Industrial Installation Fundamental

Valid on June 2018

Table of Contents
Chapter 1. Electrical Safety and Regulations ...................................................................... 1

1.01 Supply Authority of Indonesia .................................................................................... 1

1.02 CP5 : 1988 ................................................................................................................. 1

1.03 Unsafe equipment – which may be cheap but of lower safety standard. ................. 1

1.04 Emergency Resuscitation .......................................................................................... 2

1.05 WHEN CASUALTY RECOVERS .............................................................................. 2

1.06 “IF BREATHING STOPPED” ..................................................................................... 2

1.07 CIRCULATION STOPPED ........................................................................................ 4

Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System ................................................................................... 1

2.01 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1

2.02 Components of Power Station ................................................................................... 1

2.03 Generation of Electricity ............................................................................................. 2

2.04 Transmission and Distribution ................................................................................... 2

2.05 Systems of Transmission and Distribution ................................................................ 3

2.06 Transmission Voltages .............................................................................................. 3

2.07 Reasons for High Transmission Voltages ................................................................. 4

2.08 Distribution Voltages .................................................................................................. 4

2.09 Distribution System for Large Consumers ................................................................ 4

2.10 Distribution System for Small Consumers ................................................................. 5

2.11 How Supply is Tapped from The Transformer? ........................................................ 6

2.12 Variation of Voltage.................................................................................................... 7

2.13 Variation of Frequency............................................................................................... 7

2.14 Function of Supply Intake Equipment........................................................................ 8

2.15 Distribution Board ...................................................................................................... 8

 2.16 Consumer‟s Control Unit ............................................................................................ 9

2.17 Accessory................................................................................................................. 10

2.18 Lampholder .............................................................................................................. 10

2.19 Socket Oulet............................................................................................................. 10

2.20 Radial Connection.................................................................................................... 11

2.21 Ring Connection ...................................................................................................... 12

Chapter 3. Cables and Conductors ..................................................................................... 1

3.01 Conductor................................................................................................................... 1

3.02 Conductor Materials ................................................................................................... 1

3.03 Comparison of copper and aluminum as conductor: ................................................ 2

3.04 Insulation Material ...................................................................................................... 2

3.05 Parts of a Cable ......................................................................................................... 3

3.06 Conductor materials commonly used are: ................................................................. 3

3.07 Insulator materials commonly used are:.................................................................... 3

3.08 Mechanical Protection ............................................................................................... 3

3.09 Flexibility of Cables .................................................................................................... 4

3.10 Cable Size .................................................................................................................. 4

3.11 Common sizes of PVC cables used extensively in domestics installation are: ........ 4

3.12 The size of a cable will determine how much current it can carry: ........................... 5

3.13 Identification of Conductors ....................................................................................... 5

3.14 Power Consumption................................................................................................... 6

Chapter 4. Overcurrent Protection and Devices ................................................................. 1

4.01 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1

4.02 The Path of Electric Shock Current ........................................................................... 1

4.03 How a Person Gets an Electric Shock? .................................................................... 2

4.04 Direct and Indirect Shock........................................................................................... 3

 4.05 What is Overcurrent? ................................................................................................. 3

4.06 Overload..................................................................................................................... 4

4.07 Short Circuit ............................................................................................................... 4

4.08 Earth Fault.................................................................................................................. 4

4.09 Protective Devices ..................................................................................................... 4

4.10 Overcurrent Protective Devices ................................................................................. 4

4.11 Fuses.......................................................................................................................... 5

4.12 Semi-Enclosed or Rewireable Fuse(BS 3036).......................................................... 5

4.13 Cartridge Fuse (BS 1361) .......................................................................................... 6

4.14 High Breaking Capacity (HBC) Fuses (BS 88).......................................................... 6

4.15 Circuit Breakers ......................................................................................................... 7

4.16 Residual Current Circuit Breaker ............................................................................... 8

Chapter 5. Earthing Principles ............................................................................................. 1

5.01 Earth ........................................................................................................................... 1

5.02 Earthing ...................................................................................................................... 1

5.03 Earthing General Requirements ................................................................................ 2

5.04 Earthing Arrangement................................................................................................ 2

5.05 Earth Electrode .......................................................................................................... 3

Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS ......................................................................... 1

6.01 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1

6.02 Sheathed Wiring System ........................................................................................... 1

6.03 Steel Conduit System ................................................................................................ 3

6.04 Steel Conduit.............................................................................................................. 3

6.05 Conduit Finishes ........................................................................................................ 4

6.06 Boxes and Fitting ....................................................................................................... 5

6.07 Methods of Terminating Conduits in Boxes .............................................................. 6

 6.08 Conduit Fixing ............................................................................................................ 7

6.09 Flexible Conduit ......................................................................................................... 7

6.10 PVC conduit ............................................................................................................... 8

6.11 Drawing-in of Cable ................................................................................................... 8

6.12 Trunking System ........................................................................................................ 9

6.13 Other Forms of Trunking.......................................................................................... 10

6.14 Busbar Trunking Systems........................................................................................ 11

6.15 Overhead Busbar Trunking System ........................................................................ 12

6.16 Rising Mains Busbar Trunking System ................................................................... 13

6.17 Mineral Insulated Cables ......................................................................................... 16

Chapter 7. Inspection and Testing ....................................................................................... 1

7.01 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1

7.02 Visual Inspection ........................................................................................................ 2

7.03 Testing........................................................................................................................ 2

7.04 Continuity of Ring Final Circuit Conductors .............................................................. 3

7.05 Continuity of Protective Conductors .......................................................................... 4

7.06 Insulation Resistance ................................................................................................. 5

7.07 Insulation Resistance Test to Earth ........................................................................... 6

7.08 Insulation Resistance Test between Poles ............................................................... 7

7.09 Polarity Test ............................................................................................................... 8

Chapter 8. Electrical Wiring ................................................................................................. 1

8.01 Electrical Drawing ...................................................................................................... 1

8.02 Lines ........................................................................................................................... 1

8.03 Socket Outlets ............................................................................................................ 2

8.04 Switches ..................................................................................................................... 3

8.05 Lighting Outlets and Fittings ...................................................................................... 4

 8.06 Protective Devices ..................................................................................................... 5

Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts ............................................................................ 1

9.01 Alternating Quantity (AC) ........................................................................................... 1

9.02 Generation of Alternating Current.............................................................................. 1

9.03 Alternating Quantities ................................................................................................ 3

9.04 Form Factor................................................................................................................ 5

9.05 Worked Examples ...................................................................................................... 6

9.06 Tutorials ..................................................................................................................... 9

9.07 Phasor Diagram ....................................................................................................... 10

Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT....................................................................................................... 1

10.01 Purely Resistive Circuit .......................................................................................... 1

10.02 Purely Inductive Circuit .......................................................................................... 1

10.03 Purely Capacitive Circuit ........................................................................................ 2

10.04 R – L Series Circuit ............................................................................................... 3

10.05 Worked Examples .................................................................................................. 4

10.06 R - C Series Circuit ................................................................................................ 5

10.07 Worked Examples .................................................................................................. 6

10.08 R – L – C Series Circuit ......................................................................................... 8

10.09 Worked Examples ................................................................................................ 10

10.10 Tutorial ................................................................................................................. 12

Chapter 11. A Power and Power Factor in AC Circuit .......................................................... 1

11.01 Active and Reactive Components of current ......................................................... 1

11.02 True or Active Power (P) ....................................................................................... 2

11.03 Equations To Determine True Power .................................................................... 2

11.04 Apparent Power (S) and Reactive Power(Q) ........................................................ 3

11.05 Power Factor (p.f.) ................................................................................................. 3

 11.06 Worked Examples .................................................................................................. 4

11.07 Tutorial ................................................................................................................... 4

Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM.................................................................................. 1

12.01 Generation of Three Phase EMFs ......................................................................... 1

12.02 Methods of Connection .......................................................................................... 3

12.03 Relationship Between Line/Phase Currents and Voltages ................................... 4

12.04 Summary ................................................................................................................ 4

12.05 Delta Connection ................................................................................................... 5

12.06 Summary ................................................................................................................ 5

12.07 Balanced and Unbalanced Load ........................................................................... 6

12.08 Neutral Current ...................................................................................................... 6

12.09 Power ..................................................................................................................... 6

12.10 Summary ................................................................................................................ 7

12.11 Worked Examples .................................................................................................. 8

Tutorials ................................................................................................................................ 10

Chapter 13. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER ................................................................... 1

13.01 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1

The 2 Basic Principles of a Transformer are: ........................................................................ 1

Parts of a Single-Phase Transformer: ................................................................................... 1

13.02 Principle of Operation ............................................................................................ 1

13.03 Ideal Transformer................................................................................................... 2

13.04 Turns Ratio............................................................................................................. 2

13.05 Transformer Ratio .................................................................................................. 3

13.06 Transformer Rating ................................................................................................ 3

13.07 Worked Examples .................................................................................................. 3

13.08 Tutorial ................................................................................................................... 5

Appendix .................................................................................................................................... 2
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 1. Electrical Safety and Regulations Page 1 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 1. Electrical Safety and Regulations

1.01 Supply Authority of Indonesia
The electricity supply authority of Indonesia is the Indonesia Power Supply.

(a) Danger of Electricity

Electricity is not dangerous if it is properly used and if electrical equipment is properly

installed, operated and maintained.

Otherwise the dangers are:

ELECTRIC SHOCK if the electric current passes through any part of the body (i.e. when in
contact with bare wire or power source).

BURNS as a result of the heat produced by electricity.

FIRE or EXPLOSION as a result of the heat produced by electricity and

ARC EYE caused by looking at the electric arc which is an intense source of light.

1.02 CP5 : 1988

To ensure the safe use of electricity, Government had compiled the CP5 : 1988 Code of
Practice for Wiring of Electrical Equipment of Buildings.

This Code of Practice was revised to align the requirements of wiring of electrical equipment
of buildings with IEE (Institute of Electrical Engineers) Wiring Regulations.

The Code of Practice CP5 : 1988 is designed to protect persons and livestock in location
intended specifically for them, against hazards arising from an electrically installation. The
requirements relate protection against:

 electric shock,
 fire, and
 burns

1.03 Unsafe equipment – which may be cheap but of lower safety

standard.
All these accidents can be PREVENTED.

How to prevent Electrical Accident?

Appoint competent person as electricians and punish workers who tamper with electrical
connection, equipment or installation.

Institute an effective store control of electrical tools, equipment and appliances. Ensure that
only safe tools, equipment and appliances are issued.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 1. Electrical Safety and Regulations Page 2 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

Institute an effective workers or supervisory responsibility program. So that supervisors or

workers return unsafe tools or equipment for repair.

1.04 Emergency Resuscitation

For victims of Electric Shock, the following are the Order of Actions:

(a) SWITCH OFF THE ELECTRICAL SUPPLY

Do this immediately. If not possible do not waste time searching for the switch.

(b) SECURE RELEASE FROM CONTACT

Safeguard yourself when removing casualty from contact. Stand on non-conducting material
(rubber mat, dry wood). Use rubber gloves, dry clothing. a length of dry rope or a length of
dry wood to pull or push the casualty away from contact.

(c) START EXPIRED AIR RESUSCITATION

If the casualty is not breathing, respiratory resuscitation is of extreme urgency. Use the
mouth-to-mouth method. Continue until the casualty is breathing satisfactory or until a doctor
tells you to stop.

(d) COMMENCE EXTERNAL CARDIAC MASSAGE

Extreme pallor, widely dilated pupils of eyes and failure to respond to first few inflations of
the lungs are evidence of circulatory failure. The heart has stooped and must be re-started
by manual pressure.

(e) SEND FOR DOCTOR AND AMBULANCE

Tell someone to send for a doctor and ambulance immediately and to say what has
happened and where. Do not allow the casualty to exert himself even by walking until he has
been seen by a doctor. If burns are present ask someone to cover them with dry sterile
dressing.

1.05 WHEN CASUALTY RECOVERS

Keep casualty at rest – Remove on a stretcher. Watch closely, particularly for difficulty in
breathing. Keep warm with blankets or other covering.

1.06 “IF BREATHING STOPPED”

Restart breathing by EXPIRED AIR RESUSCITATION

(a) AIRWAY BLOCKED

In the unconscious casually lying on his back, the tongue falls back and blocks the air
passage.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 1. Electrical Safety and Regulations Page 3 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

(b) ENSURE A FREE AIRWAY

Position the head with both hands and place it in the fully extended position by pressing the
head back with one hand and the lower jaw upwards and forwards with the other (This
simple procedure occasionally permits breathing to restart by relieving obstruction.).

(c) OXYGENATE THE BLOOD

Seal casualty‟s nose by pinching his nostrils together. Take a deep breath and open your
mouth wide. Place your wide mouth right round that of your casualty and blow. Repeat six
times

(d) WATCH CHEST RISE

Watch chest rise after inflation. If it does not, check for obstruction and treat by turning
casualty on side and slap between shoulder blades, which should dislodge obstruction. Re-
position and continue mouth-to-mouth inflation.

“IF THERE IS NO RESPONSE AFTER FOUR INFLATIONS”

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Chapter 1. Electrical Safety and Regulations Page 4 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

1.07 CIRCULATION STOPPED

Brain starved of blood. Oxygen is circulated to the brain by blood stream. When this stop,
changes take place in the brain and after four minutes, death may result. This stoppage will
be shown in DILATED EYES.

(a) DILATED EYES

Dilated (greatly enlarged) pupils indicate circulation has ceased.

Normal pupils Dilated pupils

Restart heartbeat by EXTERNAL CARDIAC MASSAGE

In using this method no advantage is to be gained by the use of excessive pressure.

Release pressure on breast bone immediately the depression effect of 1 - 1½ inches is felt.

STIMULATE THE HEART BY EXTERNAL CARDIAC MASSAGE

Feel for lower third part of stemum (breast bone) and restart the circulation by pressing with
the heel of one hand reinforced by second hand superimposed. Continue with inflation of the
lungs and after each inflation press sharply 6~8 times at the rate of one per second.

COMBINED PROCEDURES

With two rescuers, the more experienced should undertake the external cardiac
compression while the other continues the regular inflation of the lungs watching the size of
the victim‟s pupils for reduction to normal and for improved colour of his face.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 1. Electrical Safety and Regulations Page 5 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

WHEN COLOUR AND PUPIL SIZE RETURN TO NORMAL, HEART MASSAGE SHOULD
CEASE.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System Page 1 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System

2.01 Introduction
Generation of electricity is a process of ENERGY conversion. The stages of energy
conversion in a thermal power station are as follows:

Oil

Coal

Heat Mechanical Electrical

Energy Energy Energy

Nuclear
Fussion

Natural
Gas

Transformation of Energy

2.02 Components of Power Station

Chimney

Boiler
Step-up
Transformer
Turbine Generator

Condenser
230kV
Transmission
Netwrok

66kV
Load Centre

Fuel oil Furnace

Tank 22kV
Sea Water Substation

How Electricity Is Brought To Consumer

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Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System Page 2 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

2.03 Generation of Electricity

In power stations, huge A.C. electric generators (or alternators) produce 3-phase supply.
The electricity generated at the power station is stepped up to a very high voltage before
being transmitted through a network of cables to main sub-stations which in turn feed
secondary or smaller sub-stations and being stepped down by transformer before distributed
to the consumers. These cables used to transport electrical energy are known as
transmission lines and distribution lines.

2.04 Transmission and Distribution

When electricity is carried in bulk over considerable distances to main sub-stations, it is said
to be transmitted and the cables are known as transmission lines.

When electrical energy is being fed through cables to supply small industrial, commercial
and domestic premises, it is said to be distributed and the cables are known as distribution
lines.

Distribution Network

The distribution network DOES NOT INCLUDE the transmission lines, but consists of
FEEDERS DISTRIBUTORS AND SERVICE CABLES or SERVICE MAINS.

Feeders

Conductors used to connect one sub-station to another sub-station.

Distributors

Conductors which have many tappings taken from them and from which, electricity is
distributed to the consumers.

Service Cables

Cables connecting the distributors and the consumer‟s premises.

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Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System Page 3 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

2.05 Systems of Transmission and Distribution

Electricity can be transmitted and distributed by using:

(a) overhead lines and

(b) cables buried underground.

Most of the transmission is done by the use of cables buried underground.

2.06 Transmission Voltages

3-phase voltage generated at power stations is stepped up by the use of transformers to a
high voltage before being transmitted to main sub-stations connected in the transmission
network.

The transmission voltages used in Indonesia are:

(a) 230kV – the primary transmission network/ low voltage network and

(b) 66kV – the secondary transmission network.

Tuas PS G
Pasir Panjang
Senoko PS Jurong PS PS
G G G
400kV

400/230kV 13.2/230kV
230kV 11/66kV

230/66kV
66kV

66/22kV
NISM SHELL
22kV

22/6.6kV HEAVY COMMERCIAL

INDUSTRIES BUILDING
6.6kV

6.6kV/400V 22kV/400V
INDUSTRIES COMMERCIAL
400V

INDUSTRIES , COMMERCIAL , RESIDENTIAL , LIGHTING

Electrical Supply In Singapore
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System Page 4 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

2.07 Reasons for High Transmission Voltages

P =  3 V I cosθ watts

An increased voltage will mean a reduced current from the same amount of power. This
reduction in current is due to high transmission voltage will save costs by:

(a) the reduction in the size of cables and switchgears used for transmission,

(b) the reduced voltage drop (I x R) in the transmission lines and

(c) lower power losses (I2 x R).

2.08 Distribution Voltages

From 66kV sub-stations, the transmission voltage is further stepped down to distribution
voltages of 22kV, down to 6.6kV and further stepped down to 400V 3-phase/230V single
phase from distribution to consumers via the consumer‟s terminal.

2.09 Distribution System for Large Consumers

For large consumers such as National Iron and Steel Mills, Shell and Esso, the supply is
taken at 66kV direct from the secondary transmission line. For other commercial and
industrial consumers, e.g. hotels, factories and shipyards etc, the supply is taken in at 22kV
or 6.6kV. A private sub-station is required at the premises to enable the consumer to reduce
the voltage for utilization.

Transformer (Sub-Stations)

Generating 230/66kV 66/22kV 22/6.6kV 6.6/0.4kV Service Consumer

Cable
Station

Transmission Lines Feeders Distributors

Transmission Distribution
230kV and 66kV 22kV, 6.6kV and 400V/230V

Transmission and Distribution System

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System Page 5 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

2.10 Distribution System for Small Consumers

The system used for distribution of electricity is the 3-phase, 4-wire system which makes use
of a DELTA-STAR STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER having the Star point of its secondary
winding connected to EARTH. On the secondary side of the DELTA-STAR STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER, the voltage between and two phase wires is 400V, 50Hz and between any
phase wire and the neutral is 230V, 50Hz.

230V
400V
Neutral 400V
N

230V
230V
Y
400V
B
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Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System Page 6 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

2.11 How Supply is Tapped from The Transformer?

Small non-domestic consumers (e.g. flatted factories) having industrial loads are supplied
with a 3-phase, 4-wire service to give 230V, 50Hz single phase and 400V, 50Hz 3-phase
supply.

For domestic consumers (e.g. in a HDB block), a 3-phase, 4-wire service is brought to the
block. The 3 phases are divided among the different floors. Each flat will receive a 230V,
50Hz single phase supply by means of 2 cables connected to the phase and neutral.

Typical 3-Phase 4-Wire Distribution System

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Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System Page 7 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

2.12 Variation of Voltage

It is impossible for the Power Industry to maintain the consumer voltage constant at
400/230V because of the load variation at different times of the day/night. The Power
Industry is therefore permitted under Electricity Regulations to allow the consumer‟s voltage
to vary by NOT MORE THAN ±6%.

Illustration

For a single phase 230V supply, the permitted variation in voltage is ±6% of 230V which is
equal to ±13.8V. Therefore, the voltage is allowed to vary from 216.2V to 243.8V.

For a 3-phase 400V supply, the permitted variation is ±24V i.e 376V to 424V.

2.13 Variation of Frequency

The standard frequency of the AC supply is 50Hz. The permitted variation in FREQUENCY
is ±1%.

Illustration

Frequency is permitted to vary by ±1% which is ±0.5Hz. Hence, frequency can vary from
49.5Hz to 50.5Hz.

Domestic Intakes

The sequence of the supply and the control gear of domestic premises is shown by the line
diagram in Figure 27. Service cable, service fuse and neutral link/double pole miniature
circuit breaker and kilowatt-hour meter are the properties of the supply authority. After the
meter, all the items belong to the consumer.

Service Fuse
Service and kWH Main Final
D.B.
Cable Meter Switch Circuits
Neutral Link

Service Fuse
Service and kWH Final
C.C.U
Cable Meter Circuits
Neutral Link

Figure 2.7 Sequence of Control Gears

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System Page 8 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

2.14 Function of Supply Intake Equipment

Service cutout/service circuit breaker

For overcurrent protection.

KWH (Energy) meter

Used to register energy consumption.

Distribution board

For energy distribution to final circuits or other distribution boards.

2.15 Distribution Board

The distribution board is used to distribute electricity to individual load. The individual circuit
will be protected by protective device such as fuse, miniature circuit breaker (MCB) or mould
case circuit breaker (MCCB).
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Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System Page 9 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

2.16 Consumer’s Control Unit

In a small installation, the consumer‟s main switch, main fuse and distribution board as
separate items can be combined in one case as a consumer‟s control unit. This makes for
neatness, cheapness and ease of installation. Instead of the consumer‟s control unit,
consumer unit complete with RCCB (a unit with MCBs for final circuits and a RCCB) as
shown in Figure 2.9, is commonly used in the present days.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System Page 10 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

2.17 Accessory
A device, other than current using equipment, associated with such equipment or with the
wiring of an installation. Common domestics accessories are:

(a) switches,

(b) lampholders and

(c) socket outlets.

Switch

one-way switch

two-way switch

intermediate switch

ceiling switch and

dimmer switch

Every single pole switch must be inserted in the phase conductor only.

2.18 Lampholder
It holds a lamp securely and keeps it in contact with the circuit conductors.

Two main type of lampholders are:

(a) Bayonet Cap (B.C.) and

(b) Edison Screw (E.S.).

2.19 Socket Oulet

Socket outlets provide an easy and convenient way of connecting portable electrical
equipment to the supply. The 13A switched socket outlet is the most commonly used.

Final circuit using socket outlet complying with SS 145 consists of:

(a) Radial final circuit and

(b) Ring final circuit.

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System Page 11 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

Overcurrent
Minimum conductor size
protective device
Type of Copper Copperclad Copper
circuit conductor alumininum conductor Maximum
Rating Type rubber or conductors pvc mineral floor area
pvc insulated insulated served
insulated cables cables
1 2 3 4 NA 6 7
A mm2 mm2 m2

A1 Ring 30 Any 2.5 NA 1.5 100

or

32
A2 Radial 30
cartridge
fuse or
or 4 NA 2.5 75
circuit
breaker
32
A3 Radial 20 Any 2.5 NA 1.5 50

2.20 Radial Connection

E

P
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 2. Electrical Supply System Page 12 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

2.21 Ring Connection

P
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 3. Cables and Conductors Page 1 of 6
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 3. Cables and Conductors

3.01 Conductor
A conductor is any material which will allow the free passage of current and there is a wide
range of materials which are used in the electrical industry.

Conductors suitable for everyday use should be:

of low electrical resistance,

mechanically strong and flexible and

relatively cheap.

The best electrical conductor known is silver but this is far too expensive and insufficient to
provide all conducting material required by the electrical industry. Next in order conductivity
come copper and aluminum and these are the most important current carrying material used
in cable manufacturing.

3.02 Conductor Materials

Some of conductor materials and their applications are as list below:

Common Conductor Materials

Material Application
Copper Cables, busbar
Aluminum High tension transmission lines
Brass Terminals of accessories
Carbon Motor brushes, resistors
Tungsten Lamp filament
Nichrome Heating element in irons, kettles
Lead Battery storage plates
Silver Contact points, HBC fuse element
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Chapter 3. Cables and Conductors Page 2 of 6
FUNDAMENTALS

3.03 Comparison of copper and aluminum as conductor:

Comparison between copper and aluminum

Copper Aluminum
It has a lower resistivity, hence a better It is lighter than copper and often used for
electrical conductor. overhead supply.
It is fairly flexible. Being lighter, it is easier to support.
It is ductile and hence easier to work with. It is not as flexible as copper.

3.04 Insulation Material

Insulation is a material having high resistivity in comparison to conductor such as copper and
aluminum. In order to prevent current leaking away from cables and other conductors, they
need to be suspended on or surrounded by insulating materials.

The function of the insulation is to confine the electricity to the conductor, minimizing the risk
of shock and fire.

Many materials are used for the insulation of cable conductors, depending on the voltage of
the supply and the operating environment. Some insulating materials and their typical
applications are as listed.

Common Insulating Materials

Material Application
Bakelite Accessories
Ceramic Support for switchgears
PVC Cable insulation/sheath
Mica Insulation for heating elements
Rubber Cable insulation
Paper Cable insulation and capacitors
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 3. Cables and Conductors Page 3 of 6
FUNDAMENTALS

3.05 Parts of a Cable

A cable consists of at least two parts:

(a) conductor and

(b) Insulator.

3.06 Conductor materials commonly used are:

(a) copper and

(b) aluminum.

3.07 Insulator materials commonly used are:

(a) Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC),

(b) Natural Rubber (NR),

(c) Vulcanized Rubber (t.r.s)

(d) Mineral insulation and

(e) Vanish cambric.

A cable is always named after the insulation used. Thus if it is a double insulation type and
the insulation material is made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), a kind of thermoplastic material,
the cable is known as PVC/PVC cable.

3.08 Mechanical Protection

Some cables have in addition a sheath and/or armouring. They are provided to prevent
mechanical damages to the cable during installation and throughout the subsequent
services.

Sheathing involves covering the cable insulation with materials such as PVC, copper and
aluminum. Apart from mechanical protection, it also prevents moisture from reaching the
insulation of the cable. Armouring refers to the wrapping of metal in the form of steel wires or
metal tapes. Very often, cables have both sheathing and armouring to give complete
mechanical protection.

Sheath Insulation Conductor

Figure 3.1 Parts of a Cable

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 3. Cables and Conductors Page 4 of 6
FUNDAMENTALS

3.09 Flexibility of Cables

Cables are stranded to give flexibility and for easier handling. To ensure flexibility and ease
of handling, conductors are often stranded. Stranding refers to the conductor being divided
into a number of smaller wires which are twisted together spirally forming a core equivalent
to a single wire of required size. Standard number of strands used are 1, 7, 19, 37, 41 and
127.

Figure 3.2 Stranded Copper Conductor

3.10 Cable Size

The size of cable can be specified in TWO ways:

(a) Number of strands and the diameter of each strand.

7 / 0.67mm

i.e. 7 strand of wires and diameter of each strand is 0.67mm.

(b) Nominal cross-sectional area (csa) of the conductor.

2.5mm2

3.11 Common sizes of PVC cables used extensively in domestics

installation are:
(a) 1.5mm2,

(b) 2.5mm2,

(c) 4.0mm2,

(d) 6.0mm2,

(e) 10.0mm2 and

(f) rarely exceeding 16.0mm 2.

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 3. Cables and Conductors Page 5 of 6
FUNDAMENTALS

3.12 The size of a cable will determine how much current it can
carry:
Cable Size Current Rating Application
1.5mm2 17.5A Lighting circuits
2.5mm2 24A Power circuits
4.0mm2 32A Cooker circuits
6.0mm2 41A For high-powered apparatus which consumes higher
current
10.0mm2 57A As above
16.0mm2 76A As above
3.13 Identification of Conductors
To ensure ease of connections, every conductor should be identifiable at its terminations
and preferably throughout it length.

One of the ways of identifying conductor is by means of colour. Table 52A and 52B of CP5 :
1988 gives the standard colours used for identifying conductors.

Colour identification of cores of non-flexible cables and bare conductors for fixed
wiring.

Function Colour Identification

Protective (including earthing) conductor Green and yellow
Phase of AC single phase circuit Red (or yellow or blue)
Neutral of AC single phase circuit Black
Phase R of 3-phase AC circuit Red
Phase Y of 3-phase AC circuit Yellow
Phase B of 3-phase AC circuit Blue
Positive of DC 2-wire circuit red
Negative of DC 2-wire circuit black
Other (+ or -) of DC 2-wire circuit derived from 3-wire Red
system
Positive of 3-wire Red
Middle wire of 3-wire Black
Negative wire of 3-wire Blue

Table 52A
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 3. Cables and Conductors Page 6 of 6
FUNDAMENTALS

Colour identification of cores fro flexible cables and flexible cores.

Number of cores Function of core Colour Identification

1 Phase Brown1
Neutral Blue
Protective Green and yellow
2 Phase Brown
Neutral Blue2
3 Phase Brown3
Neutral Blue
Protective Green and yellow
4 or 5 Phase Brown or Black4
Neutral Blue2
Protective Green or yellow

Table 52B

3.14 Power Consumption

The following table shows some common equipment power consumption.

Power Consumption
Equipment Power Rating (W) Current (A)
Hair dryer 1000 = 5
Medium size rice cooker 800 = 4
Small size stove 800 = 4
Iron 750 = 3.75
25” television set 140 = 0.7
Table lamp 100 = 0.5
16” fan 75 = 0.375
Fluorescent table lamp 15 = 0.075
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 4. Overcurrent Protection and Devices Page 1 of 8
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 4. Overcurrent Protection and Devices

4.01 Introduction
Electricity is a good servant but a bad master. Experience and statistics show that very
often, faulty electrical installations and equipment are responsible for causing million of
dollars of damage by fire and the deaths of people due to electric shock.

All electrical regulations are mainly concerned with ensuring that all electrical installations
are safe against:

i) electric shock and

ii) overcurrent.

4.02 The Path of Electric Shock Current

In simple terms, the body can be considered as a circuit through which an applied potential
difference can drive current through the resistance of the current path. Figure 4.1 shows a
typical shock path through the body, with the equivalent circuit indicating the components of
resistance concerned.

Phase conductor resistance

Phase conductor Skin resistance (hand)

Body resistance (hand)

V Skin resistance (foot)

V
Foot wear resistance

Floor covering resistance

Earth Earth path resistance (low)

Figure 4.1 Electric shock path

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 4. Overcurrent Protection and Devices Page 2 of 8
FUNDAMENTALS

4.03 How a Person Gets an Electric Shock?

A person may get an electric chock by:

(a) Direct Contact

Where a person or animal makes contact with the live parts of an installation.

Example: A person removing a switch plate and touching the phase conductor.

Phase conductor

Earth

Figure 4.2 Direct contact

(b) Indirect Contact

Where contact may be made with earthed metal parts, which becomes live in the event of a
live to earth fault.

Example: An exposed metal which normally is not live, but has become so under fault
conditions, say, an electric iron.

Phase to Earth fault

230V

Earth

Figure 4.3 Indirect contact

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 4. Overcurrent Protection and Devices Page 3 of 8
FUNDAMENTALS

4.04 Direct and Indirect Shock

Protection against electric shock is the protection against both direct contact (electric shock
in normal service) and indirect contact (electric shock in case of a fault.

Protection Against Direct Shock

The following basic protective measures for protection against direct contact shall be used:

(a) Protection by insulation of live parts,

(b) Protection by barriers or enclosures,

(c) Protection by obstacles and

(d) Protection by placing it out of reach. (Clause 412.1)

It is extremely unlikely than any complete installation encountered in ordinary circumstances

will rely on only one of the above measures. It is probable that at least two, protections by
insulation and by barriers or enclosures, will be used most often.

Protection by insulation of live parts includes cables.

Enclosures may be metal boxes or insulated boxes where it is only possible to gain access
by the use of a key or tool.

The use of obstacles to prevent direct contact is a handrail in front of an open-type

switchboard, but the use of obstacles is applicable where only skilled or instructed persons
under direct supervision have access.

Placing out of reach is a method of protection with somewhat restricted application to

locations accessible only to skilled or instructed persons. Where bulky or long conducting
objects may be handled, it is inadvisable to rely upon this method.

Protection Against Indirect Shock

The most common method of protection against indirect shock is by using earthed
equipotential bonding and automatic disconnection of the supply.

The purpose of the bonding of all extraneous conductive parts is to create an equipotential
zone within which all voltages between exposed conductive parts and extraneous conductive
parts are minimized during earth fault conditions.

4.05 What is Overcurrent?

Overcurrent is a current exceeding the rated value. For conductors, the rated value is the
current-carrying capacity and overcurrent is the result of either:

(a) an overload,

(b) short circuit and

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 4. Overcurrent Protection and Devices Page 4 of 8
FUNDAMENTALS

(c) an earth fault.

4.06 Overload
Overloading occurs when extra power is taken from the supply. The increased current will
begin to heat up the cables, and if overloading is sustained, the cable insulation may break
down and cause a fire.

Overload current is an overcurrent occurring in a circuit which is electrically sound.

4.07 Short Circuit

A short circuit is a direct contact or connection between a phase conductor and the neutral
conductor. A short circuit will cause a very large current to flow. If the faulty circuit has no
protection, the cables will heat up and melt, the equipment will suffer serious damage and
probably a fire will start.

Short circuit current is an overcurrent resulting from a fault of negligible impedance between
live conductors having a difference in potential under normal operating conditions.

4.08 Earth Fault

An earth fault occurs when a phase conductor touches the earthed metalwork of the
installation. As in case of a short circuit, an earth fault will cause a high fault current which
must be cut off before any damage is done.

Earth leakage current is a current which flows to Earth or to extraneous conductive parts, in
a circuit which is electrically sound.

4.09 Protective Devices

Protective device can be classified as:

(a) Overcurrent protective devices and

(b) Residual current protective devices.

4.10 Overcurrent Protective Devices

Protection against overcurrent is achieved by using fuses and circuit breakers-which are
generally known as Overcurrent Proctective Devices.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 4. Overcurrent Protection and Devices Page 5 of 8
FUNDAMENTALS

4.11 Fuses
A Fuse is defined as a device for opening a circuit by means or a conductor designed to melt
when an excessive current flows.

A fuse may be considered as the weakest link in a circuit. In the event of an overload or a
short circuit, the fuse-wire or fuse element will melt or „blow‟, thus the cutting off the supply
from the circuit.

There are 3 main types of fuses:

(a) Semi-enclosed fuses(also known as rewireable fuses),

(b) Cartridge fuses and

(c) High Breaking Capacity (HBC) fuses.

4.12 Semi-Enclosed or Rewireable Fuse(BS 3036)

A semi-enclosed fuse (Figure 4.4) consists of a fine tinned copper wire housed in porcelain
holder. The fuse holder (or carrier)has two sets of contacts which fit onto ceramic or bakelite
fuse base. The fuse wire or element is connected between the terminals of the fuse holder.

The fuse element has a low melting point and will „blow‟ or melt when excessive current
flows. An asbestos pad is usually fitted to reduce the effects of arching when the fuse
operates.

Figure 4.4 Semi-enclosed fuse

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 4. Overcurrent Protection and Devices Page 6 of 8
FUNDAMENTALS

4.13 Cartridge Fuse (BS 1361)

Figure 4.5 Cartridge fuse

In the cartridge fuse (Figure 4.5), the fuse element is sealed inside a tube which is a made of
ceramic or a glass. The fuse element is soldered to the metal caps at both ends of the tube.
The fuse is filled with silica to prevent arching when it operates.

4.14 High Breaking Capacity (HBC) Fuses (BS 88)

Low Melting
Ceramic Tubes Point Insert
Element
End Caps

Slotted Holes Symmetrical

Indicator Reduced Portion

Figure 4.6 HBC fuse

High breaking capacity fuses (Figure 4.6) are designed to safely interrupt very large fault
currents. They are often used to protect large industrial loads and as „back up‟ fuse for motor
circuits.

The body of the HBC fuse is made from high grade ceramic to enable it to withstand the
mechanical forces of heavy fault currents. A silver fuse element is specially machined to give
precise operation. The filler used is Silica and an indicator is provided which shows when it
has blown.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 4. Overcurrent Protection and Devices Page 7 of 8
FUNDAMENTALS

4.15 Circuit Breakers

The circuit breaker may be regarded as a switch which can automatically disconnect a circuit
under abnormal conditions such as a short circuit.

Types of circuit breakers in use are, namely:

(a) Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs), Figure 4.7,

(b) Moulded Case Circuit Breakers (MCCBs) and

(c) Air Circuit Breakers (ACBs).

Thermal Strip

Magnetic Strip

Contacts

Figure 4.7 Miniature Circuit Breaker

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 4. Overcurrent Protection and Devices Page 8 of 8
FUNDAMENTALS

4.16 Residual Current Circuit Breaker

These devices work on the current balance principle. In a healthily circuit, the current in the
phase conductor is equal to the current in the neutral and the phasor sum of the current is
zero. This means that no magnetic flux will be detected and the trip will not operate.

If there is an insulation fault on the circuit and current flows to earth, then the phase and
neutral current will not balance and the phasor sum of the currents is not zero.

The imbalance is detected by the coil connected to the trip mechanism. When the current in
this detector reaches pre-determined level, the RCD will trip and interrupt the supply to the
load.

Figure 4.8 Residual Current Circuit Breaker

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 5. Earthing Principles Page 1 of 4
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 5. Earthing Principles

5.01 Earth
An earth is defined as a connection to the general mass of earth. The earth can be
considered as a vast conductor which is at reference (or zero) potential. People usually are
in more or less direct contact with this earth. A conductor or other metal is “earthed” when it
is effectively connected to the general mass of earth by means of an earth electrode.

5.02 Earthing
The purpose of earthing is to connect together all metalwork, other than that intended to
carry current, to the earth, so that dangerous potential differences cannot exist, either
between different metal parts or between metal and earth.

Earthing or earthed equipotential bonding together with and automatic disconnection of the
supply in the event of an earth leakage is the most common method of protection against
indirect contact.

The system is connected to earth at the secondary winding of the supply transformer, where
one conductor, which is usually the neutral, is connected to an earth electrode buried in the
mass of earth.

Figure 5.1
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 5. Earthing Principles Page 2 of 4
FUNDAMENTALS

Refer to Fig 5, the metal frame of the oven is not earthed and there is a P-E fault. The metal
frame is electrically charged. The person touching the metal frame gets an electric shock.

Figure 5.2

If the metal frame of the oven is EARTHED and when there is a P-E fault, the protective
devices like fuses or circuit breakers will operate to cut off the supply. Thus, danger is cut off
automatically. The person will not get an electric shock.

5.03 Earthing General Requirements

5.04 Earthing Arrangement

An earthing system of an installation consists basically of:

Earth electrode,

Protective conductors,

Earthing conductor,

Circuit protective conductor,

Main equipotential bonding conductor and

Supplementary equipotential bonding conductor.

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 5. Earthing Principles Page 3 of 4
FUNDAMENTALS

The example of the earthing arrangement is as shown.

Figure 5.3 Earthing arrangement and protective conductors

5.05 Earth Electrode

Earth electrode is a conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with and providing
an electrical connection to earth.

Recognized earth electrode are:

Earth rods,

Earth tapes,

Earth plates,

Earth electrodes embedded in foundations and

other stated in CP 5.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 5. Earthing Principles Page 4 of 4
FUNDAMENTALS

Circuit Protective Conductor

The colour combination GREEN/YELLOW shall only be used fro protective conductors.

Figure 5.4 Earth Electrode

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 1 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS

6.01 Introduction
A wiring system is an assembly of parts used in an electrical circuit and consists of 5 parts,
namely:

the conductor,

the insulation,

wiring accessories,

mechanical protection and

earthing facilities.

Various systems commonly used include:

sheathed wiring systems,

mineral insulated, metal sheathed cable systems.

6.02 Sheathed Wiring System

This method of wiring consists of an insulated conductor provided with a sheath which
serves as protection against mechanical damage. Insulating materials include impregnated
paper, rubber, plastics and mineral insulation. Sheathing materials include lead, tough
rubber, plastics, aluminum and textiles such as cotton etc. Some of the cables are very
cheap and very suitable for domestic installations. Common sheathed cables include:

Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS),

Polyvinylchoride Sheathed (PVC),

Lead-alloy Sheathed (LAS) and

Paper-insulated. Lead covered (PILC).

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 2 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

Figure 6.1 Rubber Sheathed Cable

Figure 6.2 PVC sheathed CAble Cable

Figure 6.3 Lead Sheathed Cable

Figure 6.4 Paper Insulated, Lead Sheathed armoured cable

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 3 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

6.03 Steel Conduit System

Conduit system consists mainly of a series of tubes connected together with a variety of
boxes and fittings. The system is very popular because of its great mechanical strength and
ease of rewiring. Metal conduits can be made of steel, aluminum or copper. Steel conduits
are most commonly used and can be found in offices, factories, building, etc. Copper
conduits are used for special situations, such as in corrosive atmospheres e.g. chemical
plants. Aluminum conduit, which is lighter and has better conductivity than steel conduit, is
increasingly being used for installation work.

6.04 Steel Conduit

There are two classes of steel conduits:

Class A and

Class B

Class A steel conduit

Class A is light gauge steel conduit, also called slip conduit because it is “slipped” into
conduit fittings and not screwed, is mainly used in homes with sheathed cables. It has thin
walls and fittings are held on to the conduits by tightening the screws in the lugs.

Grip Coupling

Figure 6.5 Lug-grip inspection tee box

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 4 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

Class B Conduit

Class B is a heavy gauge threaded steel conduit, used mainly in block of flats, factories,
stores and offices and public buildings. Conduit sizes are indicated by their external
diameter. The most common sizes are 16mm, 20mm, 25mm and 32mm. There are 2 kinds
of screwed steel conduits:

(a) welded - it is cheaper and more commonly used and has a welded seam running along
the conduit and

(b) solid drawn - this seamless conduits is used in installation which must be gas-tight in
hazardous areas, such as petrol pump station, etc.

Figure 6.6 Welded conduit

Figure 6.7 Solid drawn conduit

6.05 Conduit Finishes

There are four different types of conduit finishes:

(a) Black Enamel – for general dry interior work,

(b) Silver Grey – for interior or work where a good finish is required,

(c) Hot Galvanised – for area where dampness and steam is present and

(d) Sherardised – zinc impregnated, has good weatherproof quality and is used in outdoor
works.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 5 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

6.06 Boxes and Fitting

Boxes formed a major part of the control system. They are fitted with inspection covers to
enable drawing in and withdrawal of cables. A great variety of boxes with alternative spout
entries to meet differing job requirements are available. Box spouts are internally threaded to
accept the screwed conduit.

Figure 6.8 Standard Small Circular Boxes

Conduit fittings consist of elbows and tees. It is normally used in location immediately behind
lighting fitting and outlet boxes as it has small opening which may cause strain and kink in
cable as they are drawn in.

Removable Cover

Inspection Tee
Inspection Elbow

Figure 6.9 Elbows and Tees

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 6 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

6.07 Methods of Terminating Conduits in Boxes

Four types of fitting used to terminate conduits at boxes are:

Male brass bush,

Couplers,

Female brass Bush and

Locknuts.

Two methods of terminations are shown:

Smooth
Bore
Brass
Bush

Figure 6.10 Coupler and Male Bush

Brass
Ring
Bush

Figure 6.11 Lock Nut and Female Bush

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 7 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

6.08 Conduit Fixing

Conduits must be fixed securely and some of the fixings are shown in Figure 6.12.

Figure 6.12 Conduit Fittings

The ordinary saddle and half saddle (clip) are most commonly used for securing conduits
against ceilings and walls. They should be fixed by means of screws and not nails.

Spacing bar saddles and distance saddles are used for surface conduit fixing in large
commercial buildings, hospitals, schools and factories. An advantage of spacer bar and
distance saddes is that they are lined up and fixed in position before any conduit is inatalled.

Crampets, also called pipe hooks are used when the appearance of the installation is not
important. It is also suitable for holding conduits which are buried in brickwood and covered
with plaster.

6.09 Flexible Conduit

Flexible metal conduit is normally used in special situations such as:

(a) an awkward short run under floor from main conduit to a lighting fitting and

(b) the connections between motor and starter.

It should not be used as a protective conductor.

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 8 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

6.10 PVC conduit

PVC conduit has increased in popularity in recent years and can claim many advantages
over the metallic types. It is available in light and heavy grades with varying degrees of
flexibility and in sizes varying from 16mm to 50mm (outer diameter). The advantages of PVC
when compared to steel include lightness, resistance to corrosion and ease of handling.

6.11 Drawing-in of Cable

Conduits for each circuit must be COMPLETELY ERECTED FIRST before any cable is
drawn in. However, this regulation does not apply to prefabricated conduit systems which
are not wired on the worksite.

Batten
Lampholder

Ø20
Conduit
Ø25 Conduit Ø25
Conduit

Ø20 Conduit

Ø20 Conduit Ø20

Conduit

1 – Way 13 A Switched
Switch Socket Outlets
Consumer Control
Unit

Figure 6.13 Typical conduit installation system

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 9 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

6.12 Trunking System

Trunking is a system of enclosure and protection for cables consisting of a continous metal
or plastic channel with a removable lid. It is very popular as it gives ready access to cable for
purposes of addition and alteration to existing circuits. Metal trunking are made of zinc
coated mild steel sheet. They come in square and rectangular sections and is usually
supplied in 2 metre lengths. Standard sizes range from 1.5 x 1.5 inches to 6 x 6 inches. A
wide range of fitting such as tees, elbows, bends etc are available for connecting lengths of
trunking.

Recess Head for Removable Lid

Fixing screw

Figure 6.14 Section of Cable Trunking

Figure 6.15 Trunking Elbow and Tee Piece

Trunking systems can also be used in conjunction with conduits which give the system great
flexibility. For instance, in a large school building or office building, trunking forms the
framework of the wiring system and conduits are tapped out from the trunking to feed lighting
or socket outlet points.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 10 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

6.13 Other Forms of Trunking

(a) Skirting trunking

It consists of a shallow steel or plastics trunking (about 44mm deep) with 2 or more
compartments. One compartment is used for power and lighting wiring and the rest used for
telephone and bell wiring. Flush type socket outlets and other accessories fits onto the lid of
the trunking, giving a very neat appearance.

Figure 6.16 Skirting Trunking

(b) PVC Mini-Trunking

PVC mini-trunking provides a neat surface wiring system which enhances the appearance of
square look in switches and socket outlet. PVC mini-trunking has a snap on lid and comes in
many sizes ranging from 16mm x 16mm to 38mm x 25mm.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 11 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

6.14 Busbar Trunking Systems

The two kind of busbar trunking systems used are:

Horizontal – overhead busbar trunking system and

Vertical – rising mains busbar trunking system.

Busbar trunking systems consists of bare conductors (also refer to bare conductor systems)
which may be round, square or rectangular section fixed to insulators and contained in
sheet-steel trunking. The incoming supply is connected to the system at one point through a
special feed unit. At intervals of 0.5m, 0.6m or 1m along the trunking, tap-off points are
provided. At these tap-off points, special tap-off units containing fuses or circuit breakers are
fitted. Power fro machines in the factories or for consumers at every floor in a multi-storey
building is than taken from these tap-off units.

140mm x 100mm Steel Sheet Trunking

Fixing Brackets

Insulator Separating Panels

Copper or Aluminium Rods

Fused Tap-off Boxes

Steel Conduit to Machines

Figure 6.18 Busbar Trunking System

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 12 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

6.15 Overhead Busbar Trunking System

Overhead busbar trunking system is used for 3-phase distribution to machines in factories.
Tap-off units which consist of HBC fuses or circuit breakers are then fitted onto the busbar.
Connections are then made from these tap-off units to motors, welding machines and other
electrical equipment by means of flexible conduits, PVC sheathed cables, etc.

PVCSWA Supply Cable

Supply Cable (entry unit)

Power Trunking

Busbars

Power Supply Showing tap-off Unit

Girder
Tap-off Unit

Conduit

Motor

Control Point
(isolater and starter)

Flexible Conduit

Figure 6.19 Overhead Busbar System with Tap-off Unit

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 13 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

6.16 Rising Mains Busbar Trunking System

Vertical busbar trunking systems are often used as rising mains for multi-storey buildings.
Rating range from 45A to 2100A, with tap-off points at intervals of 0.5m or 0.6m. Tap-off
fuses or circuit breakers are fitted onto the tapping-off points for distribution to every floor.

Figure 6.20 Rising Mains Busbar Trunking System

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 14 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

Figure 6.21 Overhead busbar system with tap-off unit

Figure 6.22 Rising main system

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 15 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

Ducting System

A duct is defined as “a closed passageway from underground or in a structure for receiving

one more cable which may be drawn into it”. Ducts do not have a removable cover unlike
trunking and are normally made of sheet steel of fibre material. Basically, a ducting systems
consist of a number of intersection boxes buried in the floor and connected together and to
the distribution box by ducts. Tapping points are provided at intervals for feeding socket
outlets, lighting, bells, telephones, etc.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 6. COMMON WIRING SYSTEMS Page 16 of 16
FUNDAMENTALS

6.17 Mineral Insulated Cables

The mineral insulated, metal sheathed type of cable consists of a copper sheath enclosing
one or more copper conductors which are insulated with compressed magnesium oxide
(MgO) powder.

1 copper conductors
2 magnesium oxide insulation
3 copper sheath
4 pvc oversheath
1 2 3 4

MIMS cables are very strong due to the copper sheath. It is also can withstand very high
temperature which make it suitable for service in boiler rooms, iron smelting plants,
petrochemical plants etc.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 7. Inspection and Testing Page 1 of 9
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 7. Inspection and Testing

7.01 Introduction
Every completed installation must be inspected and tested before being connected to the
supply and energized. The purpose for doing so is to verify that the installation is safe and
comply with the requirements of regulations. This should be done in such a manner that no
danger to persons or damage to property or equipment can occur, even if the circuit tested is
defective.

The installation tester, as well as the user, must be quite clear as to how the
installation is arranged to carry out its functions. To this end, the installation must be
provided with:

(a) Labels to indicate the purpose of the switch gear and control gear,

(b) Correct identification of conductors, cable cores and protective conductors,

(c) Labeling on distribution boards, arranged so that the protected circuit may be quickly and
easily identified and

(d) Diagrams, charts or tables to show the arrangement of circuits, as well as the
identification and location of fuses, circuit breakers, switch, fuses, isolators and so on.

Figure 7.1
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 7. Inspection and Testing Page 2 of 9
FUNDAMENTALS

7.02 Visual Inspection

A visual inspection should be made to verify that the installed electrical equipment is:

in compliance with the applicable Standards or requirements of relevant authorities,

correctly selected and erected in accordance with CP5 : 1998 regulations and

not visibly damaged so as to impair safety.

7.03 Testing
The following items, where relevant, should be tested in the sequence indicated.

i)Continuity of ring final circuit conductors.

ii)Continuity of protective conductors.

iii)Earth electrode resistance.

Iiv)nsulation resistance.

v)Insulation of site built assemblies.

vi)Protection by electrical separation.

vii)Protection by barriers or enclosures provided during erection.

viii)Insulation of non-conducting floors and walls.

ix)Polarity.

x)Earth fault loop impedance.

xi)Operation of residual current devices.

The sequence is important so as to not to endanger the circuit and the personnel involved,
for example it is often necessary to connect an installation to the main supply to enable an
earth fault loop test to be carried out. There is obvious danger in providing a supply to an
installation without first checking the protective system, insulation and polarity.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 7. Inspection and Testing Page 3 of 9
FUNDAMENTALS

7.04 Continuity of Ring Final Circuit Conductors

A test must be made to verify the continuity of all conductors (including the protective
conductor) of every ring final circuit. Two methods of testing can be used.

Method 1

1 Measure between ends 2 Measure from closed

of earth ring (A) ends to midpoint (B)

4 Check that
A
---- = B – C
4
repeat for other two rings
(i.e. phase and neutral)

3 Measure test leads (C)

Figure 7.1 Method 1

Ring main continuity test (Method 2)

1 Measure between ends of earth (A)
2 Repeat for ends of plates (B) and neutral (C)
3 Measure between phase and neutral with mid-point
short circuited. Reading ∞ B/2 ∞ C/2
4 Measure between phase and earth with mid-point
short-circuited. Reading ∞ A/4 + B/4

Figure 7.1 Method 2

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 7. Inspection and Testing Page 4 of 9
FUNDAMENTALS

7.05 Continuity of Protective Conductors

Where earth loop impedance test is carried out, there will be no need for protective
conductor measurement because its value will be included in that of the measured loop.
Continuity checking will still be necessary, however, because the circuit must be energized
to carry out an earth fault loop test, and may be dangerous when energized if the protective
conductor has a high impedance or is wrongly connected. Continuity may be checked before
connection of the supply by connecting together the neutral and protective conductors at the
mains position and checking between earth and neutral at every outlet as illustrated in
Figure 7.4. When measurement of the resistance of the protective conductor is required, the
test may be carried out with a DC ohmmeter.

P N
Test at socket
between N and E
N and E
connected
E
Figure 7.4
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 7. Inspection and Testing Page 5 of 9
FUNDAMENTALS

7.06 Insulation Resistance

Insulation resistance tests are to verify that the insulation of conductors and electrical
equipment is satisfactory and the electrical conductors or protective conductor are not short-
circuited or show a low resistance (which would indicate deterioration in the insulation of the
conductors). An insulation resistance tester used should be capable of providing a DC
voltage of not less than twice the nominal voltage of the circuit to be tested (rms value for an
AC supply).

The insulation resistance test voltage are as shown below:

Testing voltage: Twice designated voltage

For nominal circuit voltage (rms for AC)
but need not exceed
500V DC up to 500V
1000V DC between 500V and 1000V

Prior to the testing the following need to be done.

(a) Ensure that neons and capacitors are disconnected from circuits to avoid inaccurate test
value being obtained.

(b) Disconnect electronic devices from circuits as they are liable to damage if exposed to
high test voltages used.

There are two types of insulation resistance tests.

Insulation resistance test to earth.

Insulation resistance tests between poles.

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 7. Inspection and Testing Page 6 of 9
FUNDAMENTALS

7.07 Insulation Resistance Test to Earth

The test to earth must be carried out with all poles connected together, fuses in, switches
and circuit breakers closed as illustrated in Figure 7.6. The measured insulation resistance
shall not be less than 0.5MΩ.

If required, all lamps and appliances may be removed during the test, in which case each
piece of apparatus should be separately tested. The insulation of each piece of apparatus
measured separately shall be not less than 0.5MΩ to earth (between live parts and frame),
and 0.5MΩ between phases or poles.

Figure 7.6 Testing the installation to Earth

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 7. Inspection and Testing Page 7 of 9
FUNDAMENTALS

7.08 Insulation Resistance Test between Poles

The test between poles must be carried out with the fuses in place and all local switches and
circuit breakers in the ON position. Lamps and appliances must be disconnected.

Where it is not practical for the removal of lamps and/or the disconnection of equipment, the
local switches controlling such lamps and/or equipment shall be left in the OFF position. The
insulation resistance value should no be less than 0.5MΩ.

For a single phase system, the test is from phase to neutral conductors in the distribution
board as shown in Fig 7.7.

Figure 7.7 Insulation test between conductors

A large installation with many circuits has the installation resistance of each circuit in parallel.
As a result, for some large installations, even with sound conductors, the test would prove
the installation unsuitable for connection to the supply.To avoid the misleading test results,
large installation may be divided into groups of outlets, each containing not less than 50
outlets. The term outlet includes every point and every switch, except that a socket outlet,
appliance or luminaries incorporating a switch is regarded as one outlet.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 7. Inspection and Testing Page 8 of 9
FUNDAMENTALS

7.09 Polarity Test

Figure 7.8 show the danger that may arise if a circuit is broken in the neutral, rather than in
the phase conductor. It is important that single pole switches, fuses and circuit breakers are
connected in the phase and not in the neutral, and that the earthed neutral, and not the
phase conductor, is connected to the outer or screwed contacts of single contact bayonet or
Edison screw lamp holders. If portable appliances are to be safe, their polarity also must be
correct, which involves testing each socket outlet for correct connection.

Circuit not working

so apparently safe

Switch on neutral

Figure 7.8

The polarity test must be carried out to verify that:

 all fuses and single pole control devices are connected in the phase
conductor.
 the centre contact of an Edison type screw lamp holder is connected to the
phase conductor and all metal threaded part is connected to the neutral
conductor.
 all socket outlet terminals are connected accordingly.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 7. Inspection and Testing Page 9 of 9
FUNDAMENTALS

The polarity test may be carried out with a continuity tester connected to the phase
conductor at the mains position (before connection to the supply), with its other contact
taken in turn to phase conductors throughout the installation as shown in Figure 7.9.

Figure 7.9 Verification of polarity

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 8. Electrical Wiring Page 1 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 8. Electrical Wiring

8.01 Electrical Drawing
 The followings show some SS 202 : 1992 graphical symbols for electrical, electronics
and telecommunications diagram.

8.02 Lines
No Symbol Description

8.3.1 Underground line

8.3.3 Overhead line

8.3.4 Duct or pipe

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 8. Electrical Wiring Page 2 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

8.03 Socket Outlets

No Symbol Description

8.13.1 Socket outlet (power), general

3 Multiple socket outlet (power), three outlets

8.13.2
shown

8.13.6 Socket outlet (power) with single pole switch

Socket outlet (power) with isolating

8.13.8
transformer, e.g. shaver outlet

Socket outlet (telecommunication), general

symbol:-
8.13.9
TP : telephone

TV : television
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 8. Electrical Wiring Page 3 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

8.04 Switches
No Symbol Description

8.14.1 Switch, general symbol

8.14.2 Switch with pilot light

8.14.4 Switch, two pole

8.14.6 Two-way switch, single pole

8.14.7 Intermediate switch

8.14.10 Push button

8.14.14 Time switch

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 8. Electrical Wiring Page 4 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

8.05 Lighting Outlets and Fittings

No Symbol Description

8.15.1 Lighting outlet position, shown with wiring

Lighting outlet on wall, shown with running to

8.15.2
the left

8.15.3 Lamp, general symbol

8.15.4 Luminaire, florescent lamp, general symbol

8.15.5 Example : Liminaire with 3 fluorescent tubes

8.15.8 Spot light

8.15.9 Flood light

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 8. Electrical Wiring Page 5 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

8.06 Protective Devices

No Symbol Description

8.21.1 Fuse, general symbol

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts Page 1 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts

9.01 Alternating Quantity (AC)
An alternating quantity is one which periodically alters its polarity or direction having positive
polarity during one part of its cycle and negative polarity in the remainder.

+ve

-ve

9.02 Generation of Alternating Current

Alternating quantity may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field as shown in (a) or
by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil as shown in (b).

Rotor

E1
C1
C2
E2
Stator

R
(a) (b)
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts Page 2 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

Alternating current is used to a much greater extent than direct current. The most elementary
method of generating electromotive force, emf, is by rotating a single loop wire in a uniform
magnetic field as shown in Figure 1. The value of the emf varies both in magnitude and
direction according to the instantaneous position of the loop.

In one revolution of the loop wire through 360 electrical degrees, assuming the strength of
the field is uniform, the form of the emf wave is of the shape shown in Figure 2. The shape
is that of a sinusoidal waveform (sine wave).

If slip-rings be fixed to the free ends of the loop and sliding connections arranged to bear
upon them, the alternating emf will produce an alternating current in a closed external circuit.
The current will vary in a similar way to the emf, i.e. the alternating current waveform is the
same as that shown in Figure 2.

Volt

Rotation

θ
Slip Rings

Commutator Resistance
Figure 2
Figure 1
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts Page 3 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

Sinusoidal Waveform (Sin Wave)

Peak to Peak value

Peak value
Rms value (0.707 x max)
Average value (0.637 x max)
Instantaneous values

1 cycle

9.03 Alternating Quantities

Cycle

Each repetition of a variable quantity, recurring at equal intervals is termed a cycle.

Frequency (f)

It is the number of cycles generated per second.

Formula: f = np where p = number of pole pairs in the magnetic field

n = speed of the rotor or rotating coil in

seconds

Unit: cycles per second (c/s) or Hertz (Hz)

Periodic Time (T)

It is the time taken to complete one cycle.

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts Page 4 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

T = ---- (seconds)

Peak Value (Maximum Value)

Positive peak occurs at 90º after start.

Negative peak occurs at 270º after start.

Current value: Imax or Im or Ip

Voltage value: Vmax or Vm or Vp

Peak to Peak Value

It is the quantity between the positive peak and negative peak values.

Current value: Ipp = 2 x Ip

Voltage value: Vpp = 2 x Vp

Instantaneous Value

This is the value of quantity at that instant (point time).

Instantaneous current: i = Im x sinΦ

Instantaneous voltage: v = Vm x sinΦ

Average Value (ave)

The average value of an alternating quantity is the average value of all the
instantaneous values over half a cycle.

Current value: Iave = 0.637 x Im

Voltage value: Vave = 0.637 x Vm

Root Mean Square Value (rms)

The rms value is given by that steady DC current which when flowing through a given
circuit for a given time, produces the same heat as produced by the AC current when
flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts Page 5 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

Current value: Irms = 0.707 x Im

Voltage value: Vrms = 0.707 x Vm

Root mean square value is usually written as I, V, and E for current, voltage and emf
respectively.

The AC voltmeters and ammeters commonly in use are always calibrated to read the
rms value.

9.04 Form Factor

The ratio of the rms value to the average value is termed the form factor.

Rms value

Form factor = ---------------------

Average value

For a sine waveform, the form factor is always equal to 1.11.

Peak Factor

Peak factor is the ratio of the peak or maximum value to the rms value.

Peak value

Peak factor = ---------------------

Rms value

For a sine waveform, the peak factor is always equal to 1.414.

Equation for Sine Waveform

The equation for instantaneous voltage and current for a sine waveform are expressed as
shown:

e = Emsinθ θ = angle of rotation of the loop from the instant of

zero current in degrees
= Emsin2πft
V = Vmsinθ

= Vmsin2πft 2πft = radians

t = time in second
i = Imsinθ
f = frequency
= Imsin2πft
2π radian = 360º
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts Page 6 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

9.05 Worked Examples

A sinusoidal alternating current has a maximum value of 2A. Determine

(a) the average value and

(b) the rms value.

Solution

(a) Iav = 0.637 x Im

= 0.637 x 2A

= 1,274A (Ans)

(b) Irms = 0.707 x Im

= 0.707 x 2A

= 1.414A (Ans)

The waveform of a voltage has a form factor of 1.15 and a peak factor of 1.5. If the peak
value is 4.5kV, calculate the average and rms values of the voltage.

Solution

Peak value

Peak factor = ---------------------

Rms value

Peak value

Rms value = ---------------------

Peak factor

= 4.5kV / 1.5

= 3kV (Ans)
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts Page 7 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

Rms value

Form factor = ---------------------

Average value

Rms value

Average value = ---------------------

Form factor

= 3 kV / 1.15

= 2.61kV (Ans)
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts Page 8 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

A current is represented by the expression i = 10sin628t A. Calculate:

(a) the maximum value,

(b) the frequency,

(c) the periodic time,

(d) the instantaneous value of the current 2ms after it has passed

through zero value.

Solution

(a) Im = 10A (Ans) ------------ as i = Imsin2πft

(b) 2πft = 628t

628

f = ---------

2π

= 99.95Hz (Ans)

(c) T = 1/f

= 1 / 99.95Hz

= 0.01s (Ans)

(d) i = 10sin628t

= 10sin(628 x 2 x 10-3)

= 10sin1.256

= 10 x 0.9509

= 9.51A (Ans)
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts Page 9 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

9.06 Tutorials
1) The average value of a sinusoidal emf is 100V. Calculate the maximum value.

Calculate the periodic times associated with the following frequencies:

(a) 50Hz and

(b) 5kHz.

2) A sinusoidal alternating current has a maximum value of 3A and a frequency of 50Hz.

Calculate the rms and its periodic time.

3)The waveform of a current has a form factor of 1.2 and a peak factor of 1.45. If the peak
value is 5A, calculate the average and rms values of the current.

4) A voltage is represented by the expression v = 40sin314t V. Calculate:

(a) the rms value,

(b) the average value,

(c) the frequency,

(d) the periodic time and

(e) the instantaneous value of the voltage 1ms after it has passed

through the zero value.

5) A voltage is represented by the expression v = 300sinθ V. Calculate the instantaneous

values of the voltage when θ = 30º and 90º.

6)A sinusoidal alternating current has a peak value of 5A and a frequency of 50Hz.
Calculate the value of the instantaneous current after 4ms.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts Page 10 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

9.07 Phasor Diagram

Phasor

Phasor is a straight line with an arrow head used to represent graphically the magnitude in
rms value and phase of a sinusoidal alternating current or voltage, as in Figure 3.

40A

I = 28.28A
θ

-40A
Sine Wave Phasor Diagram
Figure 3

Phase angle

Phase angle, θ, is the angle by which the voltage and current phasors are displaced with
respect to each other. There are 3 ways to describe the phase angle:

(a) Same phase or In phase,

(b) Leading and

(c) Lagging.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts Page 11 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

Same Phase or In Phase

When the current and voltage are in phase, both the current and voltage phasors reach zero
and maximum values at the same time, i.e. the phase angle, θ, between them is zero, Figure
4.

v
i

I V
θ

Figure 4

The equation to represent the 2 waveforms are as follows:

Voltage: v = Vmsinθ or v = Vmsin2πft

Current: i = Imsinθ or i = Imsin2πft

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 9. Alternating Current Concepts Page 12 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

Leading Phase Angle

When voltage is leading the current, it means that the voltage phasor attains its maximum
positive value ahead of the current phasor. Similarly, when current is leading the voltage, it
means that the current phasor attains its maximum positive value ahead of the voltage
phasor. Figure 5 comprises of 2 waveforms and a phasor diagram, showing the voltage
leading the current by 30º.

v
i
V

30º I
θ
30º
v leads i by 30º

Figure 5

The equations to represent the 2 waveforms are as follows:

Voltage: v = Vmsin(θ + 30º) or v = Vmsin(2πft + π/6)

Current: i = Imsinθ or i = Imsin2πft

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT Page 1 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT

10.01 Purely Resistive Circuit

In a circuit containing only pure resistor, the current flowing through the resistor is limited
by its resistance value and is always in phase with the voltage across it.

V I
I

Figure 1: Circuit Diagram Figure 2: Phasor Diagram

R=V/I

 Power in a resistive circuit, P = I2R or P = VIcos0º or P = V2 / R (watts).

10.02 Purely Inductive Circuit

In a circuit containing only pure inductor, the current flowing through the inductor is limited
by its inductive reactance, XL and is always lagging the voltage across it by 90º. It can also
be said that V leads I by 90º.

L V

I
90º
I
V

Figure 3: Circuit Diagram Figure 4: Phasor Diagram

XL = inductive reactance in Ω
XL = V / I
f = supply frequency in Hz
= 2πfL
L = inductance in H
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT Page 2 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

 Power in an inductive circuit, P = VIcos90º = 0 watts.

10.03 Purely Capacitive Circuit

In a circuit containing only pure capacitor, the current flowing through the capacitor is
limited by its capacitance reactance, XC and is always leading the voltage across it by 90º.
It can also be said that V lags I by 90º.

C
I
II 90º
I
V
V

Figure 5: Circuit Diagram Figure 6: Phasor Diagram

XC = capacitive reactance in Ω
XC = V / I
f = supply frequency in Hz
= 1 / (2πfC)
C = capacitance in F

 Power in a capacitive circuit, P = VIcos90º = 0 watts.

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT Page 3 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

10.04 R – L Series Circuit

V
Z

VL = I x XL
Ix
=
L R V

I VL VR
θ
V I
VR = I x R
Figure 7: Circuit Diagram Figure 8: Phasor Diagram

 VR = Voltage across resistor = I x R → in phase with the current.

 VL = Voltage across inductor = I x XL → leading current by 90º.
 V = Applied voltage = phasor sum VR and VL.
 Θ = phase angle between applied voltage and supply current.

Referring to the phasor diagram in Figure 8, by applying the Pythagora‟s Theorem,

V2 = VR2 + VL2

= (IR)2 + (IXL)2

= I2R2 + I2XL2

= I2(R2 + XL2)

V =  I2(R2 + XL2)

= I  (R2 + XL2)

V/I =  (R2 + XL2) where XL = 2πfL

= Z

 The opposition to the current flow in the AC circuit is known as the impedance, Z,
and is measured in ohms.
 Current flowing in the circuit is lagging the supply voltage by angle θ.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT Page 4 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

 The phase difference (angle) of the circuit is the angle between the current and the
supply voltage.
Cos θ = VR / V = (I x R) / (I x Z)

=R/Z

10.05 Worked Examples

A coil of inductance 0.5H takes a current of 0.5A when connected to

a 230V, 50Hz supply. What is the resistance of the coil?
Solution

Z = V / I = 230V / 0.5A = 460Ω

XL = 2πfL = 2π(50Hz)(0.5H) = 157.08Ω

R =  (Z2 - XL2) =  (460)2 - (157.08)2

= 432.35Ω (Ans)

A coil of 0.2H and 60Ω resistance is connected across a 230V, 50Hz

supply. Calculate:
(a) the reactance of the coil,

(b) the circuit impedance,

(c) the current flows and

(d) the phase angle between the voltage and the current.

Solution

(a) XL = 2πfL = 2π(50Hz)(0.2H) = 62.83Ω (Ans)

(b) Z =  (R2 + XL2) =  (60Ω)2 + (62.83Ω)2 = 86.88Ω (Ans)

(c) I = V / Z = 230V / 86.88Ω = 2.65A (Ans)

(d) cosθ = R / Z = 60Ω / 86.88Ω = 0.6906

 θ = 46.32º (Ans)
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT Page 5 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

10.06 R - C Series Circuit

C R VR = I x R
II θ I

VC VR
I

VC = I x XC
V

V
=
Ix
Z
V

Figure 9: Circuit Diagram Figure 10: Phasor Diagram

 VR = Voltage across resistor = I x R → in phase with the current.

 VC = Voltage across inductor = I x XC → lagging current by 90º.
 V = Applied voltage = phasor sum VR and VC.
 Θ = phase angle between applied voltage and supply current.

Referring to the phasor diagram in Figure 10, by applying the Pythagora‟s Theorem,

V2 = V R 2 + V C2

= (IR)2 + (IXC)2

= I2R2 + I2XC2

= I2(R2 + XC2)

V =  I2(R2 + XC2)

= I  (R2 + XC2)

V/I =  (R2 + XC2) where XC = 1 / (2πfC)

= Z

 The opposition to the current flow in the AC circuit is known as the impedance, Z,
and is measured in ohms.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT Page 6 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

 Current flowing in the circuit is leading the supply voltage by angle θ.

 The phase difference (angle) of the circuit is the angle between the current and the
supply voltage.
Cos θ = VR / V = (I x R) / (I x Z)

=R/Z

10.07 Worked Examples

100μF 40Ω
II

I VC VR

230V
50Hz

Determine the following for the circuit shown above:

(a) capacitance reactance,

(b) circuit impedance,

(c) current in the circuit,

(d) voltage across each component and

(e) phase difference between the voltage and the current.

Solution

(a) XC = 1 / (2πfC) = 1 / 2π(50Hz)(100 x 10-6F) = 31.83Ω (Ans)

(b) Z =  (R2 + XC2) =  ({40Ω}2 + {31.83Ω}2) = 51.12Ω (Ans)

(c) I = V / Z = 230V / 51.12Ω = 4.5A (Ans)

(d) VR = I x R = 4.5A x 40Ω = 180V (Ans)

VC = I x XC = 4.5A x 31.83Ω = 143.32V (Ans)

(e) Cosθ = R / Z = 40Ω / 51.12Ω = 0.7825

θ = 38.5º (Ans)
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT Page 7 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

A resistor of 20Ω is connected in series with a capacitor across a

230V, 50Hz supply. The current drawn is 1.5A. Determine:
(a) the circuit impedance,

(b) the capacitance reactance of the capacitor and

(c) the phase angle between the current and the supply voltage.

Solution

(a) Z = V / I = 230V / 1.5A = 153.33Ω (Ans)

(b) Z =  (R2 + XC2)

XC =  (Z2 - R2) =  (153.33Ω)2 - (20Ω)2 = 152.02Ω (Ans)

(c) Cosθ = R / Z = 20Ω / 153.33Ω = 0.1304

θ = 82.51º (Ans)
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT Page 8 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

10.08 R – L – C Series Circuit

C R L
II

I VC VR VL

Figure 11: Circuit Diagram

VL
V

VL
VL - VC V

θ
VR
θ I I
VR

VC - VL
V
VC

VC

Figure 12: Phasor Diagram Figure 13: Phasor Diagram

 VR = Voltage across resistor = I x R → in phase with the current.

 VL = Voltage across inductor = I x XL → leading current by 90º.
 VC = Voltage across capacitor = I x XC → lagging current by 90º.
 V = Applied voltage = phasor sum of VR, VL and VC.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT Page 9 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

 Θ = phase angle between applied voltage and supply current.

Capacitance Reactance Is Greater Than Inductive Reactance

XC > XL i.e. VC > V L

Referring to the phasor diagram in Figure 12.

By Pythagoras Theorem:

V2 = VR2 + (VC – VL)2

V / I =  R2 + (XC – XL)2

=Z

Current flowing in the circuit is leading the supply voltage by angle θ.

Cosθ = VR / V = (I x R) / (I x Z)

=R/Z

Inductive Reactance Is Greater Than Capacitive Reactance

XL > XC i.e. VL > V C

Referring to the phasor diagram in Figure 13.

By Pythagoras Theorem:

V2 = VR2 + (VL – VC)2

V / I =  R2 + (XL – XC)2

=Z

Current flowing in the circuit is leading the supply voltage by angle θ.

Cosθ = VR / V = (I x R) / (I x Z)

=R/Z
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT Page 10 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

10.09 Worked Examples

60μF 50Ω 0.2H
II

I VC VR VL

230V
50Hz

Refer to the Figure above, determine the following:

(a) the circuit impedance,

(b) the current flowing in the circuit and

(c) the voltage across the resistor, inductor and capacitor.

Solution

(a) XC = 1 / (2πfC) = 1 / (2π{50Hz}{60 x 10-6F}) = 53.05Ω

XL = 2πfL = 2π(50Hz)(0.2H) = 62.83Ω

Z =  R2 + (XL – XC)2 =  (50Ω)2 + (62.83Ω – 53.05Ω)2

= 50.95Ω (Ans)

(b) I = V / Z = 230V / 50.95Ω = 4.51A (Ans)

(c) VR = IR = 4.51A x 50Ω = 225.5V (Ans)

VC = IXC = 4.51A x 53.05Ω = 239.26V (Ans)

VL = IXL = 4.51A x 62.83Ω = 283.36V (Ans)

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT Page 11 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

A coil of resistance 10Ω and inductance 0.1H is connected in series

with a capacitor of 150μF across a 230V, 50Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the impedance,

(b) the current flow,

(c) the voltage across the capacitor,

(d) the voltage across the coil and

(e) the phase angle between the supply voltage and the current.

Solution

(a) XC = 1 / (2πfC) = 1 / (2π{50Hz}{150 x 10-6F}) = 21.22Ω

XL = 2πfL = 2π(50Hz)(0.1H) = 31.42Ω

Z =  R2 + (XL – XC)2 =  102 + (31.42Ω – 21.22Ω)2

= 14.28Ω (Ans)

(b) I = V / Z = 230V / 14.28Ω = 16.11A (Ans)

(c) VC = IXC = 16.11A x 21.22Ω = 341.85V (Ans)

(d) VR = IR = 16.11A x 10Ω = 161.1V

VL = IXL = 16.11A x 31.42Ω = 506.18V

Vcoil =  VR2 + VL2 =  (161.1V)2 + (506.18V)2 = 531.2V (Ans)

(e) cosθ = R / Z = 10Ω / 14.28Ω = 0.7003

θ = 45.55º (Ans)
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 10. AC CIRCUIT Page 12 of 12
FUNDAMENTALS

10.10 Tutorial

A coil of 0.15H and 80Ω resistance is connected across a 230V, 50Hz

supply. Calculate:
(a) the resistance of the coil,

(b) the circuit impedance,

(c) the current flows and

(d) the phase angle between the voltage and the current.

A capacitor of 45μF is connected in series with a 10Ω resistor across

a 230V, 50Hz supply. Determine:
(a) the circuit impedance,

(b) the current flows,

(c) the voltage across the capacitor and the resistor and

(d) the phase angle between the supply voltage and the current.

A series circuit consisting of an inductive reactance of 30Ω, a

capacitive reactance of 60Ω and a resistance of 40Ω is
connected across a 230V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the current
drawn and the voltage across each component.

A circuit has an inductance of 0.16H, a resistance of 40Ω and a

capacitance of 60μF. Calculate the impedance, the current flow
and the phase angle between the supply voltage and the current.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 11. A Power and Power Factor in AC Circuit Page 1 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 11. A Power and Power Factor in AC Circuit

11.01 Active and Reactive Components of current

A Icosθ B
V
θ
Isinθ

C
I

Figure 1

Figure 1 shows a phasor diagram of current I lagging the applied voltage V by an angle θ.

The current I can be resolved into two components, component AB in phase with the
voltage and component BC lagging by 90º.

 AB = active or power component of the current = Icosθ.

 BC = reactive or wattles component of the current = Isinθ.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 11. A Power and Power Factor in AC Circuit Page 2 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

11.02 True or Active Power (P)

C R L
II

I VC VR VL

Figure 2

Of the three components R, XC and XL present in the AC circuit, see Figure 2, only the
resistor will consume active or true or real power P.

11.03 Equations To Determine True Power

(a) P = PR = VR x IR

(b) Since VR = IR x R, P = (IR x R) x IR

P = IR2 x R

Note: For series circuit, IR = I

P = I2 x R

(c) Since IR = VR / R, P = (VR / R)2 x R

P = V R2 / R

(d) Since VR / V = cosθ or VR = V x cosθ

P = VR x IR

P = VIcosθ where P = true power in watts

V = supply voltage in volts

I = supply current in amperes

cosθ = power factor

(e) The above 4 equations apply to all types of AC circuits.

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 11. A Power and Power Factor in AC Circuit Page 3 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

11.04 Apparent Power (S) and Reactive Power(Q)

A P = VIcosθ B
V
θ

P = VIsinθ
S
=V
I

C C

Figure 3
If the current phasor in Figure 1 are each multiplied by V as shown in Figure 3

 AB = VIcosθ → True Power in Watts (W)

 AC = VI → Apparent Power in VoltAmpere (VA)
 BC = VIsinθ → Reactive Power in Reactive Voltampere (Var)
Note: In AC circuits, the product of voltage and current is not the true power in watt
but is the apparent power in voltampere.

11.05 Power Factor (p.f.)

(a) Power factor, p.f., is the ratio of true power to apparent power.

True Power

Power Factor = cosθ = -----------------------

Apparent Power

For series circuit, p.f. = cosθ = R / Z

(b) For purely resistive circuit, θ = 0º

 cosθ = cos0º = 1

i.e. power factor for purely resistive circuit is 1 or unity.

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 11. A Power and Power Factor in AC Circuit Page 4 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

(c) Power factor cannot be more than 1.

(d) When supply current is leading the supply voltage, as in the

capacitive circuit, power factor is said to be leading. Likewise,
when current is lagging the voltage, as in the inductive circuit,
power factor is said to be lagging.
11.06 Worked Examples

1) An electric motor draws 20A from a 230V source. A wattmeter

connected to the circuit indicates 3000W. Determine the power
factor of the circuit.

Solution

p.f. = P / S = 3000 / VI = 3000 / (230V x 20A)

= 0.6522 lagging (Ans)

2) A resistor of 20Ω is connected in series with an 80μF capacitor

across a 230V, 50Hz supply. Determine:
(a) the impedance of the circuit,

(b) the power consumed and

(c) the power factor.

Solution

XC = 1 / (2πfC) = 1 / (2π{50Hz}{80 x 10-6F}) = 39.79Ω

(a) Z =  R2 + XC2 =  202 + 39.792 = 44.53Ω (Ans)

I = V / Z = 230V / 44.53Ω = 5.17A

(b) P = I2R = (5.17A)2 x 20Ω = 534.58W (Ans)

(c) p.f. = P / VI = 534.58W / (230V x 5.17A) = 0.4496 leading (Ans)

11.07 Tutorial
 Refer to the tutorial in Chapter 10. Determine the true power and the power factor of
the circuit
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 11. A Power and Power Factor in AC Circuit Page 5 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM Page 1 of 11
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM

Three Phase System

12.01 Generation of Three Phase EMFs

In Figure 1, RR1, YY1 and BB1 represent three similar loops fixed to one another at angles
of 120º, each terminating in a pair of slip-rings carried on the shaft as shown in Figure 2.
The slip-rings connected to sides R, Y and B are refer to as the “finishes” of the respective
phases and those connected to R1, Y1 and B1 as the “starts”.

R
Y1 B1
R R1
N S
N S

B Y Finish
R1 Slip-rings for
Start Phases RR1

Figure 1 Figure 2

If the three coils are to be rotated anti-clockwise at a uniform speed in the magnetic field
due to poles NS, the e.m.f. generated in loop RR1 is zero for the position shown in Figure
1. When the loop has moved through 90º to the position as shown in Figure 2, the
generated e.m.f. is at its maximum, its direction round the loop being from the “start” slip-
ring towards the “finish” slip-ring. If this direction is taken as positive, the e.m.f. induced in
loop RR1 can be represented by the full line curve as shown in Figure 3.

EB
E.M.F. in RR1 E.M.F. in YY1 E.M.F. in BB1

“Start”
to
“Finish”
120º
ER

“Finish” 120º
to
“Start”

EY
Figure 3 Figure 4
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM Page 2 of 11
FUNDAMENTALS

Since the loops are being rotated anti-clockwise, it is evident from Figure 1 that the e.m.f.
generated in side Y of loop YY1 has exactly the same amplitude as that generated in side
R, but lags by 120º. Similarly, the e.m.f. generated is side B of loop BB1 is equal to but
lags that in side Y by 120º. Hence, the e.m.f.s generated in loops RR1, YY1 and BB1 are
represented by three equally spaced curves of Figure 3, the e.m.f.s being assumed
positive when their directions round the loops are from “start” to “finish” of their respective
loops.

The phasor diagram of the three phase e.m.f.s generated is shown in Figure 4. If the
instantaneous value of the e.m.f. generated is phase RR1 is represented by:

eR = Emsinθ

than eY = Emsin(θ - 120º)

and eB = Emsin(θ - 240º)

Summary
E.m.f.s generated differs by 120º

EY lags = ER by 120º, EB lags = EY by 120º, ER lags = EB by 120º

Phase difference between the currents in the phases = 120º.

IY lags = IR by 120º, IB lags = IY by 120º, IR lags = IB by 120º

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM Page 3 of 11
FUNDAMENTALS

12.02 Methods of Connection

There are two main methods of connecting the 3-phase windings. They are Star or Wye
Connection (Figure 5) and Delta Connection (Figure 6).

 IL = current flowing in each conductor = line current.

 IP = current flowing in each phase = phase current.
 VL = voltage across any two line conductors = line voltage.
 VP = voltage across each winding = phase winding.
 For Star connection, VP is voltage across each winding or between a line conductor
and the neutral point.

IL IL
R R

IP

VP IP

VL VP
VL
Neutral

Y Y

B B
Figure 5 Figure 6
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM Page 4 of 11
FUNDAMENTALS

12.03 Relationship Between Line/Phase Currents and Voltages

Star Connection
Refer to Figure 7 showing a Star connection of 3-phase windings connected to a
balanced load.

IL VNB
R
IP

VNR
VRY 120º
Neutral
VNR

VNY VNB 120º

B VNY
Figure 7 Figure 8

 IR = IY = IB = IL = IP
 VNR = voltage across red phase winding = VP
 VNY = voltage across yellow phase winding = VP
 VNB = voltage across blue phase winding = VP
 VRY = voltage across R and Y lines = phasor difference of V NR and VNY = VL
 VYB = phasor difference of VNY and VNB
 VBR = phasor difference of VNB and VNR
 From phasor diagram:
VRY = VL = VNRcos30º =  3 x VNR =  3 x VP

VYB =  3 x VNY =  3 x VP

VBR =  3 x VNB =  3 x VP

12.04 Summary
 IL = IP and VL =  3 x VP
 The line voltages lead the respective phase voltages by 30º
 The phase angle of the load is the angle between the phase voltage and the
phase current.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM Page 5 of 11
FUNDAMENTALS

12.05 Delta Connection

Figure 9 shows a Delta connection of a 3-phase windings connected to a balanced load
and Figure 10 shows the phasor diagram of all the line and phase currents of the 3-
phase balanced load. I1, I2 and I3 are the phase currents flowing in the Red, Yellow and
Blue respectively.

IR I3
R

I3

120º
VL
I1

I1
120º

IY I2
Y
IB
B
I2
Figure 9 Figure 10

 VRY = VL = VP
 VYB = VL = VP
 VBR = VL = VP
 IR = current flowing in R line = phasor difference of I1 (IP) and I3 (IP) = IL
 IY = current flowing in Y line = phasor difference of I2 (IP) and I1 (IP) = IL
 IR = current flowing in R line = phasor difference of I3 (IP) and I2 (IP) = IL
 From phasor diagram,
IR = IL = 2I1cos30º =  3 x I1 =  3 x IP

IY =  3 x I2 =  3 x IP

IB =  3 x I3 =  3 x IP

12.06 Summary
 IL =  3 x IP and VL = VP
 The line current lags the respective phase currents by 30º.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM Page 6 of 11
FUNDAMENTALS

12.07 Balanced and Unbalanced Load

A balanced 3-phase circuit is one which satisfies the following conditions:

(a) the phase voltages are equal in magnitude,

(b) the line voltages are equal in magnitude,

(c) the phase currents are equal in magnitude,

(d) the line currents are equal in magnitude,

(e) the phase impedances are equal and

(f) the angle between the adjacent phase voltages, between adjacent line voltages,
between the adjacent phase currents and between adjacent line currents are the same.

If any of the above conditions is not satisfied, it is term an unbalanced load.

12.08 Neutral Current

Neutral current, IN, is the current that flows in the neutral conductor of a Star connected
load. It is equal to the phasor sum of the currents flowing in the 3 lines.

→ → → →

IX = IR + IY + IB

For a balanced load, the neutral current is equal to zero.

12.09 Power

Active Power
 Power per phase = VP x IP x power factor or = IP2 x R
 Total power, P = 3 x VP x IP x power factor or = 3 x IP2 x R

Apparent Power
 Apparent power per phase = VP x IP
 Total apparent power, P = 3 x VP x IP

Star Connected System

 VP = VL /  3 ; IL = IP
  total power, P = 3 x (VL /  3) x IL x power factor =  3 x VL x IL x p.f.
 Total apparent power, S =  3 x VL x IL
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM Page 7 of 11
FUNDAMENTALS

Delta Connected System

 VP = VL ; IL =  3 x IP
  total power, P = 3 x VL x (IL /  3) x power factor =  3 x VL x IL x p.f.
 Total apparent power, S =  3 x VL x IL

12.10 Summary
 Hence, it follows that for any balanced load;
P =  3 x VL x IL x p.f.

P = 3 x IP2 x R

S =  3 x VL x IL

 Note: For unbalance load, the total power consumed is equal to the sum of the
power consumed by each phase.
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM Page 8 of 11
FUNDAMENTALS

12.11 Worked Examples

A 3-phase system supplies 25kW at a line voltage of 400V and a

power factor of 0.8 lagging. Calculate the line and phase
currents when the load is:
(a) Star connected and

(b) Delta connected.

Solution

(a) Star connected:

P =  3 x VL x IL x p.f.

IL = P /  3 x VL x p.f.

= 25000W / ( 3 x 400V x 0.8)

= 45.11A (Ans)

IL = IP = 45.11A (Ans)

(b) Delta connected:

P =  3 x VL x IL x p.f.

IL = P /  3 x VL x p.f.

= 25000W / ( 3 x 400V x 0.8)

= 45.11A (Ans)

IP = IL /  3 = 45.11 /  3 = 26.04A (Ans)

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM Page 9 of 11
FUNDAMENTALS

1) 3 identical 50Ω resistors are Star connected across a 400V, 3-phase supply. Calculate
the line current and the total power consumed.

Solution

VP = VL /  3 = 400V /  3 = 230,94V

IL = IP = VP / R = 230.94V / 50Ω = 4.62A (Ans)

P =  3 x VL x IL x p.f. =  3 x 400V x 4.62A x 1 = 3200.83W (Ans)

3 coils, each having a resistance of 30Ω and an inductance of 40Ω

are connected to a 3-phase, 50Hz supply, the line voltage being
400V. Calculate the line current and the total power when the 3
coils are connected in:
(a) Star connected and

(b) Delta connected.

Solution

(a) Z =  (R2 + XL2) =  (30Ω2 + 40Ω2) = 50Ω

p.f. = R / Z = 30Ω / 50Ω

Vp = VL /  3 = 400V /  3 = 230.94V

IL = IP = VP / Z = 230.94V / 50Ω = 4.62A (Ans)

P =  3 x VL x IL x p.f. =  3 x 400V x 4.62A x 0.6

= 1920.5W (Ans)

(b) VP = VL = 400V

IP = VP / Z = 400V / 50Ω = 8A

IL = IP x  3 = 8 x  3 = 13.86A (Ans)

P =  3 x VL x IL x p.f. =  3 x 400V x 13.86A x 0.6

= 5761.49W (Ans)
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM Page 10 of 11
FUNDAMENTALS

Tutorials

The line current in a Delta connected load is 70A. What is the phase
current?

A Star connected load is rated at 120kW and is connected to a 400V,

3-phase supply drawing a current of 200A. Calculate the power
factor of the load.

Calculate the total power taken by 3 resistors each with a resistance

of 25Ω, connected to a 400V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply if the
resistors are Star connected.

A 3-phase Delta connected motor operated off a 400V system

develops 25kW at an efficiency of 90% and a power factor of 0.8
lagging. Calculate the line current and the total power when the
3 coils are connected in:
(a) Star connected and

(b) Delta connected

3 coils, each having a resistance of 10Ω and an inductance of 0.02H

are connected to a 3-phase, 50Hz supply, the line voltage being
400V. Calculate the line current and the total power when the 3
coils are connected in:
(a) Star connected and

(b) Delta connected.

Each phase of a Delta connected load comprises of a resistor of 50Ω

and a capacitor of 50F in series. The supply is 400V, 3-phase,
50Hz. Calculate:
(a) the line and the phase current,

(b) the total power and

(c) the apparent power.

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 12. THREE PHASE SYSTEM Page 11 of 11
FUNDAMENTALS

The load connected to a 3-phase supply comprises 3 similar coils

connected in Star. The line currents are 25A and the apparent
power and power inputs are 20kVA and 11kW respectively.
Determine:
(a) the line and phase voltages,

(b) the power factor of the load and

(c) the resistance and reactance of the coil.

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 13. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER Page 1 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 13. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Single PhaseTransformer

13.01 Introduction
The transformer is a stationary piece of electrical equipment, which links one or more
independent electrical circuits via a magnetic circuit where electrical energy is changed
from one voltage to another voltage without a change in frequency.

The 2 Basic Principles of a Transformer are:

(a) to change the level of an AC voltage and

(b) to isolate a load from an AC power source.

Parts of a Single-Phase Transformer:

(a) primary winding,

(b) secondary winding,

(c) yoke of the laminated core and

(d) limb of the laminated core.

13.02 Principle of Operation

Figure 1 shows the general arrangement of a transformer. An iron core C consists of
laminated sheets insulated from one another. The purpose of laminating the core is to
reduce the loss due to eddy currents induced by the alternating magnetic flux. The vertical
portions of the core are referred to as the limbs and the top and bottom portions are the
yoke. Coils P and S are wound on the limbs. Coil P is connected to the supply and is
termed the primary: coil S is connected to the load and is termed the secondary.

Figure 1
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 13. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER Page 2 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

Transformer works on the principles of mutual induction between 2 coils, which are linked
by a common magnetic field. When an alternating voltage is applied to P, it circulates an
alternating current through P, which produces an alternating flux, represented by the dotted
line D, in the iron core. The whole of the flux produced by coil P passes through coil S, thus
inducing e.m.f. in the coil S.

 Step-up transformer → the primary voltage is lesser than the secondary voltage
 Step-down transformer → the primary voltage is greater than the secondary voltage

13.03 Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer has the following characteristics:

(a) no flux losses; the same flux linking each turn of both the primary and secondary coils,

(b) the volts per turn is the same for each winding, i.e. V 1 / N1 = V2 / N2 and

(c) the primary and secondary volt-amperes are equal, i.e. V1I1 = V2I2.

13.04 Turns Ratio

The ratio between the primary and secondary turns of the transformer id called the turn
ratio. For an ideal transformer (no losses, no magnetic leakage), the following ratio is true:

N1 / N2 = E1 / E2 = V1 / V2 = I2 / I1

N1 = number of turns on the primary windings of the transformer

N2 = number of turns on the secondary windings of the transformer

E1 = e.m.f. induced in primary

E2 = e.m.f. induced in secondary

V1 = primary applied voltage

V2 = secondary terminal voltage

I1 = current flowing in primary

I2 = current flowing in secondary

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 13. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER Page 3 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

13.05 Transformer Ratio

 N1 / N2 = E1 / E2 = V 1 / V 2
 If transformer ratio is more than 1, it is a step-down transformer.
 If transformer ratio is less than 1, it is a step-up transformer.

13.06 Transformer Rating

As heat production and hence temperature of a transformer operating at constant voltage
and ambient temperature depends on the current it carries and not on the power it gives
out, transformer are rated in voltamperes (VA) and not in watts(W).

13.07 Worked Examples

Given VP = 400V, NP = 20, NS = 100, calculate VS.

Solution

VS NS

---- = -----

VP NP

NS

therefore, VS = ---- x VP

NP

100

= ------- x 400V

20

= 2000V (Ans)
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 13. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER Page 4 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

Given VP = 100V, NP = 50, NS = 200, IS = 1A. Calculate:

(a) IP

(b) VS

Solution

(a) IP NS

---- = -----

IS NP

NS

therefore, IP = ---- x IS

NP

200

= ------- x 1A

50

= 4A (Ans)

(b) VS NS

---- = -----

VP NP

NS

therefore, VS = ---- x VP

NP

200

= ------- x 100V

50

= 400V (Ans)
INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 13. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER Page 5 of 5
FUNDAMENTALS

13.08 Tutorial

Given VP = 100V
NP = 50

NS = 10

IS = 5A

Calculate (a) VS, (b) IP

Transformer supplies a load with 50A at 400V. If the primary voltage

is 2400V, calculate the primary current.

A 30kVA, 200 / 1000V has a secondary turns of 50 turns. Find the

number of primary turns, secondary and primary current.

A single-phase transformer has 500 primary turns and 80 secondary

turns. If the primary is connected to a 3000V supply, find the
secondary p.d.. Neglecting losses, what is the primary current
when the secondary current is 250A?

A 100kVA, 6600 / 250V has a secondary turns of 200. Find the

number of primary turns and secondary and primary currents.

A 50kVA transformer has a primary voltage of 6000V and a

secondary voltage of 200V. It has 100 turns on the secondary.
Find the number of primary turns and the primary and
secondary currents, neglecting losses
Industrial Installation
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER Page 1 of 2
Fundamentals (MC20300)

1
 Industrial Installation
Appendix Page 2 of 2
Fundamentals (MC20300)

Appendix
Electrical Installation by T G Francis

Electrical Principle by Hughes

CP 5 1998 by SPRING Singapore