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Biophysical Land Suitability for Oil Palm in Kalimantan, Indonesia

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 Report 2007/01

Biophysical Land Suitability for

Oil Palm in Kalimantan, Indonesia
Stephan Mantel, Henk Wösten, and Jan Verhagen
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

The designations employed and the presentation of materials in electronic forms do not imply
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of ISRIC, Alterra or PRI concerning the
legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of is authorities, or concerning the
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Copyright © 2007, ISRIC – World Soil Information

Disclaimer
While every effort has been made to ensure that the data are accurate and reliable, the
authors cannot assume liability for damages caused by inaccuracies in the data or as a result
of the failure of the data to function on a particular system. No warranty is provided,
expressed or implied, nor does an authorized distribution of the data set constitute such a
warranty. The right is reserved to modify any information in this document and related data
sets without notice.

Correct citation
Mantel S, Wösten H, and Verhagen J 2007. Biophysical Land Suitability for Oil Palm in
Kalimantan, Indonesia. Report 2007/01, ISRIC – World Soil Information, Alterra, Plant
Research International, Wageningen UR, Wageningen

Inquiries
c/o Director, ISRIC – World Soil Information
PO Box 353, 6700 AJ Wageningen, The Netherlands
Telefax: +31-(0)317-471700
E-mail: soil.isric@wur.nl
Web: www.isric.org

Corresponding authors
Stephan Mantel, ISRIC – World Soil Information. E-mail: stephan.mantel@wur.nl
Henk Wösten, Alterra - Centrum Bodem, Wageningen UR. E-mail: henk.wosten@wur.nl
Jan Verhagen, Plant Research International, Wageningen UR. E-mail: a.verhagen@wur.nl

Front cover: The image within the boundaries of the Island of Borneo (including the
Indonesian provinces of Kalimantan) is an artistic edit of a remote sensing image of an oil
palm plantation (IKONOS 1-m resolution pan-sharpened color image). The image is 300 m
across. In the altered image the area in the left part with red background and green dots is
the oil palm plantation with matured palm trees (green dots). The other area (green with
some red) is outside the plantation and represents trees, shrubs and grasses. [Prepared by
Jan Huting, ISRIC]
 i

Contents
SUMMARY ...................................................................................................iii
1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................... 1
2 DATA AND METHODS ............................................................................. 3
2.1 Background.................................................................................. 3
2.2 Approach ..................................................................................... 3
2.3 Data Processing............................................................................ 4
3 RESULTS .............................................................................................. 9
3.1 Environmental factors.................................................................... 9
3.2 Land suitability mapping .............................................................. 16
3.3 Management levels and land suitability .......................................... 18
3.4 Spatial planning and forest management zonation ........................... 20
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................. 23
REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 25
APPENDIX - PLANTGRO LAND SUITABILITY MODEL ......................................... 27

Tables
Table 1. Summary of steps involved in land evaluation ................................... 3
Table 2. Main soil types of Kalimantan and their distribution.......................... 12
Table 3. Area of problems soils and steep lands........................................... 16
Table 4. Extent of suitability classes for oil palm .......................................... 16
Table 5. Unsuitable land systems for oil palm.............................................. 16
Table 6. Soil and climate factors used by PLANTGRO for site assessment ........ 27

Figures
Figure 1. Elevation derived from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission ............. 5
Figure 2. View on karst landscape in a rainforest area in Berau, East
Kalimantan .................................................................................. 6
Figure 3. Kalimantan land systems (RePPProT 1990) ....................................... 7
Figure 4. Slope map derived from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
interpreted for suitability for oil palm cultivation .............................. 10
Figure 5. Soil erosion risk for bare soils modelled using Universal Soil Loss
Indicator ................................................................................... 11
Figure 6. Peat, poorly drained and potential sulphate acid soils in Kalimantan ... 14
Figure 7. Shallow soils and soils with poor anchorage (dominant soils shown
only) in Kalimantan ..................................................................... 15
Figure 8. Physical suitability for oil palm under low input and technology (base
management), (map representation for dominant soils only)............. 17
Figure 9. Physical land suitability for oil palm under high levels of input and
technology ................................................................................. 19
Figure 10. Zonation for forest management planning and their legal land status . 20
Figure 11. Forest protection status ............................................................... 21

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 iii

SUMMARY

On request of the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality (LNV),
Wageningen University and Research Centre (WUR) partners, including ISRIC –
World Soil Information, Alterra and Plant Research International, conducted a
biophysically-oriented study on land suitability for oil palm in Kalimantan,
Indonesia.

The following outputs were delivered:

• Maps at scale 1 : 250 000 indicating suitable areas for the cultivation of oil
palm and limiting factors
• Recommendations and discussion on sustainable expansion or intensification
of oil palm in relation to biophysical aspects of land and soil and related to
spatial planning
• Analysis of constraints for oil palm, including factors such as soil anchorage,
soil nutrient status, and water management
• Considerations for management in relation to spatial planning of oil palm
plantations and relations with smallholder agriculture and land or forest
management (e.g. buffer zone management).

The project contributes to the LNV objectives as it:

• Provided a sound, biophysically oriented basis for the allocation of new oil
palm plantations or intensification of existing palm oil plantations, focusing
on Kalimantan but other areas could be taken into account in the future
• Helped in discussions on expansion or intensification of oil palm cultivation
that attracts international attention and raises wide public concern with
respect to its environmental, social and economical impacts
• Provided factual, biophysically oriented inputs for decisions on expansion or
intensification in the production of oil palm. Discussions often focus on
biodiversity and social aspects, ignoring soil and land conditions that
determine the feasibility for oil palm expansion or intensification
• Outside the scope of the study, but critically important for planning
sustainable oil palm plantations, a spatial zonation for potential areas for oil
palm expansion was made including legal land status, fragile land units, land
tenure and biodiversity conservation protection areas.

Conclusions
• About half the area of Kalimantan is considered highly to moderately
biophysically suitable for the cultivation of oil palm (~51% or 272 779 km2).
In about a third of Kalimantan (~37% or 198 405 km2), the growth of oil
palm is not possible/productive
• The dominant constraints are slope steepness and poor soil drainage. The
latter can partly be overcome by management interventions
• Spatial planning including other factors than biophysical land suitability,
such as legal status of land, actual land use, biodiversity conservation
should also be considered
• Only limited areas are considered both physically suitable and without land
use (land status) restrictions

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iv

• The land in Kalimantan adjacent to the border with Sarawak and Sabah is
dominantly unsuited for oil palm cultivation.

Outlook/further research
• Methodology development/testing for regional planning of sustainable oil
palm production (criteria and decision support system development)
• Assess sustainability issues (people, planet, profit)
• Consider management implications of land suitability/biophysical constraints
at the plantation level vis-à-vis current exploratory scale of 1:250 000.

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 1

1 INTRODUCTION

Indonesia is a major producer of palm oil. World palm oil consumption is expected
to grow considerably in the coming years and it is projected that Indonesia will be a
major supplier. Growth in production will be both by expansion and intensification.
The debate on oil palm expansion or intensification receives broad attention; there
is public concern about the expansion of oil palm plantations in Kalimantan with
regards to environmental and social issues. Expansion of oil palm to marginal lands
increases investment and production costs and affects sustainability. Land
suitability should therefore be taken into account in the decision making process.

In bilateral contacts, the Government of the Netherlands expressed concern to the

Government of Indonesia with respect to the expansion of oil palm, in Kalimantan
specifically, and offered to assist in provision of a regional evaluation of suitability
of land in Kalimantan for oil palm as an input for decision making on sustainable
expansion or intensification of oil palm. In this context, the Dutch Ministry of
Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality (LNV) requested ISRIC - World Soil
Information and Wageningen UR to provide a regional land suitability assessment.
The assessment will provide an input to the dialogue between the LNV and the
Indonesian counterparts.

The objective of this assessment was to provide a biophysical basis for the
discussion on large scale expansion of oil palm plantations or intensification of
existing palm oil plantations in Kalimantan and to identify knowledge gaps.
Although the assessment focused on Kalimantan, the developed methodology can
be applied in other areas in Indonesia.

The report covers the following:

• Discussion of methodology
• Analysis of biophysical land suitability assessment for oil palm in Kalimantan
• Discussion on sustainable expansion or intensification of palm oil production
based on data related to soil and land suitability
• Considerations for management in relation to spatial planning of oil palm
plantations and relations with small-holder agriculture and land or forest
management
• Recommendations.

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 3

2 DATA AND METHODS

2.1 Background

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) grows in tropical lowlands and is one of the main
vegetable oil crops in the world. Oil palm is assumed to have its origin in West
Africa. The earliest record of oil palm in the Far East is the planting of four
seedlings in the Botanic Gardens at Bogor in 1849. The first large commercial
plantations were established around 1910 in Sumatra. Oil palm starts to yield about
3 to 4 years after planting and is in full production at an age of 8 to 10 years. The
average economic lifetime is about 25 years. Oil palm yields vary. Well-managed
plantations in Peninsular Malaysia have achieved yields of up to 30 t/ha (fresh fruit
bunches, FFB), the average peak yield is in the order of 25–28 t/ha (Gurmit, 1999).

2.2 Approach

Kalimantan land suitability was assessed in five steps (Table 1). Land suitability was
assessed irrespective of current land use, land status, or accessibility. The
suitability assessment considered soil properties and geographic location (supply
side), matched with crop and land management (e.g. level of inputs used, degree
of mechanization) requirements (demand side). Suitability was assessed for a basic
management level and adaptive (high-level) management.
The determination of land suitability for oil palm was computerized, but not
automated because it relied on expert inputs at each stage of data processing.

To map areas with legal and environmental restrictions for use, an additional
analysis was done to indicate the protected forest areas, the forest reserves, and
the fragile lands. Overlay of this map with the land suitability map yielded a map
that indicates the land area with potential for expansion for oil palm.

Table 1. Summary of steps involved in land evaluation

1. Environmental dataset preparation

Soil data sets were prepared for each land unit (land facet);
Climate data sets prepared;
2. Identification of crop requirements
Crop requirement files prepared for oil palm
3. Data integration
Soil, climate and elevation maps are overlaid using GIS to produce a batch
file containing the data required for land evaluation
4. Suitability assessment
The base analyses of suitability were carried out using PLANTGRO comparing
crop requirements with the soil and climatic information. This identified the
major constraints, and their level for the land facet. Management shift
analysis assessed how management could improve yields
5. Creation of suitability maps
All suitability results are reassessed for the management shift analysis to
produce an overall rating for oil palm land suitability

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4 Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan

2.3 Data Processing

1. Environmental data

Maps and data files were obtained from various sources. The land systems and land
and forest status data were collected from the Regional Planning Programme for
Transmigration project (RePPProT 1990) and the National Master Plan for Forest
Plantations (NMFP 1994a). Additional information on land systems and soils in East
Kalimantan was available from Berau regency, East Kalimantan (Mantel 2001). We
followed the methodology and data structures for the land evaluation from the
National Master Plan for Forest Plantations were followed (NMFP 1994a).

Climate
The climate database was compiled from using data from a variety of sources,
including the Bureau of Meteorology and the NMFP data sets (NMFP 1994a).
Monthly averages of nine climate factors have been extracted from the data sets:
1. Rainfall
2. Evaporation
3. Day length
4. Solar radiation
5. Temperature - Mean of daily maximum
6. Temperature - Mean of daily minimum
7. Temperature - Lowest, defined as the mean minimum and calculated as (mean
minimum - absolute minimum) divided by 2
8. Average wind speed
9. Extreme wind speed

In equatorial regions, there is a strong correlation between elevation and

temperature; Lapse rates have been used to modify the temperature values (-6°C
per 1000 m). The contour maps of the area were used to derive the elevation at
each site.

Elevation and slopes

Elevation and slope information was derived from the Shuttle Radar Topography
Mission (SRTM, http://srtm.usgs.gov/) 90 m Digital Elevation model (Figure 1).

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 5

Figure 1. Elevation derived from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission

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6 Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan

Land units
The base map was created from land systems maps (RePPProT 1987a, b, c, 1990).
The available soils information varies in quality and there is no direct link between
the land facet and soil components.
The Soils Data Base is an extract from data prepared for the National Masterplan
for Forest Plantations (NMFP 1994a). Much of this information was derived from the
reports by the Land Resources Department of the Overseas Development
Administration for the Regional Physical Planning Program for Transmigration
(RePPProT, 1987 a, b and c), with additional field checks. The land system concept
is used to map the areas; a land system being an area, or group of areas, with a
similar pattern of landform, soils and vegetation. For each land systems, RePPProT
provides information on the resources including landforms, soils and vegetation.
NMFP verified the land to soil correlation and assembled soils, climatic and
topographic information from different sources, such as from the Land Resources
Evaluation Project (LREP 1990), Department of Transmigration, and the Centre for
Soil and Agroclimatic Research.

The database attributes are further subdivided into three land resource attributes
(slope, % rock outcrop and flooding risk) and seventeen soils attributes such as soil
reaction, and cation exchange capacity. The latter are further subdivided into
chemical and physical attributes. The land systems are classified in four broad
categories:
1. Flat land
2. Sloping land
3. Steep land
4. Mountains

Within each category, subcategories are identified (Figure 3). Landform and, to a
lesser degree, undisturbed vegetation are major differentiating criteria. Within the
land systems, smaller land facets are identified which, in turn represent one or
more soil types. Figure 2 shows a view on a karst land system in East-Kalimantan
(rugged limestone ridges and mountains).

Figure 2. View on karst landscape in a rainforest area in Berau, East Kalimantan

(photo M.Steenis)

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 7

FLAT LANDS
Riverine sediments

BKN - Floodplain over fluvial sediments (flat, wet)

BLI - Swampy floodplain of narrow valleys (flat, wet)
KHY - Coalescent, estuarine/riverine plains (flat/gently undulating, wet)
KLR - Permanently waterlogged floodplains (flat, wet)
PMG - Backswamps of inland floodplains (flat, wet)
SBG - Meander belt of large rivers and broad levees (flat, wet)
TNJ - Coalescent inland riverine plains (flat, wet)
Coastal systems

KJP - Intertidal mudflats (flat, wet)

PTG - Coastal beach ridges and swales over beach sand/gravels (flat, wet)
Peat soils STEEP LANDS
(Very) steep ridges and hills over sedimentary rock
GBT - Deep (>2 m) peat swamps (flat, wet)
BRH - Flat sandy terraces, covered by peat (flat, wet) MTL - Linear sedimentary ridge systems with steep dipslopes (steep )
MDW - Shallow peat swamps (lat, wet) MPT - Medium gradient hills over sedimentary rocks (steep)
SRM - Peat filled valley within terraces (flat, wet) TWB - Hillocky plains with steep parallel ridges (steep to very steep)
Valleys and terraces
LHI - Steep long-sided and narrow ridges over sandstone (very steep)
MGH - Alluvial valley, wide valleys containing hillocks (flat, wet) Extremely steep hills over igneous acidic rocks
SGT - Waterlogged sandy terraces (flat, wet) TBA - Extremely steepsided volcanic plugs (extremely steep)
SHD - Flat, sandy terraces covered by deeper peat (flat, wet) (Very) steep ridges and hills over (ultra) basic and metamorphic rock

SLOPING LAND PLN - Steep hills over basic and metamorphic rock (steep)
Sloping land over basic parent rock SST - strongly dissected hills over ultrabasic rocks (steep)
SMD - Rolling volcanic plains over igneous basic rock (rolling) STB - Hillocky basaltic plain (steep)
RGK - Undulating to rolling plains over metam./ultra-basic rock (undulating to rolling) JLH - Metamorphic, sub-parallel ridge systems (very steep)
BTK - Moderately dissected intermediate/basic lava flows (v. gently sloping, mod.steep)
HJA - Hillocky plains over metamorphic/basic volcanic rock (moderately steep)
MOUNTAINS
Limestone mountains
Sloping land over sedimentary rock
OKI - Rugged karst ridges and mountains (extremely steep)
LWW - Rolling plains over sedimentary stone (undulating to rolling)
steep GDG
KRU - High sandstone plateaus (rolling)
Mountains over sedimentary rock
SPG - Very gently sloping terrace remnants (very gently sloping)
BWN - Rolling sedimentary plains with sandy terrace remnants (gently sloping) GDG - Extremely long karstic mountain ridges over marble
PKU - Undulating, sandy terraces developed over old sands (undulating) PDH - Mountains over sedimentary and metamorphic rock (very steep)
PST - Marine terraces developed over old clays (gently) undulating Mountain systems over (ultra) basic and metamorphic rock
SMI - Undulating to rolling riverine terraces (undulating to rolling) BTA - Dissected volcanic cones over basic volcanic rock and tuff (very steep)
TDR - Sandstone cuestas with relatively gentle dipslopes (moderately steep) LNG - Mountains over ultra-basic/volcanic rocks (very steep)
TWH - Hillocky sedimentary plains (moderately steep) BPD - Non-sedimentary mountain ridge systems (very steep)
Sloping land over limestone with outcrops LPN - Eroded, moutainous stratovolcanoes (extremely steep)
KPR - Undulating karstic plain with hums over limestone (undulating) Mountains over granite rock

GBJ - Hillocky karstic plain over limestone (mod. steep) TWI - granite mountain ridge systems (steep)

Figure 3. Kalimantan land systems (RePPProT 1990)

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8 Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan

2. Identification of crop requirements

Optimum conditions for the cultivation of oil palm are given by Hartley (1988) and
DID (2001). The environmental requirements of oil palm are available in PLANTGRO
files (Hackett 1991). The plant files contain information on the optima and
limitations for a range of environmental conditions.

3. Data integration

Data integration is organized around the plant requirement information which is

stored in PLANTGRO's plant, soil, and climate files. The computerized system uses
PLANTGRO (Hackett 1991), a crop physiology-based system for assessing land
suitability, customized database routines to evaluate land management constraints
based on the expert judgement of soil and crop specialists, and a Geographical
Information System (GIS) to handle the data, and to produce the final maps.

4. Crop suitability assessment

Matching of the land and soil information with the plant requirement information
produces ratings that indicate the adequacy of land qualities for oil palm cultivation
under predefined conditions of management and inputs. The most limiting factor
was assumed to determine the overall suitability rating in accordance with Liebig’s
law of the minimum that states that crop growth is controlled not by the total of
resources available, but crop performance is limited by the scarcest resource.

PLANTGRO soil and climate datasets were matched with the plant requirement files.
This analysis identified biophysical constraints for oil palm production and their
degree of limitation. Decision rules were used based on expert knowledge to adjust
the land suitability analysis by assessing how plant growth can be enhanced, or
constraints can be overcome through management interventions. Two management
levels were considered; a base management level and a high management level. In
chapter 3.3 the management levels and their implications for land suitability are
discussed. The plant growth and management analysis were combined to give an
overall rating of development potential.

5. Creation of suitability maps

Maps of land suitability and development potential were prepared. The analysis was
based on complex mapping units; each component of which was assessed
individually. This allowed for an estimate of the area covered by each land type.
The maps represent associations of land types. Maps of suitability and ratings of
development potential are for the dominant land type in a mapping unit. This
provided an adequate indication of the potential, but the tabulated areas provide
more details of development potential. Table 1 summarizes the steps used to arrive
at the suitability assessment and soil limitation indications.

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 9

3 RESULTS

3.1 Environmental factors

Climate
Oil palm is adapted to a wide range of climates with rainfall varying from 1500 to
4000 mm per annum with both a marked or no dry season, and abundant sunshine.
Ideally oil palm requires some 2000 mm of rainfall per annum, well distributed over
the year. Cool temperatures, as observed at higher altitudes, will result in reduced
yields. At altitudes higher between 500 to 1000 m sea level oil palm production is
constrained, and at heights above 1500 m no or extremely low production can be
expected. Figure 1 shows that the central core of steep lands that stretches almost
from Pontianak in West Kalimantan up to the border with Sabah is at altitudes
above 500 m and is therefore too cold (high altitudes) for oil palm production.
Temperature/elevation lapse rates were used to modify the temperature values
values (-6°C per 1000 m).

Land systems
Oil palm is grown commercially on a wide range of soils and landforms, with flat to
steep slopes. Flat to gently undulating land is preferred for oil palm cultivation.
Nonetheless, satisfactory yields can be obtained from hilly terrain; however, road
construction and maintenance, harvesting and field maintenance, which are crucial
for regular harvesting, are more expensive in hilly terrain. Management-related
factors are thus important considerations when selecting land for the establishment
of an oil palm plantation. Before considering soil related constraints, slope and
erosion hazard are evaluated first which can pose clear limitations to the
construction and exploitation of oil palm plantations.

Elevation and slopes

Slope steepness (Figure 4) may cause access and exploitation problems, and soil
erosion with oil palm establishment.

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10 Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan

Figure 4. Slope map derived from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
interpreted for suitability for oil palm cultivation

Terrain with slopes steeper then 40-45% is considered unsuitable for oil palm
cultivation. Slopes less than 8% are optimal. For terrain with slopes between 9 and
30%, higher additional costs will be involved for land preparation. The slope map
shows that the central (Iran) mountain range and Meratus and Sangkulirang
mountain ranges and steep hills are not suitable oil palm plantations. Land above
500 and above 1000 m overlap with much of the areas with slopes steeper than 15
and 30% respectively.

Potential erosion hazard

Erosion hazard for bare land was calculated. The Universal water Soil Loss Indicator
(USLI) is used to indicate the sensitivity of soils for water erosion under land cover
change. This provides an indication of the potential impact of clearing land from its
existing vegetation. The methodology is based on the universal soil loss equation
(USLE) excluding the vegetation parameter, as reported by Tyrie and Gunawan

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 11

(1999) and NMFPb (1994b). If forest is cleared to be replaced by oil palm, then the
period between vegetation clearing and oil palm establishment is critical. Soil
erosion is a risk in that period; it may lead to irreversible decline in soil quality.
Modelled soil loss over 180 t ha y-1 are considered too high; it renders these lands
unsuitable for oil palm (Figure 5). The values for potential erosion hazard are
almost exclusively found in the mountain and very steep land units.

Figure 5. Soil erosion risk for bare soils modelled using Universal Soil Loss
Indicator

Soils
Oil palm can grow on a wide variety of soils. Sufficient water supply to the roots is
the most important requirement for crop development and production. The most
unfavourable soil conditions for oil palm cultivation according to Hartley (1988),
are:

• Poor drainage. Soils may be poorly drained due to low hydraulic

conductivity, as is the case in soils with high clay content, or because of the
topographical position. Soils in low-lying positions are normally poorly
drained.

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12 Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan

• Low water holding capacity. Gravelly and ironstone-rich soils are likely to
have a low available moisture retention capacity and/or a lower effective soil
depth, resulting in water stress during dry periods.
• Adverse chemical conditions. Oil palm does not grow very well on
nutrient poor or acid soils.
• Poor anchorage. Oil palm requires a soil deep enough to develop a root
system that can support the above-ground biomass.

The dominant soil types in Kalimantan (Table 2) are Tropudults (Soil Survey Staff
1996): strongly weathered, very acid, often overlying sedimentary rocks, found in
upland areas. Tropudults have a dense clay subsoil and are moderately well to well
drained, very deep, infertile and saturated with plant toxic aluminium. In general,
they are not suitable for smallholder agriculture with low-input management. The
only exception may be the traditional and nowadays almost non-existing, slash-
and-burn system with long fallows. The undulating to hilly plains over Tertiary
sediments can be planted with oil palm successfully if properly managed with
adequate lime and fertilizer application.

Special attention was given to peat soils as they are particularly important in the
discussion on expansion of oil palm and impacts on biodiversity and soil organic
carbon stocks. Oil palm can be grown successfully –in agronomic terms- on 90 to
120 cm of peat overlying clayey subsoils. It is difficult to establish oil palm on deep
peats (> 250 cm thick). Upon drainage, the peat shrinks and palms are unable to
develop a root system for anchoring; palms lean in all directions and fall over. Deep
peat soils cover several mapping units in Kalimantan and are particularly common
in Central Kalimantan (Figure 6). There are several sustainability issues related to
the cultivation of peat soils. These are discussed in paragraph 3.3.

Table 2. Main soil types of Kalimantan and their distribution

Soil type* Description Area

km2 % total

Dystropepts Shallow infertile soil 132559 24

Tropudults Weathered, aluminium-saturated 251507 45
soils with dense subsoils
Tropohemists Peat soils 50543 9
Placaquods Extremely weathered, infertile 19225 3
sands, with Fe and Al accumulation
in subsoil (‘podzols’)
Tropaquepts Wet soil 30476 6
Other 73478 13
Total 557788 100
*(Soil Survey Staff 1996)

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 13

Poor drainage conditions

To cultivate oil palm, it is best to maintain the water table at a depth of 0.60–
0.75 m. For the drainage design, the maximum saturation period allowed is three
days (stagnant water). Oil palm is tolerant of wetness if saturation does not persist
more than two weeks, and/or if water is oxygen-rich. Poorly drained conditions
prevail in coastal swamps, especially in Central and West Kalimantan (Figure 6).
Peat soils should receive a priority in conservation. Draining peat soils for oil palm
production is not sustainable and should be avoided.

The Mahakam, Berau, and Bulungan estuarine/deltaic swamps are located in East-
Kalimantan. Inland riverine plains and peat soils are found in places such as along
the Mahakam River and on the fringe of the footslopes of the Kapuas and Mueller
mountains on the border with Malaysia.

Heavy textured (high clay content) soils may be difficult and costly to drain.
Medium and coarse textured soils may also be poorly drained, particularly when
found in low lying topographic positions, but these soils can be improved by shallow
ditches.

Oil palm is sensitive to drought. Yields in areas with a moisture deficit of 400 mm
per annum have been reported to be only half of yields obtained in zero-deficit
areas. Because of the low-to-zero capillary rise in peat soils, dry spells lasting
longer than 10 days will result in significant yield reductions on these soils.

Peat soils are found in the flooded and poorly drained plains and swamps. With
appropriate management, oil palm can be grown on shallow peats. On deeper peat
soils, there is not sufficient anchorage possible for oil palm tree roots and these
soils are therefore not suitable for oil palm planting. Successful water management
is the key to the productive cultivation of oil palm on peat soils. This demands
systematic planning, organization and close control of drainage to maintain water
levels. Peat decomposes when drained, resulting in CO2 greenhouse gas emission to
the atmosphere –often aggravated by peat fires- and irreversible soil loss.
However, in deforested and already drained and degraded peatlands, agricultural
cropping has the potential to reduce fire risks and annual greenhouse gas
emissions. The case for sustainable agriculture on peats where the water levels are
carefully regulated remains to be proven (Sargeant 2001).

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14 Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan

Figure 6. Peat, poorly drained and potential sulphate acid soils in Kalimantan

Adverse chemical conditions

The success of oil palm depends to a large extent on sufficient fertiliser inputs. In
particular, dressings of potassium are required, and micro-nutrients such as copper,
zinc and boron are fundamental to healthy palm growth on peat soils. Potential acid
sulphate soils are characterized by the presence of pyrite (FeS2). When such soils
are drained, the pyrite oxidizes to sulphuric acid, leading to extreme acidification of
the soil rendering them unsuitable for oil palm. Such soils are found along the coast
of South- and East-Kalimantan. These soils are always a minor component within
the soil mapping unit (see Figure 6).

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 15

Low water holding capacity and poor anchorage

Low water holding capacity as well as poor anchorage are related to the soil depth.
Shallow soils occur mainly in the steep land systems and in land systems with
sandstone and limestone plateaus (Figure 7). The major areas of shallow soils are
in the central Kalimantan mountain range with the Schwaner and Mueller mountain
range in the North of Central Kalimantan extending to the Western part of East-
Kalimantan (Iran mountains). Shallows soils are also found in South Kalimantan
(Meratus mountains) and the karst mountains and plains on the Sangkulirang
Mangkalihat peninsula in East-Kalimantan.

Due to poor anchorage, oil palm on peat soils tends to lodge. Practices such as
compacting the planting row prior to planting and using the ‘hole-in-a-hole’ method
of planting help to minimize this problem. Only the top layer above the water table
can be compacted. Compaction does not cause a loss in material, but it does
contribute substantially to the initial peat subsidence.

Figure 7. Shallow soils and soils with poor anchorage (dominant soils shown only)
in Kalimantan

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16 Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan

3.2 Land suitability mapping

Based on the available information the oil palm suitability map (Figure 8) was
created. Table 3 shows the total area of land in Kalimantan with constraints for oil
palm cultivation. Peat soils, steep lands, poorly drained conditions, shallow soils,
and presence of acid-sulphate soils are the dominant limitations. Table 5
summarizes the land systems that have been classified as unsuitable for oil palm
cultivation.

Table 3. Area of problems soils and steep lands

Constraint ha km2 % of total area
Potential acid-sulphate soils 1104873 11049 2.1
Poorly drained mineral soils 4741327 47413 8.9
Peat soils 5899259 58993 11.0
Steeplands (slope >30%) 5623260 56233 10.5
Shallow soils 3269829 32698 6.1

About half the area of Kalimantan is considered highly to moderately suitable for oil
palm (Table 4, Figure 8). About 11% of the total area is considered marginally
suitable, implying that oil palm can be produced but severe constraints exist and
these may partly be overcome by management. In about a third of Kalimantan the
growth of oil palm is not economic under any likely circumstances.

Dominant constraints are slope steepness and soil drainage (Figure 4 and Figure 6).
The latter can partly be overcome by management interventions.

Table 4. Extent of suitability classes for oil palm

Suitability class km2 % total area
Optimal 8752 2
Possible 264027 49
Constrained 56781 11
Not suitable 198405 37
No data 6876 1

Table 5. Unsuitable land systems for oil palm

Land system description Main limitation LS code
Extremely steep sided volcanic plugs, hills Slope steepness TBA
Sub-parallel ridges over basic rocks Slope steepness JLH
Mountain ridges over basic rocks Slope steepness BPD
Rugged karst ridges and mountains Slope steepness OKI
Granite mountain ridge systems Slope steepness/soil depth TWI
Steep hills over basic & metamorphic rock Slope steepness/soil depth PLN
Flat sandy terraces, covered by peat Wetness/soil depth BRH
Backswamps of inland floodplains Wetness PMG
Shallow peat swamps (base management) Wetness MDW
Swampy floodplain of narrow valleys Wetness BLI
Intertidal mudflats Wetness/salinity KJP
Coalescent, estuarine/riverine plains Wetness/salinity KHY
Deep (>2 m) peat swamps Foothold for roots GBT

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 17

Figure 8. Physical suitability for oil palm under low input and technology (base
management), (map representation for dominant soils only)

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18 Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan

3.3 Management levels and land suitability

Management levels greatly influence crop yields. Smallholders who provide few
external inputs will achieve lower yields than large-scale developers that provide all
required inputs in a timely manner. Taking these factors into account, management
shifts have been created, which are related to the levels of input defined under the
different management systems and indicate how well a particular management type
could overcome a given constraint. Two levels of management have been applied:

High, which was defined as:

• supply of fertilizers in a timely manner
• minor soil drainage works as required
• timely weeding/spraying
• high level road maintenance
• 25 ha lower limit block size
• proper labour supervision to ensure regular fruit bunch collection
• steeper slopes to be planted with care to avoid soil erosion

The following amelioration activities are assumed to be beyond the capability of

'high levels' of management:
• major flood control
• major soil drainage works
• water control to prevent acid-sulphate soil development
• terracing of steep land

Base, where management refers to the cultivation of a site in its natural state with
no management inputs other than clearing. Basic land qualities such as the natural
soil fertility and drainage status of the soil will thus be very important in ensuring
reasonable yields. Similarly, block size will be much less relevant to a traditional
farmer than a large-scale developer.

Slope conditions are relevant in the planting phase mainly. After planting no further
land preparation is required and harvesting can be carried out by hand. Slope
criteria are less stringent under base management. However, sloping land is more
limiting for high-level management because of machinery accessibility. Similarly,
strongly dissected land (small blocks) is a limitation for a high management level
since it implies high costs for road and bridge construction.

For maintenance (e.g. weeding, fertilization, pest and disease control) and
harvesting, one 4- or 5-tonne farm tractor is usually required for every 250 ha. In-
field collection means transporting the FFB (Fresh Fruit Bunches) from field roads to
the ramp alongside the main road, from where a 10-tonne lorry will transport them
to the mill. The transportation needs have significant implications for the
infrastructure.

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 19

Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the physical suitability of oil palm assuming different
management levels: base (Figure 8), and high (Figure 9). With sloping land being
more limiting for high-level management, more land in the central mountains is
considered suitable under base management than under high-level management.
The figures show that some of the poorly drained lands -otherwise unsuitable- are
potentially suitable under high management with the application of drainage works
(although increasing input costs). Draining peat soils for oil palm production is not
sustainable because peat decomposes when drained, resulting in CO2 greenhouse
gas emission to the atmosphere and irreversible soil loss. Also with drainage, there
is a possibility that all peat is lost before the minimum of production years required
for an oil palm plantation to be economic. Peat fires have contributed to the
Southeast Asian haze pollution. Biodiversity values and rare flora and fauna on peat
swamps are additional arguments for conservation of peat forests and peat
swamps.

Figure 9. Physical land suitability for oil palm under high levels of input and
technology

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20 Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan

3.4 Spatial planning and forest management zonation

To estimate the potential area of expansion for oil palm that is both physically
suitable and has no other restriction, an analysis was made that included a range of
additional criteria. A zonation was made for forest and land management planning.
The zonation is the result of a multi-layered analysis of the constraints on forest
land management. It considers legal and policy constraints, environmental
constraints concerning soil erosion and land degradation, social constraints through
land use and tenure issues, and recent proposals contained in the spatial plan
(RUTR or RTRWP) for biogenetic diversity conservation and protection. Each of the
mapped classes represents a unique combination of these factors, which provide a
basis for a sustainable management strategy and spatial planning. The land cover
was obtained from RePPProT (1990). Figure 10 is based on Tyrie and Gunawan
(1999) and RePPProT (1990) and presents the zonation for forest and land
management planning.

Figure 10. Zonation for forest management planning and their legal land status

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 21

The legend of the map of the land status and forest management zonation was
simplified to highlight the protected forest areas, the forest reserves, and the
fragile lands, to reveal areas with legal and environmental restrictions for use (see
Figure 11). The remaining land area (visualized in orange), when overlaid with the
land suitability map for oil palm, then indicates the area with potential for
expansion for other uses, such as estate crops (oil palm). Yet, even within these
areas there will be limitations not taken into account in this analysis.

Figure 11. Forest protection status

Figure 10 and Figure 11 illustrate the complexity and multi-dimensionality of policy

formulation and planning for sustainable forest management and plantation
development. The responsibility for detailed spatial planning and granting
concessions has shifted largely to district governments after decentralization of
power from the national ministries to the districts in the late nineties. In granting
concessions, the spatial dimension of estate crop planning must take the competing
claims on land into account and, therefore, should consider environmental,
economic, legal and social factors. It is often also a matter of spatial optimization:
Where can a certain activity be done in a sustainable and productive way without
harming other interests?

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 23

DISCUSSION

Possibilities for and the desirability of oil palm expansion and intensification depend
on many factors, including biophysical conditions. Other key factors relate to the
socio- economic and legal contexts. The biophysical land suitability study for oil
palm was restricted to soil, terrain, and climate. About half the area of Kalimantan
was classified as highly to moderately suitable for oil palm (base management
level).

Recently, there has been considerable discussion about the plans for large-scale
expansion of oil palm plantings in Kalimantan, along the Kalimantan-Sarawak-
Sabah border. Definitions vary between Ministries, of the width of what is called the
‘Border oil palm mega-project’; between 5 kilometres up to 100 kilometres. Judging
from the land suitability maps, the land in Kalimantan adjacent to the border with
Sarawak and Sabah is dominantly unsuited for oil palm cultivation. Minor areas are
considered suitable, but severely constrained, with the exception of an area in
Bulungan (N-NE of East Kalimantan) and part of the West-Kalimantan border area
in which oil palm establishment is biophysically possible.

Other land suitability studies done for the border area, although based on different
assumptions and different methodologies, also found the major part of the border
area to be unsuitable for oil palm cultivation (Bappenas 2006; IOPRI 2006; Wakker
2006).

The heart of Borneo, which is largely the Iran Mountains and the Schwaner and
Mueller mountains in South and central Kalimantan, is largely overlapping with the
‘mega-border area’.

For planning and land negotiation, biophysical suitability is but one aspect of
potential quality of land use. Foremost, other factors are to be considered such as
the legal status of land, actual land use, biodiversity conservation, and social and
tenural aspects. Indonesia has clear rules and regulations related to the use of
forestland and which areas are eligible for exploitation, but these are not always
enforced.

Access to land for plantation development is granted by the regional government.

The Governors’ office draws up a provincial land use plan every 5 years. For
changing conversion of forest land for agricultural purposes, permission is needed
from the Ministry of Forestry (MoF) (Potter and Lee 1998). Due to its limited
presence in the region, there are numerous discrepancies in the process of granting
concessions; the compilation and approval of the provincial land use plans (RTRWP)
need to be re-examined (Potter and Lee 1998). After decentralization, spatial plans
are being developed at district level and therefore deviate from the earlier
centrally-developed spatial plans.

Redirecting plantation development to degraded lands would facilitate the desired

development of the oil palm sector while minimizing the impact of further
development on Indonesia’s existing forest cover (Casson 2000). In principle, oil
palm cultivation is well possible on the dominant upland soils of Kalimantan that
have severe restrictions for other agricultural purposes. However, these soils are
easily erodible, acid and relatively infertile and, if they are to be developed at all,

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24 Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan

then they are best managed with controlled estate crops (acid and aluminium
tolerant species/varieties), properly managed, with adequate soil cover, lime and
fertilizer application.

Peat soils should receive a priority in conservation. Draining peat soils for oil palm
production is not sustainable because peat decomposes when drained, resulting in
CO2 greenhouse gas emission to the atmosphere –often aggravated by peat fires-
and irreversible soil loss. However, in deforested and already drained and degraded
peatlands, agricultural cropping has the potential to reduce fire risks and annual
greenhouse gas emissions.

The methodology presented in this study can be applied using recent land cover
information, more detailed soil maps, and district spatial plans.

Affiliation
On request of the Department of International Affairs of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Nature and Food Quality (LNV), a study was conducted on Land Suitability for Oil
Palm in Kalimantan, Indonesia. The study was carried out by Ir. Stephan Mantel,
Mr. Jan Huting (ISRIC – World Soil Information), Mr. A. Gunawan (short term
consultant), Dr Henk Wösten (Alterra, Wageningen UR, project leader) and Dr Jan
Verhagen (Plant Research International, Wageningen UR). Contact persons at LNV
were Ir. Karin Olsthoorn, Drs. Marcel Vernooij, Drs. Petra van den Hende and Dr.
Leo Hagedoorn.

Acknowledgements
We thank Mr. A. Gunawan for support in database analysis and PLANTGRO model
runs, Mr. Jan Huting for map compilations, and Ms. Yolanda Karpes for assistance in
report layout. Valuable comments on a draft of this report were received from Mr.
Niels Batjes and Mr. David Dent.

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 25

REFERENCES

Bappenas 2006. Pernataan Ruang dan Infrastruktur Kawasan Perbatasan

Kalimantan. In: Seminar Pengembangan Perkebunan Kelapa Sawit Yang
Berwawasan Lingkungan. Direktur Jenderal Penataan Ruang Jakarta, 23 Januari
2006
Casson A 2000. The hesistant boom: Indonesia's oil palm sub-sector in an era of
economic crisis and political change. Occasional paper no. 29, Center for
International Forestry Research, Bogor
DID 2001. Water management guidelines for agricultural development in coastal
lowlands of Sarawak, Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Sarawak
Gurmit Singh 1999. Optimal agro-management practices for maximum oil palm
productivity; Various aspects of large scale oil palm cultivation on peat soil. The
Incorporated Society of Planters, Central Sarawak Branch, Sibu, Sarawak, pp.
66-85
Hackett C 1991. PLANTGRO, a software package for coarse prediction of plant
growth. CSIRO, Melbourne, 242 pp
Hartley CWS 1988. The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). Longman Scientific and
Technical, UK, 761 pp
Hutchinson G 2005. PlantGro. Matching plants to soils and climates. Version 4.0 for
Windows. Topoclimate Services Pty Ltd
IOPRI, 2006. Kebijakan Pengembangan Kelapa Sawit kaitannya dengan
Pengembangan Kawasan Perbatasan. Indonesian Palm Oil Research Institute. In:
Seminar Rencana Pengembangan Perkebunan Kelapa Sawit di Perbatasan
Kalimantan – Malaysia. Departemen Pertanian, Direktorat Jenderal Perkebunan
Jakarta, 23 Januari 2006
LREP 1990. Land Resources Evaluation and Planning Project. Soil database
Management. Explanatory booklet of the land unit and soil map of the Takengon
sheet, Sumatra. Centre for Soil and Agroclimate Research, Bogor
Mantel S 2001. Berau Model Forest Area. Environmental datasets and maps: land
systems inventory. Consultants report, BFMP-EU, Jakarta
NMFP 1994a. The preparation of land data base forms for site assessment
handbook. National masterplan for forest plantations. Republic of Indonesia,
Ministry of Forestry, Directorate General of reforestation and land rehabilitation,
DHV-consultants, P.T. Tricon Jaya, P.T. Catur Tunggal Sarana Consult, Jakarta
NMFP 1994b. Soil erosion and cover management tool handbook. National
Masterplan for Forest Plantations. Report F/4. DGRRL Ministry of Forestry,
Indonesia, Jakarta
Potter L and Lee J 1998. Tree Planting in Indonesia: Trends, Impacts and
Directions. CIFOR Occasional Paper no. 18, Center for International Forestry
Research, Bogor
RePPProT 1987a. Land Resources Development Centre and Bina Program
Transmigrasi. Review of phase I Results, West Kalimantan, Regional Planning
Programme for Transmigration (RePPProT). Results. Land Resources
Department/Bina Program, Jakarta
RePPProT 1987b. Land Resources Development Centre and Bina Program
Transmigrasi. Review of phase I, East and South Kalimantan, Regional Planning
Programme for Transmigration (RePPProT). Vol. 1, Main report, Annexes 1 and
2, Land Resources Department/Bina Program, Jakarta
RePPProT 1987c. Land Resources Development Centre and Bina Program
Transmigrasi. Review of phase Ib, Central Kalimantan, Regional Planning

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26 Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan

Programme for Transmigration (RePPProT). Results. Land Resources

Department/Bina Program, Jakarta
RePPProT 1990. The Land Resources of Indonesia: a national overview. Main report.
Regional Planning Programme for Transmigration (RePPProT). Land Resources
Department/Bina Program, Jakarta
Soil Survey Staff 1996. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. US Government Printing office,
Washington DC, 644 pp
Sargeant HJ 2001. Vegetation Fires in Sumatra, Indonesia. Oil Palm Agriculture in
the Wetlands of Sumatra: Destruction or Development? European Union Forest
Fire Prevention and Control Project with Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi Sumatera
Selatan, European Union and Ministry of Forestry, Jakarta, Indonesia
Tyrie GR and Gunawan A 1999. The environmental framework as a basis for forest
management planning. In: Laumonier Y, B. King, C. Legg, K. Rennolls (Editor),
International Conference on Data Management and Modelling Using Remote
Sensing and GIS for Tropical Forest Land Inventory. European Union, Rodeo
International Publishers, Jakarta, pp. 55-71
Wakker E 2006. The Kalimantan Border Oil Palm Mega Project. A report for
Milieudefensie-Friends of the Earth Netherlands and Swedish Society for Nature
Conservation (SSNC), Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp. 48

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Land Suitability Oil Palm in Kalimantan 27

APPENDIX - PLANTGRO land suitability model

PLANTGRO (Hackett 1991) is a simple model that matches crop requirements with
environmental (climate and soil) conditions (see Table 6). The relationship between
the environment and crop are depicted using simple graphs, are empirical and can
easily be adjusted. Crop requirements are matched against the environmental
conditions to establish the land suitability for a specific crop. The model determines
yield reduction based on the most limiting factor. Limitations are rated on a scale of
0 to 9, 0 being optimum and 9 lethal for the crop. In general scores of 0 to 5 are
considered optimal to moderately suitable, for 6 and 7 production is possible, for
score 8 production is strongly limited and 9 indicates that the crop can not grow
given the environmental conditions.

Table 6. Soil and climate factors used by PLANTGRO for site assessment

Cation exchange capacity Solar radiation

Base saturation Tolerance to brief cold
Soil reaction (pH) Tolerance to extended cold
Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K) Tolerance to heat damage
Salinity Thermal units
Effective soil depth Water availability
Soil texture Seasonal water logging
Slope Flooding
Susceptibility to wind damage

Some constraints can be remedied by management. Drainage and irrigation control

excess and shortage of water. Applying fertilizers, lime etc. aim to improve the
chemical condition of the soil. Crop management like the timing of planting or
timing of preventive treatments against pest and disease outbreaks can be
assessed for a given set of soil and climate conditions.

ISRIC Report 2007/01

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by the Netherlands Government. We have a strategic association with Wageningen
University and Research Centre.

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- To inform and educate - through the World Soil Museum, public information, discussion
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