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UNIT-2
FRICTION
Friction :-

The opposing force (resistance force) offered by one surface on other surface when they are relatively in
movement.

OR

The opposing force, which acts in the opposite direction of the movement of the upper
block, is called the force of friction or simply friction.

How to friction force arises between two surfaces :-

At microscopic level there we can see heights (crest’s) and depths (valleys) interlocking of these crest’s
and valleys into each other will arises to friction.

Merits :-

1. Man walking on a road there should be friction.

2. Parts movement in machines will be possible by friction force.
3. Tightening of bolt or nut.

Demerits :-

1. Wear and tear.

2. Heat produced.

Types of friction : -

In general, the friction is of the following two types :

1. Static friction 2. Dynamic friction

1. Static friction :-

It is the friction, experienced by a body, when at rest.

2. Dynamic friction :-

It is the friction, experienced by a body, when in motion. The dynamic friction is also called kinetic
friction and is less than the static friction. It is of the following three types :

(a) Sliding friction:- It is the friction, experienced by a body, when it slides over another body.

(b) Rolling friction:- It is the friction, experienced between the surfaces which has balls or rollers
interposed between them.

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(c) Pivot friction:- It is the friction, experienced by a body, due to the motion of rotation as in case of
foot step bearings.

Limiting Friction :-

Consider that a body A of weight W is lying on a rough horizontal body B as shown in Fig. In this position,
the body A is in equilibrium under the action of its own weight W, and the normal reaction 𝑅𝑁 (equal to
W) of B on A. Now if a small horizontal force P is applied to the body, no relative motion will take place
until the applied force P is equal to the force of friction F. in equilibrium under the action of the
following three forces.

(i) Weight of the body (W)

(ii) Applied horizontal force (P), and
(iii) Reaction (R) between body A and the plane B.

“ The maximum friction that arises, when the body is in a position of just to move.
It is called limiting friction”. It may be noted that when the applied force is less than the limiting friction,
the body remains at rest, and the friction into play is called static friction which may have any value
between zero and limiting friction.

Friction laws :-

1. The force of friction always acts in the opposite direction to that of movement of the body.
2. The force of friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction.
F∝ 𝑅𝑁
F= 𝜇𝑅𝑁
𝐹
𝜇=
𝑅𝑁
Co-efficient of friction (𝜇) :-

It is defined as the ratio of the limiting friction (F) to the normal reaction (𝑅𝑁 ) between the two bodies.
It is generally denoted by µ. Mathematically, coefficient of friction,
𝐹
𝜇=
𝑅𝑁

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3. The force of friction is independent of area of the surface in contact.

4. The force of friction is independent of velocity of low speeds and dependent of velocity at
higher speeds.
5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces. Which are in contact to each
other.

Angle of friction :-

The angle between normal reaction (𝑅𝑁 ) and resultant (R) of friction force and normal reaction is called
angle of friction (∅).

Angle of repose :-

Consider that a body A of weight (W) is resting on an inclined plane B, as shown in Fig. If the angle of
inclination α of the plane to the horizontal is such that the body begins to move down the plane, then
the angle α is called the angle of repose.

A little consideration will show that the body will begin to move down the plane when
the angle of inclination of the plane is equal to the angle of friction (i.e. α = φ).

Minimum Force Required to Slide a Body on a Rough Horizontal plane :-

Consider that a body A of weight (W) is lying on a horizontal plane B as shown in Fig. Let an effort P is
applied at an angle θ to the horizontal such that the body A just moves. The various forces acting on
the body are shown in Fig. Resolving the force P into two components, i.e. P sin θ acting upwards and
P cos θ acting horizontally. Now for the equilibrium of the body A,

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Problem :- 1

1. A body, resting on a rough horizontal plane required a pull of 180 N inclined at 30º to the plane
just to move it. It was found that a push of 220 N inclined at 30º to the plane just moved the
body. Determine the weight of the body and the coefficient of friction.

Ans:-

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Friction of a Body Lying on a Rough Inclined Plane :-

Consider that a body of weight (W) is lying on a plane inclined at an angle α with the horizontal, as
shown in Fig.

Let us now analyse the various forces which act on a body when it slides either up or down an inclined
plane.

1. Considering the motion of the body up the plane:-

Let W = Weight of the body,

α = Angle of inclination of the plane to the horizontal,

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φ = Limiting angle of friction for the contact surfaces,

P = Effort applied in a given direction in order to cause the body to slide with uniform velocity
parallel to the plane, considering friction,

𝑝0 = Effort required to move the body up the plane neglecting friction,

θ = Angle which the line of action of P makes with the weight of the body W ,

µ = Coefficient of friction between the surfaces of the plane and the body,

𝑅𝑁 = Normal reaction, and

R = Resultant reaction.

When the friction is neglected, the body is in equilibrium under the action of the three forces,
i.e. 𝑝0 , W and 𝑅𝑁 , as shown in Fig. 10.7 (a). The triangle of forces is shown in Fig. 10.7 (b). Now applying
sine rule for these three concurrent forces,

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Problem :- 2

2. An effort of 1500 N is required to just move a certain body up an inclined plane of angle 12º, force
acting parallel to the plane. If the angle of inclination is increased to 15º, then the effort required is
1720 N. Find the weight of the body and the coefficient of friction.

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Screw jack :-

The screws, bolts, studs, nuts etc. are widely used in various machines and structures for temporary
fastenings.

The screw jack is a device, for lifting heavy loads, by applying a comparatively smaller
effort at its handle. The principle, on which a screw jack works is similar to that of an inclined plane.

Torque Required to Lift the Load by a Screw Jack :-

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Let p = Pitch of the screw, d = Mean diameter of the screw, α = Helix angle, P = Effort applied at the
circumference of the screw to lift the load, W = Load to be lifted, and µ = Coefficient of friction, between
the screw and nut = tan φ, where φ is the friction angle.

From the geometry of the Fig (a), we find that

tan α = p/π d

Resolving the forces along the plane,

P cos α = W sin α + F = W sin α + µ.RN ... (i)

and resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane,

𝑅𝑁 = P sin α + W cos α ... (ii),

Substituting this value of 𝑅𝑁 in equation (i),

P cos α = W sin α + µ (P sin α + W cos α)

P cos α = W sin α + µ P sin α + µ W cos α

P cos α – µ P sin α = W sin α + µ W cos α

P (cos α – µ sin α)= W (sin α + µ cos α)

Torque Required to Lower the Load by a Screw Jack :-

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Efficiency of a Screw Jack :-

The efficiency of a screw jack may be defined as the ratio between the ideal effort (i.e. the effort
required to move the load, neglecting friction) to the actual effort (i.e. the effort required to move the
load taking friction into account).

Problem:-3

3. A 150 mm diameter valve, against which a steam pressure of 2 MN/m2 is acting, is closed by means of
a square threaded screw 50 mm in external diameter with 6 mm pitch.If the coefficient of friction is 0.12
find the torque required to turn the handle.

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4. The pitch of 50 mm mean diameter threaded screw of a screw jack is 12.5 mm. The coefficient of
friction between the screw and the nut is 0.13. Determine the torque required on the screw to raise a
load of 25 kN, assuming the load to rotate with the screw. Determine the ratio of the torque required to
raise the load to the torque required to lower the load and also the efficiency of the machine.

Friction of Pivot and Collar Bearing :-

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The rotating shafts are frequently subjected to axial thrust. The bearing surfaces such as pivot and collar
bearings are used to take this axial thrust of the rotating shaft.

The bearing surfaces placed at the end of a shaft to take the axial thrust are known as pivots.
The pivot may have a flat surface or conical surface as shown in Fig (a) and (b) respectively. When the
cone is truncated, it is then known as truncated or trapezoidal pivot as shown in Fig (c).

If the load or thrust force is bearded by a flat plate or collar which is attached on the shaft
is known as collar bearing. If one collar is used then it is known as single flat collar bearing. If more than
one collar used it is known as multiple collar bearing.

There are two cases two understand the friction in the above all possibilities.

1. The pressure is uniformly distributed throughout the bearing surface, and

2. The wear is uniform throughout the bearing surface.

Flat Pivot Bearing:-

When a vertical shaft rotates in a flat pivot bearing (known as foot step bearing), as shown in Fig, the
sliding friction will be along the surface of contact between the shaft and the bearing.

Let W = Load transmitted over the bearing surface, R = Radius of bearing surface, p = Intensity of pressure
per unit area of bearing surface between rubbing surfaces, and µ = Coefficient of friction.

We will consider the following two cases :

1. When there is a uniform pressure; and 2. When there is a uniform wear.

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1. Considering uniform pressure :-

Considering uniform wear :-

We have already discussed that the rate of wear depends upon the intensity of pressure (p) and the
velocity of rubbing surfaces (v). It is assumed that the rate of wear is proportional to the product of
intensity of pressure and the velocity of rubbing surfaces (i.e. p.v..). Since the velocity of rubbing surfaces
increases with the distance (i.e. radius r) from the axis of the bearing, therefore for uniform wear

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Conical Pivot Bearing :-

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Trapezoidal or Truncated Conical Pivot Bearing :-

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Problem :- 5

5. A conical pivot supports a load of 20 kN, the cone angle is 120º and the intensity of normal pressure is
not to exceed 0.3 N/mm2. The external diameter is twice the internal diameter. Find the outer and inner
radii of the bearing surface. If the shaft rotates at 200 r.p.m. and the coefficient of friction is 0.1, find the
power absorbed in friction. Assume uniform pressure.

Flat Collar Bearing :-

The collar bearings are also known as thrust bearings.

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Consider a single flat collar bearing supporting a shaft as shown in Fig.

Let 𝑟1 = External radius of the collar, and 𝑟2 = Internal radius of the collar.

∴ Area of the bearing surface,

A = π [(𝑟1 )2 – (𝑟2 )2]

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Problem:-6

6. A thrust shaft of a ship has 6 collars of 600 mm external diameter and 300 mm internal diameter. The
total thrust from the propeller is 100 kN. If the coefficient of friction is 0.12 and speed of the engine 90
r.p.m., find the power absorbed in friction at the thrust block, assuming l. uniform pressure ; and 2.
uniform wear.

Friction in Journal Bearing-Friction Circle :-

A journal bearing forms a turning pair as shown in Fig (a). The fixed outer element of a turning pair is
called a bearing and that portion of the inner element (i.e. shaft) which fits in the bearing is called a
journal.

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Let φ = Angle between R (resultant of F and 𝑅𝑁 ) and 𝑅𝑁 , µ = Coefficient of friction between the
journal and bearing, T = Frictional torque in N-m, and r = Radius of the shaft in metres.

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