Chapter 1 - 2

Qualitative Marketing
Research
Qualitative Marketing
Research
Understanding How Behavioral
Complexities Drive Marketing
Strategies
Rajagopal
Qualitative Marketing Research: Understanding How Behavioral
Complexities Drive Marketing Strategies
Copyright © Business Expert Press, LLC, 2019.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

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First published in 2019 by

Business Expert Press, LLC
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ISBN-13: 978-1-94999-101-7 (paperback)

ISBN-13: 978-1-94999-102-4 (e-book)
Business Expert Press Marketing Collection
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Printed in the United States of America.

With love to Arati, Ananya, Amritanshu,
little Akhilesh and Niharika
who always support my academic endeavors
Abstract
Qualitative research contributions have enhanced scope in business man-
agement alongside the growth of consumer-centric marketing strategies,
which is increasingly getting complex and multidimensional. Qualitative
research helps understanding contextual interrelationships in business
and cognitive human factors in decision making in business and man-
agement. Qualitative research has high value as explorative research tool
for moderating intangible information. This book discusses qualitative
research modeling and new approaches of qualitative data collection,
interpretation of results, reporting, and deriving managerial implications.
Qualitative research manages the fundamental challenge in interpret-
ing the complexities associated with consumer behavior, particularly in
large diversified marketplace and guides managers. This book presents
new insights on conducting qualitative market research. It emphasizes on
the application of qualitative research in consumer-centric companies of
various categories ranging from multinational companies to niche b usiness
organizations. It helps business researchers in drawing contemporary
interpretations to the behavioral complexities of consumers. Discussions
in the book argue that companies need to consider a broader perspective
of marketing research to support marketing decisions derived by under-
standing consumer behavior using qualitative research methodology.
Keywords
action research; ethnography; evidence-based research; information man-
agement; mixed-method research; narrative analytics; qualitative research
design; qualitative research
Contents
Preface��xi
Acknowledgments�� xix
Chapter 1 Introduction to Qualitative Research��1

Chapter 2 Qualitative Research Design��39
Chapter 3 Information Management in Qualitative Research��79
Chapter 4 Evidence-Based Research��115
Chapter 5 Mixed Methods and Qualitative Software��147
About the Author��167

Index��169
Preface
Qualitative research practices are growing parallel to quantitative research
applications as the market today has been largely influenced by intangi-
ble variables, which could be better researched through in-depth inqui-
ries. Consumer behavior is continuously changing, and social media is
playing a critical role in determining marketing decisions. Research in
the areas of consumer behavior, grapevine effect of social media, and
organizational culture can be well studied through qualitative method-
ology. Qualitative research has emerged today with an enhanced scope
in business m anagement in conjunction with the social media driven
digital marketing, which is increasingly getting complex and multidi-
mensional. The strength of qualitative research has been evidenced in
understanding context and interrelationships of cognitive human factors
with decision sciences in business and management. It continues to rep-
resent a broad and prevalent set of challenges extended beyond business
research to political, economic, and social domains. Qualitative research
faces some challenges like quantitative research techniques in terms of
validation and generalization of research findings. Qualitative research
therefore has increasing potential to determine the human involvement
in business and related disciplines. Managers face major challenges in
accepting the findings of qualitative research, as they are heterogeneous
in analysis and descriptive in nature. The hidden challenge with the qual-
itative research is to conduct it in a scientific manner and justify claims
for its own significance, effectiveness, and derived meaning. It requires a
highly active engagement from the researchers, respondents, and man-
agers to conduct qualitative research scientifically and drive a great deal
of effort to encapsulate intellectual, practical, physical, and emotional
information analytics.
Although contemporary market research practices are scientifically
carried out using effective statistical techniques and interpretation of
results to support the development of appropriate strategies, qualita-
tive research has high value as explorative research tool for moderating
xii Preface
intangible information. Of these, questionnaire structuring, area sam-

pling, and trend analysis are widely adopted techniques in marketing
research. An effective information system makes the marketing research
a more analytical, fact finding and prolific decision-making exercise. The
scope for marketing research is very wide, and it is carried out by iden-
tifying potential markets and determining the marketing mix. There are
many typologies argued by the marketing research scholars. Marketing
research orientation shifts according to different typologies. Motivational
research is very significant, and it studies the psychographics or qualita-
tive perspectives of value and lifestyle of consumers. This is a continuum
of new skills and ideas that are accredited to marketing research concepts
and practices. Marketing research, thus, provides important help to man-
agement by supporting decision-making to set objectives, developing an
action plan, executing the plan, and controlling its performance.
Despite wider concerns in academics for effective application of qual-
itative research in the area of marketing, it has been argued that the full
potential of qualitative inquiry is not being effectively used. The reason for
low preferences to evaluate consumer cognition and managerial perspec-
tives with qualitative inquiry relates to the tendency to promote quan-
titative methods, though they might not explain clearly the perceptions
and values of consumers and employees. These tendencies explain why
researchers should choose qualitative methods to address foundational
issues. To address the need for qualitative research, this book d iscusses
qualitative research modeling and new approaches of qualitative data
collection, interpretation of results, reporting, and deriving managerial
implications. Accordingly, this book identifies the strengths and weak-
nesses of qualitative research methods and argues for the need to reorient
business research toward the qualitative inquiry. The discussion model of
the book is elaborated in Figure P1.
This book examines the improved qualitative research methods, and
emphasizes the application of qualitative research in consumer-centric
companies of various categories ranging from multinational companies
to niche business organizations. Qualitative research designs discussed
in the book refer to decision-making across consumer cultures, analyz-
ing the changing preferences, vogue, and marketplace environment. The
book deliberates the role of qualitative research in carrying out customer-
Perceptional analysis, contextual analysis of Cognitive analysis, opinion poll,
organizations, market players, and stakeholders behavioral interpretation, action research,
design based research Managerial social laboratory for business development
implications
• Consumer analytics
• Consumer centric business models
• Co-creation
Current business • Market competitiveness Qualitative
environment • Sustainable strategies research design
• Best practices
• Consumer behavior • Attributes
• Market competition • Theoretical perspectives
Platform for discussion • Design development
• Business performance
critical analysis and arguments • Data collection
• Ethnographic research, • Information exploration
• Employee engagement research, • Data collection methods
• Qualitative loop • Participatory research appraisal
• Research, case research, • Interview techniques
• Phenomenology, • Information analysis
• Anthropomorphic analysis • Coding
• Evidenced based research
• Software applications
• Data analysis and reporting
• Mixed methods
Interactive applications of qualitative research
Preface
Figure P1 Discussion paradigm of the book

xiii
xiv Preface
oriented strategies, like Shakti experiment (2003) of Hindustan Lever

Limited in India, which empowered rural women for community mar-
keting of its brands. One of the core arguments presented in this book is
to use qualitative methodologies to study brand-associated anthropomor-
phic analysis, ethnographic research for mapping social needs, desires,
and preferences for multinational brands, and phenomenological research
to measure the brand reputation in the community.
Marketing strategies can be derived based on qualitative research in
reference to the social values, business ambience, and consumer attitudes
to understand the consumer cognitive drivers meticulously, and develop
synergy with the business strategies. In the growing market competition
in the 21st century, corporate success depends on consumer-oriented
business strategies formulated by analyzing the consumer psychology.
This book presents new insights on conducting and applying qualita-
tive market research. It helps business researchers in drawing contem-
porary interpretations to the behavioral complexities of consumers. The
book also guides corporate managers in developing marketing strategies
in reference to time, territory, thrust, target, and tasks (five Ts) focused
on the consumers and market competitiveness. Qualitative research
helps companies in understanding the emerging consumer behavioral
perspectives, developing marketing and operations dexterity, and manag-
ing economies of scale, distribution, pricing, and promotion advantages.
New enterprise in the global marketplace needs strong management skills
for consumer-driven strategies, competitiveness, and assuring sustainable
growth. Hence qualitative research needs to be applied in business as a tool
for developing consumer-centric strategy. Qualitative research manages
the fundamental challenge in interpreting the complexities associated
with consumer behavior, particularly in large diversified m
arketplace and
guides managers.
Epistemologically, positivism in qualitative research has diversified
to take a cursory or careful look on phenomena or issues of organiza-
tional needs, interest, and growth. These phenomena have driven positiv-
ism in qualitative research and led through the diversities of knowledge
over the past streamlined and rhythmic course of philosophical thinking.
In contemporary perspective, globalization has opened many options
to manage consumer-oriented business, which prompted companies to
Preface xv
understand consumer behavior both intrinsically and extrinsically. Qual-

itative research has always been found to be the right methodology to
understand consumer behavior. Thus, most companies need to under-
stand consumers by associating them in the global marketplace in order
to develop collateral work dynamics. The book blends consumer behavior
perspectives with qualitative research designs to converge effective busi-
ness performance and societal values. The book argues that companies
need to consider a broader perspective of marketing research to support
marketing decisions derived by understanding consumer behavior. This
book bridges the methodological perspectives in marketing research with
applied marketing decisions putting the consumer first in the business
management process.
The concept of qualitative research culture has received widespread
attention as a strategic decision tool in marketing management. It is nec-
essary to understand the thematic ambience of research in reference to the
rationale of the study, its fitness to the study area, available potential for
acquiring information, and anticipated outcome of the research for carry-
ing forward a quality research study. Setting qualitative research scenario
is a challenging task for researchers in which research questions, proposi-
tions, and constructs of the study need to be developed upon reviewing
previous studies. Then, the field research operations of the study could
be managed by defining samples for qualitative study, locating the data
collection region, developing profile of respondents, and scheduling

meetings with the identified samples for acquiring information.
Market research also involves direct observation of customers who
are buying and using the products. This method allows companies to
know the consumer behavior toward the existing products and develop
competitive marketing strategy accordingly. The behavior of consumers
toward the existing products gives important clues to customer prefer-
ences, especially in mature markets. In markets, where access is free, and
the customers have well-developed preferences, the sales records of the
various products constitute a shortcut to understanding customer pref-
erences. This method is very useful during the prelaunch stage for the
foreign firms to develop an appropriate launch of their products in the
segmented markets. The method of observation also faces some practi-
cal difficulties if certain assumptions are made to interpret the observed
xvi Preface
issues. A firm may assume that the current products reflect customer pref-
erences, and such assumption is likely to hold only in mature markets
with no entry barriers. However, in markets, where customers have been
deprived of products because of trade barriers, consumers might display
a preference for something different. Such latent preferences cannot be
uncovered through observation. On the other hand, the causal marketing
research is sometimes combined with experimental methods of research
and causal models. This book serves as a managerial guide to work with
the new perspectives of qualitative marketing research.
Understanding the need for qualitative research, business houses today
realize that it is essential to support a set of key decisions that collectively
determine how companies can develop marketing decisions, perform in
the competitive marketplace, and mitigate consumer-led risks. This book
argues new dimensions associated with the implications of qualitative
research to measure the changing perspectives of consumer preferences,
knowledge, values, and organizational decision-making abilities, and
addresses several pertinent questions that include the following:
• Why is qualitative research necessary for marketing

decision-making?
• How to interpret behavioral and intangible dimensions
related to market environment?
• Why should companies make business decisions based on the
consumer experience?
• How to make right cognitive analytics for making right
decisions in consumer-centric business?
• Why do key decision makers need to read the minds of the
stakeholders, and struggle to create value?
This book connects managers to behavioral domain of all the role

players in the marketplace and offers a strategic direction in marketing
decisions. A faster, cost-effective, and most commonly used method to
learn about customers in a market is to do a trade survey by interview-
ing people in the distribution channels and trade associations. In trade
surveys, types of buyers, types of buying processes used, and the sources
of buyer information are clearly defined. Professional market research
Preface xvii
firms can also provide a solution to the multinational companies seeking

trade surveys on who the respondents should be, when to administer the
questionnaires, what should be the nature of questions, and how many
questions should be used in the trade surveys. These market research firms
provide a good starting point for further data gathering and analysis.
This book also offers qualitative research design for analyzing consumer
psychodynamics through peer-to-peer communication, and suggests
the decision path. Effective business management begins with selecting
and prioritizing the stakeholder needs to support the company’s mission
and strategy. This book builds knowledge and skills on the theoretical and
applied aspects of the qualitative research methods to guide consumer-led
business strategies.
This book guides qualitative researchers to learn to see, hear, perceive,
and understand in new ways. Students need to learn to move themselves
out of the center of their own attention, and clearly observe social set-
tings and the individuals within them. The book guides researchers to
learn qualitative research designs to analyze consumer experience. They
need to develop a finely tuned ethical sense and negotiate ethical dilem-
mas encountered in the research process. This book systematically directs
researchers to analyze and perceive patterns in the data they collect, so
that they can conduct thematic analysis. This book bridges the myths
and realities on qualitative research and suggests cognitive analytics-based
marketing strategies for building stakeholders value. In the dynamic and
competitive marketplace today, a manager’s key challenge is coping with
frequently changing preferences of consumers and market demand. This
book methodologically presents the process of conducting qualitative
research with focus on contemporary resources such as digital qualitative
analytics, text-data mining, image and verbal data analytics, user-gener-
ated content analysis, and opinion breakdown analysis in an organization
or a community.
This book provides the knowledge and skills on qualitative research
that managers can use to develop consumer-driven marketing strategies.
The details on qualitative research theories, study design, information
analysis, interpretation of verbal information, and reporting have been
explained systematically. Most growing companies have the vision to con-
sistently create or introduce new business initiatives with customers and
xviii Preface
suppliers, and incorporate consumer opinion database into their enter-

prise resources planning systems. This book offers knowledge and skills
also about developing market-centric and competition-oriented models
using qualitative research models. It illustrates the power of qualitative
research in managing sensitive market interventions through market-
ing-mix strategies, innovation, and technology application for expanding
and establishing business in competitive markets. The broad foundation
of this book is laid on conceptual discussions on qualitative research,
and applied arguments toward decision-making in developing marketing
strategies. This book categorically reviews qualitative research theories,
concepts, and previous researches, and discusses the applied tools and
techniques for business decisions. This book significantly contributes to
the existing literature and serves as a learning post and a think-tank for
students, researchers, and business managers.
Rajagopal
November 09, 2018
Mexico City
Acknowledgments
In completing this volume, I have been benefitted by discussions with
my colleagues within and outside EGADE Business School. I am thank-
ful to Dr. Ernesto Amoros, Professor and Associate National Director of
Doctoral Program at EGADE Business School, Mexico, who has given
me the opportunity to deliver courses on qualitative research in the doc-
toral program. I thank all my students of graduate and doctoral programs
at EGADE Business School for sharing enriching ideas on the subject
during classroom discussions, which helped in building this book on the
framework of innovative ideas. This book is an outgrowth of my teach-
ing new concepts in qualitative research to doctoral research scholars and
working managers in the MBA program.
I also acknowledge the outstanding support of Robin J. Zwettler,
Executive Editor of Business Expert Press, who critically examined the
proposal, guided the manuscript preparation, and took the publication
process forward. My special thanks to Dr. Naresh Malhotra, Regents
Professor Emeritus at Scheller College of Business, Georgia Tec Univer-
sity, and series editor on consumer behavior at Business Expert Press,
for his guidance and encouragement in bringing out this volume. I am
thankful to various anonymous referees of my previous research works
on innovation and technology management that helped me in looking
deeper into the conceptual gaps and improving the quality with their
valuable comments.
Finally, I express my deep gratitude to my beloved wife Arati
Rajagopal, who has been instrumental in completing this book like all
other works of mine. I acknowledge her help in copyediting the first draft
of the manuscript, and for staying in touch till the final proofs were cross-
checked and index was developed.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Qualitative
Research
Overview
Qualitative research is an art of learning from people by analyzing their
perceptions, emotions, and neurophysical dynamics concerning social,
cultural and personal values, and lifestyle. This is an explorative research
tool used through interpersonal discussions and continuous observations
of subjects in a given field of study. Qualitative research method has
evolved epistemologically across positivism, empiricism, and interpre-
tive schools of thought, which has influenced symbolic interactionism,
phenomenology, and ethnographic research streams. Human interactiv-
ity, freedom of expressions, emotional manifestation, logic, and rational-
ity in information provide insights into the research problem, and help
to interlink ideas through semantic mapping for potential quantitative
research. This chapter discusses salient features of qualitative research as a
tool and emphasizes the attributes of a good researcher to conduct qual-
itative research. The core discussions in this chapter are the ecosystem of
qualitative research, research planning, and developing research design. In
addition, the chapter discusses the evolution of schools of thought in the
context of qualitative research.
Introduction
Market research in the growing competitive business environment is a
complex phenomenon. There is no single method, which can suffice the
dynamic strategy development for companies in the rapidly changing
markets. Market research organizations emphasize on data-based quan-
titative analysis to help companies in making probabilistic decision using
2 Qualitative Marketing Research
various business analytics tools. Various statistical methods are encour-

aged in the areas of decision sciences to guide marketing research and
offer dynamic solutions with the real-time business environment. How-
ever, a plethora of data with precise quantitative analytics, sometimes
fails to diagnose the complexities in business. Understanding consumer
behavior and values are intertwined with the psychosocial, personal, and
cognitive complexities. This nucleus focuses the consumer behavior at the
hub of the business where every company invests its resources to reach out
the consumers over space and time. The underlying challenge in market
research is to understand the consumer who is the nucleus of the business
ecosystem, and is intertwined with the psychosocial, economic, political,
technological, and legal complexities. The consumer yet acts as the pivot
of business and overpowers the markets across the regions. Understanding
consumer is as complex as knowing the human mind, as the neurosci-
entists claim that about 10 percent of its total potential has been dis-
covered as on today. Learning from consumers is a grassroots expedition
for researchers to explore the emotions, perception, attitude, and behav-
ior that lead to the semantics of decision making within the dynamic of
business ecosystem. Interacting with consumers to learn their emotions
is central to qualitative inquiries, and mapping the cognitive analytics to
guide the market research for an organization is the foundation of quali-
tative research. Thus, qualitative research is more dynamic, uncertain, and
complex, which is beyond the numeric expressions.
Qualitative research draws interpretations of liberal cognitive expres-
sions through a systematic approach to inductive and deductive theories,
and thus is essential to the scientific method in the pursuit of knowl-
edge. Qualitative research is an inquiry process based on interpretivism,
which focuses on interpretation and meaning of responses collected, and
aims to explore social or human problems. The inductive research out-
grows through qualitative design of investigation, which believes that
the information collected through interviews, storyboard analytics, and
observations are prima facie true and can be validated as an expression
of the respondent. However, the inductive logic that extends from some
observations to all, can never be fully tested or proven due to the lack
of homogeneity in the information. Contrary to qualitative research,
the deductive process generates conclusions from the generalizations
Introduction to Qualitative Research 3
by analyzing the quantitative data. The deductive inquires require

interpreting the generalizations though cognitive analytics against the
numeric data.
Qualitative research is an ethnographic and phenomenological expe-
dition to measure human values, emotions, and logical narratives. It is
an exciting experience and an important way to understand the percep-
tions of respondents. Mapping the cognitive dynamics of consumers is
a highly rewarding activity for researchers as it offers several judgmen-
tal moves for making right marketing strategies. The study of cognitive
analytics involves neurocentric expressions of market players including
manufacturers, suppliers, retailers, consumers, and corporate strategists
in the marketing organizations. Qualitative research allows researchers
to explore a wide array of dimensions in the sociocultural, behavioral,
and business-related domains emerging from the understandings, expe-
riences, and future propositions (Mason 2002). Qualitative inquiries are
founded on reasoning and thematic connectivity of arguments entwined
in a research domain. Such inquiries are held through in-depth inter-
views, perceptual mapping, cognitive semantics, and sharing of experi-
ences across spatial and temporal dimensions.
Attributes of Qualitative Research

Qualitative information is a source of well-grounded rich descriptions,
which imparts knowledge in identifiable local contexts. Researcher can
preserve the chronological flow with qualitative data, map the chrono-
logical order of information, events and consequences, and derive fruitful
explanations. In general, the attributes of qualitative research methodol-
ogy are as follows:
• Informal scenario
• Nonprobability-based sampling
• Nongeneralizable sampling
• Circular reasoning
• Formative, earlier phases
• Rich information and time-consuming
• Flexible study design
• Use of adaptive instrument

• Inductive study
Qualitative research is conducted in an informal scenario, which is

comfortable to the respondents and researcher. As the qualitative inquiry
is based on sharing experiences and forethoughts, and mapping seman-
tics of perceptions, it needs to be organized in a place that respects pri-
vacy and personality. Creating an exhibitionistic setup may distract the
respondents and restrict the flow of thoughts in a construed ambiance.
The most suitable ambiance for qualitative research is the place, which is
free from external interventions, dependable, and relaxing. In qualitative
research, the focus is mainly on verbal elucidations, facial interpretations,
and the researcher’s observation. Qualitative research involves an interpre-
tive, naturalistic approach to explore the research themes, which demands
qualitative researchers to explore research in the natural settings. There-
fore, conducting research in the natural setting of participants would
benefit the researchers. It would enable them to interpret phenomena in
terms of the meanings embedded in the responses of the subjects. The
effects of the environment on conducting qualitative research studies are
as discussed as follows:
• Created settings for interviews make respondents conscious

and submissive to the researchers. Such ambiences suppress
the cognitive emotions and expressions in responding to
the questions.
• Researchers can make relevant assumptions by understanding
the quality of life and psychosocial determinants of respon-
dents in a natural environment.
• Openness of mind is largely influenced by ergonomic set-
tings for interviews against expressing in a natural way. For
instance, a studio setting of a television interview affects the
psychoneurotic conditions of a casual interviewee.
• Conversations with respondents adapting to their existing
quality of life conditions influence behavioral attributes.
Therefore, ethnographic way of research is considered to be
an effective tool for conducting qualitative research, where a
researcher plans to live with the respondents adapting to their

socio-economic and cultural settings, and
• Researchers can build acquaintance with the subjects in a real-
life conditions.
Selection of respondents for qualitative research is widely based on

the attributes of respondents, their convenience, and the purpose of the
study. Sampling for qualitative research is not based on the probability
proportion of the population. Data collection and analysis in qualitative
research consists of conducting in-depth interviews, documenting direct
observation, and analyzing verbal and nonverbal information like writ-
ten documents, images, and storyboards. Researchers prefer purposive
or snowballing (referred) sampling as qualitative research is built around
nonprobabilistic samples. However, in a comprehensive quantitative
research, the goal would be to conduct a random sampling that ensures
that the sample group would be representative of the entire population,
and therefore, the results could be generalized to the entire population.
Such qualitative research involves high cost and long time to complete
the qualitative research projects. Thus, the goal of qualitative research is
generally set to provide in-depth understanding targeting a specific group,
type of individuals, event or process. To accomplish this goal, qualitative
research focuses on criterion-based sampling techniques to reach their tar-
get group (Berg and Lune 2004). Commonly, most qualitative researches
are conducted with limited samples based on the convenience of the
researcher, or in accordance with the research situation. The qualitative
analytics of such studies cannot be generalized.
Qualitative responses are sometimes ambiguous, which leads to circu-
lar reasoning for drawing interpretations during the study. Ambiguity in
responses is caused due to rhetoric questions, social and personal sensitiv-
ity, and revealing the classified politico-legal information. Circular reason-
ing leads to logical fallacy in which the researcher makes a presumption
about the right response. In circular reasoning, analysis of facts begins
with the speculation about the answer with which a respondent is trying
to conclude the conversation. The components of circular arguments are
often argumentative, speculative, and need to be logically validated by
testing whether the conceived premises are true. However, in qualitative
investigation, good informal arguments offer justification for most con-

clusions. Respondents go wrong if the arguments are reversed in a related
statement or response of the same person tends to be unfit in a similar sit-
uation. Such responses make the arguments circular. Circularity, however,
is not necessarily the only property of an argument in qualitative research,
it may depend on how often the argument repeats an earlier claim, and
whether the repetition occurs justifying the same argument or response
across the qualitative inquiry. Therefore, before ruling an argument as
circular, it is necessary to establish whether the claim is properly grounded
in agreed-upon information (Rips 2002).
Qualitative research is a flexible process, which allows researcher to
modify existing research propositions and formulate new propositions that
are more appropriate during the study process. Therefore, the q ualitative
research remains flexible and formative during the early phases. Though
qualitative inquiries are time-consuming, they provide rich information
for analysis. Researchers use adaptive instrument for study ecosystem and
develop the inductive researcher process laid on grounded theory. Qual-
itative research is a real-time investigation, which is based on quality of
information and observations of researchers for interpreting the responses
under various scenarios. A qualitative researcher should adhere to clarity
in analytics by validating the responses and maintaining an unbiased state
of mind throughout the process of research.
Qualitative information analyzed through user groups, interviews,
and field observation serves as a powerful tool to understand consumer
desires and motivations. IKEA, a Swedish popular retailer of home fur-
nishings has the philosophy of co-creating designs understanding the
consumer needs, emotions, and values. The company relies widely on
the qualitative inquiries through focus groups and informal interviews
about the existing and latent needs, and preferences of consumers. IKEA
extensively uses the qualitative customer research to create products that
are of high perceived use value and offer comparative social status. IKEA
does not just add value to its products, it reinvents it through learn-
ing from customer by conducting focus group discussions periodically.
The systematic qualitative inquiries with the key players in the market
help the company to reconfigure roles and relationships among suppliers,
partners, and customers and mobilize creation of value by new com-

binations of different perceptions, emotions, and values in co-creating
business.
Several ideas, responses, and observations emerge during the in-depth
interviews with respondents, so a skilled researcher should engage in car-
rying out perceptual mapping and semantics during the study. Perceptual
mapping would help the researcher map the flow of responses against
the principal and interrelated questions. Joining several responses to the
related questions on perceptual map can guide the researcher in deter-
mining the state of emotions (like happiness, sadness, anger, command-
ing, aggressive, defensive, and submissiveness). Interpreting emotions in
qualitative research leads to establish the thrust of responses—vertical
(self-image congruity) and horizontal (social-image congruity). The thrust
in responses reinforces the respondents’ involvement in the research and
the commitment in responses. The contours of perceptual map indicate
high involvement, correctness, and self-validation of responses during the
qualitative interviews.
Attributes of a Researcher
A good researcher develops semantic map on the interconnecting words

outgrowing from the responses during the in-depth interviews in the
qualitative research process. Semantics is concerned with interconnected
words, and their meaning and contextual relevance in the research. The
formal semantics is the study of logical aspects of meaning such as sense,
reference, and implication within the context of the research study. The
logical and lexical semantics studies the word meanings and their etymo-
logical relations within the research domain, while the conceptual seman-
tics studies the cognitive structure of meaning. The qualitative researchers
can follow any of the suitable semantics methods to develop a semantic
map during the interviews, and interpret the semantics during the infor-
mation analysis of qualitative inquiry. Prior to beginning the qualitative
inquiry, researchers need to be well acquainted with the study area by
understanding the basic dispositions of people around, and their ethnic,
social, and cultural values. Making judgments based on the self-reference
or invalidated referrals may cause biasness among researchers toward

respondents and their responses. Nonetheless, the attributes of good
researchers should include the following traits:
• Experience
• Rationale
• Empathy
• Judgmental behavior
• Minimizing biases
• Peer influence
• Interception and mediation
• Developing thematic conversation pathway, streamlining,
interpreting emotions
• Exploring concealed sense in conversation
It is necessary for researchers to possess considerable experience on the

subject matter, study area, cognitive analytics, and documenting appropri-
ate observations to carry out the qualitative research studies. They should
also exhibit rationale in analyzing information and empathy to respon-
dents during the interview. However, researchers conducting qualitative
inquiry need to be indifferent toward making any judgments, as such
behavior induces biasness. The peer influence also needs to be avoided, as
it make the researchers judgmental and biased toward the respondents in
particular and the social group in general. Qualitative researchers do not
start with a theory that they aim to test. Instead, they explore rationale in
the responses and work on inductive concepts to support the grounded
theory of the study. They often work the other way around seeking more
evidential information to support the theory with data despite method-
ological limitations.
One of the principal attributes of a qualitative researcher is to learn to
see, hear, perceive and visualize the respondent’s forethoughts, and under-
stand from the perspectives of the interviewee. The researcher needs to
learn to stay at par with the respondents, move himself out of the center
of his own attention, and clearly adapt to social settings and the peers.
Interpreting meanings from the perspectives of others is an art, and the
qualitative researcher should develop such skill. He needs to develop a
finely tuned ethical sense and negotiate ethical dilemmas encountered in

the research process, and be able to analyze and perceive patterns of the
information inflow to conduct thematic analysis. Successful qualitative
researcher remains open to the eventualities during the interview process,
is honest in action and reflection, and develops a sense of multiple reali-
ties. Empowering the subjects or respondents pays a big dividend to the
researcher as he gains more time to listen and observes the proceedings.
A researcher, who asks questions, should allow other to talk and intercept
the subject at some point. Following the lead in discussion and observing
the grapevine effect, new topics are introduced among the peers that may
provide innovative opening to the research. The skilled researcher will let
the other person lead the conversation despite the personal limitations
(Hill 2007).
Qualitative research can be conducted successfully, if the researcher
has experience on the subject, acquaintance in the study area, and ability
to analyze the responses rationally. Rationale is a subjective domain in
the qualitative research, which leads to cognitive sophistication among
the researchers. Some studies establish that the rationale and cognitive
sophistication have strong connotation. Cognitive sophistication can be
explained as the cognitive ability reflected in the functional intelligence
connecting various thinking dispositions such as open-mindedness and
superstitious thinking (Toplak, West, and Stanovich 2014). Rationality
is the fundamental analytical sphere to the understanding of mind and
behavior, which is the core of qualitative research. Therefore, some of the
basic attributes of a qualitative researcher is to have intuitive sense and
inductive reasoning to understand human behavior. A researcher should
also exhibit reflective equilibrium to drive a wedge between formality and
normativity during the conversations and documenting the responses
(Chater and Oaksford 2000). A researcher conducting qualitative studies
and engaged in the in-depth interviews should have the ability to under-
stand and share the feelings of respondents. It is necessary for a researcher
to be empathetic toward respondents during the study, as such behavior
would inculcate the sense of familiarity among respondents and build
confidence. During the process of qualitative study, a researcher should
never be judgmental under the influence of personal and social bias, or
peer effect.
Interception and mediation in qualitative inquiries are considered as

good attributes, but they need to be performed on need basis. Intercep-
tions in survey have two dimensions. First, choosing respondents ran-
domly from the crowd, which is a casual way to collect information by
abrupt interviewing; and second, intercepting the response of an inter-
viewee by asking questions outgrowing over the responses during the
interview process. In qualitative research, conversation pathways should
be prepared prior to setting the interviews with respondents by priori-
tizing the interview questions and their respective logical connectivity.
During the interview, a researcher can create a storyboard to map the
conversation, which would help in developing sequential interpreta-
tions of responses. However, in descriptive interviews, respondents often
enjoy the liberty of expressions, which may take the responses astray and
make it difficult to extract the sensible points out of the conversation.
Hence, it is necessary for the researcher to streamline the conversation
and control the emotions of respondents spanning beyond the inter-
view protocol. Often respondents share unclear information on sensitive
questions to the researcher, which are generally categorized as ambigu-
ous responses. A skilled researcher can be able to extract the underlying
sense out of such responses by recording the conversation and listening
to it carefully.
Qualitative research is usually enjoyed as liberal speaking and listen-
ing exercise. However, it could be successful if planned in a scientific way.
The researcher should focus on the data collection process, which is cen-
tral to the subject. Among various qualitative tools, a researcher can use
conversations, audiovisual sources, and observations. Filtering of infor-
mation is necessary in qualitative research as researchers deviate from,
and lose, the primary focus due to a lot of supplementary information.
In qualitative inquiries, researchers receive plethora of information, argu-
ments and counterarguments, and innovative ideas. However, researchers
can make contemporary interpretations provided they critically analyze
the arguments and categorically document the respondents’ focus and
researchers’ criticism. Information acquired through interviews should
be filtered for multiplicity of meaning and crossover arguments. There
should be systematic retrieval of information during the analysis process
within the developed information layouts. In qualitative research studies,
information from all documented and digitally recorded sources should

be retrieved considering the timeliness, comprehensiveness, transparency,
repeatability, and confidentiality. Researchers should ensure that the infor-
mation and related evidence gathered are up-to-date and comprehensive.
The information gathered should be in a transparent environment, confi-
dential and anonymous. No information of qualitative interviews should
be made public unless authorized in particular. Repeatability of infor-
mation also needs to be checked while retrieving the qualitative infor-
mation (Russell-Rose, Chamberlain, and Azzopardi 2018). Transcribing
the research notes, recorded information, descriptive contents, and sto-
ryboards is one of the complex tasks in the qualitative research method.
Information collected during qualitative interviews needs to be arranged
in a draft table for each question of the research instrument, which allows
to selectively pick the information for analysis. The pattern of informa-
tion transcription layout is exhibited in Table 1.1, which enables the
researcher to identify the core, peripheral, and overlapping information
for using them appropriately to generate final research output.
The table illustrates the analytics of each question asked to the
respondents in a qualitative research process. Accordingly, the text of core
arguments, peripheral description, intercept responses, and overlapping
responses need to be documented. The decision matrix for each question
needs to be assessed to determine its strength and weakness. This should
be done in reference to the researcher’s ranking on emotions associated
with the response, extent of biasness, and originality of responses to check
whether it is original or adopted. The peripheral description to a ques-
tion such as “who do you like to be a leader for the country?” can be the
response that describes about the political parties in the country and their
attributes. The intercept response to the core arguments in the earlier
context may be in reference to the intercept question-“why did you say
so.” The reasons given by the respondent need to be documented in the
column “intercept responses” to delineate the cause and effect of the core
argument(s). Respondents often validate their arguments by citing their
experience, expressing self-image congruity, giving anthropomorphic
explanations, or by presenting social validation. The validated responses
should be documented in the table. Such analysis for each question in
the qualitative research process would help the researcher in admitting
12
Table 1.1 Sample information transcription layout-question#

Observations Core Peripheral Intercept Overlapping Validated Researcher’s Ranking
arguments descriptions responses arguments response Emotions Biasness Originality
(H-M-L-N) (H-M-L-N) (Y-A-N)
1
2
3
Qualitative Marketing Research
4
5
H, High; M, Moderate; L, Low; Y, Yes; A, Adopted; N, Not Defined.

the observations for the psychometric, cognitive, or opinion analytics of

the study.
Qualitative Research Ecosystem

Social sciences have widely encouraged qualitative research methods to
enable researchers to study social and cultural phenomena embedded
in the society. However, this method has been extended to psychology
and human studies over time. Almost every research field and area has
adopted the use of qualitative method and analysis today. As discussed
earlier, qualitative research method involves data collection of personal
experiences, introspection and narrations about life, interviews, observa-
tions, interactions, and visual texts that are significant in socioeconomic,
political, cultural, and human studies. A specified ecosystem supported
by the grounded theory, governs such research studies. Grounded theory
is an inductive methodology developed through a systematic generation
of assumptions from a set of interpersonal research tools and observa-
tions, which is determined as the conceptual background, and serves as
the foreground for data collection and analysis. The ecosystem of quali-
tative research therefore embeds the grounded theory, and sociocultural
and political environment at the background; while the research setting,
development of research instrument, quality of information, arguments
and validations, audiovisual aides, and the observation of researcher form
the foreground of research. Figure 1.1 exhibits the elements of qualitative
research ecosystem.
Qualitative research needs immense interpersonal skills for acquiring
information on the topic of research, drawing observations, and devel-
oping an appropriate grounded theory, which can be validated through
predetermined propositions as exhibited in Figure 1.1. Grounded the-
ory involves the identification and integration of research propositions
from the analysis of preliminary data (pilot test), or review of previous
studies. It is both the process of developing propositions and integration
(as method), and its output (as theory). Thus, it can be stated that the
grounded theory is an inductive research method constructed based on
the principal phenomenon and tested through the data that has been
systematically collected and analyzed. It is used to uncover the social,
Interest to respondent
14
Compensation for time

On respondent Social need
Social observations
Point of views Research
Detecting ambiguity stimulus
Researcher’s
Recording observation
Charts and images
Audio-visual
Semantics
support
Statements and quotes
Interconnected
Non-circular Information
Arguments and Socio-cultural analysis and
Personal validation Qualitative Grounded
validation and political findings
Social validation research theory
environment
Right responses Quality of
Bold expressions
information
Qualitative Marketing Research
No repetitions
Factual and validated
Simple and purposeful Research

Propositions based instrument Cognitive
Liberal conversation Research
determinants
Avoid direct and sensitive questions setting
Low interception Extrovert
Natural habitat Introvert
Narrative, storyboard
De-stressed ambiance Indecisive
Ease of hosting interviews Clandestine
Responsive
Figure 1.1 Qualitative research ecosystem

interpersonal, and peer relationships that emerge in a social process.

The following are the features of grounded theory (Charmaz 1995):
• Data collection and analysis are carried out simultaneously

within a predetermined period of study.
• Categories and analytic codes are developed from data
within theoretical sensitivity (researcher’s insights) by using
conceptual models derived from observations or review of
previous studies.
• Theoretical sampling is used to refine categories.
• Research propositions, data collection, and analytical
tools are constructed inductively.
• Social processes are discovered in the data.
• Analytical memos are used between coding and writing.
• The principal phenomenon is integrated in developing the
theoretical framework.
In order to test the grounded theory through qualitative research

methodology, the data collection process needs to be set in a natural hab-
itat, where the subjects (respondents) stay at ease, and could participate
in the interview without any stress, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. The data
can be collected through a simple and purposeful research instrument. It
is important to understand that a large number of questions may disrupt
the information as it may affect the respondents by creating confusion.
Once the grounded theory is developed and propositions are finalized, the
questions in the research instrument should be consistent with both the
grounded theory and its propositions. The questions should be framed in
the way that they prompt for liberal conversation, and encourage narra-
tive or story like information. In doing so, the direct and sensitive ques-
tions need to be avoided. However, a researcher’s interception during the
interview process is a healthy trend, but it should be done in a moderate
way without disrupting the interviewees.
A good research instrument is capable of delivering quality infor-
mation. The attributes of quality information include right and vali-
dated responses, and bold expressions. Generally, if the questions asked
during the interview are similar, there are possibilities of repetitions in
the responses, which need to be filtered before subjecting it to data anal-

ysis. In qualitative research, the most complex exercise is arraying the
arguments embedded in the information. As discussed in Table 1.1, the
arguments should be extracted from the information, and interrelation-
ship among various statements (described as arguments) should be estab-
lished. Circularity in reasoning of the statements should be eliminated,
or if it is difficult to do so, such statements should be excluded from the
analysis. Researchers should try to get all statements validated through
social or self-image congruity. Use of audiovisual aides during data col-
lection process would help researchers in recording the data, and later
transcribe it to develop charts and semantics of ideas and arguments as
illustrated in F igure 1.1. The observations of researchers on the personal-
ity of respondents, their personal point of views, and societal views also
play significant role in information analysis. However, it is important
to detect and remove ambiguities before putting the data through the
analytical process.
Consumer-centric companies today are reorienting their strategy
development process from top-down to bottom-up paradigms through
continuous learning from the stakeholders and role players in their busi-
ness about their perceptions, attitude, and behavior. They follow quali-
tative research tools to document ongoing face-to-face interactions and
to analyze the user-generated content on the digital platforms. These
practices have helped companies including PNC bank (USA), IKEA
(Sweden), and Ambuja Cements (India) bring discipline and coher-
ence to their c ustomer relations management and product portfolios.
Burberry, the fashion design company in the United Kingdom, which
is widely regarded for its apparel and fashion accessories portfolios,
ensures the voice of the customer (VOC). The VOC projects are con-
ducted periodically through opinion surveys and within the qualitative
research ecosystem.
Qualitative Research Plan

Previous studies claim that qualitative research is an outgrowth of P
lato’s
“arch of knowledge.” The arch of knowledge demonstrates that any
scientific method of knowledge building is essentially based on induc-

tion and deduction processes. Qualitative research systematically gener-
ates knowledge by planning appropriate study design. Thus, qualitative
research solidifies the arch of knowledge, which is based on two pillars:
(i) interviews, observations, and textual data, and (ii) interpretation and
meaning founded on predictions and explanations. These two pillars are
linked with theories, concepts, and models than can be created (inductive
research) or tested (deductive research) through data analysis, interpreta-
tion, and explanations (Chalmers 1982). Over time, therefore, “qualita-
tive research” has become a familiar and useful research technique, which
privileges those social and business processes that cannot be easily quan-
tified or codified using numerical classifications such as interpretation
processes, sense-making, meaning-making, situated actions, discursive
constructions, processes, contextual factors, interactions, or interpersonal
dynamics (Fletcher, Massis, and Nordqvist 2016).
Planning for successful qualitative research depends on the contem-
porary relevance of the research topic in social, economic, and business
domains, which could generate enough interpersonal dynamics for
acquiring information. The relevance of research topic needs to be sup-
ported by the quality of information, timeliness, and completeness of
the data analytics. Qualitative research can be planned in the following
sequential stages as exhibited in Table 1.2.
Often qualitative research generates propositions to be tested with
the descriptive information analysis. The research problems determining
the core and peripheral issues extend from cognitive to business related
topic in qualitative methodology as discussed in Table 1.2. Therefore,
qualitative studies are invaluable in new fields of study, and are often
used in developing theories or conceptual frameworks. The researcher
should develop an appropriate statement of the research problem empha-
sizing the core and peripheral issues that need to be addressed during the
research. A clear statement of research problems will guide the researcher
in developing right instrument for an appropriate research design. There
are four types of research designs comprising experimental, dynamic,
explorative, and casual research designs.
Table 1.2 Stages of qualitative research planning

Sequence Stage Description
Identifying problem Cognitive, sociocultural, business related, socio-
1 economic, innovation and technology, political,
relationships, business governance, and so on.
Developing appro-
2 priate statement of Core and peripheral issues
problem
Justification of Validation of problem statement
3
research
4 Research design Experimental, dynamic, explorative, or casual
Sampling Random, snowballing, stratified, cluster, probabil-
4.1
ity proportional to size
Data Collection In-depth interviews, observation, text mining,
4.2
opinion analytics, official documents
Data processing Data transcription, data validation, filtering infor-
5 and analysis mation, content analysis, semantics, and critical
factor analysis
Developing Presentation of results, developing storyboards,
research report interpretation of statements and arguments,
6 managerial/ policy implications, action points,
conclusion and limitations of the study, and
future research perspectives
Research Designs
The experimental designs are characterized by the random selection of

participants to administer a predetermined or random assignment of the
participants in a groups study. The participatory research appraisal (PRA)
is an experimental design wherein the participants are engaged in an
exercise of common interest. Qualitative research projects on socioeco-
nomic development employ the PRA to the rural, semiurban, or urban
habitants to find out the community perspectives. The researcher also
conducts controlled group experiments by moderating the extraneous
variables. Dynamic research designs are developed with variations in the
dependent and independent variables woven around the broad research
theme. The dynamic research designs are developed using brainstorm-
ing sessions and causal loop diagrams derived out of these sessions. Such
research design is used for the subjects (respondents) who have multiple
dimensions to express the final output. One of the right examples to

explain the dynamic research design is conducting qualitative research in
the health sector with an objective to know the satisfaction of patients on
a chronic ailment. In this case, the casual loop diagrams drawn during
the preliminary round of conversations with the subject may determine
what is important for them to get the treatment—cost of treatment
(low), abilities of doctor (high), auxiliary support like nursing (afford-
able), insurance support (high), or life-expectancy (prolonged). Differ-
ent respondents may have different focuses on carrying out conversation.
Accordingly, the dependent variable will change in reference to the sub-
jects. Such qualitative researches are largely consolidated as case studies in
a thematic research volume.
Explorative research designs are commonly used in qualitative
research, in which comprehensive information is obtained and analyzed.
Such research designs are developed to fit into the overall scenario of the
research including spatial and temporal aspects. Causal research, which is
also called explanatory research, refers to the investigation of cause-and-
effect relationships. In order to determine causality, researchers observe
variation in the independent variables to measure its impact on another
variable(s). It is very complex to conduct casual research using qualitative
tools, as it needs robust statistical support. However, qualitative input is
also entertained in the casual research design where mixed methodologies
(quantitative and qualitative) are used.
Sampling Techniques
Qualitative research usually encourages random sampling within spec-

ified criteria for the subjects like age, gender, education, income, and
occupation. Any subject may be chosen for interview casually or with
prior appointment in random sampling. The interviews are adminis-
tered in the sampling design for short time using a purposeful research
instrument. Snowballing technique is used to select potential subjects
for conducting in-depth interviews. Snowball sampling is a referral sam-
pling where subjects of an existing study recruit or suggest potential
subjects within their acquaintances. The referred subjects cooperate with
the researcher as they hold a trustworthy reference. Stratified sampling
is a predetermined number based on the classification of attributes of

total population. The classification of subjects is based on social, eco-
nomic, cultural, and personality-led attributes. The subjects are chosen
for the study according to a predetermined proportion out of the total
population. In other words, stratified sampling is a method in which the
total population is divided into smaller groups or strata. Each stratum is
based on some common attributes of the population. After dividing the
population into categories, samples should be selected randomly within
the categories. Cluster sampling is usually done by pooling the respon-
dents across geo-demographic segments. Sample size of population can
be determined at current time by taking appropriate proportion of the
predetermined data. For example, using extrapolation method to the
population census data, the sample population of the study area can be
appropriated for the current time to know the total size. The required
proportion of the sample population can be selected from the extrapo-
lated population size at the current time. This method is known as prob-
ability proportional to size (PPS). Probability sampling requires that each
member of the survey population has a chance of being included in the
sample, but it does not require that this chance be the same for everyone.
In using this sampling technique, it is not necessary to have an accurate
count of population.
Data Collection
In-depth interviewing is a principal qualitative research technique that

involves conducting intensive conversations with a small number of
respondents to explore their perspectives on a given theme or topic of
research. In-depth interviews are useful when there is a need to compre-
hensively document thoughts and behaviors to explore perceptions and
semantics of the subjects. Interviews are often used in context to any
experience, or to offer a vision on potential development or technology
concerns. In-depth interviews are usually conducted face-to-face and
involve one interviewer and one participant. Ideally, interviews should
be conducted in a location mutually convenient for the researcher and
interviewee with no outsiders present, and where people feel that their
confidentiality is completely protected.
Participant observation is commonly used in both anthropological

and sociological studies. In qualitative research, observation supplements
the information obtained through interviews. Observations enable the
researcher to describe the existing situations using the five senses to
enhance the value of information and its interpretation. Anthropologists
and ethnographic researchers use participant observation as the primary
method during their fieldwork, which involves active looking, improving
memory, informal interviewing, writing detailed field notes with ratio-
nale, and sincerity and patience. Therefore, observation is regarded as a
continuous learning tool on the behavior of participants and their sur-
roundings (Kawulich 2005).
Another upcoming method used for acquiring information in qual-
itative research is text mining or text data mining, which refers to text
analytics process that derives high-quality information from online or
in-print text. It is a process of analyzing voluminous and unstructured
text data through the software, which can identify concepts, patterns,
topics, keywords, and other attributes in the data. The text analytics is an
application-enabled process of using text-data mining techniques for sort-
ing out contents through data sets. However, empirical research papers
on topics related to social sciences and humanities are highly difficult
to summarize due to the large volume of literature, and the information
scattered over similar topics and databases such as catalogs of collections
and sequential databases. In addition, the lack of structure and standards
in the sources also makes the text mining a difficult proposition. The
textual information is expressed in unstructured, natural language form
at different levels of precision, which is difficult for researchers to analyze.
Knowledge resources such as controlled vocabularies, taxonomies, and
ontologies bring a partial solution to the online keyword-based searches.
Knowledge-based search engines extend simple string matching with que-
ries on general terms that do not depend on how they are expressed in the
text. However, new text mining and knowledge representation technolo-
gies that tackle these problems are emerging (Chaix et al. 2018). Opinion
analytics is an outgrowth of opinion mining exercise like text mining.
Opinions of business leaders, political leaders, and newspaper editors are
harvested by the qualitative researchers online through text data mining
software such as Rapid Miner and QDA Miner.
Research Design
Setting qualitative research scenario is a challenging task for researchers,
in which research questions, propositions, and constructs of the study
need to be developed upon reviewing the previous studies. The field
research operations of the study can be managed by defining samples for
the qualitative study, locating the data collection region, developing pro-
files of respondents, and scheduling meetings with the identified samples
to acquire information. Some researchers begin data collection process
by organizing focus groups to identify variables of the study for devel-
oping research instrument. Data collections process then begins by con-
ducting survey or interviews, using the research instrument. Information
acquired for the study then needs to be validated to ensure that there is no
redundancy and biasness in the data. However, developing scale and the
instrument, and data collection should be done in contextual reference
to the predetermined objectives of research. Some critical aspects in data
collection and management of information include resource use based
on cost and time, quality of information, and use of appropriate filters
to prepare the data for analysis. The information analysis in qualitative
research demands a robust content analysis. Some researchers also use
descriptive statistics, if possible, while quantifying the small qualitative
samples. Graphic and pictorial illustrations are also extensively used in
analysis and reporting of findings of the qualitative information. How-
ever, it is very essential for researchers to check the consistency of findings
with the predetermined propositions of the study.
Any qualitative research design has the following components, each
of which addresses a different set of issues essential to the coherence of a
study, as discussed as follows:
• Goals: A researcher should set up the goals of the study con-

sidering its implications in the industry or society. The goals
of the study should be stated in the contexts of why this study
is worth doing, what problems are aimed at, and how this
study contributes to the existing literature. Researcher may
also like to clarify how this qualitative research would influ-
ence what practices and policies among the business activities.
• Conceptual framework: It is necessary for a researcher to

develop conceptual framework based on the issues, settings,
or respondents involved in study. Such framework should
discuss the relevant theories, beliefs, and prior research
findings to develop an appropriate research model. The review
of literature, case studies, and personal experiences would
also contribute in developing the conceptual framework of
the study.
• Research questions: A research instrument containing ques-
tions to acquire required information from the respondents
is the most critical tool in qualitative research. The relevance
of questions would help the respondents in expressing their
opinion justifiably, and would appeal the researcher to use
the acquired data for analysis. The research questions should
aim at the information required to analyze and achieve the
objectives of the study.
• Methods: Research design should determine the right method
for conducting the study. It should specify the approaches and
techniques for collecting and analyzing the data, and measur-
ing the consistency of results with the research propositions
set for the study.
• Validity: In qualitative research, the information is largely
raw, unfiltered, and to some extent, nonevidenced. Hence, it
is challenging to validate the information by applying several
crosschecks. It is necessary to determine the plausible alterna-
tive interpretations and validity threats to data, and ways to
deal with the available data.
Qualitative research must be conducted systematically and rigor-

ously, and should be accountable for its quality and its claims. A flexible
research design, which is contextual to the predetermined objectives, con-
tributes to the success of qualitative research. Essentially, this means that
the qualitative researchers should not only make decisions by developing
a sound research design, but also stay sensitive to the ecosystem of qualita-
tive research comprising the study area, respondents, questionnaire, code
of ethics, and to the changing contexts in which the research takes place.
Qualitative research should involve critical self-scrutiny of information, or

exhibit active reflexivity during the data collection process. Accordingly,
researchers should constantly take stock of their actions, informants’ atti-
tude, and their role in the research process, and refine the information
acquisition modalities accordingly. However, at times, a researcher cannot
be neutral, or objective, or detached, from the knowledge and evidences
that are being generated during the data collection process. Researchers
conducting qualitative studies should seek to understand their role in the
process, stay proactive, interactive, or reactive, and exhibit reflexivity to
moderate the qualitative responses (Rajagopal 2018).
Qualitative research should be able to produce arguments, explana-
tions, and new concepts on the research questions rather than claiming
to offer numerical evidences with lame descriptions. However, it is more
difficult to reach stronger analytical evidences in qualitative research
to generalize the findings, as compared to the quantitative approaches.
Researchers engaged in qualitative studies should be satisfied with the
emerging explanations, which are idiosyncratic or accurate only to the
limited empirical parameters of their study. Such attribute of the qual-
itative research does not underplay the capacity of qualitative methods
to facilitate cross-contextual generalities mentioned earlier. Accordingly,
undertaking qualitative research studies should not be viewed as a unified
body of philosophy and practice, wherein the research methods can be
combined unbiasedly. Similarly, qualitative research should not necessar-
ily be regarded opposite to quantitative research (Rajagopal 2018).
Schools of Thought in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research leads to continuous learning through perceptual
mapping and semantic analysis of opinions, causes and results, and psy-
chosocial emotions. The information in qualitative research emerges from
the various situations, and learning is stimulated at two ends: learning
from positive opinions and learning from negative emotions. In order
to guide qualitative research, both the learning ends are meaningful, as
learning from success leads to develop a positive model, while learning
from failures build corrective models in qualitative research. Interpreta-
tion of qualitative information is influenced by logical positivism, which
grows on the cause-and-effect interrelationship. Positivism in epistemo-

logical growth in qualitative research is embedded as theory over time.
Positivism and sociology have a common origin, and positivism remains
a significant approach for qualitative research in sociology and other
social sciences. In positivist sociology, the scientific study of society is
identified with empirical research and often social life is inquired through
the in-depth conversation to document variety of experiences of subjects
(Outhwaite 2015).
Positivism in management research can be witnessed in the synthesis
and logical expressions in investigation, unveiled by the judgmental val-
ues. Positivism today is beyond the philosophical notions that support
the management research based on the assumptions and critical learn-
ing. The leaning of management researchers toward positivism cannot
be overlooked today, just because they are trekking off the philosoph-
ical knowledge and theoretical boundaries. In fact, positivism in the
management research has diversified to take a cursory or careful look
on phenomena or issues of organizational needs, interest, and growth.
These phenomena have driven positivism in management research, and
led through the diversities of knowledge over the past streamlined and
rhythmic course of philosophical thinking (Ogbo and Kifordu 2015).
The contemporary positivism is laid on the foundations of logical pos-
itivism and logical empiricism developed in the early 20th century. Its
goal is to develop management as a unified science using methodical and
logical analysis to unmask traditional philosophical problems of general-
izing empirical analysis.
The taxonomy of theories can be found spread across the subjects
related to behavior, organization, business, and entrepreneurship that
establish convergence with the classical, neoclassical, and modern man-
agement thinkers. The positivists, who had built their arguments steering
the realistic social, economic, and political situations, advocate bot-
tom-up management philosophy that upholds the voice of stakeholders
in a society or in an organization. Positivism in management research in
the post-20th century entails attention on the existing social and orga-
nizational perspectives instead of analyzing the theses and antitheses of
historical epistemology. Mindfulness is the essence of positivism, which
enables people to recognize and take advantage of opportunities when
they arise, and to avert risk (Rajagopal 2017; Langer and Beard 2014).
Over the years, empiricism has been associated with the qualitative
research, which has emerged from the experimental sciences in manage-
ment. The theory of empiricism explains that all knowledge is derived
from cognitive science and converges management and action. Research-
ers experience empiricism in qualitative research in which enlightenment
of thought process drives complex and contemplating minds to the new
challenges, and induces radicalism in the epistemological development
in management research over the conventional thoughts of schools
(Rajagopal 2017).
Theoretical concepts that support qualitative research have evolved
over a range of factors connecting ontology and epistemology. Ontol-
ogy is a set of concepts and categories in a subject area or domain such
as sociology, that shows attributes like beliefs and ethnology, and their
codependency. The qualitative research has grown over the social ontolog-
ical concepts and the ways to study them with the support of the logical
and philosophical phenomena (epistemology). The purpose and goal of
the research, the characteristics of research participants, the audience for
the research, the sponsors, and the positions and environments of the
researchers themselves have become the elements of qualitative research
evolving out of classical, neoclassical, and modern schools of thought
(Ritchie et al. 2013). Differences in the mix of these factors have led to
numerous variations in approaches to qualitative research. Therefore, it is
argued that a better quality work is produced if flexible approaches and
methods are considered, and choices are made according to the objectives
and context of the qualitative research (Seale et al. 2007).
Most epistemological philosophies have common attributes as exhib-
ited in Table 1.3, which would reveal the path of epistemological evolu-
tion from traditional to modernist and later toward critical theory.
Critical theory has made a docile stance in management research,
while its philosophy has been well established in social research and liter-
ature studies. Formalism, which stemmed out of the critical theory, exam-
ines the relationships between a texted idea and its form between what a
text says and the way it says it. However, critical theory aims at diagnos-
ing the problems of the modern society and prescribing necessary social
changes toward reducing the socioeconomic inequality. Philosophically,
Table 1.3 Attributes of embedded philosophies influenced qualitative

research over the past
Epistemological Philosophical and theoretical schools of thought
evolution Conventionalism Postmodernism Critical theory
• Social paradigms • Evidence-based • Political, socio-
• Knowledge as research cultural, and
phenomenon • Linguistic value oriented
• Constructing concerns • Predictions and
Attributes research theories • Relativism control
• Religion and truth • Deconstruction • Emancipation
of subject
• Goal-oriented
research
• Consensus on truth • Linguistic • Empirical
Synthesis • Observability importance knowledge
• Subjectivity • Social research
critical theory supports communism as evidenced in the Marxism and

classical socialist principles (Rajagopal 2017; Layder 1994).
A qualitative research is often described as a naturalistic, interpretive
approach, concerned with exploring the perceptions of research partici-
pants as a starting point (Flick 2009). The term “qualitative,” addresses
the concerns with “what,” “why,” and “how” questions, and focuses on
processes and perspectives in qualitative research design. Qualitative
approaches are developed around three main constructs of the schools
of thought:
• Symbolic interactionism
• Phenomenology
• Ethnography
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is the view of social behavior that emphasizes

linguistic or gestural communication and its subjective understanding,
especially the role of language in the formation of a child as a social
being. Symbolic interactionists are more concerned with subjective inter-
pretations of perceptions, opinion, and meaningful interactions among
individuals. Symbolic interaction occurs within a particular social and

cultural context, which are defined and categorized based on individual
narratives, emotions, and perceptual meanings. Symbolic interaction
examines the meanings emerging from the reciprocal interaction of indi-
viduals within social environment and during in-depth conversations with
other individuals. The analysis of conversation focuses to find out which
symbols and meanings emerge from the interaction between respondents
during the research process (Aksan et al. 2009). The three basic postulates
of this theory that also apply to phenomenology and ethnomethodology
state that:
• Human beings act toward things based on the meanings that

things have for them.
• The attribution of meaning to objects through symbols is a
continuous process.
• The process takes place in a social context.
Symbolic interactionists have varied points of view. However,

self-congruity, individual opinion, and empathy are the key subjects of
symbolic interaction among the participants (Stryker and Vryan 2003).
It also includes the interpretation of actions, because symbolic meanings
may be derived differently. Elements such as social roles, traditional orga-
nizations, social and ethnic laws, and culture provide points of discus-
sion to the individuals for forming definitions. In this context, symbolic
interaction emphasizes social interaction, which forms the base of qualita-
tive research. Two different thresholds, symbolism and interpretivism, in
the society determine the features of symbolic interactionism that affect
qualitative research. In symbolic interactionism, the process of conversa-
tion to acquire information is important. The responses of people in the
society are affected by the knowledge ecosystem comprising self-learning,
family, peer, and society. Knowledge and learning are affected also by the
referred input.
Phenomenology
During the 20th century, phenomenology contributed in most areas of phi-

losophy, including philosophy of mind, social philosophy, philosophical
anthropology, aesthetics, ethics, philosophy of science, epistemology,

theory of meaning, and formal ontology. It provided groundbreaking
theoretical support for analyses of cognitive topics such as intentionality,
embodiment, self-awareness, historicity, truth, evidence, perception, and
interpretation (Zahavi 2008). The salient features of phenomenology are
as discussed in the following:
• Phenomenologists try to use human thinking, intelligence,

and perceptions to describe and understand human
experiences.
• To understand the nature of human experience, we must
study that experience, not an external world.
• Human experiences can be catalogued and described in order
to create meaning. These appearances in the conscious mind
are known as phenomena.
• Researchers try to identify the essential features of phenom-
ena, and compare them with those described by other phe-
nomenologists to identify features common to a population.
• Phenomenology suggests that people operate by assuming
that others make the same kind of assumptions as they do
about situations like “middle class kids,” “working parents,”
and so on.
Phenomenology seeks to uncover a given phenomenon through

people’s experiences. Variation of conceptions related to a given phe-
nomenon is defined as phenomenology. Phenomenology has achieved
acceptance not only in philosophy, but also in anthropology, sociology,
and psychology, and it has influenced the work of poets, artists, and
novelists. Phenomenology and phenomenography describe the idea of
Cartesianism, which is a variant appellation of positivism or rational-
ism. This school of thought assumes that knowledge should be acquired
through the process of doubt, by making the self the absolute center
of reality at the exclusion of human feelings, emotions, and opinions.
Realistic phenomenology is an approach that requires the researcher to
look into the real issues affecting people (Cibangu and Hepworth 2016).
Phenomenology attempts to create conditions for the objective study of
topics usually regarded as subjective. Consciousness, and the content of
conscious experiences such as judgments, perceptions, and emotions are

logically studied and expressed in phenomenology. Although phenome-
nology seeks to be scientific, it does not attempt to study consciousness
from the perspective of clinical psychology or neurology. Instead, it seeks
through systematic reflection to determine the essential properties and
structures of experience of people. The qualitative research in social and
cultural disciplines is, therefore, appropriately adapted to the phenome-
nological attributes, and is considered as one of the principal approached
embedded in the qualitative inquiries.
The phenomenological concepts are well embedded within the con-
sumer-centric companies to learn through consumer experiences, and
use experiential marketing strategies to acquire new consumers. Disney
portfolios are developed and improved through continuous qualitative
research to document the phenomenological attributes of children, par-
ents, and tour managers. The company studied what customers actually
did in the park, using both ethnographic interviews and quantitative tools
such as mapping family journeys around the park. It built a “garage,”
called the ideation lab, to prototype the “MagicBand,” a digital device
that it thought could solve the existing problems related to consumers’
convenience. In 2014, Disney World rolled out the MagicBand across the
park (Sheppard, Edson, and Kouyoumjian 2017).
Ethnography
Ethnography is the systematic study of people and their associated cul-

tures. It explores cultural phenomena allowing the researcher to observe
holistic perspectives of the society from the point of view of its sustained
evolution, causes and effects, and behavioral complexities. Ethnogra-
phy is a research tool used in anthropological research, which helps in
exploring human culture, traditions, rituals, signs, symbols and behav-
ior. Ethnography encourages researchers to observe, examine, and reflect
upon the subjects during the course of research study. Conceptualizing
ethnography as a research tool is a relative ontology, which applies to
traditional research. Ethnographer examines the social, political, cultural,
situational, personal, historical, and environmental conditions of subjects
in the study (Brennan, Fry, and Previte 2015). In ethnography, researcher
and subjects are integrally engaged to share their views on the prede-
termined topic. Data in the ethnographic tradition, therefore, contrib-
ute to continuous learning from the respondents. It can be subjective
or objective, and may be intensely personal such as sharing reflexivity or
distantly epiphenomenal. Epiphenomenalism is a philosophical state of
mind in which cognitive process is affected by the changes in the physical
states (Denzin 2011). The epiphenomenal research studies the conver-
gence of mental life that affects physical dynamics or body reflexes within
the social and personal surrounding. Accordingly, epiphenomenalism is a
part of ethnographic research, and can be described as neurophysiological
changes in the brain caused by events, retrieval of memory, or induced
state of mind. Researchers acquiring qualitative information can be ben-
efitted by the epiphenomenal observations of subjects during the study
(Birnbacher 2006).
There are two types of ethnographic approaches: visual and docu-
mentary. Visual ethnography is about the collection of visual artifacts to
the ethnographic record such as photographs, videos, maps, and clips,
which are often complementary to auditory or documentary forms of
data (Schwartz 1989). In the era of advanced information technology, the
ethnographic research has evolved from face-to-face research to the use of
digital platforms. It is widely accepted that respondents make little dis-
tinction between their online and offline personality, and people regularly
share personal content and experiences via branded digital platforms like
Facebook, Twitter, and Pinterest. The virtual platforms such as blogs and
vlogs have also become the major resources of ethnographic text mining
and virtual interactions. Digital platforms have become the new field for
qualitative inquiry and have emerged as rich assets for carrying out par-
ticipatory behaviors that unveil information about interesting lifestyle of
people, and deliver information about emerging subcultural in contem-
porary society.
Growing new technologies have driven customers to become cocre-
ators in developing customized products and services. New technologies
have also allowed customers to disseminate personalized messages they
receive, and authorize companies to customize the messages they would
like to deliver in the society. Such services were once offered only to the
elite for a very high cost, but application of technology by the companies
for penetrating the mass market makes such customization much cheaper
and easier. From jeans to coffee, to bicycles, to eyewear, to cosmetics, to
vitamins, to breakfast cereals, companies have used this technology to
create customized offerings. Managers have realized over time that if cus-
tomers could get exactly what they want, they would not settle for some
less-than-perfect standardized offering or message; and if companies could
manufacture to order, the inventory reduction would go directly to the
bottom line. Many firms focus on convergence of technology with cus-
tomer value in promoting products and services in the mass markets. Real-
izing that firms, technology, and society had to coexist, companies, social
networks, and social organizations look for ways to influence each other
through joint social responsibility projects. This paves the way for the
get-into-business stage, in which social networks and companies seek to
serve the customers at bottom of the pyramid market segment by setting
up successful businesses. In this process, customer learn through peers,
while corporations gain an appreciation for the local knowledge, low-cost
business models, and community-based marketing techniques. Increased
success on both sides has laid the foundation for the co-created business
in which companies and social networks become key parts of each other’s
capacity to deliver value (Burgmann and Prahalad 2007; Rajagopal 2013).
Social media has increasingly drawn more attention of consumers and
companies over the traditional media. Accordingly, most companies have
redefined the key factors of their marketing mix by reviewing the shifts in
the consumer behavior, and online word of mouth competing for innova-
tions in the products, operations, and services strategies. Many companies
consider staying active in social media as a viable alternative to traditional
advertising and communication. However, managers should understand
that both traditional and online social media should serve as complemen-
tary to each other rather than relying on either one of them. A compar-
ison of advertising and word of mouth shows that social media follow
rules that are very different from traditional advertising. Social media can
start conversations or build brand recognition, but the results are much
more difficult to predict or measure (Armelini and Villanueva 2011).
While working with social media, some companies have realized that
the problem-solving process begins with the identification of exchange
content and goals such as what does the customer need, and how does
the company deliver solutions to meet those needs. The company’s high
degree of specialization may not be often ready to meet the shifts in the
consumer behavior, as online interactive media drive the perceptions
and attitudes of consumers faster than the traditional communications
(Tuli et al. 2007).
Ethnographic research involves a prolonged, intensive, and direct
involvement of the researcher in the lives and activities of people in the
society. It is often used in conjunction with other terms such as partic-
ipants’ observation, qualitative methodology, a narrative case study, or
social research. This methodology uses documents, observation, and
interviewing people within a wide range of situations and contexts.
Ethnography focuses on both the micro and macro aspects of society. The
broad attributes of ethnographic research are as listed as follows:
• Production of a cultural knowledge of a group

• Description of activities from the point of view of members of
the group
• Description of the characteristic features of group culture
• Description and analysis of patterns of social interaction
• Opportunity to document the insider opinions on the
research theme, and
• Development of grounded theory based on the preliminary
ethnographic inquiry
A researcher should stay with the subject, interact with them, and
observe the psychosocial, cultural, and emotional attributes of the subjects
to conduct the ethnographic research successfully. Most ethnographic
researchers and journalists have spent months with lesser known tribes,
villagers deprived of basic needs, and with the people at postdisaster reha-
bilitation camps to document their living conditions, expressions, and
emotions. Under such conditions, a researcher must be both a member of
the group and a stranger. During the research process, a level of cultural
strangeness must be established and maintained. Most researchers begin
as participant observers and end as informal interviewers.
Impact of Culture
Culture refers to the distinctive way of life of a group of people, their

complete “design for a living.” For ethnologists, folklorists, anthropolog-
ical linguists, archaeologists, and social anthropologists, culture is always
a point of departure or a point of reference, if not, invariably, the point
of emphasis (Kluckhohn 1951). Culture consists of patterns, explicit and
implicit of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, con-
stituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their
embodiment in artifacts. The core of culture consists of traditional con-
cepts and values attached to it (Balazs 2002). The influence of cultural
values on business negotiations have been diagnosed by Geert Hofstede
(1991) by conducting research in 66 countries to measure the cross-cul-
tural impact. The four cultural dimensions observed by Hofstede include
individualism, which focuses on self-reference criterion, power distance
index that leads to authority orientation, uncertainty index, which refers
to the attitude of risk avoidance, and Masculinity/Femininity Index that
tends to focus on assertiveness and achievements. Human value system
is a synergy of societal values, family values, and individual values. Per-
sonality traits are largely evolved through family value and societal values
that govern the family value paradigm. Such process is described as a
pyramidal paradigm of personality and values, which has a large base of
societal culture in the bottom of the pyramid, groomed into the family
values, and ultimately shaping the personality at the top of the paradigm
(Rajagopal 2004). Personality of an individual matters for gaining confi-
dence within, and facing the extrinsic environment. Personality traits are
largely groomed through the cultural settings observed in the native edu-
cation, etiquette, language, expression ability, family, and friends. Native
environment is also an important factor influencing the personality traits
of a person (Onedo 1991). When a person cannot appraise his personality
to the best of his satisfaction, he finds it difficult to get adjusted with the
new culture and may like to confine to his native culture.
Companies learn consumer culture and develop products of pro-con-
sumer demand by interacting with the consumers through researchers,
salespeople, or engaging marketing research organizations to analyze
the cognitive dimensions of consumers. Mattel Toys Inc., the creator of

Barbie doll has adopted the approach to learn about the feelings of young
girls on Barbie as their emotional friend. Barbie doll is a nonexpressive
and silent, but an emotional object that reaches out through her physical
attributes like clothing, facial expressions, and the still body language.
The company learns through the consumer interface, focus group studies,
and consumer videos about the next-generation Barbie. The significance
of qualitative research in business and marketing is thus deeply rooted
alongside the quantitative research practices.
Summary
Qualitative research is an effective tool to measure human values, emo-
tions, and logical narratives through symbolic interactions, and eth-
nographic and phenomenological expedition. It offers an exciting
experience to interact with the subjects, understand their perceptions,
and draw relevant observations. Qualitative research needs an informal
setting comfortable to the respondents and researcher that could cre-
ate both privacy and confidence. It involves an interpretive, naturalistic
approach to explore the research themes. Qualitative research is a flexible
process, which allows researcher to modify the existing research proposi-
tions and formulate new dimensions of the study based on interpersonal
information and observations. A good researcher develops semantics map
on the interconnecting words outgrowing from the responses during
the in-depth interviews in the qualitative research process. Qualitative
researchers develop grounded theory and establish research propositions
through meta-synthesis of the study by integrating relevant qualitative
analytics. Interception and mediation in qualitative inquiries are consid-
ered as good attributes and are used on need basis. The ecosystem of
qualitative research embeds grounded theory, and sociocultural and polit-
ical environment at the background, while the research setting, devel-
opment of research instrument, quality of information, arguments and
validations, audiovisual aides, and the observation of researcher form the
foreground of research. The qualitative research encourages explorative
instead of experimental design of study, unlike quantitative research that
uses random sampling within the specified criteria for the subjects like
age, gender, education, income, and occupation. Fundamentally, a good
qualitative research design includes objectives of the research, conceptual
framework, research questions, data collection tools, and validation and
interpretations of the contents Collecting information through in-depth
interviews is followed as the principal technique to explore various per-
spectives from the subjects on a given theme or topic of research. The
qualitative research has been evolved around school of thoughts led by
positivism, empiricism, and interpretivism. The major methodologies in
the qualitative research include symbolic interactions, ethnography, and
phenomenology.
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Index
Note: page numbers followed by f and t indicates figures and tables respectively.
abstraction, 105 cognitive branding, 54

acquiring information, 84–88 cognitive inquiries, 45
action research, 48–49, 118–120, cognitive sophistication, 9
121f, 122–123 community
analysis, data, 58–59 informants, 87
anthropomorphic expression, partnerships, 82
135–136 requirement, 103
anthropomorphism, 95 comparisons, 107
antithesis, 62, 64–65 competitive marketplace, 140
arch of knowledge, 16–17 complex sensory experiences, 95
“Atlas.ti,” 110 comprehensive protocol, 99
attitudes, 139–140 computer-assisted qualitative data
analysis software (CAQDAS),
behavioral 108–111
branding, 54 computer-based analysis, 108–111
control analysis, 140 conceptual framework, 23
intention, 140 conceptualization, 63–64
branding behavior, 57 confirmatory factor analysis (CFA),
157
CA. see conversation analysis (CA) conjoint analysis, 158–159
CAQDAS. see computer-assisted consumer, 130, 135–136
qualitative data analysis behavior, 2, 52, 118, 130, 135,
software (CAQDAS) 139, 140, 151, 155
case research, 126–132, 142 cognitive dynamics of, 3
categorization, 105 companies, 16, 30, 34–35
causal effect, 48 expectations, 135
causal marketing research, 130–131 goods, 71
causal research, 19, 48 perception, 52, 85
chronological information, 84 socialization, 72–73
circularity, 16 social media, 32
circular reasoning, 132 spending, 64
closed-loop approach, 89–90 contemporary positivism, 25
cluster analysis, 158 content analysis, 58, 104–108
cluster sampling, 20 content management, 96–101
coding/indexing, 105 contextual stimuli, 94
coding of information, 103 control group, 47–48
coding process, 104 conventional content analysis, 107
cognitive analytics, 3 convergence of technology, 32
cognitive bias, 59 conversation analysis (CA), 110–111
170 Index
conversation pathways, 10 participatory research appraisal,

critical theory, 26 123–126
CRU. see Pfizer Clinical Research qualitative loop analysis, 136–137,
Unit (CRU) 138f
culture, 34–35 theory of planned behavior,
139–140
DA function analysis. see discriminant theory of reasoned action, 139
(DA) function analysis experimental research design, 47–48
data analysis, 58, 106, 152 explanatory research, 19
data coding, 101–104, 102t explorative research designs, 19
data collection, 20–22 exploratory factor analysis (EFA), 157
data management, 80 exploratory research design, 47
data-text-mining process, 62 exploring, 55, 57
decision-making models, 159 extrapolation method, 20
deductive process, 2–3
defining, 53–54 factor analysis, 156–158
demand analysis, 154 filtering of information, 10
describing, 54–55, 56f focus group, 132–135, 142
descriptive interviews, 10 formalism, 26
descriptive questions, 90, 91 funnel questions, 90, 91
digital interactions, 70–74
digital object identifier (DOI), 81–82 game theory, 159
digital platforms, 31 generalization, 59–60
dimensions, 105–106 generation gap, 45
directed content analysis, 107 goals, 22
direct observation, 130 Google Docs, 73
discriminant (DA) function analysis, Google Plus, 73
154–156, 163 grounded theory, 13, 15, 40
documentary ethnography, 31 group size, 133
drawing inferences, 59
dynamic research designs, 18–19 health care intervention, 106
hierarchical cluster analysis, 158
ecosystem, 13, 14f, 15–16 Hofstede, Geert, 34
effective interaction, 134 homoscedasticity, 153
empiricism, 26 humanistic research design, 41–42
epiphenomenalism, 31 human value system, 34
episodic memory, 95 hybrid insights approach
ethnographic study, 128 analysis, 58–59
ethnography, 30–33 defining, 53–54
ethnomethodology, 28 describing, 54–55, 56f
evidence-based research, 115–118 drawing inferences, 59
action research, 118–120, 121f, exploring, 55, 57
122–123 generalization, 59–60
anthropomorphic expression, identification, 53
135–136 inspiring, 55
case research, 126–132 prioritizing, 57
focus group, 132–135 hypothesis/proposition, 62
Index 171
identification, 53 longitudinal qualitative research

IKEA, 6 design, 48–49
in-depth interviews, 20 loop analysis, 136–137, 138f
inductive reasoning, 52
inductive theory, 84 management of qualitative data,
inferences, 59 80–81
informal communication channel, 71 manifest analysis, 108
informal scenario, 4 mapping research problems, 45, 46f
informants, 87 marketers, 74
information acquisition process, marketing research approach, 131
84–88 market research firms, 130
information analysis, 22, 58, 117 market research organizations, 1–2
information collection process, 87 mediation, 10
information management meta-analysis, 65–66
computer-based analysis, 108–111 metaphor elicitation analysis, 93–96
content analysis, 104–108 meta-synthesis, 66–67
data coding, 101–104, 102t methodological continuity, 41
metaphor elicitation analysis, mindfulness, 25
93–96 mind mapping techniques, 95–96
principles, 80–82 mixed methodologies, 159–162
qualitative information, 82–84 mixed method research (MMR)
acquiring information, 84–88 design, 147–152, 159–164
research instrument, 90–91, 93 multivariate analysis of variance
retrieval and learning process, (MANOVA), 155–156
89–90
transcription and content narrative analytics, 117, 126, 141,
management, 96–101 142
information retrieval and learning narrative inquiry, 57
process, 89–90 new technologies, 31
inspiring, 55 nomothetic perspective, 48
instrument, 67–70 non-control group, 47–48
interception, 10 nonconventional wisdom, 137
intercept questions, 90, 91 nonverbal interaction, 58
Internet, 71–72
interpretation, 24–25
observations, 21, 58
interpreting emotions, 7
on-field situations, 41
interviewing, 88
on-site interviews, 68–69
interview questions, 10
ontology, 26
iterative data, 106
open-loop approach, 90
opinion analytics, 21
knowledge-based search engines, 21
knowledge resources, 21 partial transcription, 97
participatory action research, 122
language, 130 participatory learning methods
latent analysis, 108 (PALM), 123
logical framework approach (LFA), participatory research appraisal
64–65 (PRA), 18, 123–126, 142
172 Index
peer communication, 59 researcher attributes, 7–13

peer motivation, 136 schools of thought, 24–27, 27t
perceived power, 140 culture, 34–35
perceptual mapping, 7 ethnography, 30–33
personality traits, 34 phenomenology, 28–30
Pfizer Clinical Research Unit (CRU), symbolic interactionism, 27–28
48 qualitative research design, 39–43
phenomenography, 29 digital interactions, 70–74
phenomenology, 28–30 hybrid insights
pictorial questions, 90, 91 analysis, 58–59
planning, qualitative research, 16–17, defining, 53–54
18t describing, 54–55, 56f
data collection, 20–21 drawing inferences, 59
research designs, 18–19 exploring, 55, 57
sampling techniques, 19–20 generalization, 59–60
positivism, 25 identification, 53
PRA. see participatory research inspiring, 55
appraisal (PRA) prioritizing, 57
pretranscription tasks, 98 instrument, 67–70
prioritizing, 57 roadmap, 43–44
probability proportional to size (PPS), research problems, 44–45, 46f,
20 47–50
probability sampling, 20 research questions and
problem-based qualitative research, 61 propositions, 50–51
propositions, 50–51 scope, 51–53
synthesis, 60–63, 65–67
qualitative data management, 80–82 antithesis, 64–65
qualitative evidence, 116 thesis, 63–64
qualitative evidence synthesis, 117 quality of information, 88
qualitative information, 3, 6, 57, quantitative methods
81–84 cluster analysis, 158
acquiring information, 84–88 conjoint analysis, 158–159
research instrument, 90–91, 93 discriminant function analysis,
retrieval and learning process, 154–156
89–90 factor analysis, 156–158
qualitative inquiries, 3, 10, 40, 97 mixed methodologies, 159–162
qualitative loop analysis, 136–137, regression analysis, 152–154
138f quantitative research approach, 148
qualitative research approach, 1–3, 6, queuing model, 159
22–24, 35–36, 148
attributes of, 3–7 rationale of stimuli, 95
components, 22–23 rationale sophistication, 9
ecosystem, 13, 14f, 15–16 rationality, 9
methodology, 3–4 recursive abstraction, 105
planning, 16–17, 18t regression analysis, 152–154
data collection, 20–21 repeatability of information, 11
research designs, 18–19 research-based practice program, 117
sampling techniques, 19–20 research designs, 18–19
Index 173
researcher attributes, 7–13 sociology, 25

research instrument, 90–91, 93 stratified sampling, 19–20
research problems, 44–45, 46f, 47–50 subjective norms, 140
research propositions, 50–51 summative content analysis, 107
research questions, 23, 50–51 symbolic interactionism, 27–28
respondents, selection of, 5 synthesis, 60–63, 65–67
retrieval and learning process, 89–90
reverse questions, 90, 91 text-data-mining approach, 88
Ryan Air, 42–43 text mining/text data mining, 21
theory of planned behavior (TPB),
sampling techniques, 19–20 139–140
schools of thought, 24–27, 27t theory of reasoned action (TRA), 139
culture, 34–35 thesis, 62–64
ethnography, 30–33 thrust, 7
phenomenology, 28–30 transcription, 98
symbolic interactionism, 27–28 management, 96–101
scope, 51–53 process, 100–101
self-concept, 135–136 protocols, 98–99
self-congruity theory, 135–136 triadic convergence models, 61
self-efficacy, 140–141
Self-Employed Women’s Association validity, 23
(SEWA), 125–126 value expectancy, 140–141
self-image congruence, 136 verbal data, 100
semantics, 54 verbal interaction, 58
sensory cognition, 94–95 verbatim transcription, 99–100
snowballing technique, 19 video interviews, 97
snowball sampling, 19 virtual communities, 72–73
social innovation, 103 virtual platforms, 31
social institutions, 73–74 visual data, 97–98
socialization behavior, 55 visual ethnography, 31
social laboratory, 49 vogue brands, 135–136
social media, 32, 70–74 voice of the customer (VOC), 16
social media websites, 58, 72
social norms, 140 web-based businesses, 72
social problems, 45
socioeconomic development Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation
experience, 49–50 Technique (ZMET), 93–96

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Qualitative Marketing

Copyright © Business Expert Press, LLC, 2019.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

First published in 2019 by

ISBN-13: 978-1-94999-101-7 (paperback)

Business Expert Press Marketing Collection

Collection ISSN: 2150-9654 (print)

Cover and interior design by Exeter Premedia Services Private Ltd.,

First edition: 2019

Printed in the United States of America.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Qualitative Research��������������������������������1

About the Author��������������������������������������������������������������������������������167

i­ntangible information. Of these, questionnaire structuring, area sam-

Figure P1 Discussion paradigm of the book

oriented strategies, like Shakti experiment (2003) of Hindustan Lever

understand consumer behavior both intrinsically and extrinsically. Qual-

• Why is qualitative research necessary for marketing

This book connects managers to behavioral domain of all the role

firms can also provide a solution to the multinational companies seeking

suppliers, and incorporate consumer opinion database into their enter-

various business analytics tools. Various statistical methods are encour-

by analyzing the quantitative data. The deductive inquires require

Attributes of Qualitative Research

• Use of adaptive instrument

Qualitative research is conducted in an informal scenario, which is

• Created settings for interviews make respondents conscious

researcher plans to live with the respondents adapting to their

Selection of respondents for qualitative research is widely based on

investigation, good informal arguments offer justification for most con-

partners, and customers and mobilize creation of value by new com-

A good researcher develops semantic map on the interconnecting words

or invalidated referrals may cause biasness among researchers toward

It is necessary for researchers to possess considerable experience on the

finely tuned ethical sense and negotiate ethical dilemmas encountered in

Interception and mediation in qualitative inquiries are considered as

information from all documented and digitally recorded sources should

Table 1.1 Sample information transcription layout-question#

H, High; M, Moderate; L, Low; Y, Yes; A, Adopted; N, Not Defined.

the observations for the psychometric, cognitive, or opinion analytics of

Qualitative Research Ecosystem

Compensation for time

Simple and purposeful Research

Figure 1.1 Qualitative research ecosystem

interpersonal, and peer relationships that emerge in a social process.

• Data collection and analysis are carried out simultaneously

In order to test the grounded theory through qualitative research

the responses, which need to be filtered before subjecting it to data anal-

Qualitative Research Plan

scientific method of knowledge building is essentially based on induc-

Table 1.2 Stages of qualitative research planning

The experimental designs are characterized by the random selection of

dimensions to express the final output. One of the right examples to

Qualitative research usually encourages random sampling within spec-

is a predetermined number based on the classification of attributes of

In-depth interviewing is a principal qualitative research technique that

Participant observation is commonly used in both anthropological

• Goals: A researcher should set up the goals of the study con-

• Conceptual framework: It is necessary for a researcher to

Qualitative research must be conducted systematically and rigor-

Qualitative research should involve critical self-scrutiny of information, or

Schools of Thought in Qualitative Research

grows on the cause-and-effect interrelationship. Positivism in epistemo-

Table 1.3 Attributes of embedded philosophies influenced qualitative

Chapter 1 Introduction to Qualitative Research��1

About the Author��167

intangible information. Of these, questionnaire structuring, area sam-

• Phenomenologists try to use human thinking, intelligence,