Structural Controls On An Orogenic Au System

©2017 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.
Economic Geology, v. 112, pp. 73–98
Structural Controls on an Orogenic Gold System:

The World-Class Siguiri Gold District, Siguiri Basin, Guinea, West Africa
Erwann Lebrun,1 John Miller,1 Nicolas Thébaud,1 Stanislav Ulrich,2 and T. Campbell McCuaig1
1 Centre for Exploration Targeting and ARC Centre of Excellence for Core to Crust Fluid Systems, School of Earth and Environment,
Robert Street Building, M006, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia
2 AngloGold Ashanti Ltd., Assets Development, Brownfields, 44 St. George Terrace, Perth, Western Australia 6000, Australia
Abstract
Orebodies in the Siguiri district, a world-class Paleoproterozoic orogenic gold camp located in the Birimian of
northeastern Guinea, are typically represented by cryptic subvertical damage zones that host a high density of
mineralized veins. Although no large regional fault system was recognized, observations from five representa-
tive deposits of the Siguiri district (Sanu Tinti, Bidini, Kami, Kosise, and Sintroko PB1) show that these orebod-
ies are locally controlled by incipient structures and spread across three distinct structural and lithostratigraphic
domains. Two shale-dominated peripheral domains adjoin a central domain whose lithostratigraphy is domi-
nated by medium- to coarse-grained graywacke and this domain hosts the bulk of the gold endowment of
the district. The three domains exhibit similar structural elements that can be described within a four-stage
deformation scheme. The first deformation event (D1S) is poorly constrained and interpreted to have been an
N-S compressional event. It included development of minor folds with W- to WNW-gently plunging fold axes
without a clear axial planar cleavage. The main and second deformation event (D2S) is interpreted to have been
associated with E-W to ENE-WSW- directed compression. The D2S event was responsible for forming the
dominant N-trending structural grain of the district and creating interference patterns between F1S and F2S
folds. The third event (D3S) developed progressively from D2S compression into an early-D3S E-W- to ENE-
WSW-directed transpression and a late-D3S NNW-SSE-directed-transtension responsible for most of the gold
mineralization in the Siguiri district. The fourth and last event (D4S) was an NW-SE-oriented compressional
event responsible for the localized overprinting of veining by a steep to shallowly dipping NNE-SSW ductile
cleavage.
Late-D3S gold-bearing mineral occurrences formed along subvertical N-S reverse faults, NE-trending dextral
shear zones, WNW-trending sinistral faults, and E-trending normal relay faults developed or reactivated early-
D3S. Mineralization is expressed as mineralized shear zones or subvertical damage zones, characterized by a
10- to 15-m-wide zone of dense quartz-carbonate-sulfide veining, or disseminated gold-bearing sulfides. The
mineralized veins consistently strike ENE-WSW, are steeply dipping, and commonly have a conjugate geom-
etry at the mesoscale. Finite strain analysis of deformation, including analysis of folds, faults, and conjugate
mineralized vein sets, is consistent with a stress switch from a compressional (D2S) to transpressional deforma-
tion (termed early-D3S). Results of paleostress analysis on conjugate mineralized vein sets that formed late
during D3S indicate that the stress field ranged from extensional to strike-slip, sometimes within the same vein
locality. The late-D3S deformation is interpreted to have been a transtensional event. The first change in the ori-
entation of the principal stress axes is related to a switch from a far field-dominated to a body force-dominated
stress field reducing the deviatoric component on the stress tensor. The second change in the orientation of the
principal stress axes, from early-D3S transpression to late-D3S transtension, suggests that σ1 and σ2 were similar
in magnitude, which facilitated localized stress switches. In the Siguiri district, the early-D3S and late-D3S stress
switches, which occurred at both a local and regional scale, enhanced the fracture permeability and were critical
for the establishment of active fluid pathways leading to the formation of a world-class gold system.
Introduction the center of a large sedimentary basin in the Paleoprotero-

Orogenic gold deposits are common across the Paleoprotero- zoic Baoulé-Mossi domain of the West African craton. The
zoic Birimian rocks of the West African craton (e.g., Milési Siguiri gold district currently consists of 11 accessible deposits
et al., 1989, 1992; Lawrence et al., 2013a). The location of and is the only gold district with >50 t Au hosted in the weakly
orogenic gold deposits is typically controlled by complex metamorphosed rocks of the Siguiri basin (Egal et al., 1999).
regional-scale fault networks (Groves et al., 2000; Goldfarb et Previous work in the district has recognized grade trends
al., 2001). In West Africa, the Ashanti fault system in Ghana is but has struggled to put the geology together and highlight
one example of such a network, and its many faults host some the incipient structures that control gold mineralization at a
of the biggest vein-hosted and fault vein-hosted orogenic gold deposit, district, and regional scale. Most notably, a study on
deposits (e.g., Obuasi: Allibone et al., 2002; Fougerouse et al., the structural controls of auriferous quartz veining in eight of
2017). The Siguiri district (240 metric tons (t) Au; AngloGold the deposits of the district was conducted by Steyn (2012).
Ashanti Ltd., 2013, 2015); AngloGold Ashanti Ltd., n.d.) is Steyn (2012) concluded that mineralization is hosted by veins,
unusual in West Africa because it is not located on a recog- mainly controlled by competent lithologies, and associated
nized large regional scale fault system. Instead it is located in with N-S to NW-SE fold hinges and N-S to NE-SW shear zones
developed during ENE-WSW transpression. Transpression is
† Corresponding author: e-mail, erwann.lebrun@gmail.com the result of coeval compression and strike-slip movements
0361-0128/17/4461/73-26 73
74 LEBRUN ET AL.
along a fault-bounded zone of deformation and is attributed volcanic rocks. Finally, to the north, the flat-lying sandstones
to what is termed wrench/transcurrent tectonics (Sanderson of the Neoproterozoic Taoudeni basin unconformably over-
and Marchini, 1984). This paper builds on the observations lie rocks of the Siguiri basin. Paleoproterozoic intrusive rocks
made by Steyn (2012) and describes the different brittle, emplaced into the Siguiri basin sediments, such as the Maléa
ductile, and brittle-ductile structures observed in the district, monzogranite (Parra-Avila, 2015; Parra-Avila et al., in press),
including the different vein generations from five representa- outcrop north of the Siguiri district (Fig. 1B). Mesozoic sills,
tive deposits, including Sanu Tinti, Bidini, Kami, Kosise, and lava flows, and ENE-striking dikes, which are related to the
Sintroko PB1. opening of the South Atlantic Ocean, also cut or overlie rocks
Based on this dataset, this paper documents the local defor- of the basin (Abouchami et al. 1990; Egal et al., 1999, 2002;
mation history and characterizes the structural controls on Paranhos 2008, unpub. data).
gold mineralization. The world-class Siguiri orogenic gold The deposits of the Siguiri district are hosted in fine-grained
district displays a series of structural features that are used organic-rich shale, siltstone, graywacke interbeds, graded
to constrain the paleo-orientation of the stress field before, graywacke beds, and rare conglomerate. The Balato, Fatoya,
during, and after the main phase of gold mineralization. In and Kintinian Formations were defined based on aeromag-
turn, these paleo-orientations are used to assess the role stress netic, magnetic, and gravimetric data, as well as on drill core
switches have had on mineralization. This paper is the first and field observations (Fig. 2; Lebrun et al., 2016). The Balato
study to put the geology of the Siguiri district together. It Formation is dominated by dark gray siltstone beds grading
highlights the structures that control gold mineralization at a upward to shale. The contact between rocks of the Balato
deposit and district scale and that may represent local expres- Formation and those of the overlying Fatoya Formation was
sions of more regional structures controlling the location of not observed. The Fatoya Formation is dominated by meter-
the Siguiri district within the Siguiri basin. thick beds of medium- to coarse-grained graywacke fining
upward to siltstone and shale. Rocks of the Kintinian Forma-
Geologic Context and Exploration History tion, overlying those of the Fatoya Formation, are dominated
The Siguiri district is located in the northwestern part of the by massive dark-green shale with centimeter-thick interbeds
Paleoproterozoic Baoulé-Mossi domain, which covers the of limestone. The Kintinian Formation is also characterized
majority of the Man-Leo shield in West Africa. The Birim- toward its interpreted base by a stack of polymict clast-sup-
ian terranes (ca. 2210–2040 Ma: Davis et al., 2015; Fig. 1) ported conglomerate beds. In the Sanu Tinti deposit, detailed
of the Paleoproterozoic Baoulé-Mossi domain were accreted further below, a reverse fault marks the contact between rocks
to the Archean Kénéma-Man domain, in the southwestern of the Fatoya and the overturned Kintinian formations.
part of the West African craton, during the Eburnean orogeny Only one publically available research study (Steyn, 2012)
(ca. 2210–2040 Ma: Abouchami et al., 1990; Egal et al. 2002; has been conducted in the Siguiri district. This study detailed
Lahondère et al., 2002; Thiéblemont et al. 2004; Davis et al., the different structures and described the structural controls
2015). Both domains are unconformably overlain by rocks of on auriferous quartz veining in eight of the deposits of the dis-
the Neoproterozoic Taoudeni basin, which covers a large part trict. Based on bedding-fabric-vein-fault relationships, Steyn
of the craton (Villeneuve and Cornée, 1994; Begg et al., 2009; (2012) identified three deformation events in the Siguiri
Lawrence et al., 2013a). district as D1, D2, and D3. One gold event was recognized
The Siguiri basin covers about 40,000 km² in Guinea and in the district and is associated with steeply dipping syn-D2
adjacent Mali. It consists of upper Birimian sedimentary, vol- quartz-carbonate-sulfide veins striking to the N-S to NE-SW
caniclastic, and volcanic and intrusive rocks. The upper Bir- and commonly displaying conjugate relationships. These
imian sediments were derived from Paleoproterozoic volcanic veins are accompanied by carbonate alteration in the form of
rocks and felsic intrusions that were emplaced during the early millimeter-sized nodules overgrowing the quartz-albite-seric-
stages of the Eburnean orogeny (Milési et al. 1989; Feybesse ite host-rock mineralogy. Based on bedding-fabric-vein-fault
and Milési 1994; Begg et al. 2009). The Siguiri basin is bor- relationships, Steyn (2012) concluded that auriferous veining
dered to the southwest by the Niandan komatiite suite and the in the Siguiri district is controlled by competent lithologies,
mafic to felsic volcanic rocks of the Kéniéro Range (not shown N-S to NW-SE F2 fold hinges, and N-S to NE-SW shear zones
on map), dated at ca. 2095 Ma by Feybesse et al. (1999). To developed during D2 in an ENE-WSW dextral transpressive
the south, the Sassandra fault puts rocks of the Kénéma-Man environment.
Archean domain in contact with those of the Siguiri basin The Siguiri region has been long recognized for its endow-
(Fig. 1A; Egal et al., 2002). To the east, the Siguiri basin is ment and has been producing gold for centuries. In the 3rd
bordered by the Yanfolila granite-greenstone belt, which con- century, the Sarakolle Kingdom was already familiar with its
sists of volcaniclastic sedimentary and mafic to intermediate widespread gold endowment from Senegal to the Niger River.
Fig. 1. A. Simplified geology map of the southern West African craton. Red box highlights the Siguiri basin shown in (B). The
Sassandra fault, bordering the Archean domain and the Siguiri basin, is shown as a thick black line. B. Geology map of the
Siguiri basin. Red box highlights the Siguiri district shown in Figure 2. Red lines indicate the segments of the regional com-
posite cross section (Fig. 3A). Dashed black lines represent the interpreted regional extension of the N-S and WNW-ESE
faults controlling mineralization in the Siguiri district. Modified from Milési et al. (1989) and Miller et al. (2013). C. Simpli-
fied composite E-W cross sections of the Siguiri basin and its eastern border. The folds were interpreted from the structural
elements observed in the Siguiri district. Interpreted conformable contacts are shown by full black lines, unconformable and
unknown contacts by dashed lines. Volcanosed. = volcano sedimentary.
STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON AN OROGENIC Au SYSTEM: SIGUIRI DISTRICT, GUINEA, W. AFRICA 75
A
N 10°W 5°W 0°
Taoudeni Basin NIGER

Kédougou-Kéniéba
Inlier
SENEGAL Study
area MALI BURKINA FASO
GUINEA
BENIN
10°N
SIERRA Baoulé-Mossi
domain
LEONE Kénéma-Man
Archean domain GHANA
IVORY COAST
TOGO
LIBERIA
5°N
0 300 km
Niani
Cities Siguiri district N 9°W B
location
NEOPRO. & Undif. rocks

PHANERO.
BIRIMIAN Felsic intrusives

(2210 -
12°N 12°N
2040 Ma) Tarkwaian / MALI
Tarkwa-like sed.
Conglomerates
Maléa
Volcanosed.Léro
/ monzogranite
Siguiri Basin
Volcanic rocks
B
ARCHEAN Gneiss A
Siguiri
Niani
Siguiri
Yanfolila
Basin
belt
Niandan
11°N suite 11°N
0 50 km
WSW Siguiri ENE C

C district H
A B
0 25 km
76 LEBRUN ET AL.
Seguelen
East N N
Seguelen
West Eureka
North
Kintinian formation
Sanu Tinti
deposits 23
Fatoya formation
3A Bidini
E F
Balato formation
Kalamagna PB1 Kintinian formation
deposit outlines Toubani
7 30
Fatoya formation
observed bedding
form lines Balato formation
Kozan
interpreted bedding
form lines deposit outlines
measured F2S fold axes
72
observed bedding
interpreted F1S anticline form lines
3B interpreted bedding
interpreted F1S syncline form lines
Kami
Kosise
observed F2S anticline
3C
19
faults
G H
interpreted F2S anticline
observed F2S syncline
interpreted F2S syncline

Kintinian
Figure X locations
formation C D
X Fatoya
formation Balato
formation
Sokunu
Sintroko
North
Sintroko
PB3a
Sintroko
PB2c
3D Sintroko
PB1
72
Sintroko
0 1 2 km 0 1 2 km
PB2a
A B
W Sanu Tinti Bidini Kami Kosise Sintroko E
C DE I JF G K L M N O P H
?
?
C
Fig. 2. A. Form line map. B. Structural map of the Siguiri gold district and its different deposits constrained by aeromagnetic,
magnetic, gravity, drill core, and field data. The three structural domains follow the lithostratigraphy. Red lines indicate indi-
vidual segments of the district-scale composite cross section shown in (C). C. Simplified composite E-W cross sections of the
Siguiri district (deposit cross sections in Fig. 3). Interpreted conformable contacts are shown by full black lines, unconform-
able and unknown contacts by dashed lines.
Production of gold from this region is thought to have con- late 19th and early 20th century, minor extraction and prospect-
tinued through the 12th and 13th centuries in areas controlled ing in the Siguiri area was started by the French. Modern-day
by the Mindingo Kingdom, whose capital Niani is near the mining of gold from the Siguiri district started in 1931, with
present eastern border between Guinea and Mali, less than nearly 75 t Au produced between 1931 and 1951 (AngloGold
100 km from Siguiri. Continued gold production was used as Ashanti Ltd., 2013). Between 1960 and 1963, a Russian state
tribute by the Mali Empire during the 17th century. In the company was actively mining in the region, focusing their
operations on placer deposits. In the 1980s, North American making the district world-class according to the classification
and British companies conducted reconnaissance mapping, of Schodde and Hronsky (2006). AngloGold Ashanti has been
traversing, and sampling. In the early 1990s, Société Aurifère focusing its mining and exploration activity in the Siguiri dis-
de Guinée followed up this work and reported a production trict on the oxidized upper part of the deposits. Minor free
of 1.1 t Au. In 1995, Golden Shamrock started a prefeasibil- gold concentrations are still being extracted by local miners
ity study of the Siguiri district, before merging with Ashanti from localized Phanerozoic paleoplacers and from hydromor-
Goldfields (now AngloGold Ashanti Ltd.) in 1996. Since 2004, phic reconcentration in and below the mottled zone of the
the Siguiri mine has been owned 85% by AngloGold Ashanti lateritic profile. Individual gold nuggets of as much as several
Ltd and 15% by the Guinean government. The district’s esti- kilograms in weight have been found near the regolith surface
mated resources included 21.08 t Au indicated resources from (Watts, 2010).
ore averaging 2.35 g/t and inferred resources of 59.09 t Au
from ore averaging 0.8 g/t as of the end of 2013 (AngloGold Methodology
Ashanti Ltd., 2013). Since AngloGold Ashanti took over the For the purpose of this paper, each of the 11 open pits is con-
operations, production in the Siguiri district has been approxi- sidered a deposit and they are collectively termed the Siguiri
mately 10 t Au/year for an estimated cumulative production district. A few deposits of the district were not accessible at
of 105.5 t Au through 2014 (Table 1; AngloGold Ashanti Ltd., the time the fieldwork was conducted, and as a result few
n.d.). Therefore, the cumulative production from the Siguiri data could be collected from them (e.g., Sokunu; Fig. 2). Out
district is approx. 180 t Au, with resources of approx. 80 t Au, of the 11 accessible deposits that were visited and mapped,
Table 1. Summary Table of Gold Production from 2004 to 2014 in the Siguiri District (gold grade (g/t) and gold extracted (t)
for some of the main deposits discussed in the text are detailed)
Deposits 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Total
Seguelen
Ore grade (g/t) 0.96 0.94
0.95
Au extracted (t) 1.01 2.77
3.78
Eureka North
Ore grade (g/t) 1.11
1.33
1.28
1.26
Au extracted (t)
1.20
2.93
0.74
4.87
Sanu Tinti
0.95
1.74
Bidini
Ore grade (g/t) 1.55 1.13 0.88 1.25 1.29 1.40 1.20
Au extracted (t) 0.33 1.91 1.25 0.46 2.22 2.47 8.64
Tubani
Ore grade (g/t) 0.97 0.85 1.01 0.91 1.01 0.98
Au extracted (t) 0.39 0.60 4.48 0.82 0.88 7.17
Kalamagna PB1
Ore grade (g/t) 0.78 0.81 0.74 0.80
0.79
Au extracted (t) 0.73 4.31 1.81 0.14
6.99
Kozan
1.22
1.23
Kami
Ore grade (g/t) 1.08 0.91 1.02 1.01 1.05 0.93 1.01 1.49 1.01
Au extracted (t) 0.49 2.59 5.13 6.39 9.79 6.20 3.05 0.77 34.42
Kosise
Ore grade (g/t) 1.16 1.12 1.15 1.22 1.53 0.87 0.79 0.87 1.03
Au extracted (t) 0.39 3.09 3.71 4.16 0.11 0.40 3.40 1.00 16.27
Sokunu
1.13
4.51
Sintroko PB1
Ore grade (g/t) 1.18
1.13 1.00 0.80 1.07
Au extracted (t)
1.97
3.94 5.09 0.02 11.01
Total Siguiri district
Ore grade (g/t) 1.11 1.04 1.04 1.08 1.13 1.05 1.05 0.99 0.82 0.89 0.99 1.02
Au extracted (t) 4.22 8.64 10.44 12.97 15.07 11.98 11.47 8.16 9.12 6.06 7.34 105.48
78 LEBRUN ET AL.
460400 461200 461200 462200
1278400
1281200
74
42 12 6A
77 09 5C
4B
K 07
16 13
15
24
78
30
5B
16
I 5A
31 23
5D 47
25 82 16
4F 46
56 44
53 78
06
44 40
45
75
68
35
12
7F
85
L
J
70
32
05 21 7G
32 85
4D 8E
4A
74
1280200
45
25 40
08 39
47
72
1277200
64
A B
NW SE Kintinian Fm.
Fatoya Fm.
Balato Fm.
Conglomerate
Greywacke
Siltstone
Shale / Black shale
Bedding form lines
Reverse fault
Normal fault
Strike-slip fault
100 m
I J Bedding
Bedding fold axis
NW SE
S1S S4S
V3B fold axis
Au ≥ 1 g/t
0.5 ≤ Au < 1 g/t
0.35 ≤ Au < 0.5 g/t
250 m
K L X Figure X location
Fig. 3. Detailed structural form line maps of the (A) Bidini and Sanu Tinti deposits, (B) Kami deposit, (C) Kosise deposit, and
(D) Sintroko PB1 deposit. Each map is accompanied by the deposit cross section, denoted in red letters. Damage zones, and
distinct and incipient structures are all represented by a thick black line. Geographic coordinates on maps in meters (UTM
WGS 84, Zone 21N). No vertical exaggeration in the cross sections.
462200 462800 462400

8B 462800
1277800
24
1271600
72 60
63
85
O 79 71
6E
80
M N
19 81
61 8A
79
86
6B 71
74 39
07
43
70 78
09
14 8C
41 8E 8F
21
1277000
27 6D
86
86
P
1271000
C D
W E NW SE
150 m 150 m
M N
Fig. 3. (Cont.)
five deposits were defined as being of key importance for the Seven months of fieldwork in the Siguiri district were
understanding of the overall district architecture and miner- conducted over two years, starting in April 2011. Mapping,
alization style. These deposits highlight critical components structural data collection, and sampling in the district were
of the character of the host rocks, host-rock controls on min- accomplished in the open pits and, where field exposure was
eralization, and key structural features with different relative limited, augmented by logging of selected drill cores. All read-
timing. The five deposits selected for detailed analysis were, ings are given in true north coordinates. Planar features are
from north to south, Sanu Tinti, Bidini, Kami, Kosise, and Sin- given in dip direction/dip format (e.g., 180/45 for an E-W
troko PB1. The Sanu Tinti, Bidini, and Kosise deposits are all plane dipping at 45° to the south). Each structural element
located near or at the contact between two of the sedimentary or event is suffixed by “XS” or “XY” subscripts, with “X” rep-
rock formations hosting gold deposits in the district, whereas resenting a digit related to the relative timing of the defor-
the Kami and Sintroko PB1 deposits are located in the middle mation event mapped, “Y” representing a particular group of
of the Fatoya Formation. structural elements, and “S” standing for Siguiri. In addition,
80 LEBRUN ET AL.
terminology includes DXS for deformation events; SXS for fab- to 5 cm thick. Multiple subvertical damage zones, oriented
rics, with S0 being bedding; FXS for folds; and VXS or VXY for NE-SW and N-S, crosscut the F2S folds and overprint the
veins. For example, V2S and S2S are part of the D2S event. bedding parallel veins. (Fig. 3A). These subvertical structures
Optical microscopy was used to constrain the relative tim- are not defined by a discrete shear zones or fault planes, but
ing and kinematics of various structural elements (e.g., cleav- instead are represented by 10- to 15-m-wide zones of higher
ages, veins). Petrographic work on polished thin sections was vein density compared to the surrounding rocks (Fig. 4D).
conducted at the Centre for Exploration Targeting (CET), The veins developed in these incipient NE-SW and N-S
University of Western Australia, Perth, using a Nikon Eclipse damage zones are oriented NE-SW and commonly displays
LV100 POL. Further petrographic work was conducted by antitaxial textures and sheet-like geometries (Fig. 4E). These
SEM at the Centre for Microscopy Characterisation and veins are commonly conjugate with a bimodal vein distri-
Analysis of the University of Western Australia. bution of approximately 141/89 and 150/66 (Fig. 4F). Field
observations and crosscutting relationship from drill core
Key Deposits of the Siguiri District indicate that both these vein generations postdate the devel-
The following section reviews the main geologic character- opment of the bedding parallel veins.
istics of five key deposits from the Siguiri district: Bidini, Mineralization in the Bidini deposit follows the NE-SW
Sanu Tinti, Kosise, Kami, and Sintroko PB1 (Fig. 2). For and N-S damage zones and is contained in both the second
each deposit, the lithostratigraphy, structures, mineralization and third vein generations. The first bedding-parallel vein
styles, and alteration assemblages are presented. generation, dominated by quartz and minor ankerite and
albite, is barren. The second vein generation is composed of
Bidini ankerite and pyrite and the third vein generation is composed
The Bidini deposit is located in the northern part of the dis- of quartz-ankerite-arsenopyrite ± pyrite (Fig. 4E, G, H, I).
trict (Fig. 2). Bidini is hosted in the graywacke-dominated Native gold in the quartz-ankerite-arsenopyrite veins is pres-
Fatoya Formation and is adjacent to the Sanu Tinti deposit ent within the quartz or between the quartz and the ankerite
(Fig. 3A). In the Bidini deposit, the Fatoya Formation can rims (Fig. 4E). Alteration surrounding the ore shoots is char-
also present minor alternations of siltstone and shale beds. acterized by albitization of the host rock. Carbonate alteration
Discrete folds occur in the southwestern part of the Bidini is often characterized by the bleaching of the host rock up to
deposit (Fig. 4A). These gently inclined to recumbent folds 1 m surrounding individual veins (Fig. 4G). A late penetrative
are open to tight, and have a wavelength of about 15 m and planar fabric, termed S4S, strikes to the NE and dips moder-
fold axes that plunge moderately to the WSW. These folds are ately to the SE (Fig. 3A). This late-stage S4S fabric overprints
associated with an axial planar cleavage that trends NW-SE to all earlier structures (Fig. 4H). Thin section analyses indicate
N-S and dips shallowly to moderately to the WSW (Fig. 3A). this fabric is defined by sericite and it is preferentially devel-
This moderate-dipping cleavage is the oldest mappable fabric oped in shale beds. It is also visible in graywacke beds where
in the deposit, and the folds are therefore termed F1S .The it is highlighted by quartz-carbonate-sericite-(pyrite) strain
discreet F1S folds are refolded by a second generation of folds, shadows and strain fringes surrounding the arsenopyrite crys-
termed F2S.The F2S folds in Bidini are not associated with any tals associated with the steep NE-SW veins (Fig. 4I).
mappable axial planar foliation. The Bidini deposit itself is
located along the hinge of a larger scale F2S fold. This larger Sanu Tinti
scale F2S fold is a tight upright anticline with an estimated The Sanu Tinti deposit is one of the northernmost depos-
wavelength of 500 m. The axial surface of this anticline trends its (Fig. 2). It is located at the faulted contact between the
NNE-SSW, and its fold axis plunges shallowly to the north and graywacke-dominated Fatoya Formation to the east and the
south. An asymmetric N-S-trending F2S syncline with a west- overturned and younger rocks of the Kintinian Formation to
ern long limb, eastern short limb, and an axial surface dipping the west (Figs. 3A, 5A). The Kintinian Formation in the Sanu
to the east, occurs between the Bidini and Sanu Tinti deposits, Tinti deposit is characterized by a basal sequence of polymict,
giving an overall west vergence to the folding (Fig. 3A). clast-supported conglomerate. The remainder of the Kintin-
Bedding parallel veins can be observed along bedding and ian Formation that is exposed in the deposit is composed of
F2S folds in Bidini (Fig. 4C). These veins, whose orientation shale and fine siltstone beds. The deposit is on the western
varies across the deposit, are typically only a few millimeters long limb of a large-scale F2S N-S-trending open-to-closed
Fig. 4. Structural elements from the Bidini deposit. A. Photograph of a reclined open F1S fold (the trace of the observed axial
planar S1S cleavage is also represented) and B. of an upright open F2S syncline. In the stereograms, bedding is represented
by black poles or full black great circles, constructed fold axial planes are represented by dashed black great circles, and con-
structed F1S fold axes are in blue and F2S fold axes are in yellow. C. Bedding parallel V2S veins. D. Discrete shear zone marked
by a 10- to 15-m-wide increase in vein density, facilitating weathering of the host rock. E. Visible gold in a folded antitaxial
quartz-ankerite V3B mineralized vein. F. Conjugate V3B vein sets with subhorizontal bedding, in black in the stereogram. G.
Core displaying meter-wide bleached carbonate alteration haloes around V3B veins (highlighted in red). H. Core from Bidini
showing multiple arsenopyrite crystals around a V3B mineralized vein (bottom; orientation of the veins in the upper part of the
photo unconstrained). The crystals display pressure shadows (PS; orange arrows) parallel to the S4S cleavage (in green). Ste-
reogram: S0 in black, mined veins as red great circles, mined vein fold axes as red poles and S4S in green; equal angle (Wulff)
projection. I) Microphotograph from the core shown in H. of a V3B twinned arsenopyrite under cross-polarized reflected light,
developing pressure shadows due to S4S cleavage. Aspy = arsenopyrite, Qtz = quartz. Stereograms: S0 in black, mined veins as
red great circles, mined vein fold axes as red poles and S4S in green; equal angle (Wulff) projection.
S N W E
bedding
axial plane
N axial N
bedding
plane
A N = 16 B N = 12
N S
V2S
discrete
shear
zone
C D
NW section view SE
VG
Carb
Qtz
N
Qtz
2.5 cm
E F
S4S C
G fresh
S4S Qtz PS
Aspy N
Qtz
500 μm
I H N=3
82 LEBRUN ET AL.
NW SE NE SW
axial
Fatoya plane
Formation
Kintinian N
Formation
bedding
A B N = 53
N section view S NW plan view SE
S4S
cleavage
C 15 cm D
Py Py
Au
Ccp
Ccp
5 cm 100 μm
E F
Fig. 5. Structural elements from the Sanu Tinti deposit. A. Faulted contact between the graywacke-rich Fatoya Formation to
the SE, and the Kintinian Formation to the NW. In the stereogram, bedding is represented by black poles or full black Great
Circles, constructed fold axial planes are represented by dashed black great circles and constructed F2S fold axes are in yellow.
B. Photograph of an upright open F2S syncline. C. Conjugate V3B vein sets. D. Spaced brittle S4S cleavage in the conglomerate
layer. E. Disseminated pyrite in the conglomerate layer. F. Microphotograph of a disseminated pyrite. Free gold is associated
with chalcopyrite and displays triangular textures characteristic of infill crystallization (Taylor, 2010).
syncline within the Fatoya Formation (Fig. 3A). This N-S syn- In rocks of the Kintinian Formation, there are a few veins
cline has an E-dipping axial plane that shows a fold vergence (~1 vol %) striking to the NE and dipping steeply to the SE
to the west (Fig. 5B), has a wavelength of about 500 m, and that crosscut the conglomerate beds. These veins are thin,
extends into the Bidini deposit (Figs. 4B, 5B). No planar fab- averaging 2 to 3 cm in width, but can extend for a few meters
ric parallel to the axial surface was observed. in length. In the Sanu Tinti deposit, the faulted contact
between rocks of the Kintinian and the Fatoya Formations inclined (between 60° and 30°; Fleuty, 1964) and indicates
(Figs. 3A, 5A) is marked by brecciated textures developed in a fold vergence to the west for this fold (Fig. 3C). A series of
the first few meters surrounding the fault. The fault is ori- N-S faults parallels the short limb of the Kosise syncline to the
ented N-S to NNE-SSW, dips moderately to the SE, and has east (Figs. 3C, 6C). These incipient faults dip steeply to the
been delineated in core to a depth of more than 300 m (Fig. east and are subparallel to the contact between rocks of the
3A). Slickensides indicate that this contact is a reverse fault. Fatoya and the Balato Formations (Fig. 3B, C). An early cryp-
In rocks of the Fatoya Formation, a poorly defined and spaced tic subhorizontal-spaced brittle planar fabric was observed in
planar fabric trends to the NNE and dips moderately to the both deposits; however, its timing and significance are poorly
WNW (Fig. 3A). This fabric is overprinted by bedding paral- constrained. This fabric is overprinted by a quartz-dominated
lel veins following the western long limb of the large-scale vein set that is parallel to bedding or has an en echelon geom-
F2S N-S-trending syncline developed in rocks of the Fatoya etry along the contact between different units (Fig. 6D). The
Formation (Fig. 3A). bedding-parallel veins are commonly ~5 cm thick and can
Subvertical ENE-trending veins cut the large-scale F2S syn- extend for several tens of meters. The en echelon veins are
cline. These veins often display a conjugate geometry and are typically thinner and rarely exceed 4 cm in thickness. The en
a few centimeters to 15 cm thick, but can extend for tens of echelon vein arrays can extend for 2 to 3 m, but individual
meters in length (Fig. 5C). In the Sanu Tinti deposit, these veins typically extend for no more than 50 cm. This oldest vein
conjugate veins are typically oriented as two main sets at set is not mineralized. and crosscut the already albitised and
335/82 and 196/84. Either of these sets can have a conjugate sericitised host rock.
geometry with additional secondary veins of similar orienta- The barren veins, the open folds in the Kami deposit, and
tion to the other vein set. In the northern part of the Sanu the F2S syncline in the Kosise deposit are crosscut by sub-
Tinti deposit, from core logging and 3D modeling, the density vertical discrete shear zones, or by what have been defined
of these veins increases to as much as 20 to 30 vol % over 10 m as incipient structures (Fig. 3C). Examples of the discrete
along an inferred NE-SW damage zone (Fig. 3A). An increase shear zones include a 1-m-wide discrete NE-SW fault zone
in vein density was also observed along the F2S syncline hinge displaying dextral kinematics that is a major structural fea-
in the same area of the deposit. A second planar fabric, defined ture observed in the Kosise deposit (Fig. 6B, C, E), as well as
as S4S, overprints all previously described structures. It is pen- minor discrete E-W-trending fault zones in the Kami deposit
etrative, oriented NE-SW in the Sanu Tinti deposit, and dips that indicate normal movements. However, incipient struc-
gently to the SE (Fig. 3A). In the Kintinian conglomerate, this tures are more common in the Kosise and Kami deposits and
S4S penetrative planar fabric maintains a similar orientation similarly to the Bidini deposit, are expressed by an abundance
but is manifested as a spaced brittle fabric (Fig. 5D). of veins along a 10- to 15-m-wide damage zone of sheet-like
Mineralization in the Sanu Tinti deposit displays two styles. geometry with no visible discrete zone of faulting or shear-
The first style is spatially associated with the footwall of the ing along which weathering is more intense (Fig. 7A). Similar
reverse fault (Fig. 3A) and consists of pyrite disseminated in N-S, E-W, WNW-ESE, and NE-SW damage zones extend-
the Kintinian Formation conglomerate (Fig. 5E). The pyrite ing along strike for a few hundred meters to more than 1 km
is often anhedral. Gold is free within fractures in the pyrite were recognized in the field (Figs. 2, 3B, C). The only N-S
or is present as inclusions displaying triangular textures (Fig. damage zone recognized in the Kosise deposit is subparallel
5F), and is associated with chalcopyrite, hematite, and galena. to the stratigraphy, transects the deposit in its center (Fig.
Minor tourmaline can be associated with the pyrite. The sec- 3C) and extends to the Kozan deposit, which displays simi-
ond style consists of the subvertical ENE-trending veins cut- lar structural features (Figs. 2, 7B). No kinematic indicators
ting F2S folds (Fig. 5C). Similarly to the Bidini deposit, these could be observed in the WNW-ESE damage zones in the
veins consist of quartz, ankerite, arsenopyrite, and minor Kami or Kosise deposits.
pyrite. Native gold occurs within the quartz or along the mar- Gold ore zones in the Kami and Kosise deposits are associ-
gins of the quartz and ankerite. ated with veins that crosscut the oldest barren quartz-dom-
inated vein sets, which developed adjacent to discrete fault
Kami and Kosise zones, and also with veins within damage zones related to
The Kami and Kosise deposits are both hosted in the Fatoya incipient structures. (Fig. 3B, C). The vein arrays occurring
Formation, which is dominated by meter-thick graywacke- adjacent to the discrete fault zones and within the damage
sandstone beds fining up into, or alternating with, minor cen- zones can be separated into two generations. The first genera-
timeter-thick beds of siltstone and shale (Fig. 2). The Kami tion of these veins consists of ankerite-pyrite and rare albite,
deposit is located in the center of the formation, whereas and was only observed in drill core and extends outward for a
Kosise occurs farther to the east. few meters from the damage zone linked to the discrete fault
The Kami deposit has a structural style characterized by zones (Fig. 7C, D). The orientation of these veins could only
open F1S upright folds, with fold axes gently plunging to the be constrained from drill core observation and is not consis-
NE or the SW, and by open F2S upright folds, with fold axes tent (Fig. 7C). The veins are a few millimeters to 15 cm thick
gently plunging to the north or south (Fig. 3B). The intersec- and commonly display brecciated textures (Fig. 7C). Their
tion of these folds forms a broad domal structure that hosts lateral extent is not known. Gold is present in fractures in
the Kami deposit (Fig. 6A). The Kosise deposit is adjacent to pyrite. The veins are associated with the bulk of the carbonate
Kami and is hosted on the hinge and short limb of an open alteration observed in the Kami and Kosise deposits, with mil-
N-S F2S syncline that has a subhorizontal fold axis (Figs. 3C, limeter-thick siderite surrounding the vein for as far as 1 m.
6B, C). The axial surface of this N-S syncline is moderately The veins crosscut the moderately albitized host rock but are
84 LEBRUN ET AL.
W E
bedding
V3B vein
trend
A Kami
W E
Pic. E
B Kosise
W E
Pic. E S0
N
S0
N-S incipient dextral
shear zone shear zone
C Kosise N = 51
WSW E ENE
N
S0 N = 51
N
D Kosise plan view V2S N = 43 E

Fig. 6. Structural elements from the Kami and Kosise deposits. A. Domal structures in the Kami deposit. The V3B veins,
mined by local villagers, can be seen focused in the dome and following competent beds. Each bench is about 7 m high. B.
and C. Photograph and structural cross-section of the Kosise syncline. A N-S incipient shear zone and a NE-SW dextral shear
zone are highlighted in black. Intersections between NE-SW dextral shear zones and N-S reverse faults are typically highly
mineralized (Fig. 4C). Minor faults represented by dashed lines. Stereograms: S0 in black, calculated F2S fold axes in yellow,
equal angle (Wulff) projection. D. En-echelon barren quartz V2S veins. The projected poles from the entire Kosise deposit of
bedding, V2S bedding-parallel and V2S en echelon veins, highlight that orientations and sigmoidal character of V2S veins are
consistent with their formation by flexural slip along bedding during F2S folding. In the equal area stereonet/Schmidt projec-
tion stereogram, bedding is represented by black poles, the constructed fold axial plane is represented by a dashed black
great circle and the constructed fold axis by a large yellow disk. Bedding-parallel veins are represented by orange poles, en
echelon are in purple. One sigma Gaussian density contours. E. Photograph of the NE-SW dextral shear zone highlighted
in (B) and (C).
Incipient shear
NE SW W E
zones
bedding
axial plane
A Kami B Kozan 0 2m
N=4
V3B V3B V3A

N = 16
V3A
2.5 cm 2.5 cm
C Kosise D Kosise
section
SE NW NW SE NW view
SE
V3B
bedding steep
V3B
shallow
N
E Kami F Kami G Kami N = 22
Fig. 7. Structural elements from the Kami, Kosise and Kozan deposits. A. Incipient shear zones highlighted by increased
weathering. B. Kozan F2S open upright syncline, thought to be structurally adjacent to the Kosise F2S syncline. C. Gold-rich,
ankerite- and pyrite-bearing V3A veins developed as a brecciated vein. In the equal area stereonet/Schmidt projection stereo-
gram, V3A poles are in yellow and a great circle was constructed in blue from their average orientations. One sigma Gaussian
density contours. D. Shallow V3B vein cutting ankerite-pyrite V3A veins. E. Conjugate V3B vein geometry at deposit scale. F.
Conjugate V3B vein geometry at outcrop-scale. Notebook for scale at the bottom. G. Photograph of a steep mineralized V3B
vein in Kami deposit overprinted by S4S cleavage. The vein (red in stereogram) and measured fold axes from other folded
mined veins (red poles) are indicative of a NW-SE compression (S4S cleavage in green).
also locally associated with further albitization, which typically with other secondary veins with a slightly differently orienta-
is developed within 10 cm of a vein. tion (Fig. 7E, F). Within 10 to 15 m of these damage zones,
The ankerite-pyrite vein generation is crosscut by the the conjugate vein sets can also be found in domal structures
youngest and dominant vein generation, which forms the along particularly competent graywacke beds (Fig. 6A). Most
majority of the veins associated with the damage zones in of the gold in the Kami and Kosise deposits is associated with
both deposits (Fig. 7D). These youngest veins consist of the quartz-ankerite-arsenopyrite veins. Free gold grains occur
quartz, ankerite, arsenopyrite, and rare pyrite, are 0.5 to in the quartz and along the rims of the ankerite. Similarly to
10 cm thick, and extend for tens of meters. The veins com- other deposits, free gold can also be present in the arsenopy-
monly show antitaxial textures and display a bimodal orien- rite and along fractures in the veins with chalcopyrite, galena,
tation at mainly 150/40 and 145/70. In the field, veins from and lesser sphalerite. Gold grades across some of the discrete
one set can be found conjugate with veins from the other, or fault zones can locally be >100 g/t (Fig. 6E). The gold-bearing
86 LEBRUN ET AL.
veins have carbonate alteration halos that are a few tens of which are dominated by alternating centimeter- to meter-
centimeters wide and mainly defined by siderite nodules. scale shale and siltstone beds. Beds of fine- to medium-grain
The gold-rich vein generation is refolded and overprinted graywacke are also exposed in Sintroko PB1 and the central
by a late subvertical fabric oriented NNE-SSW and termed area of the deposit is dominated by black shale. (Fig. 3D).
S4S. This penetrative fabric also overprints all previous struc- The deposit is located along two open anticlines separated
tural elements (Fig. 7G). Strain shadows associated with the by an area of sheared subvertical NNW-SSE-trending bed-
S4S fabric commonly develop surrounding disseminated sul- ding in the center of the deposit (Figs. 3D, 8A). The eastern
fides in the alteration zones of the quartz-ankerite-arseno- side of the deposit displays an upright open F2S anticline, with
pyrite veins. These strain shadows are dominated by quartz, a subvertical fold axis. The western side shows a reclined F2S
ankerite, chalcopyrite, and rare pyrite. Sericite is also present open anticline with a subvertical fold axis (Fig. 8A). The wave-
in these microstructures and typically is related to the late S4S length of the two anticlines is estimated to be about 500 m.
penetrative fabric. Late chloritization is observed along minor Locally, isoclinal F2S folds have an amplitude of a few meters
subvertical N-S brecciation zones that are a few meters in (Fig. 8B), although vertical fold axes are also common in the
length. deposit. Bedding-parallel veins oriented at about 310/80, and
typically as thick as 1 cm and extending for a few meters, occur
Sintroko PB1 across the entire deposit. These veins and the F2S folds at the
Sintroko PB1 is one of the southernmost deposits of the Siguiri Sintroko PB1 deposit are crosscut by a major NNE-SSW
district (Fig. 2). It is hosted in rocks of the Balato Formation, shear zone in the central part of the deposit that borders the
W E E W
shale bed
bedding
shear
N
zone
axial
plane
0 4m
A N = 15 B
NW SE
C
Fig. 8. Structural elements from the Sintroko PB1 deposit. A. Upright open F fold with steeply plunging fold axis from
NW 2S
SE
Sintroko PB1. Note the consistent orientation of the veins mined by local villagers (vertical cavities in wall) and the rheologi-
cal control on mineralization (seal cap of shales, in dark grey, with strong veining restricted to underlying sandstones). B.
Isoclinal fold from the border between the Sintroko PB1 and PB3A deposits. S0 C. and D. Incipient structure in Sintroko PB1
marked by an increase in quartz vein (V3B) vein density. The mineralized veins (dotted lines in B), mined by local villagers,
keep a consistent orientation and cut across the F2S fold. Mineralization develops around the incipient structure, and is also
controlled by the rheology of the sedimentary units. E. Minor damage zone in Sintroko PB1 displaying mutually crosscutting
V3B steep and shallow conjugate vein V3Bsets. F. Conjugate V3B veins. G. Steep quartz-ankerite V3B mineralized veins with arse-
steep V3B shallow
nopyrite halo. The arsenopyrite typically crystallizes along the edges of the vein or in the adjacent host rock, but rarely in the
vein itself. The vein to the left displays a unitaxial geometry, characteristic of the crack-seal growth mechanism (Passchier
N
and
incipient
Trouw, 2005). Both veins are represented as red great circles in the equal angle stereonet/Wulff projection stereogram. H.
Microphotograph of sinistral pressure fringes developed around a V3B arsenopyrite crystal and dark seems developed around
structure
a siderite nodule by the S4S cleavage.
D N = 10
SE NW NW section view SE
V3B
C
NW SE
S0
V3B steep V3B shallow

N
incipient
structure
D N = 10
SE NW NW section view SE
V3B
steep
V3B shallow
E F
D
N
S4S
Aspy
N=2 Aspy
V3B Sid
Sid
2.5 cm 500 μm
G H
Fig. 8. (Cont.)
central black shale area (Fig. 3D). A subhorizontal lineation and antitaxial textures (Fig. 8G), and commonly display conju-
was observed along the shear zone, but no kinematic indica- gate relationships between themselves and within a same set
tors were identified. A series of subvertical incipient struc- (Fig. 8E, F). All previously described structural elements are
tures oriented N-S, NE-SW, and E-W also crosscuts the F2S overprinted by a subvertical NNE-striking penetrative fabric
folds (Fig. 3D). Similar to the Kami and Kosise deposits, these termed S4S (Fig. 3D). Kinematic indicators, such as pressure
crosscutting incipient structures are not characterized by any fringes, C’-type shear bands, asymmetric folding, and over-
distinctive fault plane. They are, however, expressed as a pla- printed quartz veins, suggest that sinistral shearing was associ-
nar damage zone with a 10- to 15-m thickness of dense vein- ated with this cleavage (Fig. 8H).
ing (Fig. 8C-E). Veining associated with the damage zones The ore zones in the Sintroko PB1 deposit are associated
is also preferentially developed in competent beds (Fig. 8A, with the veining developed in the different damage zones
C, D). The veins associated with the damage zones, and with and also surrounding the central NNE-SSW shear zone (Fig.
the central NNE-SSW shear zones, display various orienta- 3D). Conjugate gold-bearing veins consist of quartz, ankerite,
tions that can be mainly grouped into two distinct conjugate arsenopyrite, and rare pyrite, and are restricted to graywacke
sets with orientations of 172/26 and 150/70 (Fig. 8D-F). The beds. The arsenopyrite is more abundant in veins hosted by
veins are as thick as 10 cm and locally extend along strike for the shale units of the Balato Formation. The host rocks for the
more than 10 m (Fig. 8E). The two vein sets display crack-seal Sintroko PB1 deposit are albitized and intensely carbonate
88 LEBRUN ET AL.
altered. The carbonate alteration is expressed by millimeter- recumbent orientation, and fold axes gently plunge to the E
sized siderite nodules and bleaching of the graywacke (Fig. and WNW (Fig. 10A-C). In the Kami deposit, where NE-SW-
5D). Late chloritization can also be observed along highly trending F1S folds are gentle to open with wavelengths in the
fractured zones for lengths of a few meters. hundreds of meters, F2S N-S folds overprint the F1S folds and
form type 1 fold interference patterns characterized by large
Discussion domes and basins (Figs. 2, 3B, 6A; Ramsay and Huber, 1987).
A weak cleavage (S1S), shallowly to moderately dipping to the
Structural event history WSW, is locally observed in some of the northern deposits
The field relationships documented in the Siguiri district sug- (e.g., Bidini; Fig. 10E-H). The D1S deformation is interpreted
gest a polyphase deformation history. All structural elements to have been linked to N-S compression, but with inconclusive
documented in the Siguiri district can be grouped into four outcrop exposures the understanding of this early deformation
sequential deformation events that have been termed D1S, remains unclear. An alternative interpretation is that the F1S
D2S, D3S, and D4S.Within these events, three distinct folding folds represent synsedimentary slump folds (McClay, 1992),
episodes and three distinct veining episodes (Fig. 9) allow but the consistent orientation and fold axes, when accounting
determination of the relative timing and geometric controls for overprinting by subsequent events, more strongly support
on mineralization within the overall structural evolution of the a tectonic contractional setting for the folding. Since the V2S
district. Strain partitioning between the three stratigraphic veins were observed to crosscut albitized host rock, this first
formations in the Siguiri district resulted in a heterogeneous phase of deformation may have been responsible for an early
strain distribution. In the shale-dominated Balato and Kin- phase of hydrothermal activity and an early phase of albitiza-
tinian Formations, the strain is intense and folds tend to be tion of the country rocks across the Siguiri district.
tight to isoclinal. By contrast, the Fatoya Formation is domi- D2S: The second deformation is associated with the forma-
nated by a graywacke-sandstone association, which displays a tion of major folds (F2S) and associated D2S reverse faults
lower strain intensity characterized by open folds (Fig. 2). As (e.g., at the Sanu Tinti and Kosise deposits; Figs. 3A, C, 5A,
a result of this competency contrast, bedding orientations can 6C). This event is responsible for the bulk of the folding in
be found to be locally quite variable (Figs. 2, 10A-D). the metasedimentary rocks and for the N-S structural grain
Cryptic D1S: The first deformation event, D1S, is a duc- affecting much of the Siguiri basin. The F2S fold axial planes
tile event characterized by cryptic F1S folds that are rarely typically strike NNE-SSW to NNW-SSE, and their fold axes
observed in the district, whose axial trace strikes E-W to plunge at variable angles that are typically steeper in rocks of
NW-SE and NE-SW (Fig. 2). Remnants of these folds have the Balato Formation compared to those of the Fatoya For-
been observed in the northern part of the district (e.g., Bid- mation. The F2S fold typology varies from south to north, with
ini deposit, Fig. 4A). The F1S folds are commonly tight with upright horizontal isoclinal folds and upright vertical open
Milési et al. (1989, 1992) Miller et al. (2013) for Mali Steyn (2012) This study
Deform. Gold Deform. Gold Deform. Gold Deform. Gold
Folds Veins Folds Veins Folds Veins Folds Veins
events events events events events events events events
D1 F1 - - D1 F1 - -
?D1
(diagenesis?) F1 - - D1S F1S - -
D2 F2 - $ D2S F2S V2S -

multiple
D2 F2 yes $ D2 F2 orientat. $
V3A
D3 F3 yes $ D3S - $
V3B
F4S
D3 F3 yes $ D4 F4 yes $ D4S (local) - ?
D5 F5 yes $
D3 - - -
Fig. 9. Summary table of the deformation (Deform.) events and timing of the structural events recognized at Siguiri in this
study and by Milési et al. (1989, 1992), Miller et al. (2013), and Steyn (2012).
Locations on S0 poles, S0 fold axes Mineralised

Cleavages (S4S in green)
minimap and fold axial planes V3B veins
Equal Area
N N (Schmidt) N
N = 31 N = 11 N = 60
A E I
Equal Area Equal Area
N (Schmidt) N (Schmidt) N
N = 274 N = 263 N = 51
B F J
Equal Area Equal Area
N (Schmidt) N (Schmidt) N
N = 169 N = 114 N = 58
C G K
Equal Area
N N (Schmidt) N
N = 162 N = 123 N = 66
D H L
Fig. 10. Stereograms of the structural data collected over the Siguiri district divided into four mine areas, from north to south
(black deposit outlines on maps at left). Bedding poles in black. Measured F1S fold axes in blue, measured F2S fold axes in
red and constructed fold axes (pole of a great circle fitting the bedding poles of an observed fold) in yellow. Measured fold
axial planes represented as black great circles. Cleavages are colored according to their interpreted generation: S1S in blue,
late S4S in green. Mineralized V3B vein sets represented as red poles. Unless specified, all stereograms use equal angle (Wulff)
projection.
folds in the area of the Sintroko deposit, to gentle upright west (Fig. 2C). Based on the younging directions and over-
to open inclined N-plunging and W-verging folds near the all W-verging fold asymmetry in the Fatoya Formation, the
Kosise deposit (Fig. 6C), and to open upright to inclined W- inversion of stratigraphy observed between the Fatoya and
to NW-verging folds near the Bidini deposit (Fig. 4B). The the Kintinian Formation in the Sanu Tinti deposit, is inter-
overall asymmetric fold geometry indicates a vergence to the preted to have been initiated by F2S folding and amplified by
90 LEBRUN ET AL.
later reverse faulting. No axial planar cleavage (S2S) was iden- than 300 m (constrained by drilling; Fig. 3). The D3S faults
tified as being associated with this event. are typically not discrete features, but rather are expressed as
A switch to brittle deformation marks the end stage of the subvertical and poorly outlined incipient faults or planar dam-
D2S folding event in the Siguiri district and is associated with age zones characterized by increased density of quartz vein-
the development of V2S veining that develop along F2S folds ing and associated alteration halos that crosscut both F2S folds
but are overprinted by later events. The V2S vein set is the old- and V2S veins (Fig. 9A, B). Establishing a relative chronology
est vein set in the Siguiri district and it is not mineralized. The between the different D3S faults was not possible in the field.
orientation of this quartz-(carbonate) set varies from 320/80 These D3S structures include:
in the Sintroko PB1 deposit, to 070/40, and 280/45 in the
1. Reverse faults that are moderately dipping to subvertical
Kosise deposit. In Kosise, the former orientation displays an
and N-S trending (e.g., in the Kosise deposit). In other
en echelon geometry (Fig. 6D). The V2S vein poles in Kosise
deposits, such as Kami, these structures are expressed as
typically plot along an E-W-oriented girdle, consistent with
shear zones and damage zones displaying arrays of V3S
the prominent F2S folding event (stereogram on Fig. 6D). The
veins that cut bedding.
V2S bedding parallel veins, and also the en echelon sigmoidal
2. Local E-W-trending subvertical normal faults, typically
vein sets, are interpreted to indicate some amount of flexural
expressed as damage zones.
slip along bedding during late-stage F2S folding (Figs. 6D, 11).
3. A WNW-ESE-trending fault population that dips moder-
Based on all the early and late D2S structural observations
ately to the SSW and is axial planar to the F1S folds. Such
(Figs. 2, 3C), we conclude that D2S was associated with an
a fault, located in the northernmost part of the Siguiri dis-
E-W to ESE-WNW compressional stress field under a brittle-
trict (Fig. 2), was interpreted by Egal et al. (1999) to dis-
ductile regime.
play sinistral movement.
D3S: Although formally separated into a third deformation
4. Subvertical NE-SW- to ENE-WSW-trending strike-slip
event, D3S potentially marks the continuation of D2S. The dif-
brittle to brittle-ductile shear zones and damage zones
ference is that the D2S event is dominated by plastic defor-
exhibiting dextral movement.
mation related to folding, whereas the D3S event is linked
to development of a network of D3S faults with contrasting Although no clear crosscutting relationships could be deter-
kinematics. These include reverse faults, normal faults, and mined, all the faults crosscut F2S folds and are associated with
strike-slip faults that extend subvertically to depths of more similar vein arrays, suggesting a probable coeval development
A Beginning of D2S E-W compression B Initiation of flexural slip &

increase in overburden pressure (σ3)
C Development of V2S veins D
Fig. 11. Schematic evolution of the early-D2S compression and of the mode of formation of the bedding parallel and en ech-
elon V2S veins, in red, associated with flexural slip.
in between these two events. Alternatively, the kinematics However, the full extent of this vein set remains unclear due
observed on these faults are compatible with earlier events, to the highly weathered nature of these carbonate-dominated
such as the WNW-ESE sinistral faults that may have devel- veins in the different deposits.
oped during D1S N-S compression or the N-S reverse faults, The second vein set associated with these faults, V3B (Fig.
and possibly the E-W normal faults acting as local accommo- 8G), represents the bulk of veining observed in the Siguiri
dating faults, that may have developed during or just after D2S district and crosscuts the V2S and V3A vein sets. Despite sub-
E-W compression, but were all reactivated during D3S veining stantial variations in the orientation of S0, the orientation of
event. These faults may, therefore, represent reactivated ear- this quartz-ankerite-arsenopyrite-(pyrite) vein set remains
lier, more fundamental, and deeper structures that controlled constant throughout the Siguiri district (Fig. 10I-L), and it
the location of the Siguiri district within the sediments of the clearly overprints the first (F1S) and second (F2S) fold genera-
Siguiri basin (dashed lines on Fig. 1B). However, without fur- tions. Oriented at about 170/35 (V3B shallow) and 160/70 (V3B
ther field work and observations addressing specifically the steep, Fig. 10I-L), the two vein orientations display a hybrid/
role of early architecture in the formation or reactivation of conjugate geometry (McClay, 1992). These geometries are
these structures, we interpret them as being formed more or formed by conjugate V3B shallow veins or conjugate V3B steep
less coevally between the last increment of F2S folding and veins. In addition, both these geometries mutually crosscut
D3S veining that develops along them. each other (Figs. 4F, 7E, F, 8E, F, 12F-H). The veins com-
Two vein sets were recognized along all these faults, V3A and monly display crack-seal textures typical of orogenic-type gold
V3B.The first set, V3A (Fig. 7C, D), comprises ankerite-pyrite- deposits and are consistent with fault-valve behavior (Sibson
(albite). The orientation of this vein set is poorly constrained, et al., 1988; Sibson and Scott, 1998). The vein set with the
but varies significantly around a 240/55 mean in the Kosise steep orientation is the most prominent in the Siguiri district
deposit (stereogram on Fig. 7C). This orientation is subparal- and was mined by artisanal miners within and outside of the
lel to the WNW-ESE sinistral structures. The V3A set was also district. Higher densities of these veins develop around all
observed close to NE-SW dextral shear zones in drill core and four orientations of discrete and incipient faults described for
is confined to within a few tens of meters of these structures. the earlier deformations and represent the main ore shoots in
Axial planar S4S Stratigraphic and domal culmination Incipient structure V3B oblique to F2S axial plane Stratigraphic control
cleavage controls on V3S veining model and bedding-parallel thrusting and V3B oblique to F2S axial plane
NW SE W E NW SE N
J W E N
W E W E
S4S S S
V3S veins gh e bed

sediments hi on ding
V3B t e rz
re ea
sc h
bedding
E deeper level strati- di de s 2

graphy or substrate a
shear gr
E 10 cm D 15 m 10 m zone I 1 300 m K 10 m 10 m
W Sanu 1 Kosise ?
K
E
Tinti All 2
deposits All
deposits ?
B
Kami D I
F Sintroko
?
A 100 m
Kintinian Fm. Fatoya Fm. Balato Fm.

W E NW SE NW SE NW SE
Fatoya shallow V3B
Formation trend steep
greywacke An Aspy
clast C k
H V3B Sid
Py disseminated steep G
matrix shallow Qtz
pyrite trend
Kintinian
Formation bedd Au
C 2 cm
B 1.5 m F ing 50 m G 1.5 m 10 cm H
Disseminated pyrite in Rheological and structural control Deposit-scale conjugate Outcrop-scale conjugate V3B Gold in V3B veins
matrix and clasts of disseminated pyrite vein geometry vein geometry
Fig. 12. Summary figure of the different controls on D3S mineralization present in the orogenic gold deposits of the Siguiri
district. Kintinian Formation in dark gray, Fatoya Formation in light blue, Balato Formation in light gray. Shale beds repre-
sented in dark blue. Veins in red. Discrete shear zones in white. Map views indicated by a north arrow.
92 LEBRUN ET AL.
the district (Figs. 8C, D, 12A, I). Conjugate analyses on the is typically associated with the main phase of gold mineral-
V3B veins, together with the fault pattern geometry mapped in ization. However, based on the structural and petrographic
the pits, indicate that the stress field associated with D3S var- observations presented in this paper, this event does not
ied between NW-SE extensional and NE-SW compressional appear to be associated with substantial ore formation in the
with related strike-slip deformation, which contrasts with the Siguiri district.
earlier D2S E-W to ESE-WNW compression. Finally, Steyn (2012) recognized a last deformation event,
D4S: The third and last fold generation recorded in the dis- termed D3, associated with an E-W extension and which was
trict (F4S, Fig. 7G) is oriented ENE-WSW to NE-SW. At the not associated with gold deposition. This deformation event
outcrop to deposit scale, the F4S folds crenulate the F2S folds was not recognized by the present study, Milési et al. (1989,
and fold the V3S veins (Figs. 7G, 10A-D). A penetrative pla- 1992), or Miller et al. (2013), but may correspond to late post-
nar fabric (S4S) is axial planar to these local F4S folds. The S4S orogenic collapse.
fabric is a sericite-bearing cleavage that transects the F2S fold
hinges in many areas, such as in the Kosise deposit (Fig. 2), Mineralization
may have overprinted and erased the S2S fabric and developed Observations from the five key deposits highlight two main
strain shadows surrounding arsenopyrite grains in the selvages styles of gold mineralization in the Siguiri district (Figs. 4–8,
of V3B veins (Fig. 4H, I). Overall, D4S is interpreted to have 12). Gold mineralization is either disseminated or vein hosted
been associated with a NW-SE compression. The domes and (Fig. 12A). Both styles of mineralization exhibit carbonate
basins, most notable in the Kami deposit, could have devel- alteration that is typically developed as millimeter-scale sid-
oped by overprinting of the F2S N-S folds by the D4S NW-SE erite nodules in shale, or bleaching in graywacke, and further
compression. The V3B mineralized veins hosted in the domes albitization of earlier albitized host rocks.
suggest that the domes developed pre- to syn-D3S veining and The disseminated mineralization, specific to the Sanu Tinti
thus cannot have formed by F2S/F4S interference. However, deposit (Fig. 12A-C), is hosted in porous conglomeratic beds
D4S may have amplified the domes and basins. and characterized by corroded and fractured pyrite with gold,
The S4S dip angle and dip direction varies across the Siguiri chalcopyrite, and galena filling the fractures. The timing of
district, from subvertical and ESE to WNW dipping in the the Sanu Tinti disseminated mineralization is constrained
south, to shallowly SE dipping in the north. Variations in S4S between the formation of the overprinting S4S cleavage and
dip angle and dip direction in the northern part of the dis- the timing of the reverse fault along which the disseminated
trict are interpreted to be related to the preexisting faults and pyrite has developed; this fault is reactivated in early-D3S but
the rotation of cleavage trajectories around these structures, a most likely have formed during D2S.
mechanism described by Dewey et al. (1998). The vein-hosted gold mineralization style, common at the
Kosise deposit, forms the bulk of the gold endowment in the
Comparison with previous studies Siguiri district (Fig. 12A, D-K). This style of mineralization is
The deformation events and structural features identified associated with the V3A and V3B vein sets. The V3A veins typi-
in the Siguiri district can be correlated with those described cally contain abundant free gold in fractures in pyrite. These
by Milési et al. (1989, 1992), Miller et al. (2013), and Steyn veins are associated with local carbonate alteration of the host
(2012). This correlation is summarized in Figure 9 and indi- rock, developing millimeter-sized siderite nodules within a
cates that D1S correlates with the D1 N-S compressional few centimeters to meters of the veins. This vein set typically
event recognized by these workers. Milési et al. (1989) con- crosscuts the already albitized host rock and locally contains
strained the timing of this deformation event between ca. minor albite. The V3B quartz-ankerite veins contain arseno-
2100 and 2090 Ma and related it to the thrusting of rocks of pyrite and pyrite and have siderite nodules locally along the
the Paleoproterozoic Baoulé-Mossi domain onto those of the selvages (Fig. 12H). Native gold occurs in the quartz (Fig. 4E)
Archean Kenema-Man domain. No gold mineralization was or at the contact between quartz and ankerite.
found to be associated with this first deformation event by There is a first-order structural control on both the dis-
these authors. seminated and vein-hosted gold mineralization in the Siguiri
The folds developed during D2S and the D3S ductile-brit- district, in that both occur within the 10 to 20 m of the four
tle structures correlate with the second Eburnean tectono- groups of faults mapped in this study (Fig. 12A, I, J). These
metamorphic phase defined by Milési et al. (1989) and Steyn structures, which cut the F2S folds (Fig. 12J, K), are expressed
(2012) as D2, and dated between 2091 ± 33 and 2074 ± 7 Ma differently across the Siguiri district. Most of these are
in southern Mali (Liégeois et al., 1991). By comparison, Miller expressed as damage zones surrounding incipient faults, such
et al. (2013) recognized two different deformation events, D2 as in the Kosise deposit (Fig. 12J), and are delineated by zones
and D3, both E-W to ENE-WSW compressional events, with of dense veining (Fig. 12A, I). The damage zones are cryptic
D3 being the event associated with formation of gold-bear- and therefore difficult to recognize in the field and from geo-
ing veins. The interpretation proposed by the latter authors physical data, but based on their regular orientation, could be
therefore best matches the one proposed in the present study. linked to fundamental deeper structures (Fig. 12I). However,
The last phase of deformation recognized in the present some are represented by discrete shear zones, in some cases
paper, D4S, was recognized as D3 by Milési et al. (1989) and via bedding-parallel reverse movement (Fig. 12A, J) or as dis-
interpreted to occur at ca. 2075 Ma. Miller et al. (2013) also tinct crosscutting faults (Fig. 12B).
recognized this event, defined as D4, a NW-SE compression. Antiformal structures and competency contrasts have a
Regionally, and in many other areas of the craton (Ashanti, second-order control on gold mineralization in the Siguiri dis-
Prestea, Kalana; Milési et al. 1992), this deformation event trict. High vein densities are commonly focused in antiformal
closures, such as in the Kami and Sintroko deposits (Figs. the deformation history was based on the geometry of the
6E, 8A, 12A, D). Fluid flow was focused into antiformal fold F2S folds and the orientations of their axial planes that slightly
hinges, with shale-rich units acting as local seals, such as in the undulate around a N-S to trend. Finite strain analysis for the
Sintroko PB1 deposit (Figs. 8A, 12K). Whereas the V3B veins D3S brittle deformation history was based on fault and V3B
have the appearance in section of occurring along the F2S axial conjugate vein orientations, assuming that locally the Ander-
plane, they are actually oblique to this trend and cut the F2S sonian fault and Mohr-Coulomb failure models prevailed at
axial planes (Fig. 12K). the time of faulting and that all V3B conjugate veins were not
As initially suggested by Steyn (2011), competency con- following preexisting structures. The orientation of σ1 was
trasts also play an important role in the focusing of miner- therefore reconstructed as bisecting the acute angle between
alizing fluids and on the location of the ore shoots through two conjugate veins, whereas σ2 lies at their intersection and
strain partitioning. At the scale of the Siguiri district, the σ3 bisects the obtuse angle of the conjugate (Anderson, 1951;
more competent rocks of the Fatoya Formation host most McClay, 1992). This analysis was based only on the V3B conju-
of the deposits and this reflects the fact that this unit pref- gate sets because data from the V3A vein set were insufficient.
erentially fractures rather than forms a penetrative cleavage. The globally N-S-trending F2S fold axial planes were inter-
At a deposit scale, veining develops more intensely in com- preted to highlight D2S, an E-W compressional event associ-
petent graywacke (Figs. 6A, 8A, C, D, 12A, K). Competency ated with a horizontal main stress axis (σ1) and a vertical σ3
and permeability contrasts also played an important role in or overburden pressure (Fig. 13A). This stress field is compat-
the formation of the Sanu Tinti deposit, where gold-bearing ible with the mapped N-S reverse faults and with the E-W
sulfides are disseminated in the conglomerates of the Kintin- normal faults. In this model, D2S E-W compression forms F2S
ian Formation, rather than in the less permeable graywacke folds with N-S-trending axial planes, N-S reverse faults, and
and shale of the Fatoya Formation (Fig. 12A-C). Compared local N-S-trending extension accommodated by E-W normal
to the general characteristics described by Dube and Gosselin faults. However, the later strike-slip structures that transect
(2007), the styles, controls, and late timing of gold ore (syn- the F2S folds and also control V3S veining, such as the NE-SW
D3S) with respect to the main compressional event (D2S), is dextral shear zone in the Kosise deposit, require σ3 to have
consistent with an orogenic gold style of mineralization in the been horizontal. We interpret that from D2S to D3S there was
Siguiri district. a switch in the orientation of σ3 from vertical to low angle.
This change is thought to be responsible for the formation of
Finite strain analysis from D2S to early-D3S the dextral NE-SW shear zones, sinistral WNW-ESE faults,
Based on the observed structural elements, their relative and E-W normal faults. The V3S veins are interpreted to be
timing and finite strain analysis, stress-field reconstruction part of this event. The stress switch between D2S and D3S may
was undertaken for the Siguiri district for the syn-D2S duc- also have occurred within a single deformation event or the
tile and early- to late-D3S brittle part of the deformation his- strike-slip faults may have developed in a second deformation
tory. The finite strain analysis of the syn-D2S ductile part of event that postdated D2S E-W compression but predated the
A - D2S folding B - early-D3S fracturing C - late-D3S veining (V3B)

τ τ τ
Mohr
diagrams
T T T
σN σN σ
N
σz=σ3 σ2 ? σx=σ1 σz=σ3 σy=σ2 σx=σ1 σy=σ3 σx=σ2 σz=σ1

σ2 σ1≈σ2
σ3 σ3≈σ2
Stress
σ1 σ1 σ1 σ2≈σ1
ellipsoids z σ2 σ2≈σ3 σ3 σ3
y
isotropic stress
x during stress-switch
Strain
styles
Fig. 13. Simplified stress-strain representation of the evolution of D2S deformation from A. early-D2S compression and fold-
ing, when sigma 1 is subhorizontal and sigma 3 subvertical to B. late-D2S transpression and fracturing, when sigma 1 increases
and sigma 2 approaches sigma 3, which also increases, and C. syn-V3B mineralized veining, when sigma 1 is subvertical and
approaches sigma 2 and sigma 3 is subhorizontal and in extension. Relative scale bars.
94 LEBRUN ET AL.
development of V3B veins. In the first model, the stress switch one or on a series of reverse dextral or sinistral faults to form
is considered to be a continuation of D2S E-W compression, “flower structures” (Fig. 14A; Dewey et al., 1998; Fossen and
whereas in the second alternative model, the main stress axis Tikoff, 1998). In the Siguiri district, such structures were not
orientations define two distinct deformation events separated observed. Instead, strike-slip and dip-slip movements were
in time. accommodated along the four different oriented faults of the
district.
Transpressional model for the Siguiri district Field data from the Siguiri district indicate that dip-slip
Transpression is commonly associated with oblique plate con- movement, or a pure shear component, was accommodated
vergence and typically accommodates fault movements on by the N-S reverse faults that border the low-strain central
normal faults
Flower structure N
reverse faults
strike-slip faults
A
Idealized decoupled transpression
B C 0 1 2 km
Fig. 14. Idealized block models of different types of transpression (modified from http://maps.unomaha.edu/) and faults
relationships during transpression. A. Classic flower structure (Sanderson and Marchini, 1984) showing a coupling between
structures accommodating pure and simple shear. Thick black arrows represent the orientation of sigma 1, the main principal
stress axis, here in compression; B. Block model of an idealized decoupled transpression. Pure and simple shear are accom-
modated along distinct reverse faults and strike-slip faults, respectively. Thick black arrows as for (A). C. Simplified map view
of the decoupled early-D3S transpression observed in the Siguiri district. Formation and deposit colors as in Figure 2.
part of the Siguiri district, which is underlain by rocks of the

Fatoya Formation. Strike-slip movement, or a simple shear
component, was accommodated by the NE-SW dextral shear
zones and the WNW-ESE sinistral shear zones. The E-W nor-
mal faults have a geometry consistent with local N-S extension
(Fig. 14C) and also acted as relay normal faults between the
Fig. 15. Stereograms of the calculated orientation of the principal stress axes during the late-D3S transtension based on conjugate mineralized V3B veins. Respectively
strike-slip structures. Based on the fault configurations and
their coeval movements, we interpret strain decoupling as
the mechanism responsible for the simultaneous strike-slip
and dip-slip components on separate structures. This type of
geometry is characteristic of decoupled transpression (Fig.
14B, C).
from left to right: σ1, σ2, and σ3 orientation. Sigma 1 and σ2 orientations vary and plot on the same girdle, whereas σ3 orientation remains constant.
The change from syn-D2S compression (σ1 > σ2 > σ3; Fig.
13A) to early-D3S transpression (Fig. 13B) may be linked to a
progressive increase in the overburden pressure (σ3), or to an
increase in the amount of NW-SE extension due to changes
in far-field stresses. Either of these processes is interpreted to
have caused a stress switch that rendered σ3 approximately
σ3
equal to σ2, eventually leading to a change in the σ3 orienta-
tion (Fig. 13B). This allowed the formation and reactivation of
the four different fault orientations.
Localized stress switches associated with
late-D3S gold-bearing vein formation
Conjugate analysis of V3B veins
In addition to the district-scale stress switch from D2S com-
pressional to early-D3S transpressional deformation, there
is evidence for more localized stress switches in the Siguiri
district. These have been inferred based on the analysis of
individual V3B conjugate vein sets developed along faults
throughout the district. The V3B conjugate vein sets mutually
crosscut each other (Figs. 4F, 5C, 8E, F, 12A, F, G, I). For
this structural analysis, stereograms of the paleo-orientation
of σ1, σ2, and σ3 were constructed for each measured conju-
gate vein set (Fig. 15). No spatial gradient was observed in the
main stress orientations from north to south or east to west
throughout the Siguiri district. The main significant finding
σ2
was that, at the time of veining, σ3 remained consistently sub-
horizontal and oriented to the NNW. However, σ1 and σ2 plot
along the same WSW-ENE girdle, with an oblique to sub-
vertical and a subhorizontal density maximum, respectively.
This unusual feature indicates that the V3B conjugate vein sets
varied in orientation from an oblique to subvertical σ1 and
subhorizontal σ2, to a subhorizontal σ1 and oblique to sub-
vertical σ2. The first stress-field configuration is characteristic
of extension, whereas the second configuration is character-
istic of strike-slip deformation. The simplest explanation for
this relationship is that at the time of V3B veining, σ1 and σ2
were of similar magnitude (e.g., a high stress/shape ratio; Fig.
13C) and could easily change their orientation along the same
WSW-ENE girdle. This occurred while the orientation of σ3
remained consistently subhorizontal and oriented to the NNW.
Such a stress-field configuration is indicative of transtensional
deformation during V3B veining (Fig. 13C). The change in
stress/shape ratio from early-D3S transpression, where the
coeval movement of dip-slip and strike-slip faults indicate that
σ1
σ2 ≈ σ3 (low stress/shape ratio; Miller and Wilson, 2004; Fig.

13B), to syn-V3B late-D3S gold deposition (with σ1 ≈ σ2; Fig.
13C) is interpreted to have resulted from the joint reduction
of the maximum stress (σ1) and further increase in overbur-
den thickness (σ3 switches to σ2). Alternatively, this change in
96 LEBRUN ET AL.
stress/shape ratio may also be explained by a joint reduction 2013b), referred to as the “late-orogenic” phase by Milési et al.
of the maximum stress (σ1), and of the intermediate and mini- (1992). This timing suggests that the stress switches respon-
mum stresses (σ2 and σ3) through erosion and uplift. How- sible for the bulk of gold mineralization in the Siguiri district,
ever, this makes for a more complex geologic history and a occurring between the early-D3S transpression and the syn-
much later timing of gold mineralization during the evolution V3B (late-D3S) transtension, have been caused by a regional
of the Eburnean orogeny. This occurred at an early stage of mechanism. Such a regional mechanism may have been driven
the D3S transpressional event when all fault orientations were either by far-field stress variations or body forces. Variations
active as conduits for the mineralizing fluids (Fig. 13B, C). in the regional far-field stress, as documented in Goldfarb et
al. (1991), Allibone et al. (2002b), Blewett et al. (2010), and
Stress-switches—precursors or triggers to gold deposition? Upton and Craw (2013), arise from a transient alteration of an
Gold deposition during the waning stages of the progressive ongoing geodynamic process, such as the modification of the
D2S-D3S deformation is temporally associated with the trans- collision rate, an overall change in plate motion (Goldfarb et
tensional regime. This reflects the greater ease for overpres- al., 2005, fig. 9), or the sudden rise of magma from a hot spot
sured fluids to open fault-fracture meshes during transient (Idnurm, 2000; Goldfarb et al., 2001), whereas variations in
extensional/transtensional events amidst a protracted and body forces are commonly linked to readjustments of topo-
longer compressional/transpressional cycle (Sibson, 2013). graphic highs or lithospheric delamination and subsequent
The transient events of stress switch were interpreted in the uplift (Rey and Houseman, 2006).
Siguiri district to be linked to the reduction of the deviatoric Based on the regional extent of the stress switches iden-
stress tensor and require a major reduction of differential tified in Siguiri and throughout the remainder of the West
stress (early-D3S and syn-V3B/late-D3S stress switches). Fluids African craton, we propose that the dominant stress drivers
became mobile through this process, permitting fault reacti- affecting the district evolved from a far-field stress dominated
vation, hydraulic fracturing, and fault-valve behavior responsi- to a body forces dominated environment. In a far-field stress-
ble for gold mineralization. Also with the near-isotropic stress dominated environment, such as during terrane accretion and
field, active fluid pathways become less permeable and allow orogenic deformation, the local stress field is controlled by the
buildup of high fluid pressure, triggering pulses of mineral- regional stress-field orientation, such as caused by motions
izing fluids (fault-valving; Sibson et al., 1988, 1998) in vertical along a plate boundary. In a body forces dominated environ-
“exit conduits” (e.g., Miller et al., 1994; McCuaig and Hron- ment, controls on the stress-field orientation can either be
sky, 2014). It is thus proposed that late orogenic decreases regional processes, such as lithospheric delamination followed
of both the differential stress and deviatoric stress tensor are by an uplift, or more local processes, such as readjustment of
required precursors for the initiation of stress switches and topographic highs. The progressive evolution from a far-field
the formation of orogenic gold deposits. stress dominated to a body forces dominated environment,
The transient stress-switch phenomena may be envisaged as with the local expression in the Siguiri district changing from
a nonphysical barrier to fluid flow during a prolonged phase of the early increase in overburden pressure linked to terrane
deformation. Prior to the switch, fluids are stored under high accretion during the Eburnean orogeny, to the late syn-gold
pressure in the rock mass and fluid mobility and veining are transtensional deformation linked to further increase in over-
minor. When the switch occurs, a stress threshold is overcome burden pressure or erosion and uplift, is responsible for the
allowing the barrier to be breached and fluids to migrate and reduction of the deviatoric component of the stress tensor
form an organized vein network at the district and deposit (e.g., Engelder, 1994).
scale, whereas the expression of mineralization can vary at the
outcrop scale (vein-hosted versus disseminated). Conclusions
The clastic sedimentary rock-hosted orogenic gold deposits
Geodynamic interpretation and drivers of stress switches of Siguiri, in northeastern Guinea, are primarily hosted in
The different stress switches in the Siguiri district may have a the graywacke of the Fatoya Formation and to lesser extents
local control, including continuous local overburden buildup, in the shales, siltstones, and conglomerates of the adjacent
overburden removal associated with uplift, fault dynamics Balato and Kintinian Formations. The district has been the
along structural irregularities, or earthquake focal behavior site of a protracted and polyphase deformation divided into
dynamics, or a regional-scale mechanism, such as plate con- four local deformation stages (D1S to D4S), all of which are
vergence rate drop (Beroza and Zoback, 1993; Goldfarb et attributed to Eburnean orogenesis. The D1S was a cryptic N-S
al., 2001; Upton and Craw, 2013). However, stress switches compressional event. The main deformation event, D2S, was
have been documented in many other orogenic gold systems an E-W- to ENE-WSW-directed compressional event respon-
around the world, including Archean examples (Bouiller sible for the bulk of the deformation affecting the Siguiri
and Robert, 1992; Holyland and Ojala, 1997; Nguyen et al., basin metasedimentary rocks. The D3S represents a progres-
1998; Goldfarb et al., 2001; Thébaud et al., 2013; McCuaig sive evolution of D2S compression into an E-W transpres-
and Hronsky, 2014). In the Birimian of West Africa, stress sional event, evolving into a transient period of NNW-SSE
switches have been recognized as triggers for formation of transtension. This latter episode of deformation is associated
several gold deposits (Ashanti, Sadiola, Loulo, and possibly with the bulk of veining observed in the Siguiri district and is
Morila: Allibone et al., 2002a; McFarlane et al., 2011; Law- also the main stage of gold deposition. The last deformation
rence et al., 2013a; Masurel et al., 2016). Mineralization in all event, D4S, was a NE-SW compressional event that created a
these deposits relates to a transient episode in the Eburnean penetrative cleavage overprinting D3S gold-bearing veins in
orogenesis between ca. 2080 and 2070 Ma (Lawrence et al., all rock units.
The orogenic gold mineralization in the Siguiri district is AngloGold Ashanti Ltd., 2013, Mineral resource and ore reserve report:
associated with two mineralization styles: a dominant vein- Available from: <www.aga-reports.com/13/download/AGA-RR13.pdf>.
[12/05/2015]
hosted style and a minor disseminated style of mineralization. ——undated, Reports: Available from: <http://www.anglogoldashanti.com/
The earlier type of veins includes gold-rich, pyrite- and anker- en/Media/Pages/reports.aspx>. [15/05/2015]
ite-bearing brecciated veins proximal to NW-SE structures, Begg, G.C., Griffin, W.L., Natapov, L.M., O’Reilly, S.Y., Grand, S.P., O’Neill,
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veins. The second, and most common vein type, is prefer- petrology, and tectonic evolution: Geosphere, v. 5, p. 23–50.
entially developed along four orientations of discrete faults Beroza, G.C., and Zoback, M.D., 1993, Mechanism diversity of the Loma
or incipient structures, including N-S to NNE-SSW reverse Prieta aftershocks and the mechanics of mainshock-aftershock interaction:
faults, NE-SW to ENE-WSW dextral shear zones, E-W nor- Science, v. 259, p. 210–213.
mal faults, and WNW-ESE sinistral shear zones. The dis- Blewett, R., Czarnota, K., and Henson, P., 2010, Structural-event framework
for the eastern Yilgarn craton, Western Australia, and its implications for
seminated style of mineralization also develops along these orogenic gold: Precambrian Research, v. 183, p. 203–229.
structures, when they intersect favorable lithologies such as Boullier, A.-M., and Robert, F., 1992, Palaeoseismic events recorded in
the Sanu Tinti deposit conglomerates. These structures may Archaean gold-quartz vein networks, Val d’Or, Abitibi, Quebec, Canada:
represent the local expression of more fundamental and Journal of Structural Geology, v. 14, p. 161–179.
deeper structures that control the location of the Siguiri dis- Davis, J., Miller, J., Thébaud, N., McCuaig, C., Begg, G., Jessel, M., Hein,
K., and Baratoux, L, 2015, Craton-scale lithostratigraphic correlation as an
trict within the Siguiri basin. insight for the geodynamic evolution of the South West African craton: SGA
Based on finite strain and conjugate vein analysis, the vein- Conference, 50th, Nancy, France, 24–27 August, 2015, Proceedings, v. 4,
ing and gold mineralization are interpreted to have culmi- p. 1587–1590.
nated late during the D3S progressive deformation event, as Dewey, J., Holdsworth, R., and Strachan, R., 1998, Transpression and trans-
tension zones: Geological Society, London, Special Publication 135, p. 1–14.
the local stress field was switching in response to the waning Dube, B., and Gosselin, P., 2007, Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein
regional maximum stress. The stress switches documented in deposits: Mineral deposits of Canada: A synthesis of major deposit-types,
this study have been widely recognized to happen at 2080 to district metallogeny, the evolution of geological provinces, and exploration
2070 Ma across the whole West African craton and are not methods: Geological Association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Division,
restricted to the study area. The switches documented in this Special Publication 5, p. 49–73.
Egal, E., Lahondère, D., Costea, A.C., Diabate, B., Diallo, A., Diallo, A.B.,
paper are interpreted to be related to the lowering of both the Diallo, S., Gaye, F., Iliescu, D., and Minthe, D., 1999, Carte geologique de
deviatoric stress and of the differential stress, and are viewed la Guinee a 1/200 000: Feuille Siguiri, BRGM.
as a precursor or trigger for rapid fluid flow and orogenic gold Egal, E., Thiéblemont, D., Lahondère, D., Guerrot, C., Costea, C.A., Ili-
mineralization. escu, D., Delor, C., Goujou, J., Lafon, J., Tegyey, M., Diaby, S., and Kolie,
P., 2002, Late Eburnean granitization and tectonics along the western and
Acknowledgments northwestern margin of the Archean Kénéma-Man domain (Guinea, West
African craton): Precambrian Research, v. 117, p. 57–84.
This project is funded by AngloGold Ashanti Limited. Eddie Engelder, T., 1994, Deviatoricstressitis: a virus infecting the Earth sci-
Connell, Shawn Kitt, Katharina Wulff, Craig Duvel, and all ence community: EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union, v. 75,
brownfield geologists are acknowledged for providing site p. 209–212.
Feybesse, J.-L., and Milési, J.-P., 1994, The Archean/Proterozoic contact
access, support, inspiring discussions, and some good laughs. zone in West Africa: A mountain belt of décollement thrusting and folding
Julien Bourget (University of Western Australia) is also on a continental margin related to 2.1 Ga convergence of Archean cratons?:
acknowledged for his help regarding sedimentology. John Precambrian Research, v. 69, p. 199–227.
Miller and T. Campbell McCuaig acknowledge receipt of Feybesse, J., Bangoura, A., Billa, M., Costea, A., Diabaté, B., Diaby, S.,
ARC Large Linkage Grant LP110100667. The authors also Diallo, A., Diallo, S., Diallo, A., and Egal, E., 1999, Notice explicative de la
Carte géologique de la Guinée à 1/200 000, Feuille no. 19, Kankan: BRGM,
acknowledge the facilities, and the scientific and technical DNRGH, Ministère des Mines, de la Géologie et de l’Environnement,
assistance of the Australian Microscopy and Microanalysis Conakry, Guinée, 27 p.
Research Facility at the Centre for Microscopy, Characterisa- Fleuty, M., 1964, The description of folds: Proceedings of the Geologists’
tion and Analysis, the University of Western Australia, a facility Association, v. 75, p. 461–492.
Fougerouse, D., Micklethwaite, S., Ulrich, S., Miller, J., Godel, B., Adams,
funded by the University, State and Commonwealth Govern- D.T. and McCuaig, T.C., 2017, Evidence for two stages of mineralization
ments. Finally, thanks to Marc Bardoux, Richard Goldfarb, in west Africa’s largest gold deposit: Obuasi, Ghana: Economic Geology,
and the third anonymous person who reviewed this paper. v. 112, p. 3–22.
Fossen, H., and Tikoff, B., 1998, Extended models of transpression and trans-
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Structural Controls On An Orogenic Au System

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©2017 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 112, pp. 73–98

Structural Controls on an Orogenic Gold System:

Introduction the center of a large sedimentary basin in the Paleoprotero-

Taoudeni Basin NIGER

NEOPRO. & Undif. rocks

BIRIMIAN Felsic intrusives

WSW Siguiri ENE C

observed F2S syncline

interpreted F2S syncline

460400 461200 461200 462200

462200 462800 462400

N section view S NW plan view SE

D Kosise plan view V2S N = 43 E

V3B V3B V3A

E Kami F Kami G Kami N = 22

V3B steep V3B shallow

D2 F2 - $ D2S F2S V2S -

Locations on S0 poles, S0 fold axes Mineralised

A Beginning of D2S E-W compression B Initiation of flexural slip &

C Development of V2S veins D

V3S veins gh e bed

E deeper level strati- di de s 2

Kintinian Fm. Fatoya Fm. Balato Fm.

A - D2S folding B - early-D3S fracturing C - late-D3S veining (V3B)

σz=σ3 σ2 ? σx=σ1 σz=σ3 σy=σ2 σx=σ1 σy=σ3 σx=σ2 σz=σ1

part of the Siguiri district, which is underlain by rocks of the

σ2 ≈ σ3 (low stress/shape ratio; Miller and Wilson, 2004; Fig.

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