Simulation

System Simulation and Modeling
Sl no. Topic Details

1 Introduction to Simulation 1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Simulation
1.2 When Simulation is the Appropriate Tool
1.3 When Simulation is not Appropriate
1.4 Areas of Application
1.5 Systems and System Environment
1.6 Components of a System
1.7 Discrete and Continuous Systems
1.8 Model of a System
1.9 Steps in a Simulation Study
2 Simulation of Queuing and 2.1 Introduction to Queuing Systems
Inventory Systems 2.2 Characteristics of Queuing Systems
2.3 Queuing Notation
2.4 Simulation of Queuing Systems
2.5 Simulation of Inventory Systems
3 Statistical Models 3.1 Review of Terminology and Concepts
3.2 Useful Statistical Models
3.3 Discrete Distributions
3.4 Continuous Distributions
3.5 Poisson Process
3.6 Empirical Distributions
4 Random-Number 4.1 Random Numbers
Generation 4.2 Techniques for Generating Random
Numbers
4.3 Tests for Random Numbers
5 Random Variate Generation 5.1 Inverse Transform Technique
5.2 Acceptance-Rejection Technique
6 Input Modeling 6.1 Data Collection
6.2 Identifying the Distribution with Data
6.3 Parameter Estimation
6.4 Goodness - of - Fit Tests
6.5 Selecting Input Models without Data
6.6 Multivariate and Time-series Input Models
7 Verification and Validation 7.1 Model building, Verification of models
of Simulation Models 7.2 Verification of Simulation Models
7.3 Calibration and Validation of Models
8 Appendix Tables
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Unit 1
Introduction to Simulation
1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation

1.8.1 Types of models
1.8.2 Characterizing a simulation model
Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time.
Simulation involves the generation of an artificial history of a system, and the observation
of that artificial history to draw inferences concerning the operating characteristics of the
real system that is represented.
Simulation is an indispensable problem-solving methodology for the solution of many real-

world problems. Simulation is used to describe and analyze the behavior of a system and
aid in the design of real systems. Both existing and conceptual systems can be modeled
with simulation.
1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation

Simulation has several advantages and some disadvantages in various applications of
which few are listed by Pegden, Shannon and Sadowski [1995].
The advantages are:
1. New policies, operating procedures, information flows and so on can be explored

without distracting ongoing operations of the real system.
2. New hardware designs, physical layouts, transportation systems etc can be tested
without assigning resources for their acquisition.
3. Time can be compressed or expanded allowing for a speed-up or slow-down of the
phenomenon (clock is self-control).
4. Hypotheses about how and why certain event occurs can be tested for feasibility.
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5. Insight can be obtained about interaction and importance of variables to the

performance.
6. Bottleneck (critical) analysis can be performed to discover where work in process,

materials, information and so on is delayed.
7. A simulation study helps in understanding how the system operates.
8. “What if” questions can be answered, that is useful for designing new systems.
The disadvantages are:
1. Special training is required for Model building. It is an art that is learnt overtime
and through experience.
2. Simulation results can be difficult to interpret, as most simulation outputs are
basically random variables (random inputs).
3. Simulation modeling and analysis can be time consuming and expensive.

The situations, under which Simulation is the appropriate (apt) tool to use, have been
discussed by many authors from Naylor to Banks [1996]. Simulation can be used for the
following purposes
1. A simulation model helps us to gain knowledge and suggest improvements in the
system under investigation.
2. Simulation enables the study and experimentation with the internal interactions of
a complex system or subsystem within a complex system.
3. Informational, organizational and environmental changes can be simulated and
their effects can be observed.
4. By changing simulation inputs and observing resulting outputs, valuable insight
may be obtained into which variables are important and how variables interact.
5. Simulation can be used as a pedagogical (rules related to educational measures)
device to reinforce analytical solution methodologies.
6. Simulation can be used with new design and policies before implementation.
7. Simulating different capabilities for a machine can help to determine the
requirements.
8. Simulation models designed for training, makes learning possible without the cost
and disruption of on-the-job learning.
9. A plan can be visualized with animated simulation.
10. The modern system (factory, wafer fabrication plant, service organization) is too
complex that its internal interaction can be treated only by simulation.

Banks and Gibson [1997] gave ten rules for determining when simulation is not appropriate.
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1. Simulation should not be used when the problem can be solved using common
sense. For example if customers arrive randomly at an average rate of 50/hour and
are served at a mean rate of 10/hour, then to determine minimum number of servers,
simulation is not required. Just compute 50/10=5 servers.
2. Simulation should not be used if the problem can be solved analytically.
3. Simulation should not be used if it is easier to perform direct experiments.
4. Not to use simulation, if the costs exceed the savings.
5 & 6 .Simulation should not be performed if the resources or time are not available.
7. If no data is available, not even estimates then simulation is not advised as it
requires data, sometimes lots of data.
8 This rule is concerned with the ability to verify and validate the model. If there is
not enough time or personnel not available, simulation is not appropriate.
9. If mangers have unreasonable expectation –say, too much too soon- or power of
simulation is overestimated, then simulation may not be appropriate.
10. If system behavior is too complex or can’t be defined then it is not appropriate.
 Manufacturing Applications
 Semiconductor Manufacturing
 Construction Engineering and project management
 Military application
 Logistics, Supply chain and distribution application
 Transportation modes and Traffic
 Business Process Simulation
 Health Care
 Automated Material Handling System (AMHS)

System
A system is defined as an aggregation or assemblage of objects joined in some regular
interaction or interdependence.
System Environment
A system is often affected by the changes occurring outside the system. Such changes are
said to occur in system environment.
Example: Factory system that makes and assembles parts into a product (Fig 1.1)
.
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Production
Customer Control
orders Department
Raw Purchasing Fabrication Assembly Shipping Finished

materials Department Department Department Department products
Fig 1.1 A factory system

The factors controlling the arrival of orders may be considered to be outside the influence
of the factory and therefore part of the environment. If the demand grows in the market,
production increases in the factory. Hence market is system environment.
Entity - An object of interest in the system.

Attribute -The property of an entity.
Activity - A time period of specified length.
State - A collection of variables that describe the system in any time.
Event - An instantaneous occurrence that might change the state of the system.
The table 1.1 lists few examples for the above mentioned components of a system.
System Entities Attributes Activities Events State variables

No. of busy tellers,
Balance , Depositing, Arrival,
Bank Customers No. of customers
Credit status withdrawal Departure
waiting
Welding, Status of machine
Production Machines Speed, Capacity Breakdown (busy, idle or down)
stamping
Length, Arrival at Number waiting to
Communication Messages Transmitting
Destination destination be transmitted
Table 1.1 Examples of Systems and Components
Other terminologies
Endogenous - Activities and events occurring with the system

Exogenous - Activities and events occurring with the environment
Open System- A system for which there is exogenous activity.
Closed System- A system for which there is no exogenous activity.
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A discrete system is one in which the state variable(s) change only at a discrete set of
points in time.
Example: Banking system- The number of customers (state variable) in the bank, changes
only when a customer arrives or the service provided to a customer is completed. The fig
1.2 shows the customers changing only at discrete points of time.
Fig 1.2 Discrete Systems
A continuous system is one in which the state variables change continuously over time.
Example: Head of water behind a dam. After a rain storm, water flows into the lake behind
the dam. Water is drawn from dam for flood control and to generate electricity. Fig 1.3
shows how the head of water behind the dam (state variable) changes.
Fig 1.3 Continuous Systems
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A Model is defined as a representation of a system for the purpose of studying the system.
In simple words it is also defined as simplification of reality. Model constructs a conceptual
framework that describes a system. It is necessary to consider those aspects of systems that
affect the problem under investigation (unnecessary details to be removed).
1.8.1 Types of models
Models can be classified as Physical and Mathematical Models.
Physical Model is a smaller or larger physical copy of an object. Physical models allow
visualization, from examining the model of information about the thing the model
represents. A model can be a physical object such as an architectural model of a building.
Mathematical Model uses symbolic notation and mathematical equations to represent a

system. It is further classified as static and dynamic models.
Static Mathematical Model gives the relationship between the system attributes when the
system is in equilibrium. For example in market model there is balance between supply
and demand for commodity and both factors depend upon price.
Dynamic Mathematical Model allows the change of system attributes to be derived as a

function of time. The derivation may be with analytical solution or by numerical
computation.
Simulation model is a particular type of mathematical model of a system. It is defined as

a mathematical representation of the essential characteristics of a real-world system or
situation, which can be used to predict future behavior under a variety of different
conditions.
The process of developing a simulation model involves defining the situation or system to
be analyzed, identifying the associated variables, and describing the relationships between
them as accurately as possible
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Models
Physical Mathematical
Static Dynamic
Numerical Analytical Numerical
Simulation
Static / Dynamic
Deterministic / Stochastic
Discrete / Continuous
Fig 1.4 Types of Models
1.8.2 Characterizing a simulation model
1. Static or Dynamic Simulation model

A static simulation model also called as Monte Carlo simulation represents a system at
particular point in time.
Dynamic simulation model represent systems as they change over time.
2. Deterministic or Stochastic Simulation model

Deterministic models do not contain random variables. They have a known set of
inputs resulting in a unique set of outputs.
Example- Classes conducted in college at particular time.
Stochastic models have one or more random variables as inputs. These inputs lead to
random outputs.
Example- Arrival of customers to bank.
3. Continuous or Discrete Simulation model

Continuous Simulation model, the state of system changes at all point of time.
Discrete Simulation model, the state of system changes only at discrete set of time.
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The set of steps in simulation study helps a model builder in thorough understanding of the
system. The fig 1.5 refers to the detailed steps in study of simulation.
Fig 1.5 Steps in a simulation study
Problem formulation
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The study begins with defining the problem statement. It can be developed either by the
analyst or client. If the statement is provided by client, then the analyst must take extreme
care to ensure that the problem is clearly understood. If a problem statement is prepared by
the simulation analyst, it is important that the client understand and agree with the
formulation. Even with all of these precautions, it is possible that the problem will need to
be reformulated as the simulation study progresses.
Setting of objectives and overall project plan

Another way to state this step is "prepare a proposal." The objectives indicate the questions
to be answered by the simulation study. Whether the simulation is appropriate or not is to
be decided at this stage. The overall project plan should include a statement of the
alternative systems and a method for evaluating the effectiveness of these alternatives. The
plan includes number of personnel, number of days to complete the task, stages in the
investigation, output at each stage, cost of the study and billing procedures, if any.
Model conceptualization
Model is a simplification of reality. The real-world system under investigation is abstracted
by a conceptual model. It is recommended that modeling begins with simple model and
grows until a model of appropriate complexity has been achieved. For example,
consider the model of a manufacturing and material handling system. The basic model with
the arrivals, queues and servers is constructed. Then, add the failures and shift schedules.
Next, add the material-handling capabilities. Finally, add the special features. Constructing
an excessive complex model will add to the cost of the study and the time for its completion,
without increasing the quality of the output. Maintaining client involvement will enhance
the quality of the resulting model and increase the client's confidence in its use.
Data collection
This step involves in gathering the desired input data. The data changes over the complexity
of model. Data collection takes a huge amount of total time required to perform simulation.
It should be started at early stages together with model building. The collection of data
should be relevant with the objectives of study.
Model translation
The conceptual model constructed in Step 3 is coded into a computer recognizable form,
an operational model. The suitable simulation language is used.
Verified?
Verification is with respect to the operational model. Is it performing properly? If the input
parameters and logical structure of model are correctly represented in computer, then
verification is completed.
Validated?
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Validation is the determination, that the model is an accurate representation of the real
system. This is done by calibration of model –an iterative process of comparing model to
the actual system behavior. This process is repeated until model accuracy is acceptable.
Experimental design
The alternatives to be simulated must be determined. For each scenario that is to be
simulated, decisions need to be made concerning the length of the simulation run, the
number of runs (also called replications), and the length of initialization period.
Production runs and analysis

Production runs, and their subsequent analysis, are used to estimate measures of
performance for the system design that are being simulated.
More runs?
After the completion on the analysis of runs, the simulation analyst determines if additional
runs are needed and any additional experiments should follow.
Documentation and reporting

There are two types of Documentation: Program and Progress. Program documentation is
necessary for numerous reasons. If the program is going to be used again by the same or
different analysts, it may be necessary to understand how the program operates. This will
enable confidence in the program so that the client can make decisions based on the
analysis. Also, if the model is to be modified, this can be greatly facilitated by adequate
documentation. Progress reports provide a chronology of work done and decisions made.
It is the written history of a simulation project. The result of all the analysis should be
reported clearly and concisely. This will enable the client to review the final formulation.
Implementation
If the client has been involved throughout the study period, and the simulation analyst has
followed all of the steps rigorously, then the likelihood of a successful implementation is
increased.
The simulation model building process shown in the fig 1.5 can be divided to four phases
Phase 1-Problem formulation
Setting of objectives and overall design
Phase 2- Model conceptualization
Data collection
Model translation
Verification
Validation
Phase 3- Experimental design
Production runs and analysis
Additional runs
Phase 4- Documentation and reporting
Implementation
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Unit 2
Simulation of Queuing and Inventory Systems
2.1 Introduction to Queuing Systems
2.2 Characteristics of Queuing Systems
2.2.1 The calling population
2.2.2 System capacity
2.2.3 The arrival process
2.2.4 Queue behavior and queue discipline
2.2.5 Service times and the service mechanism
2.1 Introduction to Queuing Systems

Simulation is often used in the analysis of queuing models. In a simple but typical queuing
model, shown in Fig 2.1, customers arrive from time to time and join a queue or waiting
line, are eventually served and finally leave the system.
Fig 2.1 Queuing system
The term “customer” refers to any type of entity that can be viewed as requesting “service”
from the system. Therefore many service facilities like production systems, repair and
maintenance facilities, communications and computer systems and transport and material
handling systems can be viewed as queuing systems. Typical measures of system
performance include server utilization (percentage of time a server is busy), length of
waiting lines and delays of customers.
2.2 Characteristics of Queueing Systems

The key elements of a queuing system are the customers and servers.
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The term customer can refer to people, machines, trucks, mechanics, patients, airplanes, e-
mail, cases, orders, or dirty clothes-anything that arrives at a facility and requires service.
The term server might refer to receptionists, mechanics, tool-crib clerks, medical personnel,
automatic storage and retrieval machines (e.g., cranes), runaways at an airport, automatic
packers, etc which provides the requested service.
2.2.1 The calling population
The population of potential customers, referred to as the calling population, may be

assumed to be finite or infinite.
Finite calling population model

The arrival rate to the queuing system does depend on the number of customers being
served and waiting.
A more typical example is that of five tire-curing machines serviced by a single worker.
The machines are the “customers” who arrive at the instant they automatically open. The
worker is the “server”, who “serves” an open machine as soon as possible. When all five
are closed and instant a machine opens and requires a service, the arrival rate decreases. At
those times when all five are open (so four machines are waiting for service while the
worker is attending the other one), the arrival rate is zero; that is, no arrival is possible until
the worker finishes with a machine, in which case it returns to the calling population and
becomes a potential arrival. But if arrival rate is defined as the expected number of arrivals
in the next unit of time, then it becomes clear that this expectation is largest when all
machines could potentially open in the next unit of time.
Infinite calling population model

The arrival rate (i.e., the average number of arrivals per unit time) is not affected by the
number of customers who have left the calling population and joined the queuing system.
When the arrival process is homogeneous over time (e.g., there are no “rush hours”), the
arrival rate is usually assumed to be constant.
Examples of infinite population include the potential customers of the restaurant, bank, or
other similar service facility and also very large group of machines serviced by a technician.
In systems with large population of potential customers, the calling population is usually
assumed to be infinite.
2.2.2 System capacity
In many queuing systems there is a limit to the number of customers that may be in the
waiting line or system. When a system has limited capacity, a distinction is made between
the arrival rate (i.e., the number of arrivals per time unit) and the effective rate (i.e., the
number who arrive and enter the system per time unit).
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For example,
1. (Limited capacity) - An automatic car wash may have room only for 10 cars to enter the
mechanism. It may be too dangerous or illegal for cars to wait in the street. An
arriving customer who finds the system full does not enter but returns immediately to the
calling population.
2. (Unlimited capacity) - Some systems, such as concert ticket sales for students, may be
considered as having unlimited capacity. There are no limits on the number of students
allowed to wait to purchase tickets.
2.2.3. The arrival process
The arrival process for infinite population models is usually characterized in terms of
interarrival times of successive customers. Arrivals may occur at scheduled times or
random times.
 The most important model for random arrivals is the Poisson arrival process.
Poisson arrival process is used as a model for the arrival of people to restaurants,
driving banks and other service facilities like the arrival of telephone calls to a
telephone exchange, etc.
 Second important class of intervals is the scheduled arrivals. In this case the inter
arrival times may be constant, or constant plus or minus a small random amount to
represent early or late arrivals. For example, Patients to a physicians office,
scheduled airline flight arrivals to an airport.
 A third situation occurs when at least one customer is assumed to be always present
in the queue so that the server is never idle because of lack of customers. For
example, a customer may represent raw material for a product and sufficient raw
material is assumed to be always available.
For finite population models the arrival process is characterized in a different manner. We
define a customer as pending, when that customer is outside the queuing system and a
member of calling population; a run time of a given customer is the length of time from
departure from the queuing system until that customers next arrival to the queue. Let A1(i),
A2 (i) ,… be the successive run times of customers i and let S1(i), S2 (i) ,… be the
corresponding successive system times i.e. Sn(i) is the total time spent in the system by
customer i during the nth visit. For example, a tire curing machine is pending when it is
closed and curing a tire. It becomes not pending, the instant it opens and demands service
from the worker. The following fig 2.2 illustrates these concepts for machine 3.
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Fig 2.2 Arrival process for a finite population model
Suppose, if it is assumed that all machines are pending at time 0, the first arrival to the
system occurs at time A1 = min {A1(1), A1(2), A1(3), A1(4), A1(5)}. If A1 = A1(2) , then machine
2 is the first arrival (i.e., the first to open) after time 0. Here, the arrival rate is not constant
but is a function of the number of pending customers.
2.2.4 Queue behavior and queue discipline
Queue behavior refers to customer actions while in a queue waiting for service to begin.
There is a possibility that the incoming customers may
 Balk: leave when they see that the line is too long.
 Renege: leave after being in the line when they see that the line is moving too slow.
 Jockey: move from one line to another if they think they have chosen a slow line.
Queue discipline refers to the logical ordering of customers in a queue and determines
which customer is chosen for service when the server becomes free.
Queue disciplines can be:
 FIFO (first in, first out)
 LIFO (last in, first out)
 SIRO (service in random order)
 SPT (shortest processing time first)
 PR (priority service)
In a job shop, queue disciplines are some times based on due dates and expected processing
time for a given type of job.
2.2.5 Service times and the service mechanism
The service times of successive arrivals are denoted by S1, S2, and S3… They may be
constant or of random duration. In case of random, {S1, S2, …} is usually characterized as
a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables.
The distributions like exponential, weibull, gamma, etc can be used as models for service
times. Sometimes services may be identically distributed for all customers of a given type
or class or priority, while customers of different types may have different service time
distributions. Sometimes, service times depend upon the time of day or length of waiting
line.
A queuing system consists of a number of service centers and interconnecting queues. Each
service center consists some number of severs c, working in parallel. Parallel service
mechanisms are either single server (c=1), multiple servers (1 < c < ∞) or unlimited servers
(c=∞). A self service facility is usually characterized as having an unlimited number of
servers.
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Example 2.1
Consider a discount warehouse where customers may either serve themselves or wait for
one of the 3 clerks and finally leave after paying a single cashier. The system is represented
by the flow diagram in fig 2.3.The sub system consisting of queue 2 and service center 2
is shown in more detail in the fig 2.4.
Fig 2.3 Discount warehouse with three service centers
Fig 2.4 Service center 2, with c=3 parallel servers
The notation is based on the format A / B / c / N / K.

A → Interarrival-time distribution
B→ Service time distribution
[Common symbols for A and B include M (exponential or Markow), D (constant or
deterministic), Ek (Erlang of order k), and GI (general independent).]
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c→ Number of parallel servers

N→ System capacity
K→ Size of the calling population
For example, M / M / 1 / ∞ / ∞ are often shortened to M / M / 1. The tire curing system can
be initially represented by G / G / 1 / 5 / 5.

In a single channel queue the calling population is infinite. Arrivals for service occur one
at a time in a random fashion; once they join the waiting line, they are eventually served.
The system capacity has no limit, the units are served in the order of their arrival usually
in FIFO for a single server or channel. Arrivals and services are defined by the distribution
of the time between arrivals and the distribution of the service times respectively. Some
concepts of queuing system are:
State of the system – The number of units in the system and the status of the server- busy
or idle
Event – Set of circumstances that cause an instantaneous change in the system. There are
only 2 possible events that can affect the state of the system. They are the entry of a unit in
the system (the arrival event) or the completion of service on a unit (the departure unit).
Simulation Clock – used to track simulated time.
The queuing system includes the server, the unit being serviced and the units in the queue.
If a unit has just completed the service the simulation proceeds as shown in the fig 2.5
Fig 2.5 Service-just-completed flow diagram
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The arrival event occurs when the unit enters the system. The flow diagram for the arrival
event is shown in the fig 2.6.
Fig 2.6 Unit-entering-system flow diagram
The unit may find the server either idle or busy; therefore it begins service immediately or
enters the queue for the server. This course of action is shown in fig 2.7
Queue status
Not empty Empty
Server Busy Enter queue Enter queue
status Idle Impossible Enter service
Fig 2.7 Potential unit actions upon arrival
After the completion of the service the server may become idle or remain busy with the
next unit. This relationship of the server outcomes to the status of the queue is shown in
fig 2.8
Queue status
Not empty Empty
Server Busy Impossible
outcomes Idle Impossible
Fig 2.8 Server outcomes after service completion
If the queue is not empty another unit will enter the server and it will be busy. If the queue
is empty, the server will be idle after a service is completed. These two possibilities are
shown in the shaded portion of the fig 2.8
Simulation clock times for arrivals and departures are computed in a simulation table
customized for each problem. In simulation, events usually occur at random times. The
randomness needed to imitate real life is made possible through the use of random numbers.
Random numbers are distributed uniformly and independently and the interval (0, 1).
Random digits are uniformly distributed on the set {0, 1, 2,…, 9}. Random digits can be
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used to form random numbers by selecting the proper number of digits for each random
number and placing a decimal point to the left of the value selected.
Example 2.2 (Single channel queue simulation problem)
A small grocery store has only one check out counter. Customers arrive at this check out
counter at random from 1-8 minutes apart. Each possible value of inter arrival time has the
same probability of occurrence as shown in the table 2.1. The service times vary from 1-6
min with the probabilities shown in the table 2.2. The problem is to analyze the system by
simulating the arrival and service of 20 customers.
Time between Cumulative Random-digit
Probability
arrivals(minutes) probability assignment
1 0.125 0.125 001-125
2 0.125 0.250 126-250
3 0.125 0.375 251-375
4 0.125 0.500 376-500
5 0.125 0.625 501-625
6 0.125 0.750 626-750
7 0.125 0.875 751-875
8 0.125 1.000 876-000
Table 2.1 Distribution of time between arrivals
Service time Cumulative Random-digit

Probability
(minutes) probability assignment
1 0.10 0.10 01-10
2 0.20 0.30 11-30
3 0.30 0.60 31-60
4 0.25 0.85 61-85
5 0.10 0.95 86-95
6 0.05 1.00 96-00
Table 2.2 Service time distributions
 Obtain the random digits from the table of random digits (refer appendix). Since
the probabilities in the table 2.1 are accurate to 3 significant digits, three-place
random numbers will suffice.
 Similarly for table 2.2 two-place random numbers will suffice. It is necessary to list
only 19 random numbers to generate times between arrivals (for 20 customers) as
the first arrival is assumed to occur at time 0.
 The third column in tables 2.1 and 2.2 contains cumulative probability for the
distribution.
 The rightmost column contains the random digit assignment in table 2.1; the first
random-digit assignment is 001-125. There are 1000 three digit values possible
(001 through 000). The probability of time-between-arrivals of 1 minute is 0.125
and 125 of the 1000 random digit values are assigned to such an occurrence.
 In the table 2.3, the time between arrivals is determined. The first random digits are
913. To obtain the corresponding time between arrivals, find in fourth column of
table 2.1 the assignment in which 913 lies and read 8 minutes from the first column
of the table.
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 Similarly service times for all 20 customers are generated in table 2.4 with the aid
of table 2.2.
Time Time
Random between Random between
Customer Customer
digits arrivals digits arrivals
(minutes) (minutes)
1 - - 11 109 1
2 913 8 12 093 1
3 727 6 13 607 5
4 015 1 14 738 6
5 948 8 15 359 3
6 309 3 16 888 8
7 922 8 17 106 1
8 753 7 18 212 2
9 235 2 19 493 4
10 302 3 20 535 5
Table 2.3 Time–between–Arrivals determination
Random Service time Random Service time

Customer Customer
digits (minutes) digits (minutes)
1 84 4 11 32 3
2 10 1 12 94 5
3 74 4 13 79 4
4 53 3 14 05 1
5 17 2 15 89 5
6 79 4 16 84 4
7 91 5 17 52 3
8 67 4 18 55 3
9 89 5 19 30 2
10 38 3 20 50 3
Table 2.4 Service times generated
The simulation table for a single channel queue is shown in table 2.5. The first customer is
assumed to arrive at time 0. Service begins immediately and finishes at time 4. The
customer was in the system for 4 minutes.
After the first customer, the subsequent rows in the table are based on the random numbers
for interarrival time and service time and the completion time of the previous customer.
For example, the second customer arrives at time 8 and thus the server was idle for 4 min.
Skipping down to the fourth customer, it is seen that this customer arrived at time 15 but
could not be served until time 18. This customer had to wait in the queue for 3 minutes.
This process continues for all 20 customers.
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The following are the statistics
1. The average waiting time for a customer is 2.8 minutes. This is determined by
= 56 / 20 = 2.8 minutes
2. The probability that a customer has to wait in the queue is 0.65. It is obtained by
= 13 / 20 = 0.65
3. The fraction of idle time of the server is 0.21, determined as follows
= 18 / 86 = 0.21
The probability of the server being busy is the complement of 0.21 = 0.79
4. The average service time is 3.4 minutes, determined as
= 68 / 20 = 3.4 minutes
The result can be compared with the expected service time by finding the mean of the
service time distribution using the equation
= 1(0.10) + 2(0.20) + 3(0.30) + 4(0.25) + 5(0.10) + 6(0.05) = 3.2 minutes

The expected service time is slightly lower than the average service time in the simulation.
The longer the simulation, the closer the average will be to E(S).
5. The average time between arrivals is 4.3 minutes, determined as
22
= 82 / 19 = 4.3 minutes
One is subtracted from the denominator because the first arrival is assumed to occur at time
0.
The mean is given by
= (1 + 8) / 2 = 4.5 minutes
The expected time between arrivals is slightly higher than the average. As the simulation
becomes longer, the average value of time between arrivals will approach the theoretical
mean E(A).
6. The average waiting time of those who wait is 4.3 minutes. This is obtained by
= 56 / 13 = 4.3 minutes
7. The average time a customer spends in the system is 6.2 minutes. This can be determined
in two ways.
First,
=124 / 20 = 6.2 minutes

Second,
=2.8 + 3.4 = 6.2 minutes
Example 2.3 (The Able Baker Carhop problem)

Consider a drive-in restaurant where carhops take orders and bring food to the car. Cars
arrive in the manner shown in the table 2.6. There are two carhops- Able and Baker. Able
is better able to do the job and works a bit faster than Baker. The distribution of their service
times is shown in tables 2.7 and 2.8.
This is an example for more than one service channels (2 servers). A simplifying rule is
that Able gets the customer if both carhops are idle. Able has the seniority.
23
Time between Probability Cumulative Random-Digit

arrivals (Minutes) probability Assignment
1 0.25 0.25 01-25

2 0.40 0.65 26-65
3 0.20 0.85 66-85
4 0.15 1.00 86-00
Table2.6 Inter arrival Distribution of Cars
Service Time Probability Cumulative Random-Digit

(Minutes) Probability Assignment
2 0.30 0.30 01-30
3 0.28 0.58 31-58
4 0.25 0.83 59-83
5 0.17 1.00 84-00
Table2.7 Service Distribution of Able
Service Time Probability Cumulative Random-Digit

(Minutes) Probability Assignment
3 0.35 0.35 01-35
4 0.25 0.60 36-60
5 0.20 0.80 61-80
6 0.20 1.00 81-00
Table2.8 Service Distribution of Baker
The problem is to find how well the current arrangement is working. A simulation of 60
minutes of operation is made to estimate the system performance.
Here there are more events:

 A customer arrives
 A customer begins service from Able
 A customer completes service from Able
 A customer begins service from Baker
 A customer completes service from Baker
The analyses of table 2.9 are as follows

 Of 62-minute period, Able was busy for 90% of the time.
 Baker was busy only for 69% of the time.
 The average waiting time for all customers (26) was only about 11/26=0.42 minute
(25 seconds), which is very small.
 Nine have to wait for on an average of 11/9 = 1.22 minutes, which is quite low.
 On the whole the system seems to be well balanced. One server cannot handle all
the customers and three servers would be probably too many. The waiting time can
be reduced nearly to zero by adding an additional server but the cost would be quite
high.
24
25
Inventory system is one of the important classes of simulation problems. This inventory
system has a periodic review of length N, at which time the inventory is checked. At each
review, an order is made to bring the inventory up to the level M (Maximum inventory).
At the end of first review period, an order quantity Q1 is placed. The lead time (length of
time between the placement and receipt of an order) is zero.
A simple inventory system is shown in fig 2.9. Demand is shown as being uniform over
the time period in fig 2.9. Actually demands are not usually uniform, they fluctuate over
time. One possibility is that demands all occur at the beginning of the cycle. Another is that
the lead time is random of some positive length.
In the second cycle the amount in inventory drops below zero, indicating shortage. In fig
2.9 these units are backordered; when the order arrives, the demands for the backordered
items are satisfied first.
Fig 2.9 Probabilistic order-level inventory system
To avoid shortages, a buffer, or safety, stock would need to be carried.

Carrying stock in inventory might affect the cost attribute. Some of the scenarios are
 The costs can be interest paid on the funds borrowed to buy the items, renting of
storage space, hiring guards etc.
 Carrying high inventory causes more frequent reviews and consequently, more
frequent purchases which lead to ordering cost.
 Carrying short inventory may cause loss of good will to customers.
Larger inventories decreases the possibilities of shortages but these costs must be traded
off in order to minimize the total cost of an inventory system. The total cost (profit) of an
inventory system is the measure of performance which is affected by changing M and N.
26
In an (M, N) inventory systems, the events that may occur are: the demand for items in the
inventory, the review of the inventory position and the receipt of an order at the end of each
review period. When the lead time is zero, as in fig 2.9, the last two events occur
simultaneously.
Example 2.4 (The newspaper seller’s problem)

A classical inventory problem concerns the purchase and sales of newspapers. The paper
seller buys the paper for 33 cents each and sells them for 50 cents each. Newspapers not
sold at the end of the day are sold as scrap for 5 cents each. Newspapers can be purchased
in bundles of 10. Thus, the paper seller can buy 50, 60 and so on. There are 3 types of
newsdays, ‘good’, ‘fair’ and ‘poor’ with probabilities of 0.35, 0.45, and 0.20 respectively.
The distribution of papers demanded on each of these days is given in table 2.10. The
problem is to determine the optimal number of papers the newspaper seller should purchase.
Simulate demands for 20 days and record profits from sales each day.
Demand Probability Distribution

Demand
Good Fair Poor
40 0.03 0.10 0.44
50 0.05 0.18 0.22
60 0.15 0.40 0.16
70 0.20 0.20 0.12
80 0.35 0.08 0.06
90 0.15 0.04 0.00
100 0.07 0.00 0.00
Table 2.10 Distribution of newspapers demanded
The profits are given by the following relationship
Note→ 1$ = 100 cents
 The revenue from sales is 50 cents for each paper sold. The cost of newspapers is
33 cents for each paper purchased.
 The lost profit from excess demand is 50 – 33 = 17 cents for each paper demanded
that could not be provided.
 The salvage value of scrap papers is 5 cents each.
27
 Tables 2.11 and 2.12 provide the random digits for the types of newsdays and the
demands for those days.
 To solve this problem by simulation, requires setting a policy of buying a certain

number of papers each day, then simulating the demands for papers over the 20-
day time period to determine the total profit. Here simulation is carried out for 70
newspapers and is shown in the table 2.13.
 The policy is changed to other values and the simulation is repeated until the best
value is found.
Cumulative Random-digit
Type of Newsday Probability
probability assignment
Good 0.35 0.35 01-35
Fair 0.45 0.80 36-80
Poor 0.20 1.00 81-00
Table 2.11 Random - digit assignment for type of newsday
Cumulative Distribution Random – Digit assignment

Demand
Good Fair Poor Good Fair Poor
40 0.03 0.10 0.44 01-03 01-10 01-44
50 0.08 0.28 0.66 04-08 11-28 45-66
60 0.23 0.68 0.82 09-23 29-68 67-82
70 0.43 0.88 0.94 24-43 69-88 83-94
80 0.78 0.96 1.00 44-78 89-96 95-00
90 0.93 1.00 1.00 79-93 97-00
100 1.00 1.00 1.00 94-00
Table 2.12 Random – Digit assignments for newspapers demanded
 On day 1 the demand is 60 newspapers. The revenue from the sale of 60 newspapers
is $30. Ten newspapers are left at the end of the day. The salvage value at 5 cents
each is 50 cents. The profit for the first day is
Profit = $30.00 - $23.10 – 0 + $0.50 = $7.40
 th
On 5 day the demand is greater than the supply. The revenue from sales is $35,
since only 70 papers are available under this policy. An additional 20 papers could
have been sold. Thus a lost profit of $3.40 (20 * 17 cents) is assessed. The daily
profit is determined as follows
Profit = $35.00 - $23.10 - $3.40 + 0 = $8.50
 The profit for the 20-day period is the sum of the daily profits $174.90. It can also
be computed from the totals for the 20 days of simulation as
Total profit = $645.00 - $462.00 - $13.60 + $5.50 = $174.90.
This simulation is repeated by changing the values for the policy (buying number of
newspapers) like 60, 80 and so on. The best policy is obtained by comparing all the profits.
28
29
Example 2.5 (Simulation of an (M, N) Inventory system)

Suppose that the maximum inventory level M, is 11 units and the review period N is 5 days.
The problem is to estimate by simulation, the average ending units in inventory and the
number of days when a shortage occurs. The distribution of the number of units demanded
per day is shown in table 2.14. The lead time is shown in the table 2.15. Assume that the
orders are placed at the close of business and are received for inventory at the beginning of
business as determined by the lead time.
Demand Probability
0 0.10 0.10 01 - 10
1 0.25 0.35 11 - 35
2 0.35 0.70 36 - 70
3 0.21 0.91 71 - 91
4 0.09 1.00 92 - 00
Table 2.14 Random – Digit assignments for daily demand
Lead Time (days) Probability
1 0.6 0.6 1-6
2 0.3 0.9 7-9
3 0.1 1.0 0
Table 2.15 Random – Digit assignments for lead time
 Only five cycles are shown.

 The random digit assignments for daily demand and lead time are shown in
rightmost columns of tables 2.14 and 2.15. The simulation results are shown in
table 2.16.
 The simulation has been started with inventory level at 3 units and an order of 8
units scheduled to arrive in 2 days time.
 The order for 8 units is available on the morning of third day of first cycle, raising
the inventory level from 1 to 9 units.
 Demands during the remainder of first cycle reduced the ending inventory level to
2 units on fifth day. Thus an order for 9 units was placed. The lead time for this
order was 1 day. The order of 9 units was added to inventory on the morning of day
2 of cycle 2.
Based on 5 cycles of simulation, the average ending inventory is approximately 3.5(88

/ 25) units. On 2 of 25 days a shortage condition existed.
To make an estimate of the mean units in ending inventory, many cycles would have to be
simulated and also changing M and N values.
30
31
Unit 3
Statistical Models
3.1 Review of Terminology and Concepts

3.1.1 Random variables
3.1.2 Cumulative distribution function (cdf)
3.1.3 Expectation
3.1.4 Mode
3.2 Useful Statistical Models
3.3 Discrete Distributions
3.3.1 Bernoulli trials and Bernoulli distribution
3.3.2 Binomial distributions
3.3.3 Geometric distributions
3.3.4 Poisson distributions
3.4 Continuous Distributions
3.4.1 Uniform distributions
3.4.2 Exponential distributions
3.4.3 Normal distributions
3.4.4 Weibull distributions
3.4.5 Triangular distributions
3.4.6 Lognormal distributions
3.5 Poisson Process
3.1 Review of Terminology and Concepts

3.1.1 Random variables
A random variable is a rule that assigns a number to each outcome of an experiment. These
numbers are called values of random variable. Random variables are usually denoted by X.
Ex 1. If a die is rolled out, the outcome has a value from 1 through 6.
2. If a coin is tossed, the possible outcome is head ‘H’ or tail ‘T’.
There are two types of random variables

1. Discrete random variable
2. Continuous random variable
Discrete Random Variable
A discrete random variable takes only specific, isolated numerical values. The variables
which take finite numeric values are called as Finite discrete random variables and which
takes unlimited values are called as Infinite discrete random variables. The examples are
shown in the table 3.1.
Random Variable Values Type
32
Discrete Finite
Flip a coin three times; X =
{0, 1, 2, 3} There are only four possible
the total number of heads.
values for X.
Select a mutual fund; X = Discrete Infinite
the number of companies {2, 3, 4, ...} There is no stated upper limit
in the fund portfolio. to the size of the portfolio.
Table 3.1 Examples for discrete random variables
Let
X → discrete random variable
RX → possible values of X, given by range space of X.
xi → individual outcome in RX.
A number p(xi) = P(X = xi) gives the probability that the random variable equals the value
of xi. The number p(xi), i=1, 2, 3 … must satisfy two conditions
1. p(xi) ≥ 0, for all the values of i
The collection of pairs (xi, p(xi)) i.e. a list of probabilities associated with each of its
possible values is called probability distribution of X. p(xi) is called probability mass
function (pmf) of X.
Example 3.1
Consider the experiment of tossing a single die, defining X as the number of spots on up
face of die after a toss.
Solution
N=total number of observations = 21
The discrete probability distribution is given by
xi 1 2 3 4 5 6
P(xi) 1/21 2/21 3/21 4/21 5/21 6/21
The conditions also are satisfied, i.e.
1. p(xi) ≥ 0, for i = 1,2,…6
The distribution is shown graphically in fig 3.1
33
Fig 3.1 pmf for loaded die example
Continuous random variable
Continuous Random variable takes any values within a continuous range or an interval.
The example is tabulated in table 3.2.
Random Variable Values Type

Measure the length of an Any positive real number Continuous
object; X = its length in The set of possible
centimeters. measurements can take on
any positive value
Table 3.2 Example for continuous random variables
For a continuous random variable X, the probability that X lies in the interval [a, b], is
given by
The function f(x) is called probability density function (pdf) of random variable X.
The pdf must satisfy the following conditions

1. f(x) ≥ 0, for all x in RX
3. f(x) = 0, if x is not in RX
For any specified value x0, P(X = x0 ) = 0 since
34
Since P(X = x0 ) = 0, the following equation also hold:
P (a ≤ X ≤ b) = P (a < X ≤ b) = P (a ≤ X < b) = P (a < X < b)
The graphical interpretation of equation 3.1 is shown in fig 3.2
Fig 3.2 Graphical interpretation of P (a < X < b)
Example 3.2
The life of a laser- ray device used to inspect cracks in aircraft wings is given by X,
continuous random variable, assuming x ≥ 0.The pdf of lifetime in years is ,
Determine the life of device between the interval [2, 3].
Solution
The probability that the life of laser ray device between 2 and 3 years is determined from
= -e -3/2 + e -1
= -0.223 + 0.368 = 0.145
3.1.2 Cumulative distribution function (cdf)
The cdf is denoted by F(x), measures the probability that the random variable X is less than
or equal to x, i.e. F(x) = P (X ≤ x).
If X is discrete, then
35
If X is continuous, then
Some properties of cdf are
1. F is a non decreasing function. If a < b, then F (a) ≤ F (b)
Note - All probability questions about X can be answered in terms of cdf. For example
P (a < X ≤ b) = F (b) – F (a), for all a < b.
Example 3.3
The life of a laser- ray device used to inspect cracks in aircraft wings is given by X,
continuous random variable, assuming x ≥ 0.The pdf of lifetime in years is ,
1. Determine the probability that the device will last for less than 2 years.
2. Determine the probability that the life of laser ray device is between 2 and 3 years.
Solution
1. The probability that the device will last for less than 2 years is,
P(0 ≤ X ≤ 2) = F(2) – F(0)
= 1- e-1
= 0.632
2. The probability that the life of laser ray device between 2 and 3 years is
P(2 ≤ X ≤ 3) = F(3) – F(2)
= (1 – e-3/2) – (1 – e-1)
= -e-3/2 + e-1
= -0.233 + 0.368
= 0.145
3.1.3 Expectation
If X is a random variable, the expected value of X, denoted by E (X) is defined as
36
E (X) is also referred as Mean µ or first moment of X.
E (X n), n ≥ 1 [nth moment of X] is computed as
Variance of random variable X is denoted by V(X) or Var(X) or σ2, is defined as
V(X) = E(X2) – [E (X)] 2
Standard deviation is given by
Note
 Mean E (X) is a measure of central tendency of a random variable.
 Variance V(X) is a measure of variation of possible values of X around the mean E
(X).
Example 3.4
Find the mean, variance and standard deviation of die- tossing experiment.
Solution
N=21
xi 1 2 3 4 5 6
p (xi) 1/21 2/21 3/21 4/21 5/21 6/21
Variance = V(X) = 21 – (4.33)2 = 2.22
3.1.4 Mode
In case of discrete, Mode is the value of random variable that occurs most frequently. In
case of continuous, the mode is the value at which pdf is maximized.
37
3.2 Useful statistical models
During the conduct of simulation, numerous situations arise where an investigator choose
to introduce probabilistic events. For example
In Queuing systems ─ inter arrival and service times are probabilistic.
In Inventory models ─ time between demand and lead time may be probabilistic.
In Reliability model ─ time to failure may be probabilistic.
In each case, the simulation analyst desires to generate random events and use known
statistical models if the distribution can be found. Some of the systems and the chosen
statistical models are discussed.
Queuing system
In queuing examples, interarrival and service-time patterns are given. The times between
the arrivals and service time are always probabilistic. Service times may be constant or
probabilistic.
 If service times are completely random, exponential distribution is often used.
 If service time is constant, but some random variability causes fluctuations in
positive or negative way then normal distribution is used.
For example- The time it takes for lathe to traverse a 10cm shaft should be always
same, but the material may have slight difference in hardness, causing different
processing times.
 If there are more large service times, then weibull distribution is a better model.
 To model interarrival and service times ─ exponential, gamma and weibull
distributions are used
The differences between these distributions involve the location of modes of pdf’s and the
shape of their tails for large and small times.
Mode – Exponential distribution – at origin
Gamma and Weibull distribution – at some point (≥ 0)
Tail – Gamma and Exponential distribution – long
Weibull distribution – declines more or less rapidly
Inventory systems
It has three random variables
1. Number of units demanded per order or per time period
2. Time between demands
3. Lead time ( time between placing an order and receiving receipt of that order)
 In simple mathematical model, demand is constant over time and lead time is zero
or constant.
 In realistic cases (Simulation models), demand occurs randomly in time and
number of units demanded each time is also random.
 The geometric distribution has its mode at unity, given that atleast one demand has
occurred.
 If demand data are characterized by a long tail, Negative Binomial distribution is
appropriate.
 The Poisson distribution is often used to model the demand.
38
Reliability and maintainability

 If only random failures occur, the time-to-failure distribution may be modeled as
Exponential.
 If most failure are due to wear, Normal distributions may be appropriate.
 To describe time-to-failure for some types of components, lognormal distribution
is found to be applicable.
 When there are number of components in a system and failures is due to serious
large number of defects, then Weibull distribution is extensively used.
Limited data
In many situations, simulations begin before data collection is completed. Three
distributions have application to incomplete/ limited data
 Uniform distribution can be used when an interarrival or service time is known to
be random but no information is immediately available about the distribution.
 Triangular distribution can be used when assumptions are made about minimum,
maximum and modal values of random variable.
 Beta distribution.
3.3 Discrete distributions
Discrete random variables are used to describe random phenomena. The four distributions
are discussed.
3.3.1 Bernoulli trials and Bernoulli distribution
Consider an experiment consisting of n trials each of which is success or failure.

Let
Xj =1, if jth experiment results in success
Xj =0, if jth experiment results in failure
The n Bernoulli trails are called Bernoulli process, trails are independent, each trail has
only two possible outcomes (success, failures) and the probability of success remains
constant from trail to trail.
Thus
p(x1, x2, … xn) = p1(x1). p2(x2)… pn (xn)
This is called Bernoulli distribution.
Mean of Xj is given by
E (Xj) = 0.q + 1.p = p
39
and Variance,
V (Xj) = [(02 .q) + (12 .p)] – p2 = p (1– p)
3.3.2 Binomial distribution
The random variable X denotes the number of successes in n Bernoulli trails has a binomial
distribution given by p(x).
i.e. probability of a particular outcome with all success (S) occurring in first x trails
followed by n-x failures (F).
where q = 1 – p,
Mean is computed by considering X as a sum of n independent Bernoulli random variables

each with mean p. Then
X = X1 + X2 + … + Xn
E (X) = p + p + … + p = np
Variance p (1 - p) = pq, for n independent variables
V (X) = pq + pq + …+ pq = npq
Example 3.5
A production process manufactures computer chips on the average at 2% non-conforming.
Every day a random sample of size 50 is taken from the process. If the sample contains
more than two non-conforming chips, the process will be stopped. Determine the
probability that the process is stopped by the sampling scheme.
Solution
n = 50 Bernoulli trails
p = 2% = 0.02 (each trial)
q = 1 - p = 0.98
X→ Total number of non conforming chips in the sample
40
Binomial distribution
To compute, determine the probability that more than two non conforming chips are
present in the sample
P(X > 2) = 1 – P(X ≤ 2)
= (0.98)50 + 50 (0.02) (0.98)49 + 1225 (0.02)2. (0.98)48

= 0.92
P(X>2) = 1- 0.92 = 0.08

Therefore the probability that the process is stopped on any day by sampling scheme is
approximately 0.08.
Mean number of non conforming chips with sample size 50 is

E (X) = np = 50 (0.02) =1
Variance is
V (X) = npq = 50 (0.02) (0.98) =0.98
3.3.3 Geometric distribution
The geometric distribution is related to a sequence of Bernoulli trails. The random variable
X is defined as number of trails to achieve the first success. The distribution of X is given
by
The event {X = x} occurs when there are x-1 failures followed by a success. Each failure
has an associated probability p. Thus
P (FFF…..FS) = q x - 1 p
Mean,
Variance,
41
Example 3.6
40% of assembled bubble-jet printers are rejected at inspection station. Find the probability
that the first acceptable printer is third one inspected.
Solution
q =40% =0.4
q = 1- p → p = 1 - 0.4 = 0.6
p (x) = qx-1 p
p (3) = (0.4)2 (0.6) = 0.096
Approximately 10% of cases are first accepted
3.3.4 Poisson distribution
Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution that expresses the probability of a

number of events occurring in a fixed period of time if these events occur with a known
average rate and independently of the time since the last event. The pmf is given by
where α > 0
Mean and variance,

E (X) = α = V (X)
The cdf is given by,
Most queuing systems characteristics such as arrival and departure processes are described
by a poisson distribution.
Example 3.7
A computer terminal repair person is beeped each time there is a call for service. The
number of beeps per hour is known to occur in accordance with a poisson distribution with
a mean of α = 2 per hour.
1. Determine the probability of three beeps in next hour.
2. Determine the probability of two or more beeps in an hour period.
Solution
α=2
x=3
1. The probability of three beeps in next hour
42
The same results can be obtained from table A.4 by

F (3) – F (2) = 0.857 – 0.677 = 0.18
2. The probability of two or more beeps in an hour period

p (2 or more) = 1 – p(0)- p(1)
= 1- F (1)
= 1- 0.406
= 0.594
3.4 Continuous distribution
Continuous random variables are used to describe the random phenomena. The
distributions are described below.
3.4.1 Uniform distribution
A random variable X is uniformly distributed on interval (a, b), if

pdf is given by,
cdf,
Note that
The probability is proportional to the length of interval for all x1 and x2 satisfying a
≤ x1 < x2 ≤ b.
Mean,
Variance,
Uniform distribution plays a vital role in simulation. Random numbers, uniformly

distributed between 0 & 1, provide a means to generate random events.
43
Example 3.8
A bus arrives every 20 minutes at a specified stop beginning at 6.40am and continues till
8.40am. A certain passenger does not know the schedule, but arrives randomly (uniformly
distributed) between 7am and 7.30am every morning. What is probability that the
passenger waits more than 5 minutes for a bus?
Solution
The passenger waits for more than 5 minutes only if his/her arrival time is between 7am
and 7.15am or between 7.20am and 7.30am.
If X is a random variable, which denotes the number of minutes past 7am that the passenger
arrives, then the probability is given by
P (0 < X < 15) + P (20 < X < 30)
Now, X is uniform random variable on (0, 30). Therefore the desired probability is
F (15) – F (0) + F (30) – F (20)
=15/30 – 0 + 1 – 20/30 = 5/6
3.4.2 Exponential distribution
A random variable X is said to be exponentially distributed with parameter λ > 0 if

The pdf,
The density functions are shown in the fig 3.3
Fig. 3.3 Exponential density function and cumulative distribution function
Mean,
Variance,
44
Therefore Mean and Standard deviation are equal.
The cdf ,
- This distribution is used to model interarrival times and service times when they
are completely random. In this case λ is a rate: arrival per hour or services per
minute
- It is also used to model the lifetime of a component that fails instantaneously, such
as light bulb, then λ is failure rate.
Example 3.9
Suppose the life of an industrial lamp, in thousands of hours is exponentially distributed
with failure rate λ=1/3 (one failure every 3000 hours, on average)
1. Determine the probability that lamp last longer than its mean life of 3000 hours.
2. Determine the probability that the lamp last between 2000 and 3000 hours.
Solution
λ=1/3
1. The probability that the lamp will last longer than its mean life is given by
P(X > 3) = 1 – P (X ≤ 3)
= 1 – F (3)
= 1 – (1 – e-3/3)
= 0.368
2. The probability that the lamp will last between 2000 and 3000 hours is
P(2 ≤ X ≤ 3) = F (3) – F (2)
= (1 – e-3/3) - (1 – e-2/3)
= - 0.368 + 0.513
= 0.145
Note: Exponential distribution is memory less.
3.4.3 Normal distribution
A random variable X with mean µ (-∞ < µ < ∞) and variance σ2 (σ2 > 0) has a normal
distribution, if its pdf is
45
The Notation X ~ N(µ, σ2) indicates that random variable X is normally distributed with
mean µ and variable σ2. The normal pdf is represented in fig 3.4
Fig 3.4 pdf of normal distribution
Some of the special properties of normal distribution are
The value of f(x) approaches zero as x approaches negative or positive infinity.

2. f (µ - x) = f (µ + x) , pdf is symmetric about µ.
3. Maximum value of pdf occurs at x = µ [Mean & mode are equal].
The cdf of normal distribution is
Since the above equation is in closed form, it is not possible to evaluate. So a transformation
variable, z = (t - µ) / σ, allows the evaluation to be independent of µ and σ.
If X ~ N(µ, σ2), let Z = (X - µ) / σ, to obtain
The pdf ,
The above is the pdf of normal distribution with mean 0 and variance 1.Thus Z ~ N (0, 1)
and it is said that Z has standard Normal Distribution. It is shown in the fig 3.5
46
Fig 3.5 The pdf of standard normal distribution
The cdf for Standard Normal Distribution is
Example 3.10
X ~ N (50, 9). Determine F(56).
Solution
X ~ N (50, 9) → X is normally distributed with mean value 50 and variance 9
F (56) = P (X ≤ 56)
=Φ [(56 -50)/3] [Φ (x - µ)/σ]
=Φ (2)
=0.9772 (using table A.3)
The fig 3.6(a) shows pdf of X ~ N(50, 9) and x0 = 56. The shaded portion is the desired
probability. The fig 3.6(b) shows Standard Normal Distribution Z ~ N (0, 1) with value 2
marked since x0 = 56 is 2σ greater than the mean.
Fig 3.6 Transforming to the standard normal distribution
Example 3.11
The time required to load a vessel X is distributed N (12, 4). Determine the probability that
the vessel will be loaded in less than 10 hours.
47
Solution
µ = 12
σ2 = 4
F (10) =?
F (10) = Φ [(10 - 12)/2]
= Φ (-1)
= 0.1587 [where Φ (-1) = 1- Φ (1)]
Φ(1) = 0.8413, the complement of 0.8413 or 0.1587 is contained in the tail.
Fig 3.7 Using the symmetry property of the normal distribution
The fig 3.7(a) shows the shaded portion of standard normal distribution. The fig 3.7(b)
shows the symmetry property, to determine the shaded region to be Φ (-1).
Example 3.12
The time to pass through a queue to begin self-service at a cafeteria has been found to be
N(15, 9). Determine the probability that an arriving customer waits between 14 and 17
minutes.
Solution
N (15, 9) => µ = 15, σ2 = 9
P (14 ≤ X ≤ 17) = F (17) – F (14)
= Φ [(17 - 15)/3] - Φ [(14 - 15)/3]
= Φ [0.667] - Φ [-0.333]
= 0.3780
If fig 3.8(a) represents the probability F(17) – F(14) then fig 3.8(b) represents the
equivalent probability Φ [0.667] - Φ [-0.333] for standard normal distribution.
Fig 3.8 Transformation to the standard normal for cafeteria problem
48
3.4.4 Weibull distribution
The random variable X has a weibull distribution if its pdf has
The three parameters in distribution are

v → location parameter (-∞ < v < ∞)
α → Scale parameter (α > 0)
β → Shape parameter (β > 0)
When v = 0, pdf becomes
When v = 0 & β = 1, pdf is reduced to
which is an exponential distribution with parameter λ = 1/ α.
Mean,
Variance,
where
The cdf ,
49
Example 3.13
The time it takes for an aircraft to land and clear the runway at a major airport has a weibull
distribution with v = 1.34 minutes, β = 0.5 and α = 0.04 min. Determine the probability
that an incoming airplane will take more than 1.5 minutes to land and clear the runway.
Solution
V = 1.34mins
β = 0.5
α = 0.04 min
The probability than an incoming airplane will take more than 1.5 minutes is
P (X > 1.5) = 1- P(X ≤ 1.5)
= 1- F(1.5) = 1- exp [- {(1.5 – 1.34)/ (0.04)} 0.5]
= 1- e- 2 = 1- 0.135 = 0.865
3.4.5 Triangular distribution
A random variable X with triangular distribution has its pdf,
where a ≤ b ≤ c. The mode occurs at x = b.
A triangular pdf and the representation of height is shown in figure 3.9
Fig 3.9 pdf of the triangular distribution
Mean = E(X) = (a + b + c) / 3
Mode = b = 3 E(X) – (a + c)
Since a ≤ b ≤ c,
The cdf,
50
Example 3.14
The central processing requirements for a program that will execute, have a triangular
distribution with a = 0.05 second, b = 1.1 seconds and c = 6.5 seconds. Determine the
probability that the CPU requirement for a random number is 2.5 seconds or less.
Solution
a = 0.05 second
b = 1.1 seconds
c = 6.5 seconds
P (X ≤ 2.5) = F (2.5) =?
Interval → (0.05, 1.1) plus that portion in (1.1, 2.5) i.e. 1.1 < 2.5 ≤ 6.5 (b < x ≤ c)
Therefore F (2.5) = 1- [(6.5 – 2.5)2 / {(6.5 – 0.05) (6.5 – 1.1)}] = 0.541
Thus the probability is 0.541 that the CPU requirement is 2.5 seconds or less.
3.4.6 Lognormal distribution
A random variable X has a lognormal distribution, if its pdf is,
where σ2 > 0
Mean of lognormal random variable is
Variance of lognormal random variable is
51
The parameter µ and σ2 are not the mean and variance of lognormal. These parameters
come from the normal distribution. When Y has N(µ, σ2), then X= eY has a lognormal
distribution with parameters µ and σ2. If mean and variance of lognormal are known to be
µL and σ2L , then the parameter µ and σ2 are given by
3.5 Poisson Process

The arrivals of jobs at a job shop, arrival of aircraft at a runway, arrival of calls at a
switchboard are some of the random events. These events can be described by a counting
function N(t), for all t ≥ 0.The counting function will represent the number of events that
occurred in interval [0, t]. Time zero is the point at which the observation begins. For each
interval [0, t] the value N(t) is an observation of a random variable (N(t) is assumed to be
integer).
The counting process {N(t),t ≥ 0}is said to be a poisson process with mean rate λ, if it
satisfies the following assumptions.
1. Arrivals occur one at a time.
2. {N(t),t ≥ 0} has stationary increments. The distribution of number of arrivals
between t and t + s depends only on length of interval s and not on starting point t.
Thus arrivals are completely random
3. {N(t),t ≥ 0} has independent increments.
If arrivals are according to the poisson process, it can be shown that probability N(t) is
equal to n i.e.
Comparing poisson pmf with the above equation, N(t) has poisson distribution with
parameter α = λt.
Thus mean and variance is given by

E(N(t) = α = λt = V[N(t)]
For any times s and t, such that s < t, the assumption - stationary increments implies random
variable N(t) –N(s) representing number of arrivals in interval s to t is also poisson
distributed with mean λ (t - s).
52
Thus
and
E [N(t) –N(s)] = λ (t - s)
= V [N(t) – N(s)]
Now, consider the time at which an arrival occur in poisson process. Let the first arrival
occur at time A1, the second at time A1+A2 and so on. Thus A1, A2, … are successive inter
arrival times. It is depicted in fig 3.10
Fig 3.10 Arrival process
Since first arrival occurs after time t and no arrivals in interval [0, t], it is seen that {A
1 > t} = {N(t) = 0}
Therefore
P(A 1 > t) = P[N(t) = 0] = e-λt
The probability that the first arrival will occur in [0, t] is given by
P(A 1 ≤ t) = 1 - e-λt
which is the cdf of exponential distribution with λ . Hence A1 is exponentially distributed

with mean 1/λ and also A1, A2, … inter arrival times are exponentially distributed and
independent with mean 1/λ.
Therefore poisson process can be also defined as if inter arrival times are exponentially
and independently distributed then number of arrivals by time t, say N(t) meets three
assumptions.
Properties of Poisson process
Suppose, each time an event occurs is classified as either type I or type II event. Further
that each event is classified as type I event with probability p and type II event with
probability 1-p, independently of all other events. The two properties are
1. Random splitting
Let N1(t) be random variable denoting number of type I event, N2(t) for type II event. N(t)
= N1(t)+ N2(t). N1(t)and N2(t) are both poisson processes having rates λp and λ(1-p) is
shown in fig 3.11
53
Fig 3.11 Random splitting
2. Pooled process
It is the process of pooling two arrival streams. If Ni(t) are random variables representing
independent poisson process with rates λi, for i=1 and 2, then N(t) = N1(t)+ N2(t) is a
poisson process with rate λ1+ λ2, shown in fig 3.12
Fig 3.12 Pooled process
An empirical distribution can be either continuous or discrete. It is used when it is

impossible or unnecessary to establish random variable that has any particular known
distribution.
Example 3.15 (Discrete)

Customers at a local restaurant arrive at a lunch time in groups ranging from 1 to 8 persons.
The number of persons per party in the last 300 groups has been observed and summarized
in table 3.3 below
Arrivals Relative Cumulative

Frequency
per party frequency relative frequency
1 30 0.10 0.10
2 110 0.37 0.47
3 45 0.15 0.62
4 71 0.24 0.86
5 12 0.04 0.90
6 13 0.04 0.94
7 7 0.02 0.96
8 12 0.04 1.00
Table 3.3 Arrivals per party distribution
Relative frequency and cumulative relative frequency are calculated.
54
Relative frequency = 30/300 = 0.10, 110/300 = 0.37…

The histogram of data that were gathered depicted in fig 3.13
Fig 3.13 Histogram of party size
Fig 3.14 provides a cdf of data, nothing but empirical distribution of given data.
Fig 3.14 Empirical cdf of party size
Example 3.16 (Continuous)

The time required to repair a conveyor system which has suffered a failure has been
collected for the last 100 instances with results shown in the table 3.4
55
Interval Relative Cumulative

Frequency
(hours) frequency frequency
0 < x ≤ 0.5 21 0.21 0.21
0.5 < x ≤ 1.0 12 0.12 0.33
1.0 < x ≤ 1.5 29 0.29 0.62
1.5 < x ≤ 2.0 19 0.19 0.81
2.0 < x ≤ 2.5 8 0.08 0.89
2.5 < x ≤ 3.0 11 0.11 1.00
Table 3.4 Repair times for conveyor
It is seen that between 0 and 0.5 hour, there are 21 instances, between 0.5 and 1.0 hours 12
instances and so on. The empirical cdf is shown in fig 3.15
Fig 3.15 Empirical cdf for repair times
The curve is formed by connection of points in the form [x, F(x)]

i.e. (0, 0), (0.5, 0.21), (1.0, 0.33)…
56
Unit 4
Random-Number Generation
4.1 Random Numbers

4.1.1 Properties of Random Numbers
4.1.2 Generation of Pseudo-Random Numbers
4.2 Techniques for Generating Random Numbers
4.2.1 Linear Congruential Method
4.2.2 Combined Linear Congruential Generator
4.3.1 Frequency Tests
Kolmogorov Smirnov test
Chi-square Test
4.3.2 Runs Test
Runs up and runs down
Runs above and below the mean
Runs test: length of runs
4.3.3 Tests for Autocorrelation
4.3.4 Gap Test
4.3.5 Poker Test
4.1 Random Numbers

A random number is a number generated by a process, whose outcome is unpredictable,
and which cannot be sub sequentially reliably reproduced. Random numbers are the basic
building blocks for all simulation algorithms.
4.1.1 Properties of Random Numbers
57
The two important statistical properties are:

1. Uniformity
2. Independence
Each random number Ri is an independent sample drawn from a continuous uniform

distribution between 0 and 1. The probability density function (pdf) is given by
Fig 4.1 The pdf for random numbers

The expected value of each Ri is given by
The variance is given by
The consequences of uniformity and independence properties are:

1. If the interval (0, 1) is divided into n classes or subintervals of equal length, then
the expected number of observations in each interval is N / n, where N is the total
number of observations.
2. The probability of observing a value in a particular interval is independent of
previous values drawn.
4.1.2 Generation of Pseudo-Random Numbers
The word “Pseudo” is used, because generating numbers using a known method removes
the potential for true randomness. Since the sequence of numbers is deterministic they are
referred to as "pseudo-random".
Goal: To produce a sequence of numbers between [0, 1] that simulates, or replicates, the
ideal properties of random numbers (RN).
The important considerations in selecting RN routines/methods are

1. Fast and cost effective
58
2. Portable to different computers

3. Have sufficient long cycle
4. Replicable
5. Closely approximate the ideal statistical properties of uniformity and independence.
4.2 Techniques for Generating Random Numbers

The most widely used techniques for generating random numbers are:
1. Linear Congruential Method (LCM)
2. Combined Linear Congruential Generators (CLCG)
4.2.1 Linear Congruential Method
The most widely used technique for generating random numbers, initially proposed by
Lehmer [1951]. This method produces a sequence of integers, X1, X2 … between 0 and m-
1 by following a recursive relationship:
The initial value X0 is called seed. The selection of the values for a, c, m, and X0 drastically
affects the statistical properties and the cycle length.
If c ≠ 0 in the above equation, then it is called as Mixed Congruential method.
If c = 0 the form is known as Multiplicative Congruential method.
The random numbers (Ri) between 0 and 1 can be generated by
Example 4.1
Use linear congruential method to generate sequence of random numbers with
X0 = 27, a = 17, c = 43, and m = 100.
Solution
Random numbers (Ri)
The random integers (Xi) generated will be between the range 0 - 99
Equations → Xi+1 = (a Xi + c) mod m, Ri = Xi / m , i=1,2,…..
59
X1 = (17 * 27 + 43) mod 100 = 2, R1 = 2 / 100 = 0.02

X2 = (17 * 2 + 43) mod 100 = 77, R2 = 77 / 100 = 0.77
X3 = (17 * 77 + 43) mod 100 = 52, R3 = 52/ 100 = 0.52
Hence the numbers are generated.
The secondary properties to generate random numbers include maximum density and
maximum period.
1. Maximum density means values assumed by Ri, i = 1, 2,… leave no large gaps on the
interval [0,1].
Problem: The values generated from Ri = Xi / m, is discrete on integers instead of
continuous.
Solution: A very large integer for modulus m.
2. Maximum Period
To achieve Maximum density and avoid cycling, the generator should have largest possible
period. Most digital computers use a binary representation of numbers. Speed and
efficiency are aided by a modulus m, to be (or close to) a power of 2.Maximal period is
achieved by proper choice of a, c, m and X0. The different cases are
 For m a power of 2, say m = 2b and c ≠ 0, the longest possible period is P

= m = 2b, provided that c is relatively prime to m and a = 1 + 4k, where k is an
integer.
 For m a power of 2, say m = 2b and c = 0, the longest possible period is P
b - 2
= m / 4 = 2 , which is achieved provided that the seed X0 is odd and the multiplier
a, is given by a = 3 + 8k or a = 5 + 8k, for some k = 0, 1...
 For m a prime number and c = 0, the longest possible period is P = m - 1, which is
achieved provided that the multiplier a, has the property that the smallest integer k
such that ak - 1 is divisible by m is k = m - 1,
Example 4.2
Using the multiplicative congruential method, find the period of the generator for a = 13,
m = 26 and X0 = 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Solution
c=0 (multiplicative congruential method), m = 26= 64 and a=13 → (a=5+8*1=13) so ‘a’ is
in the form 5+8k with k=1.
So therefore the maximal period p= m / 4= 64 / 4=16 for odd seeds i.e. for X0=1 and 3
Equation → Xi+1 = (a Xi + c) mod m

When X0 = 1, i = 1, X2 = (13 * 1 + 0) mod 64 = 13 mod 64 = 13
When X0 = 1, i = 2, X3 = (13 * 13 + 0) mod 64 = 169 mod 64 = 41
When X0 = 1, i = 3, X4 = (13 * 41 + 0) mod 64 = 533 mod 64 = 21
When X0 = 1, i = 16, X17 = (13 * 5 + 0) mod 64 = 65 mod 64 = 1
When X0 = 2, i = 1, X2 = (13 * 2 + 0) mod 64 = 26 mod 64 = 26
60
When X0 = 2, i = 2, X3 = (13 * 26 + 0) mod 64 = 338 mod 64 = 18
When X0 = 2, i = 8, X9 = (13 * 10 + 0) mod 64 = 130 mod 64 = 2
Similarly for X0 =3 and 4 are calculated. The values are tabulated below in the table 4.1
Therefore
For X0=1, 3 maximal period is 16
For X0=2, maximal period is 8
For X0=4, maximal period is 4
Table 4.1 Period determination using various seeds
4.2.2 Combined Linear Congruential Generators
As the computing power increases, the complexity of the system to simulate also increases.
So a longer period generator with good statistical properties is needed. One successful
approach is to combine two or more multiplicative congruential generators.
Theorem : If Wi,1,Wi,2 ,...,Wi,k are any independent, discrete-valued random variables and
Wi,1 is uniformly distributed on integers 0 to m1 -2, then
is uniformly distributed on the integers 0 to m1 -2.
61
To see how this result can be used to form combined generators,
Let Xi, 1, Xi, 2, … Xi, k be ith output from k different multiplicative congruential generators,
where the jth generator has prime modulus mj and multiplier aj is chosen so that the period
is mj -1. Then the jth generator is producing Xi,j that are approximately uniformly distributed
on 1 to mj -1 and Wi, j = Xi, j -1 is approximately uniformly distributed on 0 to mj -2.
Therefore combined generator of the form,
The maximum possible period for a generator is
Note: (-1) j – 1 coefficient implicitly performs the subtraction Xi, 1 – 1
Example 4.3
For 32-bit computers, L’Ecuyer [1988] suggests combining k = 2 generators with m1
= 2,147,483,563, a1 = 40,014, m2 = 2,147,483,399 and a2 = 40,692. This leads to the
following algorithm:
Step 1: Select seeds

X0, 1 in the range [1 - 2,147,483,562] for the 1st generator
X0, 2 in the range [1 - 2,147,483,398] for the 2nd generator
Set i=0
Step 2: For each individual generator, evaluate

Xi+1, 1 = 40,014 Xi, 1 mod 2,147,483,563
Xi+1, 2 = 40,692 Xi, 2 mod 2,147,483,399
Step 3: Xi+1 = (Xi+1, 1 – Xi+1, 2) mod 2,147,483,562
Step 4: Return
Xi+1 , Xi+1 > 0

Ri+1 = 2,147,483,563
2,147,483,562 , Xi+1 = 0
2,147,483,563
Step 5: Set i = i+1, go back to step 2
The combined generator has period: (m1–1) (m2–1)/2 ≈ 2 x 1018
62

The two main properties of random numbers are uniformity and independence.
Testing for Uniformity

The hypotheses are as follows
H0 : Ri ~ U [0, 1]
H1 : Ri U [0, 1]
The null hypothesis H0, reads that the numbers are distributed uniformly on the interval [0,
1]. Rejecting the null hypothesis means that the numbers are not uniformly distributed.
Testing for Independence

The hypotheses are as follows
H0 : Ri ~ independently
H1 : Ri independently
This null hypothesis, H0, reads that the numbers are independent. Rejecting the null
hypothesis means that the numbers are not independent. This does not imply that further
testing of the generator for independence is unnecessary.
For each test, a level of significance α must be stated.
= P (reject H0 | H0 true)
Frequently, α is set to 0.01 or 0.05.
There are five types of tests. The first is concerned for testing the uniformity whereas
second through five with testing for independence.
1) Frequency test - Compares the distribution of set of numbers generated to a

uniform distribution by using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov or the chi-square test.
2) Runs test - Tests the runs up and down or the runs above and below the mean by
comparing the actual values to expected values. The statistic for comparison is the
chi-square test.
3) Autocorrelation test - The correlation between numbers is tested and compares
the sample correlation to the expected correlation of zero.
4) Gap test - Counts the number of digits that appear between repetitions of a
particular digit and then uses the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test to compare with the
expected size of gaps.
5) Poker test - Treats the numbers grouped together as a poker hand. Then the hands
obtained are compared to what is expected using the chi-square test.
4.3.1 Frequency Tests
63
The fundamental test performed to validate a new generator is the test for uniformity. The
two different methods of testing are
1. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
2. Chi-Square test
1. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
It compares the continuous cumulative distribution function (cdf) of the uniform

distribution with the empirical cdf, of the N sample observations. The cdf of an empirical
distribution is a step function with jumps at each observed value.
Notations used
F(x) →Continuous cdf
SN(x) → Empirical cdf
N →Total number of observations
R1, R2 …RN → Samples from Random generator
D → Sample statistic
Dα→ Critical value
By definition,
As N becomes larger, SN(x) ≈ F(x).
Maximum deviation over the range of random variable is given by
D = max | F(x) – SN(x) |
The sampling distribution of D is known and is tabulated as a function of N in table A.8.
Procedure for testing uniformity using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
Step 1– Rank the data from smallest to largest. Let R(i) denote the ith smallest observation,
so that
R (1) ≤ R (2) ≤ ….. ≤ R (N)
Step 2 – Compute
D+ = max {(i / N) - R (i)}
1≤i≤N
D- = max {R (i) – [(i – 1)/ N]}

1≤i≤N
64
Step 3 – Compute
D= max (D+, D-)
Step 4 – Determine the critical value Dα, from the table A.8 for the specified significance
level α and the given sample size N.
Step 5
a. If D > Dα, the null hypothesis that the data are sample from a uniform distribution
is rejected.
b. If D ≤ Dα then there is no difference detected between the true distribution of {R1,
R2 …RN} and the uniform distribution. So it is accepted.
Example 4.4
Suppose 5 generated numbers are 0.44, 0.81, 0.14, 0.05, and 0.93. It is desired to perform
a test for uniformity using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test with a level of significance α
= 0.05.
Solution
N=5 , i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Arrange Ri from
smallest to largest
Step 1 - Ri 0.05 0.14 0.44 0.81 0.93
i/N 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
i/N- Ri 0.15 0.26 0.16 - 0.07
Step 2 - Ri– [(i-1)/N] 0.05 - 0.04 0.21 0.13
D+ = max {i/N - Ri} D- = max {Ri – [(i-1)/N]}
Step 3- D=max (D+, D-) = 0.26
Step 4- For α = 0.05, N = 5

Dα = D0.05 = 0.565 (from table A.8)
D < Dα → 0.26 < 0.565
Therefore H0 is not rejected, i.e. no difference between the distribution of generated

numbers and the uniform distribution.
The calculations in the above table are depicted in the fig 4.2, where empirical cdf SN(x) is
compared to uniform cdf F(x). It is seen that D+ is the largest deviation of SN(x) above F(x)
and D- is the largest deviation of SN(x) below F(x).
65
Fig 4.2 Comparison of F(x) and SN(x)

2. Chi-square test
It uses the sample statistic
Where Oi → observed number in ith class

Ei → expected number in ith class
n → number of classes
For uniform distribution Ei is given by
Where N →Total number of observations
It can be shown that the sampling distribution is approximately the chi-square

distribution with n-1 degrees of freedom (i.e., ≤ )
Example 4.5
Use chi-square test with α=0.05 to test whether the data shown below are uniformly
distributed.
0.34 0.90 0.25 0.89 0.87 0.44 0.12 0.21 0.46 0.67
0.83 0.76 0.79 0.64 0.70 0.81 0.94 0.74 0.22 0.74
0.96 0.99 0.77 0.67 0.56 0.41 0.52 0.73 0.99 0.02
0.47 0.30 0.17 0.82 0.56 0.05 0.45 0.31 0.78 0.05
0.79 0.71 0.23 0.19 0.82 0.93 0.65 0.37 0.39 0.42
0.99 0.17 0.99 0.46 0.05 0.66 0.10 0.42 0.18 0.49
66
0.37 0.51 0.54 0.01 0.81 0.28 0.69 0.34 0.75 0.49
0.72 0.43 0.56 0.97 0.30 0.94 0.96 0.58 0.73 0.05
0.06 0.39 0.84 0.24 0.40 0.64 0.40 0.19 0.79 0.62
0.18 0.26 0.97 0.88 0.64 0.47 0.60 0.11 0.29 0.78
Solution
Let n=10, the interval [0-1] divided in equal lengths, (0.01-0.10), (0.11-0.20), ---, (0.91-
1.0)
N = 100
Ei=N/n=100/10=10
The calculations are tabulated below in table 4.2
Therefore null hypothesis of uniform distribution is not rejected.
Table 4.2 Computation of chi-square test
Note:
 In general for any value choose ‘n’ such that Ei ≥ 5.
 Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is more powerful than chi-square test because it can be
applied to small sample sizes, whereas chi square requires large sample, say N ≥
50.
4.3.2 Runs Tests
Run - The succession of similar events preceded and followed by a different event is called
as run.
67
Run length - Number of events that occur in the run.
Example 4.6: Tossing coin

Consider the sequence of tossing a coin 10 times: H T T H H T T T H T
Run
No. Run
length
1 1 H
2 2 TT
3 2 HH
4 3 TTT
5 1 H
6 1 T
There are two possible concerns in run tests. They are

1. Number of runs- Run up and down & Runs above and below mean
2. Length of runs
1. Runs up and down
a. Up run-Sequence of numbers each of which is succeeded by larger number is

called as up run.
b. Down run-Sequence of numbers each of which is succeeded by smaller number is

called as down run.
c. If a number is followed by a larger number then it denoted by ‘+’. If followed by

smaller number then by ‘-‘.
To illustrate the above, consider the sequence of numbers

0.87 0.15 0.23 0.45 0.69 0.32 0.30 0.19 0.24 0.18 0.65 0.82 0.93 0.22
The up run and down run are marked as
-
0.87 +0.15 +0.23 +0.45 -0.69 -0.32 -0.30 +0.19 -0.24 +0.18 +0.65 +0.82 -0.93 0.22
The sequence of ‘+’ and ‘-‘are
It has 7 runs, first run of length one, second run of length three, third run of length 3, fourth
run with one, fifth run with one, sixth run with three and seventh run with one. There are
three up runs and four down runs.
68
If N is number of numbers in sequence, then maximum numbers of runs is N-1 and

minimum number of runs is one.
If ‘a’ is total number of runs in a random sequence, Mean is given by
Variance,
For N > 20, the distribution of ‘a’ is reasonably approximated by a normal distribution,
N(μa, σa2). This approximation is used to test the independence of numbers from a generator.
The test statistic is obtained by subtracting the mean from observed number of runs ‘a’ and
dividing by standard deviation, i.e. Test statistic is given by,
Substituting μa and σa in above equation, we get
Where Z0 ~ N (0, 1)
The null hypothesis is accepted when –Z α / 2 ≤ Z0 ≤ Zα/2, where α is the level of

significance. The critical values and rejection region is shown in the fig 4.3.
Fig 4.3 Accept null hypothesis
Example 4.7
Based on runs up and runs down, determine whether the following sequence of 40 numbers
is such that the hypothesis of independence can be rejected or accepted where α = 0.05.
0.41 0.68 0.89 0.94 0.74 0.91 0.55 0.62 0.36 0.27
0.19 0.72 0.75 0.08 0.54 0.02 0.01 0.36 0.16 0.28
0.18 0.01 0.95 0.69 0.18 0.47 0.23 0.32 0.82 0.53
0.31 0.42 0.73 0.04 0.83 0.45 0.13 0.57 0.63 0.29
69
Solution
The sequence of runs up and down is as follows:
+ + + - + - + - - - + + - + - - + - +
- - + - - + - + + - - + + - + - - + + -
No. of runs → a = 26
N = 40
μa = {2(40) - 1} / 3 = 26.33
σa2= {16(40) - 29} / 90 = 6.79
Z0 = (26 - 26.33) / √ (6.79) = -0.13
Critical value → Zα/2→ Z0.025 = 1.96 (from table A.3)
–Zα/2 ≤ Z0 ≤ Zα/2 → -1.96 ≤ -0.13 ≤ 1.96
Therefore independence of the numbers cannot be rejected, we accept null hypothesis.
Disadvantage of runs up and down

 Insufficient to review the independence of group of numbers
2. Runs above and below the mean
Runs are described with above/below the mean value. A ‘+’ sign is used to indicate above
mean and ‘-‘sign for below the mean.
To illustrate the above, consider the sequence of 2-digit random numbers

0.40 0.84 0.75 0.18 0.13 0.92 0.57 0.77 0.30 0.71
0.42 0.05 0.78 0.74 0.68 0.03 0.18 0.51 0.10 0.37
Mean = (0.99+0.00)/2 = 0.495
The runs above and below mean are marked as

-0.40 +0.84 +0.75 -0.18 -0.13 +0.92 +0.57 +0.77 -0.30 +0.71
-0.42 -0.05 +0.78 +0.74 +0.68 -0.03 -0.18 +0.51 -0.10 -0.37
The sequence of ‘+’ and ‘-‘are

- + + - - + + + - + - - + + + - - + - -
There are 11 runs, of which 5 are above mean and 6 runs below mean.
Let n1 → No. of individual observations above mean

n2 → No. of individual observations below mean
b → Total number of runs
N→ Maximum number of runs, where N = n1 + n2
The mean is given by
70
Variance
For either n1 or n2 greater than 20, b is approximately normally distributed. The test statistic
is obtained by subtracting mean from number of runs ‘b’ and dividing by standard deviation
i.e.
The null hypothesis is accepted when –Zα/2 ≤ Z0 ≤ Zα/2, where α is the level of
significance.
Example 4.8
Based on runs above and below mean, determine whether the following sequence of 40
numbers is such that the hypothesis of independence can be rejected or accepted where α
= 0.05.
0.41 0.68 0.89 0.94 0.74 0.91 0.55 0.62 0.36 0.27
0.19 0.72 0.75 0.08 0.54 0.02 0.01 0.36 0.16 0.28
0.18 0.01 0.95 0.69 0.18 0.47 0.23 0.32 0.82 0.53
0.31 0.42 0.73 0.04 0.83 0.45 0.13 0.57 0.63 0.29
Solution
Mean= 0.495
The sequence of runs above and below mean is as follows:
- + + + + + + + - - - + + - + - - - - -
- - + + - - - - + + - - + - + - - + + -
n1 = 18
n2 = 22
N = n1 + n2 = 40
b = 17
μb = [{2(18) (22)} / 40] +(1 / 2) = 20.3
σb2= [2 (18) (22) {(2) (18) (22) – 40}] / [(40)2 (40 – 1)] = 9.54
Since n2 > 20, normal approximation is accepted.
Z0 = (17- 20.3) / √ (9.54) = -1.07
Critical value → Zα/2→ Z0.025 = 1.96 (from table A.3)
–Zα/2 ≤ Z0 ≤ Zα/2 → -1.96 ≤ -1.07 ≤ 1.96
Therefore hypothesis of independence cannot be rejected on the basis of this test.
Disadvantage of runs above and below mean
71
 If two numbers are below mean, two numbers are above mean and so on. Then the
numbers are dependent.
3. Runs test: length of runs
Let Yi be the number of runs of length i, in a sequence of N numbers. For an independent

sequence,
The expected value of Yi for runs up and down is given by
For runs above and below mean, the expected value of Yi is given by
Where wi, the approximate probability that a run has length i, is given by
And E (I), the approximate expected length of a run, is given by
The approximate expected total number of runs (of all lengths) E (A), is given by
The appropriate test is chi-square test with Oi, the observed number of runs of length i. The
test statistic is given by
Where L = N – 1 for runs up and down

L = N for runs above and below mean.
If null hypothesis of independence is true then X20 is approximately chi-squared distributed

with L-1 degrees of freedom.
Example 4.9
72
Given the sequence of numbers, can the hypothesis that the numbers are independent be
rejected on the basis of length of runs up and down at α = 0.05?
0.30 0.48 0.36 0.01 0.54 0.34 0.96 0.06 0.61 0.85
0.48 0.86 0.14 0.86 0.89 0.37 0.49 0.60 0.04 0.83
0.42 0.83 0.37 0.21 0.90 0.89 0.91 0.79 0.57 0.99
0.95 0.27 0.41 0.81 0.96 0.31 0.09 0.06 0.23 0.77
0.73 0.47 0.13 0.55 0.11 0.75 0.36 0.25 0.23 0.72
0.60 0.84 0.70 0.30 0.26 0.38 0.05 0.19 0.73 0.44
Solution
N = 60
The sequence of + and – are as follows
+ - - + - + - + + - + - + + - + + - + - + - - + - + - - + -
- + + + - - - + + - - - + - + - - - + - + - - - + - + + -
The length of runs in the sequence is as follows

1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1,
1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 1, 1, 1, 3, 1, 1, 1, 3, 1, 1, 2, 1
Calculate Oi
Run Length, i 1 2 3 4
Observed Runs, Oi 26 9 5 0
The expected value of Yi,
For run length one,
Run length two,
Run length three
We find mean (runs up and down)
Expected value, when i ≥ 4
73
To find X20, the calculations and procedures are shown in table 4.3
Run length Observed number of runs Expected number of

(i) (Oi) runs E (Yi)
1
2
3
4
- 40 39.67
Table 4.3 Length of runs up and down: X02 test
Therefore hypothesis of independence is accepted.

Example 4.10
Given the sequence of numbers can the hypothesis that the numbers are independent be
rejected on the basis of length of runs above and below mean at α = 0.05?
0.30 0.48 0.36 0.01 0.54 0.34 0.96 0.06 0.61 0.85
0.48 0.86 0.14 0.86 0.89 0.37 0.49 0.60 0.04 0.83
0.42 0.83 0.37 0.21 0.90 0.89 0.91 0.79 0.57 0.99
0.95 0.27 0.41 0.81 0.96 0.31 0.09 0.06 0.23 0.77
0.73 0.47 0.13 0.55 0.11 0.75 0.36 0.25 0.23 0.72
0.60 0.84 0.70 0.30 0.26 0.38 0.05 0.19 0.73 0.44
Solution
N = 60
Mean = (0.99+0.00)/2 = 0.495
The sequence of + and – are as follows

- - - - + - + - + + - + - + + - - + - + - + - - +
+ + + + + + - - + + - - - - + + - - + - + - - - ++
+ + - - - - - + -
n1 = 28
n2 = 32
N = n1 + n2 = 60
The length of runs in the sequence is as follows

4, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 7, 2, 2, 4, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 1, 1
74
Calculate Oi
Run Length, i 1 2 3 ≥4
Observed Runs, Oi 17 8 1 5
The probabilities of runs of various lengths wi are as follows
The expected length of run E (I) is
The expected number of runs of various lengths is
The expected total number of runs is
For i ≥ 4,
To find X02, the calculations and procedures are shown in table 4.4
Run length Observed number of runs Expected number of

(i) (Oi) runs E (Yi)
75
1
2
3
≥4
- 31 29.70
Table 4.4 Length of runs above and below mean: X02 test
Therefore hypothesis of independence is accepted.
4.3.3 Tests for Autocorrelation
The tests for autocorrelation are concerned with dependence between numbers in a
sequence.
For example
0.12 0.01 0.23 0.28 0.89 0.31 0.64 0.28 0.83 0.93
0.99 0.15 0.33 0.35 0.91 0.41 0.60 0.27 0.75 0.88
0.68 0.49 0.05 0.43 0.95 0.58 0.19 0.36 0.69 0.87
Even though the numbers satisfies all the previous test, still we find that every 5th, 10th, …
numbers are larger numbers in that position. Hence the numbers are dependent. So this test
is preferable.
The notations used are

ρim → autocorrelation
m → lag, the places where dependency exists. The numbers at these places can be smaller
or larger.
i → starting position of observation
M → largest integer, i + (M + 1) m ≤ N
N →Total number of values in the sequence
Ri, Ri+m, Ri+2m … Ri+(M+1)m → Random numbers
The null hypothesis of independence is given by

H0 : ρim = 0
H1 : ρim ≠ 0
For large values the above is approximately normal if the values Ri, Ri+m, Ri+2m … Ri+(M+1)m
are uncorrelated. The test statistic can be formed as
76
This is distributed normally with mean 0 and variance 1.
Where
Standard deviation of estimator is
If –Zα/2 ≤ Z0 ≤ Zα/2 , then accept the null hypothesis of independence.

If ρim > 0, the subsequence is exhibiting positive autocorrelation, which means high
random numbers tends to be followed by high ones and low followed by low.
If ρim < 0, the subsequence is exhibiting negative autocorrelation, which means low
random numbers tends to be followed by high ones and vice versa.
Zero Autocorrelation no correlation between successive random numbers at lag m.
Example 4.11
Test whether the 3rd, 8th, 13th and so on, numbers in the sequence are autocorrelated. The
level of significance is 0.05.
0.12 0.01 0.23 0.28 0.89 0.31 0.64 0.28 0.83 0.93
0.99 0.15 0.33 0.35 0.91 0.41 0.60 0.27 0.75 0.88
0.68 0.49 0.05 0.43 0.95 0.58 0.19 0.36 0.69 0.87
Solution
α = 0.05
i = 3 (beginning with 3rd number)
m = 5 (every five numbers)
N = 30
M= 4 (largest integer 3+ (M+1)5 ≤ 30)
Arranging the numbers to be observed with i = 3 & m = 5

0.28 0.33 0.27 0.05 0.36
= - 0.1945
77
The test statistic,
Z0 = -0.1945 / 0.1280 = -1.519
Critical value Z0.05/2 = Z0.025 = 1.96
-Z0.025 ≤ Z0 ≤ Z0.025 = -1.96 ≤ -1.519 ≤ 1.96,
Therefore null hypothesis of independence is not rejected.
4.3.4 Gap Test
The Gap test measures the number of digits between successive occurrences of the same
digit. A gap of length x occurs between the occurrences of some specified digit. The
probability of gap is determined as
P (t followed by exactly x non-t digits) = (0.9) x (0.1), x=0, 1, 2,…
For example
Length of gaps associated with the digit 3.
4, 1, 3, 5, 1, 7, 2, 8, 2, 0, 7, 9, 1, 3, 5, 2, 7, 9, 4, 1, 6, 3
3, 9, 6, 3, 4, 8, 2, 3, 1, 9, 4, 4, 6, 8, 4, 1, 3, 8, 9, 5, 5, 7
3, 9, 5, 9, 8, 5, 3, 2, 2, 3, 7, 4, 7, 0, 3, 6, 3, 5, 9, 9, 5, 5
5, 0, 4, 6, 8, 0, 4, 7, 0, 3, 3, 0, 9, 5, 7, 9, 5, 1, 6, 6, 3, 8
8, 8, 9, 2, 9, 1, 8, 5, 4, 4, 5, 0, 2, 3, 9, 7, 1, 2, 0, 3, 6, 3
There are eighteen 3’s in list. Therefore 17 gaps, the first gap is of length 10, second gap
is of length is length 7 and so on. We are interested in the frequency of gaps.
The probability of first gap is determined as P(gap of 10)=(0.9)10 (0.1)
The observed frequencies for all digits are compared to the theoretical frequency using the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The theoretical frequency distribution for random ordered
digits is given by
Procedure for the test is as follows
78
Step 1 – Specify the cdf for the theoretical frequency distribution, F(x) = 1 – 0.9 x + 1
Step 2 –Arrange the observed sample of gaps in a cumulative distribution with these
same classes.
Step 3 – Find D, the maximum deviation between F(x) and SN(x) as

D= max |F(x) - SN(x)|
Step 4 – Determine the critical value Dα , from table A.8 for the specified value of α and
the sample size N.
Step 5 –If the calculated value of D is greater than the tabulated value of Dα, the null
hypothesis of independence is rejected.
Example 4.12
Based on the frequency with which gaps occur analyze the following 110 digits to test
whether they are independent. Use α= 0.05.
4, 1, 3, 5, 1, 7, 2, 8, 2, 0, 7, 9, 1, 3, 5, 2, 7, 9, 4, 1, 6, 3
3, 9, 6, 3, 4, 8, 2, 3, 1, 9, 4, 4, 6, 8, 4, 1, 3, 8, 9, 5, 5, 7
3, 9, 5, 9, 8, 5, 3, 2, 2, 3, 7, 4, 7, 0, 3, 6, 3, 5, 9, 9, 5, 5
5, 0, 4, 6, 8, 0, 4, 7, 0, 3, 3, 0, 9, 5, 7, 9, 5, 1, 6, 6, 3, 8
8, 8, 9, 2, 9, 1, 8, 5, 4, 4, 5, 0, 2, 3, 9, 7, 1, 2, 0, 3, 6, 3
Solution
Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
No. of Gaps 7 8 8 17 10 13 7 8 9 13
Total No. of gaps = 110 – 10 = 100
The numbers of gaps associated with the various digits are as follows in table 4.5
Gap Length Frequency Relative Cumulative

Frequency Frequency F(x) |F(x) - SN(x)|
0-3 35 0.35 0.35 0.3439 0.0061

4-7 22 0.22 0.57 0.5695 0.0005
8-11 17 0.17 0.74 0.7176 0.0224
12-15 9 0.09 0.83 0.8147 0.0153
16-19 5 0.05 0.88 0.8784 0.0016
20-23 6 0.06 0.94 0.9202 0.0198
24-27 3 0.03 0.97 0.9497 0.0223
28-31 0 0.00 0.97 0.9657 0.0043
79
32-35 0 0.00 0.97 0.9775 0.0075

36-39 2 0.02 0.99 0.9852 0.0043
40-43 0 0.00 0.99 0.9903 0.0003
44-47 1 0.01 1.00 0.9936 0.0064
Table 4.5 Gap test example
The critical value of D is given by D0.05 = 1.36 / √100 = 0.136
D = max |F(x) - SN(x)| = 0.0224
D < D0.05, Therefore null hypothesis of independence is not rejected.
4.3.5 Poker Test
Is based on the frequency with which certain digits are repeated in a series of number.
For example
0.255 0.577 0.331 0.414 0.828 0.909 0.303 0.001 …
Note: a pair of like digits appears in each number generated.
There are only three possibilities in a 3-digit numbers. They are
1. Individual numbers can all be different.

P(3 different digits) = P(2nd different from 1st) * P(3rd different from 1st & 2nd)
= (0.9) (0.8) = 0.72
2. Individual numbers can all be same.

P(3 like digits) = P(2nd digit same as 1st) * P(3rd digit same as 1st)
= (0.1) (0.1) = 0.01
3. There can be one pair of like digits.

P(exactly one pair) = 1 - 0.72 - 0.01 = 0.27
Example 4.13
A sequence of 1000 three-digit numbers has been generated and an analysis indicates that
680 have three different digits, 289 contain exactly one pair of like digits, and 31 contain
three like digits. Based on the poker test, are these numbers independent?
Solution
Let α = 0.05
The test is summarized in table 4.6
80
Observed Expected
Combination, i
frequency, Oi frequency, Ei
680 720 2.22
Three different digits 31 10 44.10
Three like digits 289 270 1.33
Exactly one pair ------ ------ -------
1000 1000 47.65 =
Table 4.6 Poker test results
Therefore the independence of the numbers is rejected on the basis of this test.
Unit 5
Random Variate Generation
5.3 Inverse Transform Technique
5.1.1 Exponential Distributions
5.1.2 Uniform Distributions
5.1.3 Triangular Distributions
5.1.4 Discrete Distribution
Empirical Distribution
Uniform Distributions
Geometric Distributions
5.4 Acceptance-Rejection Technique
5.2 1 Poisson Distributions
All the techniques for generating random variates assumes that the uniform (0, 1) random
numbers R1, R2 … is readily available, where each Ri has
probability density function (pdf)
81
and cumulative distribution function (cdf)
5.1 Inverse Transform Technique

This technique will be explained in detail for exponential distribution. Given pdf/pmf of a
distribution, find the cdf F(X), where X is a random variate. Set F(X) = R, where R is a
random number. Then X = F-1(R), F-1 is the solution of equation R = F(X) in terms of R,
not 1/f.
5.1.1 Exponential Distribution
The exponential distribution has
pdf
cdf
Where λ→ Mean number of occurrences per unit time
Example 5.1
If interarrival times X1, X2, X3... had an exponential distribution with rate λ, then λ can be
interpreted as mean number of arrivals per unit time. For any i,
Where 1/λ → Mean interarrival time

Therefore a procedure can be developed for generating values X1, X2, X3... having an
exponential distribution.
Procedure for Inverse Transform Technique, by exponential distribution
Step1 -Compute the cdf of desired random variable X. For exponential distribution, cdf is
82
F (x) = 1 – e –λx, x ≥ 0
Step2 -Set F(X) = R on range of X. For exponential distribution, 1- e-λx = R, x ≥ 0. Since

X is a random variable; 1- e-λx is also a random variable, uniformly distributed over
the interval (0, 1).
Step3 -Solve the equation F(X) = R, X in terms of R.

For exponential distribution, the solution is as follows
1- e-λx = R
e-λx = 1 - R
-λX = ln (1 - R)
Equation (5.1) is called a random variate generator for exponential distribution and
can be written as X = F-1(R).
Step4 -Generate uniform random numbers R1, R2, R3 … and compute desired random
variate by
Xi = F-1(Ri)
For exponential distribution, using (5.1)
for i = 1, 2 …
Note: It is justified that both 1 - Ri and Ri are uniformly distributed on (0, 1).
5.1.2 Uniform Distribution
Let X → Random variable, uniformly distributed on interval [a, b].

R → Random number
A valid guess for generating X is given by
X = a + (b – a) R (5.3)
The pdf of X is
83
Procedure for deriving the equation for X
Step1 – The cdf is
Step2 – Set
Step3 – Solve for X in terms of R, Then
X – a = R (b – a)
Therefore X = a + (b – a) R
5.1.3 Triangular distribution
The pdf,
This is depicted in fig 5.1 with endpoints (0, 2) and mode at 1.
Fig 5.1 Density functions for triangular distribution.
The cdf,
84
For 0 ≤ X ≤ 1,
and for 1≤ X ≤ 2,
By equation (5.4), 0 ≤ X ≤ 1 implies 0 ≤ R ≤ 1/2 then
By equation (5.5), 1 < X ≤ 2 implies 1/2 < R ≤ 1 then
Thus X is generated by
5.1.4 Discrete Distributions
The discrete distributions can be generated by using inverse transform technique either
numerically (table-lookup procedure) or algebraically (formula). It includes empirical
distribution and two standard discrete distributions – (discrete) uniform and geometric
distributions.
Example 5.2 (Empirical Discrete distribution)
At the end of the day, number of shipments on loading dock of ABC Company is 0, 1 or 2
with relative frequency of occurrence of 0.50, 0.30 and 0.20 respectively. The internal
consultants were asked to develop a model to improve efficiency of loading and hauling
operations, as a part they are required to generate values X, to represent number of
shipments on loading dock at end of each day. The discrete random variable with
distribution is given in the table 5.1 and 5.2.
x p(x) F(x)
0 0.50 0.50
1 0.30 0.80
2 0.20 1.00
Table 5.1 Distributions of number of shipments X
i Input (ri) Output (xi)
1 0.50 0
2 0.80 1
3 1.00 2
85
Table 5.2 Generating the discrete variate X
pmf is given by
p(0) = P (X=0) = 0.50
p(1) = P (X=1) = 0.30
p(2) = P (X=2) = 0.20
The cdf of discrete random variable always consists of horizontal line segments with jumps
of size p(x) at points x, which the random variable can assume. There is a jump
of size p(0) = 0.5 at x = 0, p(1) = 0.3 at x =1 and p(2) = 0.2 at x = 2.
cdf,
The graphical representation of cdf is shown in fig 5.2
Fig 5.2 The cdf of number of shipments X
Suppose R1 =0.73 is to be generated, then
1. Graphically
First locate R1 = 0.73 on vertical axis, draw a horizontal line segment until it hits a ‘jump’
in cdf and then drop a perpendicular to horizontal axis to get the generated variate.
2. Table – lookup procedure

First find the interval in which R1 lies, In general for R = R1,
if
86
F(xi – 1) = ri – 1 < R ≤ ri = F(xi)

then
Set X1 = xi
Here r0 = 0, x0 = - ∞, while x1, x2… xn are possible values of random variable and
rk = p(x1) + p(x2) +… + p(xk), k = 1,2…n
For this example

n = 3, x1 = 0, x2 = 1, x3 = 2, hence r1 =0.5, r2 =0.8, r3 = 1.0
Since r1 =0.5 < R1 = 0.73 ≤ r2 = 0.8
Set X1 = x2 = 1
Therefore generation scheme is summarized as
Example 5.3 (Discrete Uniform Distributions)
Consider discrete uniform distribution on (1, 2, … k) with
pmf => p(x) = 1 / k, x =1, 2,…, k
cdf,
Let us consider
xi = i
ri = p(1) + p(2) + …+ p(xi) = F(xi )
87
By using inequality, F (xi-1) = ri-1 < R ≤ ri = F (xi), generated random number R satisfies
Then X is generated by setting X = i. Now the above inequality (5.6) can be solved for i
i – 1 < Rk ≤ i
Rk ≤ i < Rk + 1
This yields to a formula for generating X, i.e.

X = ┌Rk┐ (rounds up the values of Rk)
For example X1 = ┌7.8┐= 8
Example 5.4
Consider discrete distribution with pmf given by
For integer values of x in the range {1, 2, … k}

cdf,
Generate R and use inequality F (xi-1) = ri-1 < R ≤ ri = F (xi), such that
88
To get ‘x’ in terms of R consider first inequality

(x -1) x = k (k +1) R
→ x2 – x – k (k +1) R = 0
The above equation is in form of quadratic equation. So the solution is obtained by using
quadratic formula,
With a =1, b = –1, c = –k (k +1) R
By rounding up, the solution is X = ┌x -1┐
Example 5.5 (Geometric Distribution)
Consider the geometric distribution with pmf
p(x) = p (1 – p)x, x = 0, 1, 2,… where 0 < p < 1
cdf,
89
= p [1 + (1 – p) + (1 – p) 2 + (1 – p) 3 +…+ (1 – p) x]
= 1 – (1 – p) x + 1
Generate R and use inequality F (xi-1) = ri-1 < R ≤ ri = F (xi), such that
F(x – 1) = 1 – (1– p)x < R ≤ 1 – (1– p)x + 1 = F(x), 0 < R < 1
(1– p)x + 1 ≤ 1 – R < (1– p)x
(x + 1) ln (1- p) ≤ ln (1 – R) < x ln (1 – p)
÷ by ln(1 – p)
1 – p < 1 implies ln(1 – p) < 0, so that
Thus, X = x for that integer value of x satisfying inequality. By using round up function
For a geometric variate X, assume values {q, q+1, q+2 …} with pmf
p(x) = p(1 – p)x – q , (x = q, q+1,…)
Such a variate, X can be generated as
Note- Commonly q = 1
Example 5.6
Generate 3 values from a geometric distribution on the range {X ≥ 1} with mean 2. Such a
geometric distribution has pmf p(x) = p( 1 – p )x – 1 , where x= 1,2,… with mean 1/p = 2.
90
[Random numbers R1 = 0.932, R2 = 0.105, R3 = 0.687 from table A.2]
Solution
p = 1/2
q=1
p(x) = p (1 – p)x – 1
5.2 Acceptance – Rejection Technique

Consider a method for generating random variates X, uniformly distributed between 1/4
and 1. The procedure is as follows
Step1 – Generate a random number R
Step2 – a) If R ≥ ¼, accept X = R and then go to step3

b) If R < ¼, reject R, and return to step1
Step3 – If another uniform random variate on [1/4, 1] is needed, repeat from beginning at
Step1, otherwise stop.
Step1 generates a new random number R at each time of execution. Step 2a is an

Acceptance and step 2b is a rejection. When the condition is finally satisfied, desired
random variate X[1/4,1] can be computed (X = R). This procedure is proved to be correct
by recognizing the accepted values of R, the conditioned values. R conditioned on event
{R ≥ ¼}, have the desired distribution.
To show this
then
91
This is the probability distribution of R, given that R is between ¼ and 1 is the desired
distribution.
The efficiency of an acceptance rejection technique depends on rejections i.e. minimum

the number of rejections, maximum the efficiency.
This technique is illustrated by Poisson distribution for rth generation of random variates.
5.2.1 Poisson Distribution
The Poisson distribution has pmf,
Where N→ Poisson random variate

α → mean, α > 0
N can be interpreted as number of arrivals from poisson arrival process in one unit of time.
In exponential distribution, α is the mean number of arrivals per unit time. Thus there is a
relationship between (discrete) poisson distribution and (continuous) exponential
distribution. i.e. N = n if and only if
A1 + A2+…+ An ≤ 1 < A1+…+ An + An+1 (5.7)
Where
A1, A2,...→ inter arrival times of customers, exponentially distributed with rate α.
N = n, says exactly n arrivals during one unit of time but A1 +A2+…+An ≤ 1 < A1+…+ An
+ An+1 says that nth arrival occurred before time 1, whereas (n + 1) st arrival occurred after
time 1. Therefore these two statements are equivalent. Equation (5.7) is simplified by using
equation (5.2), we get
Substitute equation (5.8) in equation (5.7), to obtain
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Now multiply throughout by − α, which reverses the inequality sign and sum of logarithm
to product of logarithm
Use the relation eln x = x, then
This is equivalent to relation (5.7)
Procedure for generating a poisson random variate N
Step1 – Set n = 0, P = 1
Step2 – Generate random number Rn+1 and replace P by P. Rn+1
Step3 – If P < e−α, then accept N = n

Else reject the current n, increase n by one and return to step2.
Note
 If P ≥ e−α in step3, then n is rejected and generation process must proceed through
at least one more trial.
 If N = n, then n+1 random numbers are required, so the average number is given
by E (N + 1) = α + 1.
Example 5.7
Generate three poisson variates with mean α =0.2 (Random Numbers are to be taken from
Table A.2)
Solution
e−α = e−0.2 = 0.8187
Step1 – Set n = 0, P = 1
Step2 – R1 = 0.4357, P =1*0.4357 = 0.4357
Step3 – Since P < e−α i.e. 0.4357 < 0.8187, Accept N = 0.
Step1 – Set n = 0, P = 1
Step2 – R1 = 0.4146, P =1*0.4146 = 0.4146
Step3 – Since P < e−α i.e. 0.4146 < 0.8187, Accept N = 0.
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Step1 – Set n = 0, P = 1
Step2 – R1 =0.8353, P = 0.8353
Step3 – Since P ≥ e−α, reject n = 0, return to step2 with n = 1.
Step2 – R2 =0.9952, P = P.R2 = 0.8353 * 0.9952 = 0.8312

Step3 – Since P ≥ e−α, reject n = 1, return to step2 with n = 2.
Step2 – R3 =0.8004, P = P.R3 = 0.8312 * 0.8004 = 0.6654

Step3 – Since P < e−α , accept N = n = 2.
The calculations are summarized below
n Rn+1 p Accept/Reject Result

0 0.4357 0.4357 P < e−α (accept) N=0
0 0.4146 0.4146 P < e−α (accept) N=0
0 0.8353 0.8353 P ≥ e−α (reject) −
1 0.9952 0.8312 P ≥ e−α (reject) −
2 0.8004 0.6654 P < e−α (accept) N=2
To generate 3 poisson variates, it took 5 random numbers, R. If 1000 poisson variates

with α =0.2, has to be generated then 1000(α + 1) =1200 random number are required.
Unit 6
Input Modeling
6.1 Data Collection

6.2 Identifying the Distribution with Data
6.2.1 Histogram
6.2.2 Selecting the family of distribution
6.2.3 Quantile - Quantile plots
6.3.1 Preliminary statistics
6.3.2 Suggested estimators
6.4 Goodness - of - Fit Tests
6.4.1 Chi-square test
6.4.2 Chi-square test with equal probabilities
6.4.3 Kolmogorov – smirnov goodness-of-fit test
6.5 Selecting Inputs Models without Data
6.6 Multivariate and Time-series Input Models
6.6.1 Covariance and correlation
6.6.2 Multivariate input models
6.6.3 Time- series input models
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Input data provide the driving force for a simulation model. In queuing system the
distribution of time between arrivals and service times are the input data. The distributions
of demand and lead time are the input data for inventory system.
There are four steps in development of a useful model of input data

1. Data Collection
2. Identifying the distribution with data
3. Parameter Estimation
4. Goodness of fit tests
6.1 Data Collection

Data collection is one of the biggest tasks in solving a real problem. Collection of data
requires a substantial time and resource commitment. The collection of data is from the
real system of interest. In some situation it is not possible to collect the data. When data
are not available, expert opinion and knowledge of the process must be used to make
educated guess.
“GIGO or garbage - in, garbage - out” is the basic concept in computers. In case input data
are not accurately collected and analyzed then simulation output data will result in
misleading and possibly damage with increase in cost factor.
To enhance and facilitate data collection, the following suggestions are required.
1. A useful expenditure of time is in planning.
 Data collection should start before observing the process. Devise the forms
for this purpose. These forms have to be modified several times before
actual data collection begins.
 Check for unusual circumstances and consider how they will be handled.
 If data is already present then plenty of time is required for converting the
data into a usable format.
2. Try to analyze the data that are collected i.e. whether the data collected is adequate
for simulation. Check the data that are useless for the system.
3. Try to combine homogeneous data sets; an initial test is to see if means of
distribution are same.
4. Be aware of possibility of data censoring. Censoring → whether the part or whole
data is accepted. Censoring results in long process time, so collect only relevant
data.
5. Build a scatter diagram to determine the relationship between two variables. Scatter
diagram – A dotted graph with one variable on x-axis and one variable on y-axis.
6. Observe the sequence of inputs for autocorrelation. If service time of ith customer
affects the ‘i + n’ customer then there is an autocorrelation.
7. Keep in mind the difference between the input data from output or performance
data. Make sure to collect input data which represents the uncertain quantities that
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are largely beyond the control of system and will not be altered by changes made
to improve the system.
6.2 Identifying the distribution with data
When the data is available, this step begins by developing a frequency distribution or
histogram, of the data. Based on the frequency distribution and structural knowledge of the
process, a family of distribution is chosen.
6.2.1 Histogram
It is useful in identifying the shape of a distribution. The procedure for construction is as

follows.
1. Divide the range of the data into intervals of equal width (unequal width may be
used).
2. Label the horizontal axis to conform to the intervals selected.
3. Determine the frequency of occurrences within each interval.
4. Label the vertical axis. So that total occurrences can be plotted for each interval.
5. Plot the frequencies on the vertical axis.
The number of class intervals depends on number of observations and dispersion in the
data. If intervals are too wide, histogram will be coarse or blocky. If intervals are too
narrow, the histogram will be ragged. The fig 6.1 shows the different forms of histogram.
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Fig 6.1 Ragged, coarse, and appropriate histograms
Histogram for continuous data corresponds to pdf of a theoretical distribution; if

continuous, a line is drawn through the center point of each class interval frequency.
Histograms for discrete data corresponds to pmf of distribution, it has large number of
data points so it should have a cell for each value in the range of data. If there are few
points then combine adjacent cells to eliminate ragged appearance of histogram.
Example 6.1 (Discrete data)

The number of vehicles arriving at the corner of the road from 7 am to 7.05 am was
monitored for five working days over 20 week period. The table 6.1 shows the resulting
data with first entry – 12 periods each of 5 minutes during which zero vehicles arrived, 10
periods during which one vehicle arrived and so.
Arrivals per Arrivals per

Frequency Frequency
period period
0 12 6 7
1 10 7 5
2 19 8 5
3 17 9 3
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4 10 10 3
5 8 11 1
T able 6.1 Number of arrivals in a 5 minute period
The number of vehicles is a discrete variable; since there are sample data the histogram can
have a cell for each possible value in the range of data. The resulting histogram is shown
in fig 6.2
Fig 6.2 Histogram of number of arrivals per period
Example 6.2 (Continuous data)

Life tests are performed on random sample of electronic chips at 1.5 times the nominal
voltage and their lifetime in days are recorded
79.919 3.081 0.062 1.961 5.845

3.027 6.505 0.021 0.013 0.123
6.769 59.899 1.192 34.760 5.009
18.387 0.141 43.565 24.420 0.433
144.695 2.663 17.967 0.091 9.003
0.941 0.878 3.371 2.157 7.579
0.624 5.380 3.148 7.078 23.96
0.590 1.928 0.300 0.002 0.543
7.004 31.764 1.005 1.147 0.219
3.217 14.382 1.008 2.336 4.562
Lifetime is usually a continuous variable. Since the data is large from 0.002 day to 144.695
days, use intervals of width three results, as shown in table 6.2. It is represented in fig 6.3.
Chip life (days) Frequency
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0 ≤ xj <3 23
3 ≤ xj <6 10
6 ≤ xj <9 5
9 ≤ xj <12 1
12 ≤ xj <15 1
15 ≤ xj <18 2
18 ≤ xj <21 0
21 ≤ xj <24 1
24 ≤ xj <27 1
27 ≤ xj <30 0
30 ≤ xj <33 1
33 ≤ xj <36 1
42 ≤ xj <45 1
57 ≤ xj <60 1
78 ≤ xj <81 1
144 ≤ xj <147 1
Table 6.2 Electronics chip data
Fig 6.3 Histogram of chip life
6.2.2 Selecting the Family of Distributions
The purpose of preparing a histogram is to infer a known pdf or pmf. A family of

distributions is selected, on the basis of content being investigated with the shape of the
histogram. The exponential, normal & poisson distribution are frequently used, easy to
analyze. Where as gamma & weibull distribution provide a wide array of shapes, difficult
to analyze.
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Some of the examples to select the distributions
Binomial - Models the number of successes in n independent trials with probability p.

Example: Number of defective chips found in n chips.
Negative binomial -Models the number of trials required to achieve ‘k’ successes.
Example: Number of chips that must be inspected to find 4 defective chips.
Poisson - Models number of independent events that occur in fixed amount of time.
Example: Number of customers arriving to a restaurant during 1 hour.
Normal - Models the process as sum of number of component processes

Example: Time to assemble a product is sum of times required for each assembly operation.
Lognormal -Models the distribution of process as product of number of component

processes
Example: Rate of return on an investment.
Exponential -Models the time between independent events or process time which is
memory less.
Example: Times between arrivals of large number of customers.
Gamma - Models nonnegative random variables, the gamma can be shifted away from 0
by adding a constant.
Weibull - Models the time to failure for components

Example: Time to failure for a disk drive. Exponential is the special case of weibull
Discrete or continuous uniform - Models complete uncertainty, since all outcomes are
equally likely. This distribution is often used when there are no data.
Empirical -It is used when no theoretical distributions are appropriate. Resample from the
actual data collected.
6.2.3 Quantile - Quantile plots
A quantile-quantile (q-q) plot is a useful tool for evaluating distribution fit, where as
histogram is not preferred for evaluating the fit of chosen distribution.
If X is a random variable with cdf F then q–quantile of X is that value γ such that
F(γ) = P ( X ≤ γ) = q , 0 < q <1
γ = F-1(q)
Let
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{xi, i = 1, 2, …n} → Sample of data from X

{yj j = 1, 2, …n} → Samples arranged in ascending order, where y1 ≤ y2 ≤…≤yn.
j → ranking or order number
j =1 for smallest and j = n for largest.
The q –q plot is based on the fact that yj is an estimate of (j – 1/2) / n quantile of x. i.e.
yj is approximately F-1[(j – 1 /2) / n].
 If F is a member of an appropriate family of distributions, then plot yj versus F-

1
[(j – 1 /2) / n)] will be approximately a Straight line
 If F is a member of an appropriate family of distributions and has appropriate
parameter values, then the line will have slope 1.
 If the assumed distribution is not appropriate then points will deviate from a straight
line.
Example 6.3 (Normal Q – Q plot)

A robot is used to install the doors on automobiles along an assembly line. It was thought
that the installation time followed a normal distribution. The robot is capable of accurately
measuring installation times. Samples of 20 installation times are tabulated below. (Values
are in seconds)
99.79 99.56 100.17 100.33

100.26 100.41 99.98 99.83
100.23 100.27 100.02 100.47
99.55 99.62 99.65 99.82
99.96 99.90 100.06 99.85
j = 1, 2,…20
Sample mean =99.99 seconds
Sample variance = (0.2832)2 seconds.
The observation are arranged in ascending order in table 6.3

Value(yj) F-1((j – 1 /2)/20)
j
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1 99.55 0.03
2 99.56 0.08
3 99.62 0.13
4 99.65 0.18
5 99.79 0.23
6 99.82 0.28
7 99.83 0.33
8 99.85 0.38
9 99.90 0.43
10 99.96 0.48
11 99.98 0.53
12 100.02 0.58
13 100.06 0.63
14 100.17 0.68
15 100.23 0.73
16 100.26 0.78
17 100.27 0.83
18 100.33 0.88
19 100.41 0.93
20 100.47 0.98
Table 6.3 Computation of values
The ordered observations yj versus F-1((j – 1 /2)/20) is plotted, which is shown in fig 6.4
In evaluation of linearity of q–q plot, the following should be considered.

1. The observed values will never fall exactly on a straight line
2. The observed values are not independent, since they are ranked. The points will be
scattered about the line.
3. The variances of extremes (largest & smallest values) are higher than variance in
the middle of the plot. Greater discrepancies can be accepted at extremes. The
linearity of points in the middle of plot is more important than linearity at the
extremes.
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Fig 6.4 Histogram and q-q plot of the installation times

The parameters are chosen to determine a specific instance of distribution family. When
the data are available, these parameters can be estimated. Some estimators are described.
6.3.1 Preliminary Statistics: Sample Mean and Sample Variance
The sample mean and sample variance are used to estimate the parameters of a
hypothesized distribution.
The observations in a sample of size n are X1, X2, … Xn.
1. If data are discrete or continuous raw data then sample mean is defined by
And sample variance is defined by
103
2. If data are discrete and grouped in a frequency distribution then mean and variance is
given by
Where fj → Observed frequency of value Xj of X

K→ Number of distinct values of X
4. If data are discrete or continuous and have been placed in class interval, then mean and
variance is
Where
fj→ Observed frequency
mj→ Mid point of jth interval
c→ Number of class intervals
6.3.2 Suggested Estimators
Numerical estimates of the distribution parameters are required to reduce the family of
distributions to a specific distribution and to test the resulting hypothesis. The table 6.4
contains suggested estimators for distribution often used in simulation.
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Distribution Parameter(s) Suggested Estimators(s)

Poisson α
Exponential λ
Gamma β, θ
Normal μ,σ2
Lognormal μ,σ2
Table 6.4 Suggested estimators for distributions often used in simulation
Note - The parameter is denoted by α and estimator is denoted by ά
Example 6.4 (lognormal distribution)

The percentage rates of return on 10 investments in a portfolio are 18 .8, 27.9, 21.0, 6.1,
37.4, 5.0, 22.9, 1.0, 3.1 and 8.3.Estimate the parameter of a lognormal model of this data.
Solution
Natural log of the given data is
2.9, 3.3, 3.0, 1.8, 3.6, 1.6, 3.1, 0, 1.1 and 2.1
6.4 Goodness-of-Fit tests

Goodness-of-fit test provide helpful guidance for evaluating the suitability of a potential
input model. If single distribution is selected, then other distributions are called candidate
distributions. It is especially important to understand the effect of sample size.
 If very little data are available, then goodness-of-fit test is unlikely to reject any
candidate distributions.
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 If very large data are available, then goodness-of-fit test is likely to reject all
candidate distributions.
6.4.1 Chi-square Test
This test is valid for large sample sizes and used for both discrete and continuous
distributional assumptions. It formalizes the spontaneous idea of comparing the histogram
of data to the shape of candidate density or mass function.
The test procedure beings by arranging the n observations into a set of k class intervals or
cells. The test statistic is given by
The expected frequency Ei for each class intervals is computed as
Ei = npi
Where
pi → theoretical, hypothesized probability associated with ith class interval.
approximately follows chi-square distribution with k-s-1 degrees of freedom.
Where,
s → Number of parameters of hypothesized distribution estimated by sample statistics.
The hypotheses are

H0 : Random variable X, conforms to distribution assumption with parameter(s)
given by estimate(s).
H1 : Random variable X does not conform
The critical value X2α, k-s-1 is found in table A.6. Null hypothesis H0, is accepted if
If an Ei value is too small, it can be combined with expected frequencies in adjacent class
intervals. The corresponding observed frequency Oi values should be also combined and k
should be reduced by one for each cell combined.
If the distribution being tested is discrete, each value of random variable should be a class
interval, unless it is required to combine adjacent class intervals to meet minimum expected
cell-frequency requirements.
For discrete, if combining adjacent cells is not required, then

pi = p(xi) = P(X = xi)
otherwise
pi is sum of probabilities of appropriate adjacent cells.
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If the distribution being tested is continuous, the class intervals are given by [ai – 1, ai),
Where ai – 1 and ai are endpoints of ith class interval
For continuous with assumed pdf f(x) or assumed cdf F(x), pi is
Note
1. For discrete - Number of class intervals is determined by number of cells resulting
after combining adjacent cells as necessary.
2. For continuous – Number of class intervals must be specified.
The table 6.5 helps in determining the number of class intervals for continuous data.
Sample size Number of Class Interval

(n) (k)
20 Do not use the chi-square test
50 5 to 10
100 10 to 20
>100 √n to n/5
Table 6.5 Recommendations for number of class intervals for continuous data
Example 6.5
The vehicle arrival data is tabulated below
Arrivals per Arrivals per

Frequency Frequency
period period
0 12 6 7
1 10 7 5
2 19 8 5
3 17 9 3
4 10 10 3
5 8 11 1
Since the histogram of the data, shown in fig 6.2 appears to follow Poisson distribution,
the parameter = 3.64 was determined.
Solution
Hypotheses
H0 : Random variable is poisson distributed
H1 : Random variable is not poisson distributed
pmf of poisson distribution
107
The probabilities associated with various values of x are obtained by using above equation
p(0) = 0.026 p(3) =0.211 p(6) =0.085 p(9) =0.008
p(1) =0.096 p(4) =0.192 p(7) =0.044 p(10)=0.003
p(2) =0.174 p(5) =0.140 p(8) =0.020 p(11)=0.001
The computations are shown in the table 6.6
Table 6.6 chi- square goodness-of-fit test
6.4.2 Chi- square test with equal probabilities
If a continuous distributional assumption is being tested, class intervals that are equal in
probability should be used instead of equal in width of interval.
For equal probabilities

pi = 1/k
Ei = npi ≥ 5
Substituting for pi, we get
Solving for k,
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 In case of normal, exponential or weibull distribution, the method is straight

forward.
 For gamma or other certain distributions, the computation of end points for class
intervals is complex and requires numerical integration for density function.
Example 6.6
Life test were performed on a random sample of electronic chips at 1.5 times the nominal
voltage, and their lifetime (or time to failure) in days was recorded:
79.919 3.081 0.062 1.961 5.845

3.027 6.505 0.021 0.013 0.123
6.769 59.899 1.192 34.760 5.009
18.387 0.141 43.565 24.420 0.433
144.695 2.663 17.967 0.091 9.003
0.941 0.878 3.371 2.157 7.579
0.624 5.380 3.148 7.078 23.960
0.590 1.928 0.300 0.002 0.543
7.004 31.764 1.005 1.147 0.219
3.217 14.382 1.008 2.336 4.562
Solution
Since the histogram appears to follow exponential distribution. The parameter is given a
Hypotheses
Ho : Random variable is exponentially distributed
H1 : Random variable is not exponentially distributed
The intervals must be of equal probability, so the end points of the class intervals must be
determined. Number of intervals should be less than or equal to n / 5.
Here n = 50, so k ≤ 50 / 5 → k ≤ 10
Let k = 8, then each interval will have probability as p= 1/k = 1/8 = 0.125
The cdf of exponential distribution is
Where ai → End point of ith interval, i = 1, 2, 3….k

F(ai) → cumulative area from 0 to ai.
109
Apply log to both sides, then
Regardless of value of λ, the above equation will always result in a0 = 0 and ak = .

With = 0.084, k = 8, a is determined by
a3 = 5.595
a4 = 8.252
a5 = 11.677
a6 = 16.503
a7 = 24.755
a0 = 0
ak =
The first interval is [0, 1.590) that is 0 ≤ x < 1.590 second interval [1.590, 3.425) and so
on. The values are computed and tabulated in table 6.7
Table 6.7 chi-square goodness-of-fit test
The degrees of freedom is k–s–1 = 8 – 1 – 1 = 6
Disadvantages of using the chi-square test
 Changing the number of classes and interval width affects the value of calculated
and tabulated chi-square.
 A hypothesis may be accepted when the data are grouped in one way but rejected
if it is done in another way.
110
 It requires the data to be placed in the class intervals. In case of continuous grouping
is arbitrary.
6.4.3 Kolmogorov-smirnov goodness-of-fit test
Any continuous distributional assumption can be tested for goodness-of-fit using

kolmogorov-smirnov test, while discrete distributional assumptions can be tested using gap
test. This test is useful when sample sizes are small and when no parameters have been
estimated from the data.
The critical values in table A.8 are biased, they are too conservative. Conservative means
that critical values will be too large, resulting in smaller Type I (α) errors than those
specified.
Example 6.7
The interarrival times (minutes) are collected over 100-minute interval and are arranged in
order of occurrence.
0.44 0.53 2.04 2.74 2.00 0.30 2.54 0.52 2.02 1.89 1.53 0.21
2.80 0.04 1.35 8.32 2.34 1.95 0.10 1.42 0.46 0.07 1.09 0.76
5.55 3.93 1.07 2.26 2.88 0.67 1.12 0.26 4.57 5.37 0.12 3.19
1.63 1.46 1.08 2.06 0.85 0.83 2.44 2.11 3.15 2.90 6.58 0.64
Solution
Hypotheses
H0 : The inter arrival times are exponentially distributed .
H1 : The inter arrival times are not exponentially distributed.
The data were collected over the interval 0 to 100 minutes, so T = 100 minutes. If the
underlying distribution of inter arrival times {T1, T2, T3, … } is exponential, arrival times
are uniformly distributed on interval (0, T).
The arrival times T1, T1 +T2, T1 +T2 +T3…are obtained by adding inter arrival times, then
the arrival times are normalized to (0, 1) so that kolmogorov-smirnov test can be applied.
On interval (0, 1), the points will be [T1 / T, (T1 +T2) / T, …]. The resulting 50 points are
0.004 0.009 0.030 0.057 0.077 0.080 0.105 0.111 0.131 0.150
4 7 1 5 5 5 9 1 3 2
0.165 0.167 0.195 0.196 0.209 0.292 0.316 0.335 0.336 0.350
5 6 6 0 5 7 1 6 6 8
0.355 0.356 0.367 0.374 0.430 0.469 0.479 0.502 0.531 0.538
3 1 0 6 0 4 6 7 5 2
0.549 0.552 0.597 0.651 0.652 0.684 0.700 0.715 0.726 0.746
4 0 7 4 6 5 8 4 2 8
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0.755 0.763 0.788 0.798 0.820 0.841 0.873 0.902 0.968 0.974
3 6 0 2 6 7 2 2 0 4
D+ = 0.1054
D- = 0.0080
D = max {D+, D-} = max {0.1054, 0.0080} = 0.1054
Critical value → D0.05 = 1.36/√n = 1.36/√ 50 = 0.1923 (from table A.8)
D < Dα . Therefore interarrival times are exponentially distributed.
Note – A similar to kolmogorov-smirnov test is Anderson-darling test. It is the test based
on difference between empirical cdf and fitted cdf.
6.4.4 p-Values and “Best Fits”
The p-value is the significance level at which one would just reject H0 for given value of
test statistic. Therefore a large p-value tends to indicate a good fit, while small p-value
suggests a poor fit.
The p-value can be viewed as a measure of fit. This suggests we could fit every distribution
at our disposal, compute a test statistic for each fit then choose the distribution that yields
largest p-value.
Some points to remember

1. The software may know nothing about the physical basics of data and that
information can suggest distribution families that are appropriate. The goal of input
modeling is often to fill in gaps or smooth the data than finding an input model that
conforms as closely as possible to the given sample.
2. Automated best-fit procedure tends to choose more flexible distributions (gamma,
weibull and exponential) because extra flexibility allows closer conformance to the
data and better summary measure of fit. But close conformance to data may not
always lead to most appropriate input model.
3. A summary statistic, like p-value is just a summary measure. It just tells where the
lack of fit occurs.
6.5 Selecting Input Models without Data
To develop a simulation model for demonstration purpose or preliminary study – before

any process, data are available. In this case modeler chooses input models and carefully
checks the sensitivity of results to the chosen models.
There are many ways to obtain information, if data are not available. Few are mentioned
below
1. Engineering data
The values provided by manufacturers provide a starting point for input modeling
by fixing a central value.
2. Expert option
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Talking to the experts who have experience with the process or similar processes.
They can provide optimistic, pessimistic and most likely thoughts.
3. Physical or conventional limitations
Many real processes have physical limits on performance (Ex. Computer data entry
is faster than a person can type). Do not ignore obvious limits or bounds that narrow
the range of input process.
4. The nature of process
The choice of distribution should be after clear understanding of distributions.
When no data is available then uniform, triangular and beta distributions are used as input
models. A useful refinement is obtained, when minimum, maximum and one or more
breakpoints can be given. A breakpoint is an intermediate value and a probability of being
less than or equal to that value.
Example 6.8
For a product planning simulation the sales volume of various products is required. The
sales person responsible for product XYZ says that no fewer than 1000 units will be sold
because of existing contracts, no more than 5000 units will be sold because of that is the
entire market for the product. Based on experience she believes that there is
90% chance of selling more than 2000 units
Only 1% chance of selling more than 4500 units
Solution
Minimum – 1000 units
Maximum – 5000 units
10% = 0.10 chance of selling between 1000 and 2000 units
1% = 0.01 chance of selling more than 4500 units
25% = 0.24 chance of selling more than 3500 unit (because 1% chance of selling more than
4500 units).
Remaining 65% chance of selling between 2000 and 3500 units
The table 6.8 summarizes the above information.

Cumulative
Interval (hours) Frequency
frequency
1000 ≤ x ≤ 2000 0.10 0.10
2000 < x ≤ 3500 0.65 0.75
3500 < x ≤ 4500 0.24 0.99
4500 < x ≤ 5000 0.01 1.00
Table 6.8 Summary of sales information
6.6 Multivariate and Time Series Input Models
113
The variables may be related and if the variables appear in a simulation models as inputs,
the relationship should be determined. When inputs exhibit dependence then multivariate
input models are used. Example: Two random variables lead time and annual demand in
inventory system.
Time series models are useful for representing a sequence of dependent inputs.
Example: Successive time between orders in a system.
The two measures of dependence are covariance and correlation.

6.6.1 Covariance and correlation
Let
X1 X2 → two random variables
μi = E(Xi) → mean of Xi
σi2 = var(Xi)→ variance of Xi
Covariance and correlation are the measures of linear dependence between X1 and X2. In
others words it indicates how well the relationship between X1 and X2 is described by the
model
(X1 – μ1) = β(X2 – μ2) + ε
Where ε -> random variable with mean 0, independent of X2
 If (X1 – μ1 ) = β(X2 – μ2 ), then model is perfect

 If X1 and X2 are statistically independent, then β = 0, model is of no value
 Positive value of β indicates that X1 and X2 tends to be above or below their means
 Negative value of β indicates that X1 and X2 tends to be on opposite sides of their
means
The covariance between X1 and X2 is defined as

cov ( X1, X2 ) = E[(X1 – μ1 ) (X2 – μ2 )] = E (X1X2 ) - μ1μ2
A value of cov (X1, X2) = 0 implies β = 0

Value of cov (X1, X2) < 0 implies β < 0
Value of cov (X1, X2) > 0 implies β > 0
The covariance can take any value between - ∞ and ∞. The correlation standardizes
covariance to be between -1 and 1:
Value of corr (X1, X2) = 0 implies β = 0

Value of corr (X1, X2) < 0(> 0) implies β < 0 (> 0)
The closer ρ is to -1 or 1; stronger is the linear relationship between X1 and X2.
114
The sequence of random variables X1, X2,… that are identically distributed (same mean &
variance) and may be dependent, such a sequence is called as Time series.
cov (Xt, Xt + h) is called as lag-h autocovariance.

corr (Xt, Xt + h) is called as lag-h autocorrelation.
If the value of autocovariance depends only on h and not on t, then time series is called as
covariance stationary.
The covariance stationary time series is denoted as

ρh = corr (Xt, Xt + h)
6.6.2 Multivariate Input Models
If X1 and X2 are normally distributed then dependence between them can be modeled by
bivariate normal distribution with parameter μ1, μ2, σ12, σ22 and ρ = corr (X1, X2)
To estimate ρ,
Let (X11, X21), (X12, X22),… (X1n, X2n) → n independent and identically distributed pairs
The sample covariance is
The correlation is estimated by
Example 6.9
The following data are available on demand and lead time for last 10 years. Determine the
correlation.
Lead time Demand
6.5 103
4.3 83
6.9 116
115
6.0 97
6.9 112
6.9 104
5.8 106
7.3 109
4.5 92
6.3 96
Solution
To estimate the correlation,
Therefore lead time and demand are strongly dependent
Algorithm to generate bivariate normal random variables
Step 1 – Generate Z1 and Z2, independent standard normal random variables

Z1 = (-2 lnR1)1/2 cos(2πR2)
Z2 = (-2 lnR1)1/2 sin(2πR2)
Step 2 – set X1 = μ1 + σ1Z1
116
6.6.3 Time Series Input Models
If X1, X2, X3,… is a sequence of identically distributed but dependent and covariance –
stationary random variables then there are number of time series models that can be used
to represent the process.
Two models for describing time series are

1. AR(1) – Autoregressive order-1 model
2. EAR(1) – Exponential autoregressive order-1 model
AR(1) model
Consider the time-series model
Xt = µ + Ф(X t -1 - µ) +εt , t= 2, 3, …
where
ε2, ε3, ε4…→ independent and identically normally distributed with mean zero and
variance σε2 and -1< Ф < 1
If X1 is appropriately chosen then X1, X2, are normally distributed with mean µ, variance
σ2ε / (1 - Ф2) and ρh = Фh , h = 1,2,… This time – series model is called Autoregressive
order -1 model or AR(1).
Parameter Ф = ρ1 = corr (Xt, Xt +1) lag-1 autocorrelation
To estimate Ф, we first estimate the
Then
117
Algorithm to generate a stationary AR(1) time series (Given values of parameter Ф, µ,

σЄ2 )
Step1: Generate X1 from normal distribution with mean µ and variance σЄ2∕ (1- Ф2)
Set t=2
Step2: Generate εt from normal distribution with mean 0 and variance σЄ2
Step3: Set Xt = μ +Ф ( Xt -1 - µ ) + ε t
Step4: Set t = t +1 and go to step2
EAR (1) Model
Consider the time-series model
for t =2, 3, …
Where ε2, ε 3→ independent and identically exponentially distributed with mean 1/λ and
0≤Ф<1
If initial values X1 is chosen appropriately then X1, X2, ….all are exponentially distributed
with mean 1/λ and ρh= Фh for h=1, 2,… This time–series model is called Exponential
Autoregressive order-1model or EAR (1).Only autocorrelation greater than 0, can be
represented by this model. Estimation of parameter proceeds as AR (1) by setting
, lag –1 autocorrelation.
Algorithm to generate a stationary EAR (1) time series (Given values of parameter Ф and
λ)
Step1: Generate X1 from exponential distribution with mean 1/λ, Set t = 2.
118
Step2: Generate U from uniform distribution on [0, 1]. If U ≤ Ф then set Xt = ФXt - 1
Otherwise generate εt from exponential distribution with mean 1/λ and set
Xt = ФXt - 1 + ε t
Step3: Set t = t +1 and go to step2.
Example 6.10
The stock brokerage would typically have a large sample of data. The following 20 times
gaps between customer by and sell orders had been recorded (in seconds)
1.95 1.75 1.58 1.42 1.28 1.15 1.04 0.93 0.84 0.75
0.68 0.61 11.98 10.79 9.71 14.02 12.62 11.36 10.22 9.20
Estimate lag-1 autocorrelation,
Solution
Therefore we could model interarrival times as an EAR (1) process with
and
provided exponential distribution is good model for individual gaps.
119
Unit 7
Verification and Validation of Simulation Models
7.1 Model building, Verification of models

7.2 Verification of Simulation Models
7.3.1 Face Validity
7.3.2 Validation of Models Assumptions
7.3.3 Validating Input Output Transformations
7.3.4 Input-Output Validation: Using Historical Input Data
7.3.5 Input-Output Validation: Using a Turing Test
Verification and Validation of the simulation model is one of the most important and
difficult task carried out by the model developer, to work closely with end users throughout
the period of development and to increase the model’s credibility.
Validation is an integral part of the model development. The goal of validation is a two
fold process:
1. To produce a model that represents true system behavior, this can be used as a
substitute for the actual system, for the purpose of experimenting.
2. To increase the acceptance, credibility level of model, so that the model will be
used by managers and other decision makers.
Conceptually, the verification and validation process consists of the following components.
1. Verification is concerned with building the model right, which is used in
comparison of conceptual model to the computer representation.
2. Validation is concerned with building the right model, which is used to determine
that a model is an accurate representation of a real system. It is achieved through
the calibration of the model, an iterative process of comparing the model to actual
system behavior. This process is repeated until model accuracy is judged to be
acceptable.
120
7.1 Model building, Verification and Validation

The model building involves 3 steps
Step 1 - The first step in model building consists of
 Observing the real system
 Interactions among its various components
 Collecting data on its behavior
This step leads in understanding the system behavior. Persons familiar with the
system or sub system should be questioned and gain the advantage of their special
knowledge. As the development proceeds, new questions may arise and model
developers will return to this step.
Step 2- The second step involves in the construction of a conceptual model. It includes the
collection of assumptions of components, structure of the system and hypothesis
on the values of model input parameters.
Step 3- The third step is the translation of operational model into a computer recognizable
form - computerized model.
Model building is not a linear process instead the model builder goes back to these steps
many times while building, verifying and validating the model. The fig 7.1 shows the
model building process.
121
Real
system
Calibration
and
Validation Conceptual validation
Conceptual model
1. Assumptions on system components
2. Structural assumptions, which define
the interactions between system
components
3. Input parameters and data assumptions
Model verification
Operational model
(Computerized
representation)
Fig 7.1 Model building, Verification and Validation
7.2Verification of Simulation Models
The main purpose of verification is to assure that the conceptual model is accurately
reflected in the operational model (computerized representation). The conceptual model
involves some degree of abstraction about the operations of the system.
Some considerations in verification process are

1. The computerized model has to be checked by others, than its developer.
2. Make a flow diagram (logic flow), which includes operations of system, so that we
know what operations takes place when the events occur.
3. Closely examine the output of model for reasonableness, under a variety of settings
of input parameters.
122
4. At the end of simulation, have the computerized representation that prints the input
parameter. This is to confirm that these parameter values are not changed or
modified.
5. As far as possible make the self documentation of computerized model.
6. If the computerized representation is animated, then check whether the animation
reflects the real system.
7. The interactive run controller (IRC), debugger assists in finding and correcting the
errors in the following ways.
a. As the simulation progress, it can be monitored. This is achieved by
advancing the simulation under a desired time and then display model
information.
b. Focus on each or multiple line of logic that constitutes a procedure or a
particular entity. For example every time a specified entity becomes active,
simulation will pause.
c. Selected model components values can be observed.
d. Simulation can be temporarily suspended or paused, to view information
and reassign values or redirect entities.
8. Graphical interfaces are required to represent the model graphically, it simplifies
the model understanding.
The standard statistics (average waiting time, average queue length etc) are automatically
collected in simulation language, which takes little time to display all statistics of interest.
Two sets of statistics that indicates the factor model reasonableness are
1. Current contents refer to the number of items in each components of the system
at a given time.
2. Total count refers to the total number of items that have entered each component
of the system by a given time.
Some possibilities of two test statistics are

 If the current content in some parts of the system is high, then it indicates that a
large number of entities are delayed and queue is unstable.
 If the total count for some subsystem is zero, then no items entered the system.
 If the current contentp[ and total count is equal to one then an entity has captured a
resource but never freed it.
A careful evaluation is required to detect the mistakes in model logic. To help in error
detection, it is best to adopt any of these verification processes.
123
1. Common sense technique - Forecasts a reasonable range of values of selected output

statistics before making a run of the model. So it reduces discrepancies and unusual
output.
2. Documentation should contain brief comments, definitions of all variables and

parameters and description of each major section of computerized model.
Documentation is important as it provides a means to clarify the logic of a model.
3. Trace is more sophisticated technique. Trace is a detailed computer printout which

gives the value of each variable in a program, every time that one of these variables
changes in value. The purpose of trace is to verify the correctness of computer
program by making detailed calculations (manual). To make this practical, a
simulation with trace is usually restricted because of time factor. Selective trace is
also carried out as required. For example a selective trace could be set for specific
locations in the computerized model.
Example 7.1
In a single server queue model, an analyst made a run over 16 units of time and observed
that time average length of waiting line was ĹQ = 0.4375 customer, which is reasonably a
short run. So a detailed verification is required to be performed by analyst. The trace is
shown in table 7.1.
Definition of variables:
CLOCK = Simulation clock
EVTYP = Event type ( start, arrival, departure, or stop)
NCUST = Number of customers in system at time ‘CLOCK’
STATUS = Status of server (1- busy, 0- idle)
State of system just after the Named Event Occurs:

CLOCK = 0 EVTYP = ‘Start’ NCUST = 0 STATUS = 0
CLOCK = 3 EVTYP = ‘Arrival’ NCUST = 1 STATUS = 0
CLOCK = 5 EVTYP = ‘Depart’ NCUST = 0 STATUS = 0
CLOCK = 16 EVTYP = ‘Depart’ NCUST = 1 STATUS = 1
Table 7.1 Simulation of trace
The table 7.1 gives hypothetical printout from simulation time clock = 0 to 16 for single
server queue. Note that at simulation time CLOCK = 3, the number of customers in the
system is NCUST = 1, but the server status is idle (STATUS = 0). This is incorrect in logic,
so an error is found. It should be rectified by using equation,
The reader can verify that Ĺ Q is computed correctly from the data
124
The computer value is correct according to the given status, but its value is indeed wrong
as the attribute STATUS was not the correct value.
Of the three techniques, it is recommended that first two always to be carried out. The close
examination of model output for reasonableness is especially valuable and informative.

Even though verification and validation are conducted simultaneously by the modeler,
validation is the overall process of comparing the model and its behavior to the real system.
Calibration is the iterative process of comparing the model to the real system, making
adjustments to the model, comparing the revised model to the reality, making additional
adjustments and comparing again. The fig 7.2 shows the relationship of model calibration
to the overall validation process.
Comparing the model to reality is performed by either subjective test or objective test.
1. Subjective test involves people, who are knowledgeable about one or more aspects
of system, making judgment about the model and its output.
2. Objective test requires data on systems behavior and the corresponding data
produced by the model.
125
Fig 7.2 Iterative process of calibrating a model
The iterative process of comparing model and real system, revising conceptual and
operational model, is carried out until the model is judged accurate.
A possible criticism of calibration phase is to stop at the point where model has been “fit”
to one data set. This can be overcome by collecting a new set of system data and using at
final stage of validation i.e. after the model has been calibrated using the original system
data set, a final validation is done by using second system data set. In case of any
discrepancy, the modeler has to return back to calibration phase and modify the model until
it is acceptable.
Each revision of model involves cost, time and effort. The modeler must weigh increase in
model accuracy versus the cost of increased validation effort. If the level of accuracy is not
obtained within the budget constraints then accuracy level should be lowered or reject the
model.
Naylor and finger [1967] proposed a three-step approach for validation

1. Build a model that has high face validity.
2. Validate model assumptions.
3. Compare the model input–output transformation to corresponding input output
transformation for real system.
126
7.3.1 Face Validity
The potential users of the model must be involved in the model construction from its
conceptualization to implementation, to assure that the reality is built into the model
through assumptions regarding system structure and reliable data.
The advantages of involving potential users are.
1. They can evaluate the model output for reasonableness and help in identifying the
deficiencies. So they are involved in the calibration process, as the model is
iteratively improved.
2. The increase in the model’s perceived validity or credibility helps the manager to
trust the simulation results, a basis for decision making.
Sensitivity analysis can also be used to check a model’s face validity – the model user is
asked whether the model behaves in the expected way, when one or more input variables
are changed. Based on experience and observation on the real system, both model user and
builder address the problem.
For most large-scale simulation models, many possible sensitivity tests are carried out as
there are many input variables. The builder must choose the most critical input variables
for testing if it is too expensive or time consuming.
7.3.2 Validation of Model Assumptions
Model assumptions have two general classes
1. Structural assumptions involve questions of how the system operates

simplifications and abstractions of reality.
Example: Customer queuing and service facility in a bank - Customers form a

queue for each teller, they are served on first-come, first-serve basis. When there
are many queues, customers may shift to other line that moves faster. The numbers
of tellers are either fixed or variable. These structural assumptions should be
verified by observations at regular interval with discussions between managers and
tellers, regarding policies and implementation of these bank policies.
2. Data assumptions involve collection of reliable data and correct statistical analysis
of the data.
127
Example – For a bank the data that were collected are

1. Inter arrival times of customers during several 2 hours period of peak loading.
2. Inter arrival times during a slack period.
3. Service times for commercial accounts.
4. Service times for personal accounts.
The reliability of data is verified by consultation with bank managers, who identify typical
slack/rush time. When two or more data sets collected are combined, objective statistical
tests is performed for homogeneity of data.
Additional tests may be required for correlation in data. The analyst begins statistical
analysis as soon as he is assured of dealing with a random sample.
The analysis consists of three steps

1. Identifying the appropriate probability distribution.
2. Estimating the parameters of hypothesized distribution.
3. Validating the model by goodness-of-fit tests (chi-square or kolmogorov-smirnov
test) and by graphical methods.
Note - The use of goodness-of-fit tests is an important part of validation of model

assumptions.
7.3.3 Validating Input-Output Transformations
In this phase, the model is viewed as an input-output transformation i.e. model accepts
values of input parameters and transforms these inputs into outputs measures of
performance. The modeler collects two sets of data, one data set used at the time of
developing and calibrating the model and the other if required at the final validation test.
In any case, the modeler should use the main responses of interest as criteria for validating
a model. A necessary condition in this phase is, some version of system under study exists,
so data can be collected (at least one set of input conditions), which might be useful to
compare with model predictions. If system is in planning stage and no system operating
data is collected, complete input output validation is not possible.
What about the validity of model of a non existent proposed system or model of existing
system under new input conditions?
 First, the responses of two models under similar input conditions will be used as
criteria for comparison of existing and proposed system.
128
 Second, the proposed system is a modification of existing system in most cases.

The modeler hopes that confidence in the model of existing system can be
transferred to the model of new system. This transfer of confidence by modeler can
be justified only if new model is relatively with minor modification of old model
in terms of changes to computerized representation of the system.
Changes in computerized representation of the system, ranging relatively from minor to

major includes.
 Minor changes of single numerical parameters.

Example - speed of a machine, arrival rate of customers
 Minor changes of statistical distribution.
Example - distribution of a service time or time to failure of a machine.
 Major changes in logical structure of a subsystem.
Example - change in queue discipline for a waiting–line model.
 Major changes of design in new system.
Example - computerized inventory control system.
If the changes are minor then it can be carefully verified and output from the new model is
accepted with confidence. If a similar subsystem exists elsewhere, it may be possible to
validate sub model that represents the subsystem and then integrate this sub model with
other validated sub models to build a complete model, this is a partial validation of major
changes.
There is no way to completely validate the input-output transformations of a model of non

existing system. The modeler should consider time and budget constraints and use as many
validation techniques including input-output validation of subsystem models if operating
data can be collected on such subsystems..
7.3.4 Input-Output Validation: Using Historical Input Data
To conduct a validation test using historical input data, it is important that all input data
(An , Sn…..) and all system response data such as average delay (Z2) should be collected
during the same time period. Otherwise the comparison of model to the system responses
could be misleading – the responses depends on inputs and structure of the system or model.
Implementation of this technique for large system is difficult because of the need of
simultaneous data collection. Some electronic counters and devices are used for ease of
data collection. In this technique the modeler hopes that simulation will provide a replica
of a real system, but to determine the level of accuracy both model builder’s and model
user’s judgment is considered.
7.3.5 Input-Output Validation: Using a Turing Test
The comparison of model output to system output can be carried out by persons who are
knowledgeable about system behavior, when no statistical test is readily applicable.
129
For example: Suppose five reports of system performance over five different days are
prepared and simulation output data are used to produce five fake reports. So there are 10
reports exactly in same format and contains information as required by managers and
engineers. These 10 reports are shuffled randomly and submitted to the engineer, to identify
fake and real reports. If the engineer identifies fake reports, then the model builder
questions the engineer and uses the information gained to improve the model. If the
engineer cannot distinguish, then the modeler will conclude that this model is adequate.
This type of validation test is called Turing test.
It provides a valuable tool in detecting model inadequacies and eventually in increasing

model credibility.
Table A.1 Random digits
130
Random digits
131
Table A.2 Random digits
132
Table A.3 Cumulative Normal Distribution
133
134
Table A.4 Cumulative Poisson distribution
135
Table A.4 (continued)
136
Table A.5 Percentage of points of the students ‘t’ Distribution with υ

degrees of Freedom
υ
1 63.656 31.821 12.706 6.314 3.078
2 9.925 6.965 4.303 2.920 1.886
3 5.841 4.541 3.182 2.353 1.638
4 4.604 3.747 2.776 2.132 1.533
5 4.032 3.365 2.571 2.015 1.476
6 3.707 3.143 2.447 1.943 1.440
7 3.499 2.998 2.365 1.895 1.415
8 3.355 2.896 2.306 1.860 1.397
9 3.250 2.821 2.262 1.833 1.383
10 3.169 2.764 2.228 1.812 1.372
11 3.106 2.718 2.201 1.796 1.363
12 3.055 2.681 2.179 1.782 1.356
13 3.012 2.650 2.160 1.771 1.350
14 2.977 2.624 2.145 1.761 1.345
15 2.947 2.602 2.131 1.753 1.341
16 2.921 2.583 2.120 1.746 1.337
17 2.898 2.567 2.110 1.740 1.333
18 2.878 2.552 2.101 1.734 1.330
19 2.861 2.539 2.093 1.729 1.328
20 2.845 2.528 2.086 1.725 1.325
21 2.831 2.518 2.080 1.721 1.323
22 2.819 2.508 2.074 1.717 1.321
23 2.807 2.500 2.069 1.714 1.319
24 2.797 2.492 2.064 1.711 1.318
25 2.787 2.485 2.060 1.708 1.316
26 2.779 2.479 2.056 1.706 1.315
27 2.771 2.473 2.052 1.703 1.314
28 2.763 2.467 2.048 1.701 1.313
29 2.756 2.462 2.045 1.699 1.311
30 2.750 2.457 2.042 1.697 1.310
60 2.660 2.390 2.000 1.671 1.296
120 2.617 2.358 1.980 1.658 1.289
Infinity 2.576 2.326 1.960 1.645 1.282
137
Table A.6 Percentage points of the Chi-Square Distribution with υ degrees

of Freedom
υ
1 7.87944 6.63490 5.02389 3.84146 2.70554
2 10.59663 9.21034 7.37776 5.99146 4.60517
3 12.83816 11.34487 9.34840 7.81473 6.25139
4 14.86026 13.27670 11.14329 9.48773 7.77944
5 16.74960 15.08627 12.83250 11.07050 9.23636
6 18.54758 16.81189 14.44938 12.59159 10.64464
7 20.27774 18.47531 16.01276 14.06714 12.01704
8 21.95495 20.09024 17.53455 15.50731 13.36157
9 23.58935 21.66599 19.02277 16.91898 14.68366
10 25.18818 23.20925 20.48318 18.30704 15.98718
11 26.75685 24.72497 21.92005 19.67514 17.27501
12 28.29952 26.21697 23.33666 21.02607 18.54935
13 29.81947 27.68825 24.73560 22.36203 19.81193
14 31.31935 29.14124 26.11895 23.68479 21.06414
15 32.80132 30.57791 27.48839 24.99579 22.30713
16 34.26719 31.99993 28.84535 26.29623 23.54183
17 35.71847 33.40866 30.19101 27.58711 24.76904
18 37.15645 34.80531 31.52638 28.86930 25.98942
19 38.58226 36.19087 32.85233 30.14353 27.20357
20 39.99685 37.56623 34.16961 31.41043 28.41198
21 41.40106 38.93217 35.47888 32.67057 29.61509
22 42.79565 40.28936 36.78071 33.92444 30.81328
23 44.18128 41.63840 38.07563 35.17246 32.00690
24 45.55851 42.97982 39.36408 36.41503 33.19624
25 46.92789 44.31410 40.64647 37.65248 34.38159
26 48.28988 45.64168 41.92317 38.88514 35.56317
27 49.64492 46.96294 43.19451 40.11327 36.74122
28 50.99338 48.27824 44.46079 41.33714 37.91592
29 52.33562 49.58788 45.72229 42.55697 39.08747
30 53.67196 50.89218 46.97924 43.77297 40.25602
138
Table A.7 Percentage points of F distribution with α = 0.05

df2/df1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 161.4476 199.5000 215.7073 224.5832 230.1619 233.9860 236.7684 238.8827 240.5433 241.8817
2 18.5128 19.0000 19.1643 19.2468 19.2964 19.3295 19.3532 19.3710 19.3848 19.3959
3 10.1280 9.5521 9.2766 9.1172 9.0135 8.9406 8.8867 8.8452 8.8123 8.7855
4 7.7086 6.9443 6.5914 6.3882 6.2561 6.1631 6.0942 6.0410 5.9988 5.9644
5 6.6079 5.7861 5.4095 5.1922 5.0503 4.9503 4.8759 4.8183 4.7725 4.7351
6 5.9874 5.1433 4.7571 4.5337 4.3874 4.2839 4.2067 4.1468 4.0990 4.0600
7 5.5914 4.7374 4.3468 4.1203 3.9715 3.8660 3.7870 3.7257 3.6767 3.6365
8 5.3177 4.4590 4.0662 3.8379 3.6875 3.5806 3.5005 3.4381 3.3881 3.3472
9 5.1174 4.2565 3.8625 3.6331 3.4817 3.3738 3.2927 3.2296 3.1789 3.1373
10 4.9646 4.1028 3.7083 3.4780 3.3258 3.2172 3.1355 3.0717 3.0204 2.9782
11 4.8443 3.9823 3.5874 3.3567 3.2039 3.0946 3.0123 2.9480 2.8962 2.8536
12 4.7472 3.8853 3.4903 3.2592 3.1059 2.9961 2.9134 2.8486 2.7964 2.7534
13 4.6672 3.8056 3.4105 3.1791 3.0254 2.9153 2.8321 2.7669 2.7144 2.6710
14 4.6001 3.7389 3.3439 3.1122 2.9582 2.8477 2.7642 2.6987 2.6458 2.6022
15 4.5431 3.6823 3.2874 3.0556 2.9013 2.7905 2.7066 2.6408 2.5876 2.5437
16 4.4940 3.6337 3.2389 3.0069 2.8524 2.7413 2.6572 2.5911 2.5377 2.4935
17 4.4513 3.5915 3.1968 2.9647 2.8100 2.6987 2.6143 2.5480 2.4943 2.4499
18 4.4139 3.5546 3.1599 2.9277 2.7729 2.6613 2.5767 2.5102 2.4563 2.4117
19 4.3807 3.5219 3.1274 2.8951 2.7401 2.6283 2.5435 2.4768 2.4227 2.3779
20 4.3512 3.4928 3.0984 2.8661 2.7109 2.5990 2.5140 2.4471 2.3928 2.3479
21 4.3248 3.4668 3.0725 2.8401 2.6848 2.5727 2.4876 2.4205 2.3660 2.3210
22 4.3009 3.4434 3.0491 2.8167 2.6613 2.5491 2.4638 2.3965 2.3419 2.2967
23 4.2793 3.4221 3.0280 2.7955 2.6400 2.5277 2.4422 2.3748 2.3201 2.2747
24 4.2597 3.4028 3.0088 2.7763 2.6207 2.5082 2.4226 2.3551 2.3002 2.2547
25 4.2417 3.3852 2.9912 2.7587 2.6030 2.4904 2.4047 2.3371 2.2821 2.2365
26 4.2252 3.3690 2.9752 2.7426 2.5868 2.4741 2.3883 2.3205 2.2655 2.2197
27 4.2100 3.3541 2.9604 2.7278 2.5719 2.4591 2.3732 2.3053 2.2501 2.2043
28 4.1960 3.3404 2.9467 2.7141 2.5581 2.4453 2.3593 2.2913 2.2360 2.1900
29 4.1830 3.3277 2.9340 2.7014 2.5454 2.4324 2.3463 2.2783 2.2229 2.1768
30 4.1709 3.3158 2.9223 2.6896 2.5336 2.4205 2.3343 2.2662 2.2107 2.1646
40 4.0847 3.2317 2.8387 2.6060 2.4495 2.3359 2.2490 2.1802 2.1240 2.0772
60 4.0012 3.1504 2.7581 2.5252 2.3683 2.2541 2.1665 2.0970 2.0401 1.9926
120 3.9201 3.0718 2.6802 2.4472 2.2899 2.1750 2.0868 2.0164 1.9588 1.9105
inf 3.8415 2.9957 2.6049 2.3719 2.2141 2.0986 2.0096 1.9384 1.8799 1.8307
139
Table A.7 (continued)
df2/df1 12 15 20 24 30 40 60 120 INF

1 243.9060 245.9499 248.0131 249.0518 250.0951 251.1432 252.1957 253.2529 254.3144
2 19.4125 19.4291 19.4458 19.4541 19.4624 19.4707 19.4791 19.4874 19.4957
3 8.7446 8.7029 8.6602 8.6385 8.6166 8.5944 8.5720 8.5494 8.5264
4 5.9117 5.8578 5.8025 5.7744 5.7459 5.7170 5.6877 5.6581 5.6281
5 4.6777 4.6188 4.5581 4.5272 4.4957 4.4638 4.4314 4.3985 4.3650
6 3.9999 3.9381 3.8742 3.8415 3.8082 3.7743 3.7398 3.7047 3.6689
7 3.5747 3.5107 3.4445 3.4105 3.3758 3.3404 3.3043 3.2674 3.2298
8 3.2839 3.2184 3.1503 3.1152 3.0794 3.0428 3.0053 2.9669 2.9276
9 3.0729 3.0061 2.9365 2.9005 2.8637 2.8259 2.7872 2.7475 2.7067
10 2.9130 2.8450 2.7740 2.7372 2.6996 2.6609 2.6211 2.5801 2.5379
11 2.7876 2.7186 2.6464 2.6090 2.5705 2.5309 2.4901 2.4480 2.4045
12 2.6866 2.6169 2.5436 2.5055 2.4663 2.4259 2.3842 2.3410 2.2962
13 2.6037 2.5331 2.4589 2.4202 2.3803 2.3392 2.2966 2.2524 2.2064
14 2.5342 2.4630 2.3879 2.3487 2.3082 2.2664 2.2229 2.1778 2.1307
15 2.4753 2.4034 2.3275 2.2878 2.2468 2.2043 2.1601 2.1141 2.0658
16 2.4247 2.3522 2.2756 2.2354 2.1938 2.1507 2.1058 2.0589 2.0096
17 2.3807 2.3077 2.2304 2.1898 2.1477 2.1040 2.0584 2.0107 1.9604
18 2.3421 2.2686 2.1906 2.1497 2.1071 2.0629 2.0166 1.9681 1.9168
19 2.3080 2.2341 2.1555 2.1141 2.0712 2.0264 1.9795 1.9302 1.8780
20 2.2776 2.2033 2.1242 2.0825 2.0391 1.9938 1.9464 1.8963 1.8432
21 2.2504 2.1757 2.0960 2.0540 2.0102 1.9645 1.9165 1.8657 1.8117
22 2.2258 2.1508 2.0707 2.0283 1.9842 1.9380 1.8894 1.8380 1.7831
23 2.2036 2.1282 2.0476 2.0050 1.9605 1.9139 1.8648 1.8128 1.7570
24 2.1834 2.1077 2.0267 1.9838 1.9390 1.8920 1.8424 1.7896 1.7330
25 2.1649 2.0889 2.0075 1.9643 1.9192 1.8718 1.8217 1.7684 1.7110
26 2.1479 2.0716 1.9898 1.9464 1.9010 1.8533 1.8027 1.7488 1.6906
27 2.1323 2.0558 1.9736 1.9299 1.8842 1.8361 1.7851 1.7306 1.6717
28 2.1179 2.0411 1.9586 1.9147 1.8687 1.8203 1.7689 1.7138 1.6541
29 2.1045 2.0275 1.9446 1.9005 1.8543 1.8055 1.7537 1.6981 1.6376
30 2.0921 2.0148 1.9317 1.8874 1.8409 1.7918 1.7396 1.6835 1.6223
40 2.0035 1.9245 1.8389 1.7929 1.7444 1.6928 1.6373 1.5766 1.5089
60 1.9174 1.8364 1.7480 1.7001 1.6491 1.5943 1.5343 1.4673 1.3893
120 1.8337 1.7505 1.6587 1.6084 1.5543 1.4952 1.4290 1.3519 1.2539
inf 1.7522 1.6664 1.5705 1.5173 1.4591 1.3940 1.3180 1.2214 1.0000
140
Table A.8 Kolmogorov-Smirnov critical values
141

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What are the advantages and disadvantages of simulation?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of simulation?

What are some common areas where simulation is used?

What are some common areas where simulation is used?

System Simulation and Modeling

System Simulation and Modeling

Sl no. Topic Details

1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation

Simulation is an indispensable problem-solving methodology for the solution of many real-

1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation

The advantages are:

1. New policies, operating procedures, information flows and so on can be explored

5. Insight can be obtained about interaction and importance of variables to the

6. Bottleneck (critical) analysis can be performed to discover where work in process,

The disadvantages are:

1.2 When Simulation is the Appropriate Tool

1.3 When Simulation is not Appropriate

1.4 Areas of Application

1.5 Systems and System Environment

Raw Purchasing Fabrication Assembly Shipping Finished

Fig 1.1 A factory system

1.6 Components of a System

Entity - An object of interest in the system.

System Entities Attributes Activities Events State variables

Endogenous - Activities and events occurring with the system

1.7 Discrete and Continuous Systems

Fig 1.2 Discrete Systems

Fig 1.3 Continuous Systems

1.8 Model of a System

1.8.1 Types of models

Models can be classified as Physical and Mathematical Models.

Mathematical Model uses symbolic notation and mathematical equations to represent a

Dynamic Mathematical Model allows the change of system attributes to be derived as a

Simulation model is a particular type of mathematical model of a system. It is defined as

Numerical Analytical Numerical

1.8.2 Characterizing a simulation model

1. Static or Dynamic Simulation model

2. Deterministic or Stochastic Simulation model

3. Continuous or Discrete Simulation model

1.9 Steps in a Simulation Study

Fig 1.5 Steps in a simulation study

Setting of objectives and overall project plan

Production runs and analysis

Documentation and reporting

2.1 Introduction to Queuing Systems

Fig 2.1 Queuing system

2.2 Characteristics of Queueing Systems

2.2.1 The calling population

The population of potential customers, referred to as the calling population, may be

Finite calling population model

Infinite calling population model

2.2.2 System capacity

2.2.3. The arrival process

Fig 2.2 Arrival process for a finite population model

2.2.4 Queue behavior and queue discipline

2.2.5 Service times and the service mechanism

Fig 2.3 Discount warehouse with three service centers

Fig 2.4 Service center 2, with c=3 parallel servers

2.3 Queuing Notation