Topologies

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network

devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of
the network. Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different in a same network.

Point-to-Point
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches or routers,
servers connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one
host is connected to sending end of the other and vice-versa.

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple intermediate
devices. But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see each other as if they are
connected directly.

Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable.Bus
topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus
topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the
issue. It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the
other devices. But failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop
functioning.

Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction and
as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line.

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Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a
point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and
hub. The hub device can be any of the following:

 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater

 Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all
hosts to all other hosts fails. Every communication between hosts, takes place through only the
hub. Star topology is not expensive as to connect one more host, only one cable is required and
configuration is simple.

Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a
circular network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which
is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in
the existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.

Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring.Thus, every connection in the ring is a
point of failure. There are methods which employ one more backup ring.

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Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.This topology has
hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in
point-to-point connection to few hosts only.

Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-
point links. Mesh technology comes into two types:

 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network.
Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the most reliable
network structure among all network topologies.
 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts
connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to
provide reliability to some hosts out of all.

Tree Topology
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network
topology in use presently.This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits
properties of bus topology.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in
LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices. The lowermost is access-
layer where computers are attached. The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which
works as mediator between upper layer and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core
layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes fork.

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 All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them.Similar to the Bus
topology, if the root goes down, then the entire network suffers even.though it is not the single
point of failure. Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the
network into unreachable segment.

Hybrid Topology
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.

The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining topologies
may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are
connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks connected to them are mostly Star
topology networks. Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology

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TYPES OF NETWORK
The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different computers via
any medium. LAN, MAN and WAN are the three major types of the network designed to operate
over the area they cover. There are some similarities and dissimilarities between them. One of
the major differences is the geographical area they cover, i.e. LAN covers the smallest
area; MAN covers an area larger than LAN and WAN comprises the largest of all.
There are other types of Computer Networks also, like :
 PAN (Personal Area Network)
 CAN (Campus Area Network)
 EPN (Enterprise Private Network)

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal
computer and workstations can share data, tools and programs. The group of computers and
devices are connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private addressing
scheme as defined by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other
computers on the local network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them
tothe larger WAN.
Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked are limited. By
definition, the connections must be high speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such as
hubs, network adapters and Ethernet cables). LANs cover smaller geographical area (Size is
limited to a few kilometers) and are privately owned. One can use it for an office building, home,
hospital, schools, etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A Communication medium used for
LAN has twisted pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and so the error and
noise are minimized.
Early LAN’s had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are normally 100 or
1000 Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The smallest LAN may only use two
computers, while larger LANs can accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN typically
relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but wireless connections can
also be part of a LAN. The fault tolerance of a LAN is more and there is less congestion in this

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network. For example : A bunch of students playing Counter Strike in the same room (without
internet).

MetropolitanAreaNetwork(MAN)
MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller
area as compared to WAN. It connects two or more computers that are apart but resides in the
same or different cities. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet
Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity. Speeds
of MAN ranges in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.
The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is costly
and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate and the
propagation delay of MAN is moderate. Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are:
Modem and Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are the part of the telephone company network
that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a city.
PAN (Pearson Area Network)

Same as LAN network, but it is limited to a specific person or location such as home network.
This network is usually setup for sharing resources such as internet and printer within personal
computers.

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Campus Area Networks (CANs):
A campus area network (CAN) follows the same principles as a local area network, only
on a larger and more diversified scale. With a CAN, different campus offices and organizations
can be linked together. For example, in a typical university setting, accounts office might be
linked to a registrar's office. In this manner, once a student has paid his or her tuition fees in the
accounts section, this information is transmitted to the registrar's system so the student can enroll
for classes. Some university departments or organizations might be linked to the CAN even
though they already have their own separate LANs.
Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical
area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. A WAN could be a
connection of LAN connecting to other LAN’s via telephone lines and radio waves and may be
limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The
technology is high speed and relatively expensive.

There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN is difficult to
design and maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more
congestion in the network. A Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link.
Due to long distance transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed, since it involves increased distance
and increased number of servers and terminals etc. Speeds of WAN ranges from few kilobits per
second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems
faced here. Devices used for transmission of data through WAN are: Optic wires, Microwaves
and Satellites. Example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network
and Point-to-Point WAN is dial-up line that connects a home computer to the Internet.

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1. Define TCP/IP?
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which is a set of networking
protocols that allows two or more computers to communicate. The Defense Data Network, part
of the Department of Defense, developed TCP/IP, and it has been widely adopted as a
networking standard.

2. What do you mean by error control?

Error control is the technique of detecting and correcting blocks of data during
communication. In other words, it checks the reliability of characters both at the bit level and
packet level. If proper error control is in place, transmitted and received data is ensured to be
identical, as in many cases communication channels can be highly unreliable.
3. Define Network?

A network is defined as a group of two or more computer systems linked together. There
are many types of computer networks, including the following: local-area networks(LANs): The
computers are geographically close together

4. Define framing?

A frame is a digital data transmission unit in computer networking and

telecommunication. In packet switched systems, a frame is a simple container for a
single network packet. In other telecommunications systems, a frame is a repeating structure
supporting time-division multiplexing.

5. Define bit stuffing?

Bit stuffing is the process of inserting non information bits into data to break up bit
patterns to affect the synchronous transmission of information. It is widely used in network and
communication protocols, in which bit stuffing is a required part of the transmission process.

6. What is socket programming?

A socket is one endpoint of a two-way communication link between two programs

running on the network. A socket is bound to a port number so that the TCP layer can identify
the application that data is destined to be sent to. An endpoint is a combination of an IP address
and a port number.

7. What are the services offered by application layer?

Many application layer protocols exist. The following list shows examples ofapplication
layer protocols: Standard TCP/IP services such as the ftp , tftp , and telnet commands. ... Simple
Network Management Protocol (SNMP), which enables network management.