Lecture 5

Lecture 5 : Ruler and Compass Constructions II
Objectives
(1) Wantzel’s characterization of constructible regular p-polygons.

(2) Richmond’s construction of a regular pentagon.
(3) Gauss’ criterion of constructible regular polygons.
Key words and phrases: Fermat’s primes, constructible regular polygons,

Gauss’ criterion.
In this section we discuss constructibility by ruler and compass of regular

polygons. Gauss’ proved that a regular polygon of n sides is constructible
by ruler and compass if and only if n = 2m p1 p2 . . . pr where m ∈ N and
m
p1 , p2 , . . . , pr are distinct Fermat primes. The number Fm = 22 + 1 is
called a Fermat prime whenever it is a prime. The known Fermat primes
are:
F0 = 3, F1 = 5, F2 = 17, F3 = 257 and F4 = 65537.
Fermat showed that Fm is a prime for m ≤ 4. Eisenstein conjectured that

there are infinitely many Fermat primes. This conjecture is still open. Euler
showed that F5 is divisible by 641.
Proposition 5.1 (1837, Wantzel). Let a regular polygon of n sides be con-

structible and p be an odd prime dividing n. Then p is a Fermat prime.
Proof. If p|n and a regular n-gon is constructible then a regular p-gon is

also constructible. Thus the point (cos 2π/p, sin 2π/p) is a constructible
point. Hence there exists a field F ⊇ Q such that [F : Q] = 2m and
cos 2π/p, sin 2π/p ∈ F . Then ζp = cos 2π/p + i sin 2π/p ∈ F (i) and hence
[Q(ζp ) : Q] = 2s = p − 1 and therefore p = 1 + 2s . It follows that s is a power
of 2. Hence p is a Fermat prime.
24
25
Figure 1. Richmond’s construction of a regular pentagon
Construction of a pentagon by ruler and compass
We show that a pentagon is constructible by ruler and compass. The vertex

(cos 720 , sin 720 ) of a regular pentagon corresponds to the complex number
z = e2πi/5 which is the root of the irreducible polynomial
Φ5 (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1.
Therefore
1 1
z2 + z + 1 + + 2 = 0.
z z
Completing the square we get
1 2

1
z+ + z+ − 1 = 0.
z z
Put z + 1/z = y to get y 2 + y − 1 = 0 and z 2 − zy + 1 = 0. Hence

√ p
y = (−1 ± 5)/2. The second equation gives z = (y ± y 2 − 4)/2. Clearly
√
y is constructible as it belongs to Q( 5) and we have a square root tower
√ √ p
Q ⊂ Q( 5) ⊂ Q( 5, y 2 − 4).
Thus all roots of Φ5 (x) are constructible real numbers.
Richmond’s construction of a regular pentagon (1893)

26
Draw a unit circle with center O. Draw a perpendicular OR at O. Let Q

be the mid point of OR. Join Q and P and then bisect ∠P QO. Let the
bisector meet OP at S. Construct a perpendicular at S and let T be its
intersection point with the circle. We show ∠T OP = 72o . It is enough to
show that OS = cos 72o . Note that
90−θ θ OS 1
⇒ tan 45o − tan(45o − 2θ ).

∠OQS = 2 2 = 1 ⇒ OS = 2
2
1 2 tan θ/2 √
Using tan θ = 2 = 1−tan2 θ/2
we get tan 2θ = 5 − 2. Therefore
√
1 tan 45o −tan θ/2 5−1
OS = 2 1−tan 45o tan(−θ/2) = 4 = cos 72o .
Proposition 5.2. A heptagon is not constructible by ruler and compass.
Proof. Let θ = 2π/7 and ζ7 = cos θ + i sin θ. Then ζ7 is a root of the irre-
ducible polynomial
Φ7 (x) = x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1.
Therefore [Q(ζ7 ) : Q] = 6. Using ζ7 + ζ7 = 2 cos θ we get [Q(ζ7 ) : Q(cos θ)] =

2 and hence [Q(cos θ) : Q] = 3. Thus cos θ is not constructible. Therefore a
heptagon is not constructible by ruler and compass.
Proposition 5.3. Let p be a prime number and ζp = cos 2π/p2 +i sin 2π/p2 .
Then
[Q(ζp ) : Q] = p(p − 1).
Proof. Since ζp satisfies the equation
2
xp − 1 = (xp − 1)(xp(p−1) + xp(p−2) + · · · + (xp )2 + xp + 1) = 0
and ζpp 6= 1, ζp is root of f (x) = (xp )p−1 + (xp )p−2 + · · · + (xp )2 + xp + 1.

We show that f (x) ∈ Q[x] is irreducible. Put x = u + 1 and use Eisenstein’s
criterion:
27
p
X
f (u + 1) = (u + 1)p(p−k)
k=1
p
X
= (up + 1 + pg(u))p−k
k=1
Xp
= (up + 1)p−k + phk (u)
k=1
where hk (u) ∈ Z[u] has degree p2 − pk − 1. Since

Pp 2 (up +1)p −1
k=1 (u + 1)p−k = up = up(p−1) + pH(u),
p
X
f (u + 1) = (u + 1)p(p−k) = up(p−1) + pG(u).
k=1
Since f (1) = p, the constant term of f (u + 1) is divisible by p and not by
p2 . By Eisenstein’s criterion f (u + 1) and hence f (x) is irreducible. Thus
[Q(ζp ) : Q] = p2 − p.
Theorem 5.4 (Gauss). If a regular polygon of n sides is constructible then

n = 2r p1 p2 . . . ps where p1 , . . . , ps are distinct Fermat primes.
Proof. If p2 n then p-gon is constructible. Hence [Q(cos 2π/p2 ) : Q] = 2u for

some positive integer u. Thus p(p − 1) = 2u , which is a contradiction.
This finishes the proof of one half of Gauss’s constructibility criterion for reg-
ular polygons. We shall prove the other half after we prove the fundamental
theorem of Galois Theory.

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Lecture 5 : Ruler and Compass Constructions II

(1) Wantzel’s characterization of constructible regular p-polygons.

Key words and phrases: Fermat’s primes, constructible regular polygons,

In this section we discuss constructibility by ruler and compass of regular

Fermat showed that Fm is a prime for m ≤ 4. Eisenstein conjectured that

Proposition 5.1 (1837, Wantzel). Let a regular polygon of n sides be con-

Proof. If p|n and a regular n-gon is constructible then a regular p-gon is

Figure 1. Richmond’s construction of a regular pentagon

Construction of a pentagon by ruler and compass

We show that a pentagon is constructible by ruler and compass. The vertex

Put z + 1/z = y to get y 2 + y − 1 = 0 and z 2 − zy + 1 = 0. Hence

Thus all roots of Φ5 (x) are constructible real numbers.

Richmond’s construction of a regular pentagon (1893)

Draw a unit circle with center O. Draw a perpendicular OR at O. Let Q

Proposition 5.2. A heptagon is not constructible by ruler and compass.

Therefore [Q(ζ7 ) : Q] = 6. Using ζ7 + ζ7 = 2 cos θ we get [Q(ζ7 ) : Q(cos θ)] =

[Q(ζp ) : Q] = p(p − 1).

Proof. Since ζp satisfies the equation

and ζpp 6= 1, ζp is root of f (x) = (xp )p−1 + (xp )p−2 + · · · + (xp )2 + xp + 1.

where hk (u) ∈ Z[u] has degree p2 − pk − 1. Since

Theorem 5.4 (Gauss). If a regular polygon of n sides is constructible then

Proof. If p2 n then p-gon is constructible. Hence [Q(cos 2π/p2 ) : Q] = 2u for

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