repaired by filling South Africa compiled a document recently
them with cold-mix asphalt material (CMA). for the certification of cold-mix materials
Large ones can be repaired more effectively (Agrément South Africa, 2010). This outlines
using hot-mix asphalt (HMA), but the location of certain performance levels for a range of tests
the potholes needs to be within a suitable haul (aggregate polishing value, resistance against
distance from an HMA source. The material moisture-induced stripping and permanent
ordered needs to be of significantly large deformation, aggregate strength, voids content,
quantity to make the delivery cost-effective and permeability, etc.). Materials complying with
within a suitable proximity so that the material these requirements and which are Agrément
can be delivered at a temperature that allows certificated are expected to perform satisfactorily
successful placement and compaction without for pothole patching.
excessive cooling.
The permeability (or voids content) of the
Asphalt can, however, be rather costly. It is best asphalt is one of the major factors affecting
to replace the bulk of the material removed its suitability. All asphalt for patching should
from deep potholes with natural, cemented or be as impermeable as possible, this being a
bitumen-treated materials and restricting the use function of the grading of the aggregate used
of asphalt to the upper portion of the repair. for manufacture of the mix (as well as the degree
31
 of compaction after placement). To ensure a low 4.4.2 Hot-mix asphalt (HMA)
permeability, a grading that is continuous and Where potholes occur within a reasonable haul
balanced (Fuller type) should be used. distance of an HMA plant and the quantity of
asphalt required to patch the potholes warrants an
As commercial suppliers may change the
adequate supply (usually in urban areas), HMA is
composition and formulation of their products
probably the best material for patching potholes.
periodically, it is recommended that specific
products are tested and identified for use. Close The HMA should comply with the necessary
contact should be maintained with suppliers so specification for continuously-graded asphalt as
that any changes will be noted and additional specified for a project, or in COLTO Section 4203
testing and proving done. The ad hoc procurement (COLTO, 1998). The minimum working temperature
of cold mix should be avoided and any tender is a function of the viscosity of the material (which
processes should ensure that a suitable product, depends on the binder grade) determined in the
and not necessarily the lowest-priced one, is laboratory and will be identified for each mix.
purchased. Large stocks should not be kept to In most cases this should not be less than about
avoid deterioration of the material over time. 135 °C. It is, however, essential that the material
is not too cold as compaction will then not be
CMAs that make use of cut-back bitumen can be
effective.
difficult to work with when cold and often require
‘warming up’ in the sun before use. Emulsion-based Most continuously-graded HMAs will have a low
products do not usually present this problem. permeability, an essential requirement for successful
pothole patching. Despite certain current practices,
With CMA, it is necessary to ensure that the
it is not recommended that HMA be used to patch
entire patched area that will be in contact with
potholes with a thickness of more than 75 mm,
the CMA is covered with a tack coat, usually
as it is difficult to ensure adequate compaction
bitumen emulsion, to ensure good bonding with the
of thicker layers.
excavated hole.
With HMA, it is necessary to ensure that the
entire patched area that will be in contact with the
HMA is covered with a tack coat, usually bitumen
emulsion, to ensure good bonding between the
HMA and the excavated hole.

32
4.4.3 Natural gravel density, as this would probably have been the
If the material originally used for the specific typical target density for the stabilised layer
layer is still available or a nearby borrow-pit during the original construction.
with essentially the same material exists, this
would probably be the best material to use for 4.4.5 Bitumen-stabilised material
the repair of deep potholes. Use of a similar Natural or processed gravel treated with a small
material compacted to the same density will quantity of bitumen emulsion can also be used
ensure that the material strength is similar, to replace material removed from a pothole.
that there are no significant permeability Bitumen-treated materials are usually more
differences, and settlement or further water resistant than natural materials and the
compaction of the patch under traffic will be addition of bitumen emulsion usually improves
minimised. the properties, particularly the strength of the
materials significantly.
Where the same materials are not available,
similar materials complying with the TRH 4 Recommendations on the type of material and
(1996) and TRH 14 (1985) requirements for possible application rates and properties of
the specific layer should be used. bitumen-stabilised materials are provided in
Manual TG2 (Asphalt Academy, 2009). Note
4.4.4 Cemented material that foamed bitumen, unless produced at a
Natural gravel treated with a small percentage local batch plant, is seldom used for pothole
of cement is commonly used to fill the bulk patching.
of the pothole. This can be very effective if
proportioned correctly, but too frequently, 4.4.6 Material from the roadside
the percentage of cement is excessive. The The repair of potholes with material extracted
material placed in the pothole then acts as from the road shoulders or road reserve is very
a single mass of lean concrete in the road seldom successful (Figure 13). This material
structure, rather than a continuous material with should never be used to repair potholes, even
approximately uniform properties. This results temporarily, as it is not adequately durable
in the material deflecting under traffic in a and results in rapid deterioration of the entire
more rigid manner than the flexible pavement potholed area. Drivers are also given a false
surrounding it. The effect of this is cracking at sense of security when they see that the potholes
the interface between the cemented material have been repaired, although significant
and the surrounding material, possible rocking depressions may still be present, often caused
of the stiffer ‘block’ and ultimately access of by compaction and/or whip-off by traffic.
water into the pavement as the cracks widen.
4.5 Pothole repair methods
Where stabilised materials are to be used
to repair potholes which contain a stabilised 4.5.1 Shallow asphalt
layer, a stabiliser type and content similar to This type of repair is generally restricted to
that of the original structure should be used potholes that occur entirely in an asphalt layer
as far as possible. The material should be and will seldom require more than a 75 or
compacted to 96 or 97% Mod AASHTO 100 mm-thick asphalt layer.

33
 Method stone, natural gravel or treated gravel (cement
Once the area to be patched has been or bitumen emulsion). This needs to be as
identified, marked, cut, excavated and cleaned similar to the surrounding material as possible
(section 4.3), the entire exposed area (vertical and compacted to the same density as the
and horizontal exposure) of the patch must be surrounding material.
covered (painted) with an appropriate bitumen
Method
emulsion tack coat1. The asphalt (HMA or
Once the area to be patched has been
CMA) should then be placed into the hole and
identified, marked, cut, excavated and cleaned
raked level, normally in a single layer. If the
(section 4.3), the entire exposed area (vertical
hole is more than about 75 mm deep, it should
and horizontal exposure) of the patch must be
be filled in layers not exceeding 75 mm, each
covered (painted) with an appropriate bitumen
one compacted separately. The asphalt should
emulsion, if a full-depth asphalt patch is to
then be compacted using hand tampers or
be used. The asphalt (HMA or CMA) should
plate compactors, although small pedestrian
then be placed into the hole and raked level,
rollers can be used for larger patches.
normally in a single layer. If the hole is more
All loose material should be swept from the than about 75 mm deep, it should be filled
patch area. It is useful to blind the patch with in layers not exceeding 75 mm, each one
some fine sand or gravel to avoid adhesion compacted separately. The asphalt should then
to tyres in the period immediately following be compacted using hand tampers or plate
compaction. The patch can then be opened to compactors, although small pedestrian rollers
traffic. can be used for larger patches.

The surface finish of the final patch should be All loose material should be swept from the
checked for level, using a straight edge (section patch area. It is useful to blind the patch with
5). No depressions or unevenness should be some fine sand or gravel to avoid adhesion to
allowed. In fact, it is recommended that the tyres. The patch can then be opened to traffic.
final surface should be between 5 and 10 mm
The surface finish of the final patch should
above the surrounding road, depending on
be checked for level, using a straight edge
the thickness of the fill, to allow for a nominal
(section 5). No depressions or unevenness
amount of traffic compaction with time.
should be allowed. In fact, it is recommended
that the final surface should be between 5 and
4.5.2 Medium-depth asphalt repair
10 mm above the surrounding road to allow
If the pothole is deeper than the asphalt
for a nominal amount of traffic compaction
thickness and passes into the base course,
with time.
but is no deeper than the bottom of the base
or the upper part of the sub-base, the pothole If crushed stone, gravel or cemented gravel is
should be patched as described for shallow to be used as partial filler, this must be placed
asphalt in section 4.5.1. If the pothole is, in the prepared hole to the required depth
however, larger than 0.5 m in area, it may
2
(taking into account the bulking factor, typically
be more economical to fill the pothole partially of about 30%) at optimum moisture content
to within 75 mm of the surface with crushed for the material. The edges of the cleaned
1
The suppliers of certain cold-mix asphalts indicate that tack coats are not necessary – this may possibly apply to those that are emulsion
based, but it is recommended that a tack coat be used where cold mix and asphalt are in contact and on the top of the base layer.
34
hole should be moistened – not soaked – to of this will certainly lead to recurring problems.
improve adhesion of the material to the edge
Method
of the hole. The optimum compaction moisture
Patching in such areas will require marking
content can be estimated by moulding the
and cutting of the surfacing and the removal
material into a ‘sausage’, which should just
of all failed material as well as any material
fracture when squeezed between the thumb
that contains excessive moisture. If the
and forefinger – if the material compresses, it
drainage has not been attended to, this must
is too wet and if it crumbles, it is too dry.
be replaced with material that has preferably
This material must then be compacted using been stabilised with cement or bitumen
hand tamping (or a plate compactor if the emulsion to improve its moisture resistance and
hole is large enough), preferably in layers not structural capacity. It is, however, probable that
exceeding 100 mm. It is important that the the surrounding material will fail before the
edges of the material in contact with the in situ replaced material.
material are compacted to the same degree
The stabilised material needs to be compacted
as the rest of the material to eliminate any
as densely as possible in layers not exceeding
permeability differences.
100 mm-thick up to between 75 and 100 mm
The upper surface of the compacted material from the existing pavement surface. Placement
and the edges of the hole above this level of asphalt in this upper area will follow the
must then be ‘painted’ with bitumen emulsion procedure described earlier.
before the asphalt is placed and compacted as
described above. 4.5.4 Shallow-surface repair (thin bituminous
seals)
4.5.3 Deep repair (asphalt surfacings) These failures are usually the result of a loss of
Deep patches in asphalt-surfaced roads are bonding between the seal and the underlying
necessary when the pothole is the result of layer and are common particularly with thin
structural failure at depth. This is usually bituminous seals on stabilised bases. These are
indicated by localised crocodile cracking and seldom more than 50 mm deep.
is primarily the result of excessive water in
Method
the lower portion of the pavement, or poor
In these cases the pothole should be marked,
quality materials. In theory, the source of the
cut and excavated to at least 75 mm deep. The
water should be eliminated prior to patching,
hole must be cleaned carefully, painted with
otherwise there is a strong probability that the
bitumen emulsion and the pothole repaired as
patched and/or adjacent area will fail again.
described in section 4.5.1. It is recommended
Elimination of the water will often require the that the join between the bituminous seal and
use of sub-soil drains adjacent to the road the newly-placed asphalt is sealed with a
(see TRH 15, 1984) and will usually require geosynthetic crack-sealing strip and well-
significant investigation and drainage design. covered with bitumen emulsion. The total
If the water is permeating into the pavement patched area should then be blinded with a
from beneath the surface, failure to take care graded, coarse sand (maximum size 4.75 mm).

35
 4.5.5 Medium-depth repair (thin bituminous sub-base, when necessary) should be constructed
seals) in the moistened hole to provide continuity of the
Where potholes have formed in thin bituminous- layers as far as possible. The top of each layer
sealed pavements as a result of seal damage, loss must be roughened lightly before placement of
of bonding with the base or some other surficial the following layer.
defect, failure to patch the pothole quickly results in
The asphalt patch at the top of the reconstructed
a rapid deterioration of the surface. Enlargement
pothole area should not be less than 50 mm
and deepening of the pothole will follow, usually
thick and should be constructed as described
into the base or even sub-base. In these cases
previously with the joins sealed using a well-
the underlying support layers are normally still
bonded geosynthetic strip.
adequate, unless the pothole is not patched for an
extended period, and do not need deep repair.
This type of failure is usually indicated by a lack of 4.5.6 Deep repair (thin bituminous seals)

severe crocodile cracking of the seal in the failed When the pavement is structurally unsound

area and affects the full base-depth and possibly or water has entered the pavement structure

the sub-base. at depth, the road surface will usually form a

depression, crocodile cracks will appear in the
Method surfacing and this will start to ravel and spall,
In these cases, the damaged volume (and a little forming large potholes. Although these usually
beyond) must be marked, cut and removed totally affect the base and sub-base, failure to repair
and the edges and bottom cleaned to leave a the underlying support material will result in an
hard, compacted surface. Layers of crushed stone, inadequate repair.
natural gravel or cement-treated material (75 to
100 mm thick) to match the existing base (and Method
In these cases, the damaged volume (and a little
beyond) must be marked, cut and removed totally
and the edges and base cleaned to leave a
hard, compacted surface. Layers of crushed
stone, natural gravel or cement-treated
material should be constructed in the

60
same locations (and to the same
densities) as the existing pavement
layer materials to provide continuity
of the layers as far as possible.

Potholes The top of each layer must be

roughened lightly before placement
of the following layer.

36
The asphalt patch at the top of the reconstructed densities in the field. The following densities
pothole area should not be less than 50 mm should thus be assumed:
thick and should be constructed as described
previously. Base 98% Mod AASHTO

Sub-base 95% mod AASHTO

4.5.7 General
Cemented materials 97% Mod AASHTO
Stabilised layers in the road structure will
Upper selected subgrade 93% Mod AASHTO
carbonate over time. This often makes it difficult
to use a comparable stabilised material for Other layers 93% Mod AASHTO
that layer in deep patches. In these cases, it
Pothole patching is essentially a labour-intensive
is probably best to try to use a material that is
operation (Figure 29). A full method-statement
similar to the stabilised material, once it reaches
for pothole patching has been produced by
the equivalent granular state (TRH 13, 1986) or
Sabita (2010) which can be used to supplement
to use a bitumen emulsion-stabilised material.
this document. It is, however, essential that the
To achieve similar densities as the original pothole patching teams are properly trained to
construction, it is unfeasible to determine actual ensure effective and durable repairs.

Figure 29: A typical pothole-patching operation on a rural road

37
38
CHAPTER 5
QUALITY CONTROL
5.1 General Locally-available materials to be used should be
For the repair of potholes to be effective, a tested and their properties checked to conform to
controlled quality-assurance programme must the necessary requirements. Stockpiles should be
be followed. Each stage of the process should kept expressly for pothole patching.
be checked to ensure that it conforms to the
requirements for that stage. 5.2.2 The layers should be compacted properly
To minimise the potential for the materials used to
For pothole repairs, the primary requirements
repair potholes to further compact under traffic,
are that:
it is essential that they are compacted properly
• The fill materials are suitable for the specific during patching and the density is controlled.
layers This is usually done using nuclear-density methods
• Each layer is properly and adequately (with gravimetric moisture correction), but this
compacted to meet density requirements is not effective within smaller holes or for very

• If HMA is used, the compaction temperatures thin, localised surface layers. It is often better

should not be too low to use portable in situ test equipment such as a
Rapid Compaction Control Device (RCCD) or
• The final riding quality is acceptable
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) calibrated on
• The pothole surface does not form a depression the material used for the patch under controlled
after traffic compaction but rather be slightly laboratory conditions. Any holes left in the
raised compared with the rest of the road patched material by the in situ testing should be
• All joins are properly sealed filled as well as possible.

• The patch must be aesthetically pleasing.

The actual control of compaction of material
added to a small patch can be approximated by
5.2 Control
measuring the quantity (mass) of material and the
5.2.1 Materials must be suitable for the change in volume in the hole during compaction.
specific layers The density (and relative compaction) can then
The crushed stone, natural gravel or stabilised be determined. Correlation with laboratory
gravel materials used for filling the potholes should testing using properties such as the bulking factor
be tested to ensure that they are suitable. It is and refusal density can assist in making the
unlikely that materials from the same source as those necessary estimates.
originally used in the construction will be available.
The materials should then comply with typical
requirements for the appropriate material for that
layer, as identified in TRH 4 (1996), e.g. a G1 to
G4 for base course, a G5 or C4 for sub-base, etc.

39
 Figure 30: A poorly-finished and untidy patch

Figure 31: A well-executed and aesthetically-pleasing rectangular patch next to a less effective ’circular’ patch

40
5.2.3 HMA compaction temperatures must not 5.3 Field test equipment
be too low To carry out appropriate quality control, various
A remote digital thermometer should be used simple pieces of equipment can be used.
to ensure that the application and compaction These include:
temperatures of any HMA are above the lower • A straight edge and wedge
limit recommended for that particular mix.
• A digital thermometer for measuring asphalt
temperature
5.2.4 Final riding quality should be acceptable
• A simple device for assessing the compaction
A straight edge should be used to ensure that the
of gravels and stabilised materials (RCCD or
final patch is not too high (> 5-10 mm) above the
DCP)
surrounding pavement. A 5 to 10 mm ‘hump’ will
allow for some traffic compaction without causing • A method for checking the adhesion of crack-
a significant effect on riding quality in the longer sealing material and geosynthetic strips
term. • A camber board to ensure that pothole patches
near the edge of the road are constructed to
5.2.5 The pothole surface must not form a the correct camber and do not interfere with
depression road surface drainage.
No patch should exhibit any depression under
the straight edge before traffic compaction These controls are mostly visual although a

occurs, as any additional compaction will have number of the properties can be tested. The CSIR

a detrimental effect on the riding quality of the has developed a field kit for quality assurance

road. of general sealed-road maintenance, which

includes all the apparatus necessary to monitor
and quantify the measurable properties identified
5.2.6 Joins should be sealed properly
above. Full instructions are provided with the kit.
All patches should be inspected to ensure that
there are no open joins between the patch Figure 30 shows a recent patch that, although
and the surrounding material. It is strongly effective, is untidy and poorly finished. It is also
recommended that a geosynthetic strip be ‘glued’ clear that the problems leading to the original
with bitumen emulsion over the joins and then pothole have not been attended to (e.g. open
‘painted’ with bitumen emulsion and blinded with cracks and deeper fatigue) and the area is likely
coarse sand. to require repeated patching. The height of the
patch is also such that the riding quality of the
5.2.7 The patch must be aesthetically pleasing road would be affected. A well-constructed and
The final patch should blend into the road as far more pleasing rectangular patch is shown in
as possible and should have the appearance of Figure 31, together with a less-pleasing, smaller
a well-engineered product, e.g. straight edges ‘circular’ patch that required additional work.
and smooth finish. The rectangular patch has performed well thus
far, even without the geosynthetic sealing strip,
although the join was well sealed with bitumen
emulsion.

41
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
Budget constraints reduce preventative road maintenance, with the prevalence of potholes likely to
increase significantly. Potholes are typically ’repaired’ by mostly unskilled or badly-trained teams on an
ad hoc basis, quite some time after formation, thus leading to additional deterioration. The patches are
seldom sufficient to address the basic cause of the problem and this usually results in the need to return to
the site repeatedly for ongoing repairs.

This document provides a procedure to identify the causes of the problems and summarises repair
techniques relevant to the specific type and cause of each problem. The aim is to minimise the need
to return continually for additional repairs. A standard field rating form is provided to assist in the
classification of the type of pothole and associated repair requirements.

42
REFERENCES
Agrément SA. (2010). Guideline document for the assessment and certification of cold mix materials for
patching and pothole repairs. Pretoria: Agrément South Africa.

COLTO, 1998. Standard specifications for roads and bridges for State Road Authorities. Midrand: SAICE.

Emery, SJ. 1992. The prediction of moisture content in untreated layers and an application to design in
southern Africa. Pretoria: Division of Roads and Transport Technology, CSIR. (Bulletin 20)

Netterberg, F. 1979. Salt damage to roads – an interim guide to its diagnosis, prevention and repair.
Bulletin IMIESA, 4(9), September 1979, pp 13-17.

Sabita (2010). Method statement for labour based construction of Pothole repairs with hot or cold mix
asphalt. South African Bitumen Association, Cape Town. http://www.sabita.co.za/documents/LIC%20
15%20Pothole%20Repairs%20-%20HMA%20%20ColdMix.pdf (Accessed 08/10/2010)

TRH 4. 1996. Structural design of flexible pavements for interurban and rural roads. Pretoria: Department
of Transport. (Draft Technical Recommendations for Highways, No 4)

TRH 13. 1986. Cementitious stabilizers in road construction. Pretoria: National Institute for Transport and
Road Research, CSIR. (Draft Technical Recommendations for Highways, No 13)

TRH 15. 1984. Subsurface drainage for roads. Pretoria: National Institute for Transport and Road Research,
CSIR. (Draft Technical Recommendations for Highways, No 15)

World Highways. 2010. Potholes: costly business in Britain. World Highways, 7 June 2010.

43
 APPENDIX A – Standard form for the field assessment
Inspector
Weather Date

crocodile surface subgrade

ROAD NO. LOCATION SURFACING TYPE LAYERS AFFECTED
cracking deformation saturated

CODES:
Surfacing type: A – Asphalt TS – Thin seal
Layers affected: S – Surfacing only B – Surfacing and base SB – Surfacing, base and sub-base
Crocodile cracking, surface deformation (mounding, rutting, shearing, etc.), subgrade saturated,
stabilised base, carbonation of base: Yes/No
44
 and categorisation of potholes

Carbonation
stabilised base Action Comments
of base

45
 APPENDIX B
Key to THE identification of pothole repair measures

The following key to the identification of pothole repair measures is provided to illustrate the pothole
types. It will require enlargement of some of the photographs to identify finer details.

To use the key, one must start at the top left-hand box and sequentially follow the vertical numbering and
horizontal boxes until a repair technique is identified. These then refer to the process described in the
main text (Section 4.5).

Surfacing is Surfacing is thin

asphalt bituminous seal
1

....………. > 2 ....…………. > 4

Pothole is Bottom of pothole

deeper than is within asphalt
asphalt wearing- wearing-course
2 course

Shallow asphalt
....………….> 3 (HMA or CMA)

Pothole caused Pothole caused by

by cracking due localised surface
to fatigue of water ingress with
asphalt no associated
3
crocodile cracking
Deep repair after
sub-soil drainage Medium-depth
installation asphalt repair

Pothole has Pothole has

exposed an exposed a
unstabilised base stabilised base
4

....………….> 5 ..…………. > 10

Pothole is not Pothole is

associated with associated with
cracks cracks
5

....………. > 6 …....………. > 8

46
 Pothole affects Pothole extends
seal and top > 50 mm into base
of base only
6 (< 50 mm)

Shallow-surface
repair .......…………. > 7

Pothole affects Pothole extends

only the base below the base
7
Medium-depth
repair .......…………. > 8

Pothole does Pothole affects

not affect entire entire pavement
pavement structure
structure (only
8 base and sub-
base)

Medium-depth
or deep repair .......…………. > 9

Pothole is Pothole is the result

the result of of poor material
saturated – no evidence of
subgrade or excessive sub-soil
support water
9
Deep repair
after sub-soil
drainage
installation Deep repair

Top of base has Top of base has

carbonated and not carbonated
is weak excessively and is
10 still strong

Shallow-surface
.…………. > 11 repair

Pothole is Pothole is not

associated associated with
with crocodile crocodile cracking
11 cracking

Medium-depth
Deep repair repair

47
Notes
Download both these documents in PDF format at:
www.csir.co.za/pothole_guides
 See www.csir.co.za/pothole_guides to download
www.csir.co.za non-technical and technical guides