POSTHARVEST HANDLING SYSTEMS: POME FRUITS 333

California is a major producer of apple and European pear fruit for U.S. and export
markets. California produces a more limited volume of Asian pears and quince.
The apple industry in California has increased greatly over the past 10 years. New
plantings in the Central Valley, in addition to older plantings along the coast and
in the foothills, have increased California's production such that it is generally the
third largest producing state in the United States after Washington and Michigan.
Granny Smith, Gala, and Fuji have dominated these new plantings. The pear

Postharvest
industry in California is more than 90% Bartlett pear, with approximately half the
volume diverted to processing, while the fresh volume remains substantial.

Handling Systems: / . Apple

Pome Fruits
MATURITY

Maturity changes in apples include skin color, seed color, flesh firmness, soluble
Elizabeth J. Mitcham and F. solids content, starch content, titratable acid content, respiratory rate, ethylene
production, and production of other flavor and odor constituents. Suggested
Gordon Mitchell maturity indices have included all of these as well as time (days from full bloom),
accumulated heat units (e.g., degree-days above 7°C [45°F]), fruit size, and various
combinations of these.
Most possible maturity indices have limitations. For example, ethylene
production and respiratory rate changes may occur too late or are too variable to
be useful for timing of harvest. Some other changes are too subtle to be effective.
Most commercial applications of maturity indices use days from full bloom as the
rough guide, with fine tuning using mostly starch index and flesh firmness.
Maturity standards must take into account whether fruit is to be stored (and for
how long) or shipped immediately. The goal is to determine a reliable index that
can predict the best harvest date for long-term controlled atmosphere storage or
for short-term air storage. Harvesting immature fruit results in smaller fruit with
greater susceptibility to water loss and storage disorders, such as bitter pit and
scald. Overmature fruit have greater susceptibility to softening, mealiness, decay,
and controlled atmosphere-related disorders.
Many apple-growing regions have developed maturity standards that guide
the start of harvest. These standards may be voluntary or legally binding. In
California, Granny Smith apples are released for harvest by county according to
the California Granny Smith Starch Iodine Chart. Inspectors rate a 30-apple sample
from the orchard for starch degradation pattern, and the average for the orchard
must meet the minimum level of starch degradation (a score of 2.5 on the Starch
Iodine Chart). A similar starch score is used to determine the start of Granny Smith
harvest in New Zealand. While starch disappearance is also used to guide the start
of Granny Smith harvest in Washington, the scale is quite different from that used
in California and New Zealand. Unfortunately, the starch disappearance charts
used in different apple growing regions are not uniform. Scales can range from 0 to
6, 0 to 7, or 0 to 10. The higher number always indicates more starch
disappearance.
Starch is a useful index of harvest maturity because starch is degraded into
sugars as the apple matures and begins to ripen. The
be used to determine a starch score
Starch Iodine Solution (0.1% iodine, 1% potassium iodide)
based on the percentage of the cross-
Dissolve 1 0 grams (1 tsp) of potassium iodide crystals in 265 milliliters {Yk cup) section clear of staining.
clean water in a 1-1 (1-qt) container. Gently swirl until the crystals dissolve. Add
2.5 grams ( ] M tsp) iodine and swirl until iodine dissolves (this may take a while). HANDLING
Dilute this solution with clean water to make 1 I (1 qt). The solution is sensitive to
______________________________
light and should be stored in a dark container or wrapped in aluminum foil. Fresh
solution should be made each season. These chemicals are available at most drug
Apple fruit are hand-picked into bags,
stores. gently transferred into field bins, and
transported to the packing facility.
Care must be taken during harvest of
starch content is measured at the center cross-section apples to avoid impact bruising. Solid-
of the apple. Starch disappearance is visualized by
framed, padded picking bags into
staining the cut surface of the apple with an iodine-
which pickers can place, rather than
potassium iodide solution (see recipe above). The
drop, harvested apples are ideal.
iodine solution turns starch black and provides a
Careful training and supervision of
view of the starch clearance pattern. Starch charts can
334 CHAPTER 27

picking crews is essential to avoid excessive fruit

bruising.
Apples, which are often stored in field bins to
await later packing, may be drenched with a scald
inhibitor and fungicide and are sometimes treated
with calcium chloride for bitter pit control before
storage.
Apple fruit can benefit from precooling prior to
cold storage. Precooling can be accomplished by
forced-air cooling or hydro-cooling. While
hydrocooling is faster than forced-air cooling, there is
the potential to spread disease organisms from
diseased fruit or soil to healthy fruit. If liquid
chlorine is used to reduce the potential for disease
spread, care must be taken to change the drench
water daily to prevent a buildup of sodium, resulting
in fruit burn. The same is true for dump tank water
systems.
Fruit to be packed are unloaded from bins using
water flotation dumps, washed, presized to eliminate
undersized fruit, and sorted. Sorting is generally by a
combination of electronic and human sorters.
Electronic sorters for color and size are very common
in larger packinghouses. Electronic sorting for defects
is used to a very limited extent but will likely increase
in the near future. Most defect sorting is by human
sorters at this time. Fruit is often segregated into
several fresh grades, as well as processing grades and
by-product outlets.
Most fresh-market apples are tray-packed, while lower grades
may be volume filled. Bagging of apple fruit is used more frequent-
ly, not only for smaller apples but also for large fruit destined for
consumer warehouse stores. Bruising continues to be a concern for
bagged fruit, but newer machine designs have reduced this
problem somewhat.
Packed cartons are segregated by fruit size and stacked onto
unitized pallets. Final cooling of these pallet loads occurs after
packing. Cooling may involve forced-air or static room cooling.
Most apple cartons used today are not ventilated or are
inadequately ventilated, a situation that seriously impedes cooling
after packing.
A flow diagram for the handling of apples (fig. 27.1) shows the
steps involved in fresh-market handling.

STORAGE _____________________________

TEMPERATURE MANAGEMENT
As a general rule, pome fruits respond best to rapid cooling and
storage at as low a temperature as possible without danger of freez-
ing or low-temperature injury. Many apple varieties can be safely
stored at 0°C (32°F); however, there are exceptions, some of which
are shown in table 27.1. Low-temperature injury can be manifested
as internal flesh browning. Specific recommendations for varieties
may require confirmation under localized conditions. For example,
California-grown Yellow Newtown apples are recommended to be
stored at 3.5° to 4.5°C (38° to 40°F), while Yellow Newtown apples
from other growing areas have been safely stored at 0°C (32°F).
Cooling delays are associated with shortened storage life, flesh
softening, increased physiological disorders, and diseases. Thus,
fruit should be cooled as soon after harvest as possible. However,
for fruit with severe
 POSTHARVEST HANDLING SYSTEMS: POME FRUITS 3

Figure 27.3

unsorted, field-run fruit. However, some apples are

Postharvest handling of apples and Bartlett pears. dumped, sorted, sized, and refilled into their bins
before moving to CA storage. Maintenance of the
proper levels of 02 and C02 for each variety is critical
Harvest into picking bags
to the success of CA storage as is proper harvest
maturity. In general, fruit harvested earlier in the
Dump bag into field bin harvest season is a better candidate for long-term CA
storage than later harvested fruit. Fruit with
Trailer transportation advanced maturity can be more susceptible to
developing CA-related storage disorders. General CA
recommendations by variety are shown in table 27.1.
Pear packinghouse Apple packinghouse (drench opt.)

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Pack ----------- Storage Storage
Pack Warm fruits lose water faster than cold fruits,
especially if the RH of the air is less than 95%. Loss of
Dump (dry, wet, Immersion dump water is loss of saleable weight and can result in fruit
immersion)

P resize Presort
I shrivel and loss of gloss. Water loss is cumulative
from the time the fruits are harvested until
consumption. Visible shrivel is not apparent until a
critical amount of water is lost, usually 3 to 5% of the
Wax application Hand-sort original weight. Rapid transport of fruits from the
Hand-sort field to the cooler, rapid cooling and maintenance of
90 to 95% RH in storage are essential to reduce fruit
Fresh
Processing

Fresh grades Processing

r^ water loss. Use of polyethylene film bin liners can
reduce water loss in storage, particularly at less than
95% RH. The liner should have an open or highly
perforated bottom if apples will be drenched or
Sizing hydrocooled. The disadvantage of the liner is a
Sizing (weight or optical) (possible optical color sort)
(rope, weight or optical) significant reduction in
Tight-fill Wrap pack

I I
Tray packing

Vibration & closing Lidding

Palletization
V. J
Palletization
Cooling

Cooling
Truck Loading --------- Storage Truck Loading * — Storage

Unloading at distribution Unloading at distribution

watercore, cooling delays can reduce the severity of

the disorder. The importance of cooling speed can
vary with cultivar. For example, Gala apples often
soften significantly in storage, and rapid cooling can
greatly extend the storage life. When antioxidants
such as diphenylamine are used to delay storage
scald development, a cooling delay of up to 1 day
may be required for maximum scald control. Rapid
cooling of the fruit after
this delay becomes even more important.
While some apples are packed immediately after harvest, the
majority are stored for a period of time in either regular cold storage
or in controlled atmosphere storage. During the packing operation,
fruit can warm considerably, and recooling after packing is important
to maintain fruit quality. The lack of adequate ventilation on most
apple boxes greatly slows the recooling process after packing. Boxes
should be designed with at least 5% venting on all four sides to allow
for air passage when boxes are cross-stacked.

CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE STORAGE

Controlled atmospheres (CA) are often used when apples are stored
longer than 3 months; however, Gala apples have been shown to
benefit from CA storage for as short as 1.5 months, and this has been
used commercially. Most fruits are CA-stored in field bins, often with
 336 CHAPTER 4 7

Table 27.1. Recommended temperatures and CA for storage of selected apple Fruit groymjn hot, dry^chmates. such as California,
varieties are more~su^c^pTibTeTThT"disorder appears as
Temperature o2 C02 Storage life brown patches on the fruit surface that may not
Cultivar °C CF) concentration concentration (months) develop until the fruit are warmed after storage (fig.
Braeburn 0-1 (32-34) 1.5-2.0 s1.0 6-9 27.2). In very severe cases, browning will be seen on
Fuji 0-1 (32-34) 1-2 <1.0 7-9 the fruit in cold storage and will intensify when the
Gala 0-1 (32-34) 1.5-2.0 1-2 4-6
fruit are warmed after storage. Thorough cooling
Golden Delicious 0-1 (32-33) 1-2 1-3 7-10
Granny Smith 0-2 (32-35) 1-2 s1.0 7-11 and maintaining a low storage temperature are
Mcintosh 2-3 (36-38) 1.5-2.5 1.5-4 5-8 important in scald control. Often, an antioxidant
Mutsu 0-1 (32-34) 1.5-2.0 1-3 6-9
such as diphenylamine (DPA) is applied as a bin
Pink Lady 0(32) 1.5-2.0 1 9
Red Delicious 0-1 (32-34) 1-2 1-3 7-11 drench (fig. 27.3), according to label directions,
before storage to reduce the incidence and severity of
scald. Controlled atmosphere storage can signifi-
cantly delay scald development. Very low 02
concentrations in CA storage (less than 1%) can
provide control similar to DPA in some cases,
Source: Kupferman 1997. although care must be taken to avoid low-02 injury to
the fruit.
Figure 27.2

Storage scald on Granny Smith apples. WATER CORE

The watersoaking symptoms of this disorder result
from flooding of the intercellular spaces by a fruit
solution high in sorbitol. Water core is often
associated with low calcium levels in the fruit and is
most severe in fruit from young, vigorous, lightly
cropped trees. Red Delicious, Fuji, and Granny Smith
are sensitive varieties. Fruit of advanced maturity
are generally more severely affected. Fruit grown at
high temperatures, especially if exposed to afternoon
sun and cold nights, appear most prone to water
core. Mild water core may disappear during short-
term cold storage, but if severe, tissue may turn
brown during storage. If harvested fruit is found to
contain water core, fruit should be marketed as soon
as possible, and fruit should not be stored for long
cooling rate if room cooling or forced-air cooling are
periods. Cooling delays of 1 to 2 days may reduce
used. A RH of 90 to 95% is considered ideal for
the severity of water core symptoms and allow fruit
apples, but it is difficult to maintain using large-
to be stored in regular storage. Under no
surface cooling coils alone. Supplemental
circumstances should water cored fruit be placed in
humidification, especially with fog spray nozzles, is
controlled atmosphere storage. In California, water
now widely used. Unfortunately, the water added in
core has not been a significant problem in Fuji
such a system increases the coil defrost problem.
apples; however, in Washington, water core can be
severe in Fuji.
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
BITTER PIT
STORAGE SCALD
Bitter pit symptoms are expressed by the
A number of physiological disorders can cause
development of dark, dry, pithy spots or pits near or
serious losses in apples, especially after prolonged
below the fruit surface, especially at the calyx end
storage. Apple storage scald is most severe on less
(fig. 27.4). Bitter pit is another common cause of
mature fruits, but on highly susceptible varieties,
losses in apples. Lenticel blotch pit is a similar
such as Granny Smith and Red Delicious, scald
disorder with very shallow pits on Granny Smith
occurs even on fruit harvested at optimal maturity.
apple. Tree

Apple fruit in bins being drenched with diphenylamine (DPA) just after harvest for control
of storage scald.
 POSTHARVEST HANDLING SYSTEMS: POME FRUITS 3

Figure 27.5

Any surface damage can result in inoculation by fruit

Figure 27.4 rot organisms and more rapid water loss from the
fruit.
Symptoms of bitter pit on Granny Smith apples. Pits can be of various sizes on the
surface of the apple or just under the skin of the apple.
PATHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

G RA Y MOLD AND BL U E MOL D

Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) and blue mold
(Penicillium expansum) can develop in wounds or at
the stem or calyx end on apple

conditions that are associated with bitter pit include

extreme vigor, light crop, and low fruit calcium
content. Early-harvested, early-maturity fruit are most
susceptible. The symptoms are sometimes visible at
harvest but commonly develop during the first month
of storage. Rapid cooling and high RH can reduce the
development of symptoms during storage. Multiple
calcium sprays on fruit before harvest, following label
instructions, are the most effective treatment for bitter
pit. Calcium application and rapid cooling following
harvest may further reduce the problem. Application
of pressure or vacuum, while dipping in calcium
solution, has increased penetration into the flesh and
reduced bitter pit incidence in susceptible cultivars, but there may be
an added risk of internal browning from waterlogged tissues, and
decay.

IN T ERN AL BR OWN IN G
Development of internal browning as a result of C02 injury has been
reported in Fuji, Cox's Orange Pippin, Braeburn, and Jonathan apples.
Brown discoloration occurs in the flesh, usually originating in or near
the core, and the discoloration is firm, but moist. The brown areas have
well-defined margins and may include dry cavities resulting from
desiccation. Symptoms can range from a small spot of brown flesh up
to nearly the entire apple's flesh being affected in severe cases.
Symptoms develop during the first month of CA storage. This disorder
is associated with later harvested, large fruit stored with high C02
concentrations; however, the incidence varies season to season and
orchard to orchard. Because internal browning is not visible externally,
the disorder may be detected by buyers and consumers.
Nondestructive means of detection are currently under development.

B R UI SI NG
Apples can be damaged by bruising. Roller bruising affects the surface
of the fruit, resulting in brown areas or bands where rolling, rubbing,
or vibration occurred, and damage is usually not apparent below the
surface. Impact bruising affects the flesh, resulting in brown spots
under the skin that may or may not be visible from the surface. The
browning results from oxidation of phenols in the presence of an
oxidizing enzyme, primarily polyphenoloxidase. Climatic differences
in severity are apparently related to the level of phenols or the relative
activity of the browning enzyme. Any mechanical injury can stimulate
ethylene production, and thus speed fruit ripening and deterioration.
fruit. Gray mold can be quite common after long-
term storage. Sanitation in the field and
packinghouse (especially water systems) and careful
handling of fruit to avoid wounding are the best
means of control. Temperature management will
slow the growth of fungi that might be present.
Fungicides added to the drench water can provide
some protection; however some fungi have
developed resistance to commonly used
thiabendizole-type fungicides.

MUCOR ROT
Mucor rot has become a serious problem in Granny
Smith and Fuji apples grown in California. The
fungus, Mucor piriformis, lives in the orchard soil.
Fruit collected from the orchard floor and soil
attached to field bins transport the fungus into
drench systems and dump tanks where healthy fruit
can become infected. Mucor causes a very soft rot
that can liquify fruit tissue, resulting in dripping of
spores onto healthy fruit in the bin and thereby
spreading of the disease in storage. While low
temperatures greatly
reduce its growth, this fungus continues to grow
slowly at 0°C (32°F). Chlorine and most fungicides
are not very effective against this organism. The best
means of control are orchard sanitation and
preventing orchard soil from entering the drench or
dump tank water. Leave ground fruit in the orchard,
place field bins on trailers in the field, and use a
fresh water prerinse of loaded bins and trailer prior
to the drench system.

CORE ROT
Core rot is a disease in which one or more of a series
of fungi attack the core area of the apple fruit. The
disease may begin in the field or during storage.
Inoculation of the core area can occur during petal
fall in the orchard or during drenching of the fruit.
The disease may be restricted to the seed cavity or
may involve the apple flesh and eventually the
entire apple. Core rots present a marketing challenge
because they are not visible externally, unless very
severe. Efforts are under way to develop
nondestructive methods for sorting out defective
fruit during packing.
 POSTHARVEST HANDLING SYSTEMS: POME FRUITS
lose little flesh firmness during the treatment and do
not become more subject to handling damage, but
they ripen quickly and uniformly when warmed
during marketing. d'Anjou pears are treated with

/ / . European Pears ethylene for 2 to 3 days at near 20°C (68°F), with a

goal of softening the pears to 11 to 12 Ibf firmness

MATURITY ___________________________
prior to recooling and shipping, and these pears are
not intended for long storage.

In California, Bartlett pear standards utilize an index

combining firmness and soluble solids content that is HANDLING ___________________________
modified by fruit diameter and color (table 27.2). Most
European pears are harvested by hand into large field
legal standards define minimum maturity; California
bins. Most California Bartlett pears are packed within
also imposes a maximum maturity standard
2 days of harvest. However, in other growing areas,
(minimum flesh firmness level) for Bartlett pears
pears are frequently stored for weeks to many
destined for processing. Many other pear varieties are
months in regular cold storage or CA storage prior to
picked on the basis of flesh firmness (table 27.3).
packing. Upon packing, fruit are dumped from bins
using either dry, wet, or water immersion dumps. A
M A T UR IT Y V ER S U S R IP ENING
presizer is used to remove undersized fruit to
European pears that are allowed to ripen on the tree
processing outlets. Most sorting is by hand,
typically develop poor texture and lack juiciness and
particularly for defects. Fruit are segregated into fresh
the characteristic flavor of the cultivar. Thus, they are
and processing grades based on shape and surface
harvested when physiologically mature but still quite
defects. Frequently, over 50% of California Bartlett
firm, then ripened before processing or consumption.
pears are diverted from a fresh-market sorting line to
Freshly harvested Bartlett pears, especially those
processing. (Some Bartlett pears are grown strictly for
harvested early in the season, ripen slowly and
processing.) Sizing is accomplished with weight
unevenly and with poor
sizers or optical sizers.
Table 27.
Fruit firmness (Ibf)

Minimum soluble Diameter 2% to Vk in Diameter

solids (60.3 to 63.5 mm) Vk in (63.5 mm)
and larger
< 10% 19.0 (84.5) 20.0 (89.0)
10% 20.0 (89.0) 21.0 (93.4)
11% 20.5 (91.2) 21.5(95.6)
12% 21.0 (93.4) 22.0 (97.9)
13% No maximum No maximum
Source: California Pear Advisory Board, 1999

Table 27.3. Pear harvest firmness recommendations

Flesh firmness (Ibf)*
Cultivar Maximum Optimum Minimum
Anjou 15 13 11
Bartlett 19 17 15
Bosc 16 13 11
Cornice 13 11 9
Hardy 11 10 9
Kiefer 15 13-14 12
Seckel 18 16 14
Winter Nelis 15 12.5 11
Note: * Measurements with penetrometer using an 8-mm (5/i6- •in) tip.
Conversions: Ibf x 2.2 = kgf; Ibf x 4.448 = Newtons.

eating quality if placed immediately into a ripening environment (13°

to 24°C [55 to 75°F]) without prior time in cold storage, d'Anjou pears
can remain hard and unripe for 50 to 60 days under the same condi-
tions. However, the same fruit ripen quickly and uniformly if first
stored at low temperature (-1° to 5°C [30° to 41°F]) for 2 to 8 weeks,
depending upon the cultivar and harvest maturity. During cold
storage, ethylene precursors form within the pear tissue so that when
fruit are placed at ripening temperature they increase their ethylene
production and ripen uniformly Most European pears can be ripened
without cold storage by applying ethylene to the freshly harvested
fruit.
A conditioning treatment is often used for Bartlett and d'Anjou
pears that are transported to market without sufficient cold storage to
allow for uniform ripening. For Bartletts, warm, freshly harvested fruit
are packed, exposed to 100 ppm ethylene at 20° to 25°C (68° to 77°F) for
24 hours, then forced-air cooled and transported to market. The fruit
 Pears may be wrap-packed, tight-fill packed, tray- California for pears, it is very common in other
packed, or bagged. A large percentage of fresh- growing areas. Maintenance of the proper
market California Bartlett pears are tight-fill packed concentrations of 02 and C02 are critical to successful
into corrugated cartons. The remaining California CA storage, as is storage of fruit at the proper stage
Bartletts and most other pear varieties are either of maturity. Overmature fruit harvested toward the
wrap-packed or tray-packed into corrugated cartons, end of the harvest season is more subject to low 02 or
although some wood cartons are still in use, high C02 damage. Fruit harvested early in the
especially internationally. A number of single or harvest season is the best candidate for long-term
double layer cartons, some corrugated and others of CA storage. Recommended atmospheres for pear
reusable plastic, are gaining popularity. The corru- varieties are shown in table 27.4.
gated cartons used in California are well ventilated to
allow for efficient forced-air cooling; however, pear PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
boxes from many other growing areas are not vented
and may include a plastic liner. Bagging of pears is S U P ER FI CI AL SC AL D
also increasing in popularity, particularly for D'Anjou, Packham, and Bartlett pears are susceptible
marketing at consumer warehouse stores. A flow to superficial scald, a disorder similar to storage
diagram for the handling of Bartlett pears (see fig. scald in apples. Superficial scald develops during
27.1) shows the steps involved in fresh-market cold storage, but it may not become visible until after
handling and processing of this commodity. fruit are transferred to warm temperatures for ripen-
ing. It is a surface disorder that results in browning
STORAGE _____________________________ of the skin. Unlike storage scald in apples, pear
susceptibility to superficial scald appears to be less
T E M P ER AT UR E MA N AG E M EN T dependent on fruit maturity. Treatment of freshly
Because pears are so sensitive to temperature effects, harvested fruit with an antioxidant such as Ethoxy-
immediately following packing, California Bartlett quin can greatly reduce the incidence of superficial
pears are forced-air cooled prior to shipment or scald. Ethoxyquin is not registered (neither is DPA)
storage. For Bartlett pears, the recommended storage for use on pears in California, but it is used in other
temperature is 0° to 0.5°C (32° to 33°F) for up to 1 growing
month of storage and -1°C (30°F) if fruit is to be
stored more than one month. The lowest safe storage
temperature is related to the extent of temperature
fluctuation in the room and the soluble solids content
of the fruit. Freezing injury usually occurs first in the
smallest pears with the lowest soluble solids content.
Therefore, knowledge of the soluble solids content of
the core tissue is necessary to predict the lowest safe
storage temperature. Bartlett pears in California
should be cooled to near storage temperature within
24 hours of harvest. The estimated maximum storage
life for European pear cul-tivars stored in air at -1°C
(30°F) is shown in table 27.4.

R ED UC IN G WA T ER LO S S
Maintaining 95% RH in the storage room will
prevent loss of moisture from the fruit during
storage. In many commercial cold storages, this level
of humidity is difficult to
maintain. Humidity should be considered in the
design and sizing of the refrigeration system. Even
with the best system design, supplemental humidity
may need to be added. During bin storage, wetting of
wooden bins prior to loading, use of plastic bins, and
use of plastic bin liners can help to reduce water loss
from fruit during storage.
Using perforated polyethylene bags or liners
within the packed box to maintain humidity, once a
common practice, is now seldom done in California
because it interferes with temperature management;
but it is still used in many other growing areas. Wax
or plastic coatings on corrugated containers are
extensively used, when polyethylene liners are not
used, to provide a moisture barrier for pear fruit.

C ONT RO LL ED A T MO S P HE RE S TO RA GE
Pears are second only to apples in the volume stored
under controlled atmospheres (CA). Although CA
storage of pears is used to a limited extent in
 POSTHARVEST HANDLING SYSTEMS: POME FRUITS

Table 27.4. Storage conditions and estimated maximum postharvest life of

European and Asian pears stored in air or CA at -1 ° to 0°C (30° to 32°F)

Cultivar Months in air %02 % C02 Months in CA

European Pears
Anjou 6-7 1-2.5 0-0.5 7-8
Bartlett 2-3 1-2 0-3 3-5
Bosc 3-4 1-2.5 0.5-1.5 4-8
Cornice 4 1.5-4 0.5-4 5-6
Forelle 4-5 1.5 0-1.5 6-7
Hardy 2-4 2-3 3-5 4-6
Packham 5-6 1.5-1.8 1.5-2.5 7-9
Asian Pears
Chojuro 2-3 2 1-2 3-4
Kosui 2-3 1-2 0-2 3-4
Tsu Li 2-4 1-2 0-3 3-5
20th Century 3-4 1-3 0-1 5
Ya Li* 2-3 4-5 0-3 3-4

Source: Adapted from Hardenburg et al. 1986; Richardson and Preharvest calcium sprays are beneficial, especially
Kupferman 1997. late in the season, but there is a risk of phytotoxicity.
*Ya Li may show chilling injury at temperatures less than 5°C (41
°F). C AR BO N DIOX ID E OR L OW O XYG EN
IN J U RY
Pears are much less tolerant of C02 than apples. C02
areas. CA storage can reduce the injury is evident as browning in the core area.
incidence of storage scald, especially Cavities may develop in the browned tissues. The
when low 02 is used (1%), but with susceptibility of pears to C02 injury increases with
low 02, care should be taken to keep advanced maturity, delayed storage, and low 02
C02 below 0.5%. More research is levels in the atmosphere. Fruit grown in a cool
needed to address fruit tolerance season have a greater susceptibility to C02 injury.
issues as well as the effectiveness of Low-02 injury can occur at less than 1% 02 and is
low-02 CA for scald control. manifested as a browning in the core area that may
be tinged with pink. Fruit with advanced maturity
S E N E SC EN T S CA LD are more susceptible.
Senescent scald develops in pears
that have been stored beyond their C OR E B RE A KDO WN
potential postharvest life. The Pears can suffer losses due to various core
background color of scalded fruit breakdown problems (sometimes called internal
changes from green to yellow during breakdown or brown core). Symptoms are browning
storage, and the fruit lose their and softening of the tissue in and around the fruit
capacity to ripen. Fruit from very core (fig. 27.5). Late-harvested fruit are most
early or late harvest, fruit suffering susceptible to these disorders. Symptoms may
delayed cooling, and fruit held at too develop in storage or during subsequent ripening. A
high a storage temperature are all range of similar symptoms associated with specific
more susceptible to senescent scald. cultivars or handling and storage treatments have
Symptoms begin on the fruit surface been described by various researchers.
but can progress into the flesh Flesh breakdown that develops during storage
during ripening. Proper harvest and ripening can be reduced by good postharvest
maturity, good temperature temperature management. This should include rapid
management, and avoiding storing movement from tree to cooler, rapid cooling, and
for too long are all important in maintenance of the proper low storage temperature.
minimizing senescent scald of pears. When climatic, cultural, or maturity factors predis-
CA storage can delay fruit pose the fruit to breakdown, the problem may be
senescence and thus delay develop- unavoidable; however, storage life may be
ment of senescent scald. lengthened and intensity of the disorder can be
C OR K SP OT reduced by good temperature management. In some
Similar to bitter pit in apples, cork spot occurs in tests with watery breakdown of Bartlett pears in
tissue low in calcium or with a high potassium to California, late-season, high-maturity pears
calcium ratio. Patches of corky brown tissue, usually developed no breakdown if fruit was cooled within 1
near the calyx end, occur either just beneath the skin
or deep in the flesh. Affected pears become partly
yellow and exhibit premature ripening, dAnjou and
Packham's Triumph pears are highly susceptible.
 342 CHAPTER 2 7

Figure 27.10

day of harvest, as compared with 5% breakdown injury. Data on other cultivars are unavailable.
Avoidance of roller bruising involves prevention of
Core breakdown in senescent Bartlett pear.
fruit rubbing or vibrating at all stages of handling
from harvest to market.

I M PA CT BR UI S ING
Injuries can follow any impact of the fruit, and
incidence and severity of bruises increase with
increasing height of drop of the fruit. Impact bruising
is important because of its effect on fruit appearance,
and because the injury induces higher respiratory
activity of the tissue, thus reducing storage life. Some
reports suggest that symptoms are less apparent in
fruits that are impacted after CA storage.

/ / / . Asian Pears
Asian pears comprise a large group of pears (Pyrus
serotina) that are crisp in texture and ready to eat at
harvest. Asian pears do not markedly change texture
after harvest or storage, as do European pears.
with 2-day cooling, and over 10% breakdown with 3- Hundreds of varieties are grown in Asia, and more
day cooling. In other tests with similar pears that than 25 varieties are known in California. Asian
were cooled within 1 day of harvest, stored for 5 pears are also called apple pears, salad pears, Nashi
weeks, and then ripened, breakdown incidence was (Japanese for "pear"), and Oriental, Chinese, or
0% after -1°C (30°F) storage, almost 2% after 0.5°C Japanese pear.
(33°F) storage, and about 3.5% after 2°C (36°F) In the United States, most Asian pears are grown
storage. in California, Oregon, and Washington. There are
three basic types: round or flat fruit with green to
P R E MA T UR E RI PE N IN G yellow skin (20th Century), round or flat fruit with
Reports from cool-climate production areas describe bronze-colored skin and a light bronze russet
a fruit breakdown in Bartlett pears caused by (Shinko, Hosui), and pear-shaped fruit with green or
premature ripening. In Oregon, this problem can russet skin (Ya Li).
develop when daytime high temperatures do not
exceed 21°C (70°F) and night temperatures are no HARVEST
higher than 7°C (45°F) for 2 days, 10°C (50°F) for 9
days, or 13°C (55°F) for 21 days. Affected fruit devel- Asian pears are harvested in California from mid-
op a pink color around the calyx (blossom) end. July through September, depending on the variety.
Night temperatures above 13°C (55°F) or day Harvest maturity is usually assessed by background
temperatures above 32°C (90°F) prevent premature color and soluble solids content. Studies have shown
ripening. Bartlett pears grown in cool climates also that background color is best related to the storage
tend to soften faster and be more susceptible to core potential of the fruit. Other studies have indicated
breakdown. By contrast, d'Anjou pears grown in that a combination of starch index, firmness, and
warm climates have a higher incidence of mealy soluble solids would provide a good index.
breakdown of the flesh. Immature fruit usually have poor flavor quality,
while overmature fruit are more susceptible to
W A TE RY BR E A KD O WN surface marking and storage disorders.
A problem associated especially with Bartlett pear, Asian pears appear highly susceptible to surface
watery breakdown involves soft, watery breakdown damage from abrasions to the skin. Careful handling
in portions of the fruit, usually without brown from harvest to consumption is necessary to avoid
discoloration during its early stages. This enzymatic unsightly fruit damage manifested as brown or black
softening can affect any part of the fruit and markings on the fruit surface. Pickers may need to
probably results from severe physiological stress on wear rubber or soft cotton gloves to avoid fruit
the fruit. In some seasons in California, this disorder injury. Padded, clean picking buckets are essential,
is responsible for loss of as much as 10% of fruit and efforts must be made to avoid stem punctures.
destined for processing. Fast cooling and low storage Often, stems are clipped close to the stem bowl. It is
temperatures (avoiding freezing) are effective in recommended that Asian pears be handled similarly
minimizing the problem. to tree-ripened soft fruit. Handling steps should be
minimized. Often, fruit are sized by eye and packed
R OLL E R B RU I SIN G ( BR U S H B U RN , by hand. Many Asian pears are wrapped, using
F RI CT ION D IS CO LOR AT ION ) paper or plastic materials, and some are packed into
This can occur whenever fruit have freedom to plastic
move, rub, or vibrate against a hard surface such as
trays or foam punnets. Fruit are often packed one or
bins or package surfaces, packing belts, or other
two layers deep, and padding is added to the box to
fruit. Pears are generally more susceptible to roller
secure the fruit and prevent movement during transit
bruising damage than are apples. As Bartlett and
which would result in roller bruising.
d'Anjou pears remain in storage, they normally
become more susceptible to roller bruising injury,
and if packaging does not occur within 1 to 2 weeks STORAGE
of harvest, special care must be taken to avoid fruit
 POSTHARVEST HANDLING SYSTEMS: POME FRUITS 3

Some varieties can be stored 1 to 3 months at 0°C slightly increases softening at 20°C (68°F). The effects
(32°F) without problems. Hosui and Shinko became of ethylene at 0°C (32°F) are minimal.
spongy and developed storage rots after 2lfimonths
of storage at 0°C (32°F). After 4 months of storage, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
core browning developed.
Based on limited studies, it appears that the L OW O XYG EN I N JU RY
magnitude of CA benefits for Asian pears is cultivar- Discolored surface depressions resulting from
specific and is generally less than that for European exposing 20 th Century pears to 1% 02 for 4 months at
pears and apples. CA may extend the storage life of 0°C (32°F) and from exposing Ya Li and Tsu Li pears
some Asian pear cul-tivars by about 25% relative to to 1% 02 for 2 months, 2% 02 for 4 months, or 3% 02
storage in air. Recommended CA conditions are for 6 months at 0°C (32°F).
shown in table 27.4. Care should be taken to avoid
low-02 or high-C02 injury as described below. H IG H C AR BO N DIOX ID E IN JU R Y
Some cultivars, such as 20th Century, Kosui, and Exposure to high levels of C02 can cause fruit to
Niitaka, produce very little ethylene and are develop core or medial flesh browning, which may
nonclimacteric. Other cultivars, such as Tsu Li, Ya Li, contain cavities in severe cases as a result of tissue
Chojuro, Shinsui, Kikusui, and Hosui, are climacteric death and subsequent desiccation. Ya Li pears may
and produce between 1 and 14 ul/kghr ethylene. exhibit C02 injury after exposure to 5% C02 for 6
Exposure of climacteric cultivars to greater than 1 weeks at 0°C (32°F).
ppm ethylene accelerates loss of green color and
342 CHAPTER 2 7

Figure 27.12

Promjene zrelosti u jabukama uključuju boju kože, boju sjemena, čvrstoću mesa, sadržaj topljivih
krutina, sadržaj škroba, sadržaj titrirane kiseline, brzinu disanja, proizvodnju etilena i proizvodnju
drugih sastojaka okusa i mirisa. Predloženi indeksi dospijeća uključivali su sve te, kao i vrijeme (dani
od punog cvatnje), akumulirane toplinske jedinice (npr., Dani stupnjeva iznad 7 ° C [45 ° F]), veličinu
ploda i različite kombinacije ovih.
Najveći mogući indeksi dospijeća imaju ograničenja. Na primjer, proizvodnja etylenela i promjene
brzine disanja mogu se pojaviti prekasno ili su previše varijabilne da bi bile korisne za određivanje
vremena žetve. Neke druge promjene su previše suptilne da bi bile učinkovite. Većina komercijalnih
primjena indeksa maturiteta koristi dane u punom cvatu kao grubi vodič, s finim podešavanjem
koristeći uglavnom indeks škroba i čvrstoću mesa. Standardi zrelosti moraju uzeti u obzir hoće li se
voće skladištiti (i koliko dugo) ili odmah otpremiti. Cilj je utvrditi pouzdan indeks koji može
predvidjeti najbolji datum berbe za dugoročno skladištenje kontrolirane atmosfere ili za kratkoročno
skladištenje zraka. Žetva nezrelog voća rezultira manjim plodovima s većom osjetljivošću na gubitak
vode i poremećaje u skladištenju, kao što su gorka jama i opekline. Previše plodovi imaju veću
osjetljivost na omekšavanje, bruhanje, propadanje i poremećaje povezane s atmosferom.
Mnoge regije u kojima se uzgaja jabuka razvile su standarde zrelosti koji vode do početka berbe. Ti
standardi mogu biti dobrovoljni ili pravno obvezujući. U Kaliforniji, jabuke Granny Smith puštene su
za žetvu po županijama prema Kalifornijskoj tablici jodova s brašnom Smith. Inspektori ocjenjuju
uzorak od 30 jabuka iz voćnjaka za uzorak degradacije škroba, a prosjek za voćnjak mora zadovoljiti
minimalnu razinu degradacije škroba (ocjena 2,5 na škrobnom jodnom dijagramu). Sličan rezultat
škroba koristi se za određivanje početka berbe Granny Smith na Novom Zelandu. Dok se nestanak
škroba također koristi za vođenje početka berbe Granny Smith u Washingtonu, ljestvica se prilično
razlikuje od one koja se koristi u Kaliforniji i na Novom Zelandu. Nažalost, karte nestanka škroba
korištene u različitim područjima uzgoja jabuka nisu ujednačene. Vage mogu biti u rasponu od 0 do 6,
0 do 7 ili od 0 do 10. Veći broj uvijek označava više nestanka škroba.
Škrob je koristan indeks zrelosti žetve, jer se škrob razgrađuje u šećere dok jabuka sazrijeva i počinje
dozrijevati. Sadržaj škroba mjeri se u središnjem presjeku jabuke. Nestanak škroba vizualiziran je
bojanjem rezane površine jabuke s otopinom jod-kalij jodida (vidi gore navedeni recept). Otopina joda
pretvara škrob u crno i daje pogled na uzorak klirensa škroba. Karte skroba mogu se koristiti za
određivanje rezultata škroba na temelju postotka poprečnog presjeka bez bojenja.

Berba jabuke

Plodovi jabuke ručno se ubiru u vrećice, lagano se prenose u kante za otpatke i transportiraju u objekt
za pakiranje. Potrebno je paziti tijekom žetve jabuka kako bi se izbjeglo stvaranje udarca. Idealne su
čvrste uokvirene vrećice za skupljanje u koje berači mogu staviti, a ne spustiti, ubrane jabuke. Pažljivo
vježbanje i nadzor nad skupljanjem posade je neophodno kako bi se izbjeglo prekomjerno modrice na
plodovima.
Jabuke, koje se često čuvaju u kontejnerima, čekaju kasnije pakiranje, mogu se natopiti inhibitorom
opekotina i fungicidom i ponekad se tretiraju s kalcijevim kloridom za kontrolu gorke jame prije
skladištenja.
Voće jabuke može imati koristi od prethodnog hlađenja prije hladnog skladištenja. Predhlađenje se
može postići hlađenjem na zraku ili hidro-hlađenjem. Dok je hlađenje hlađenje brže od hlađenja
prisilnim zrakom, postoji mogućnost širenja bolesti organizama iz oboljelog voća ili tla na zdravo
voće. Ako se tekući klor koristi za smanjenje potencijala za širenje bolesti, mora se voditi računa da se
dnevna voda za pranje promijeni kako bi se spriječilo nakupljanje natrija, što dovodi do opeklina
ploda. Isto vrijedi i za sustave za ispuštanje vode iz spremnika.
Voće koje se pakira istovareno je iz spremnika pomoću deponija za flotaciju vode, oprano, prethodno
izrađeno kako bi se uklonilo podvodno voće i sortiralo. Sortiranje je uglavnom kombinacijom
elektroničkih i ljudskih sortera. Elektronski sorteri za boju i veličinu su vrlo česti u većim
pakiranjima. Elektroničko razvrstavanje za nedostatke koristi se u vrlo ograničenoj mjeri, ali će se
vjerojatno povećati u bliskoj budućnosti. Većinu sortiranja defekata u ovom trenutku obavljaju ljudski
sorteri. Voće se često odvaja u nekoliko svježih vrsta, kao i za preradu i nusproizvode.
Većina jabuka na svježem tržištu je pakirana u tacnu, dok se niže ocjene mogu popuniti. Vreće voća
jabuke koriste se češće, ne samo za manje jabuke, već i za velike plodove namijenjene za skladišta
 POSTHARVEST HANDLING SYSTEMS: POME FRUIT

potrošačkih skladišta. Mutnja je i dalje briga za voće u vrećama, ali noviji modeli strojeva donekle su
smanjili taj problem.
Pakirane kutije su razdvojene po veličini voća i složene na palete s oznakama. Konačno hlađenje ovih
paletnih opterećenja događa se nakon pakiranja. Hlađenje može uključivati prisilno ili statično
hlađenje prostora. Većina danas korištenih kartona za jabuke nije ventilirana ili nije dovoljno
ventilirana, što ozbiljno otežava hlađenje nakon pakiranja.
Dijagram toka za rukovanje jabukama (sl. 27.1) pokazuje korake uključene u rukovanje svježim
tržištem.