Where The Road Ends. A Guide To Trail Running PDF

Where The Road Ends
A Guide to Trail Running
Meghan M. Hicks
Bryon Powell
HUMAN KINETICS
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Hicks, Meghan M., 1978- author. | Powell, Bryon, author.
Title: Where the road ends : a guide to trail running / Meghan M. Hicks and
Bryon Powell.
Description: Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics, [2016] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015042715 | ISBN 9781492513285 (print)
Subjects: LCSH: Running. | Trails--Recreational use.
Classification: LCC GV1061 .H47 2016 | DDC 613.7/172--dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.
loc.gov/2015042715
ISBN: 978-1-4925-1328-5 (print)
Copyright © 2016 by Meghan M. Hicks and Bryon Powell
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To those who choose the crooked trails.
Contents
Foreword vi
Acknowledgments vii
Introduction: A Sense of Adventure viii
1 Stepping Off Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Trail Running Techniques . . . . . . . . . . 11
3 Finding Footing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4 Techniques to Match Terrain . . . . . . . 47
5 Trail Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
6 Hydration and Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7 Conquering the Conditions . . . . . . . 103
8 Training for the Trail . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
9 Creating a Training Plan . . . . . . . . . 145
10 Trail Safety and Stewardship . . . . . . 157
11 Health and Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12 Trail Racing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Resources 217
Index 219
About the Authors 226
v
Foreword
“Bryon Powell and Meghan Hicks of iRunFar, here with . . ."
The passionate souls of trail running hear this introduction in the video interviews
that Bryon and Meghan do with the world's top trail runners before and after any
big race. Those opening words have become the reference when talking of trail
running. Anyone who considers him- or herself a trail runner knows who Bryon
and Meghan are, and we impatiently wait for their race previews and articles.
It’s early autumn in California, I think around 4 a.m.,
and the first proper meeting between Bryon and me. We
are running together and using the time to get to know
each other. We start running north on easy footing from
Tahoe City. Not many words are spoken, just ones to get
to know each other a little more. Talking seems over-
rated—we are doing what we love: running in nature,
absorbing the silence, and looking forward on the endless
trails. The dark disappears and the reddish atmosphere of
dawn invades the old tree bark of the giant forest through
which we run. Our long shadows flirt with the trees and
sandy rocks as we move with a light pace. We are more
floating than running. Some hours later, with a heavy
sun and flat light, Bryon stops and I turn right and then
down, contouring this big lake. I meet and run with Bryon
several times during the next 40 hours as I run nonstop
the 165-mile Tahoe Rim Trail around Lake Tahoe, while
Kilian Jornet enjoys
running the 2014 Bryon and others join me as pacers. From then on, I have
Hardrock 100. continued to meet Bryon and Meghan frequently, always
with some trails in front of us.
On this first meeting back in 2009, I, Bryon, Meghan, and a few more humans
were the misunderstood people who loved to run on the trails as long as our bodies
could. We are part of a generation of runners who train and compete in a serious way
for trail running, exploring year after year how the body reacts to long distances.
We have been learning and acquiring the knowledge that we hope can help future
generations of trail runners run better and have more fun exploring the trails.
Where the Road Ends is a journey among this community of trail runners, a com-
munity that, despite growing professionalism and a search for performance, stays
strong in values such as passion, altruism, connection with nature, volunteering,
and companionship. This book links the search for performance, the knowledge
about how our bodies and brains can run longer and faster, and the connection
that trail running gives us to nature and the other runners of this wonderful com-
munity. Enjoy this journey!
—Kilian Jornet
vi
Acknowledgments
Thanks to my parents for taking our family to wild places and to my brother
who played endlessly with me in the woods behind our house.
Thanks to my dad, who always countered my mother’s “Be careful” admo-
nitions with equally important “Be wild” reminders.
Thanks to those who had the foresight to establish America’s national parks
and wilderness areas and to those who are dedicated to their continued
preservation.
Thanks to all the people who get out early, stay out late, and push bound-
aries in experiencing the wild.
Thanks to Bryon, my partner in life, for making ours a life of adventure.
—Meghan
Thanks to Poppop for taking me on long walks in the woods as far back
as I can remember.
Thanks to the Parkers for encouraging a young neighbor to run and to
Coach Hoch for sharing the joy of trail running.
Thanks to Scotty and all the Virginia Happy Trailers for stoking my love
of trail running.
Thanks to all the trail builders and maintainers, for yours is a sweaty,
often-thankless toil.
Thanks to my parents for never failing to encourage me along whatever
path I’ve gone down.
Thanks to Gretchen, Maya, and Norah for giving me three reasons to
inspire someone.
Thanks to Meghan for taking my hand and running down life’s crooked
trails with me.
—Bryon
vii
Introduction
A Sense of Adventure
Very little light has crept into the sky as my good friend Kristin Zosel and
I, Meghan Hicks, greet each other with a still-sleepy hug in the trailhead
parking lot. What light has arrived is yellow, the precise color that the sun
burns into your eyes if you make the mistake of looking straight at it, and
it is pressing its way across the electric-blue sky of waning night. Tall, black
silhouettes looming up from the ground are the giant mountains that sur-
round us. We meet this morning to run the famed Four Pass Loop in Colo-
rado’s Maroon Bells–Snowmass Wilderness. It’s a 26.5-mile (42.6 km) loop
outside Aspen that features a bold 8,000 vertical feet (2,400 m) of climbing
(and as much descending), largely through high-altitude, alpine terrain.
We head up the trail where a rock garden greets us for the first stretch
of running. Our feet tap a staccato rhythm on the small spots of bare earth
between the rocks, and our knees rise high to lift our legs over the obstacles.
Our arms swing hard, instigating more forward propulsion than normal
because our legs are busy with tasks beyond just moving forward. Moving
requires the full attention of our minds and bodies, a natural wake-up call.
Colorado’s Crater Lake wakes up.
viii
Introduction ix
The trail leads to Crater Lake, its surface a perfectly still mirror that
reflects everything: the conifer trees on its shoreline, North Maroon Peak
and its companion mountains glowing pink in alpenglow, and a pale blue
sky containing poofs of white clouds. We stand silent for a moment before
jogging on.
We turn left at the trail junction and head up the West Maroon Creek
drainage on a well-established trail that traces the valley bottom uphill.
Here and there the trail is briefly muddy. I concentrate on making sure that
my feet land right beneath me and straight into the ground so that the lugs
on the soles of my shoes can grab the gook. With a little attention, good
traction comes easily.
Kristin and I alternately jog and powerhike up the large valley. When the
trail steepens, our heart rates spike, and we temporarily slow to a power-
hike. As the trail moderates again, we switch back to a jog. Our bodies
naturally seek the most efficient way to move across the dynamic terrain.
The hillsides are choked with wildflowers—Indian paintbrush, lupine, and
dozens of other species. Strokes of red, purple, yellow, and orange flash up
the hillsides before giving way to the coral pink and rust-colored bare cliffs
above. Simply said, the scene is stupendous.
We reach the first of the four namesake passes on this loop, West Maroon
Pass, which acts as the topographical divide between two drainages. We’ve
watched the clouds grow big and gray, expanding from separate units into
a continuous layer. At the top of West Maroon Pass, we see an ominous
curtain of rain falling a couple miles off and headed our way. We stop for
just a moment—to take photos and don our rain jackets—before bulleting
downhill.
Raindrops come first; they patter gently against my jacket. Then tiny
pieces of hail begin to tap Morse code on my hood. Next comes a soaking
rain. But just as the curtain of rain envelops us, we see through to the other
side. The rain ends within 15 minutes, just long enough to soak our shoes.
The second pass, Frigid Air Pass, comes unexpectedly fast. At a little pond,
the trail makes a quick, signed jog to the right and then pitches into the sky.
Just a half mile (800 m) to the top, the steep grade forces us to hike every
step. I remind myself to inhale deeply with each breath to give myself access
to as much oxygen as possible and to engage my core muscles, which act
as the support structure for this hard work. We leave the bounty of wild-
flowers and ascend through rocky terrain devoid of nearly all vegetation.
Another trail runner climbs the opposite approach to the pass. We watch
him tackle the switchbacks with command. He mostly jogs, although occa-
sionally he switches to a powerhike for a couple steps, pressing his hands
down on his thighs to add extra, upper-body oomph to each step.
In the valley after the pass, we encounter one backpacking group after
another, maybe 75 people total over the next 10 miles (16 km). We also
intersect another pair of trail runners sauntering together. The Four Pass
Loop is a mecca for outdoor enthusiasts of many kinds.
x Introduction
Meghan and Kristin run together on the Four Pass Loop.
The 2,000-foot (600 m) climb to the third pass comes in what seems
like two giant stair steps. First, the trail steepens as we snake up a forested
hillside on switchbacks. Just past tree line, the grade flattens as we meander
past another unnamed pond. Trail Rider Pass is now in view, a V dipping
into a ridge of rocks maybe 800 feet (240 m) above us, the second of the
two big stairs. In the nook of the V, humans who are already up there
appear as wee dots, like ants.
We make it to the top, but not without hard work. Trail Rider Pass lies on
the shoulder of a mountain made of white igneous rock called Snowmass
Peak. Although the pass is above 12,000 feet (3,600 m), the summit of the
mountain is a couple thousand feet higher at over 14,000 feet (4,200 m).
The walls of white that rise from the pass are so reflective of the sun that
they are almost blinding.
Below Trail Rider Pass and Snowmass Peak lies a giant lake, suitably
named Snowmass Lake. It’s turquoise and glittery. Sunlight flashes off
thousands of ripples as if a massive tropical fish were laid out on its side.
Somewhere below the pass, we stop for a snack. Before this morning,
Kristin and I hadn’t seen each other for more than six months. But our
conversation and friendship easily picked up where we last left it. All day
we’ve chatted away, catching each other up on the comings and goings
of life and then lapsing into the kind of comfortable silence that only two
people who get along well can share. The ease of being with Kristin is a
highlight of the day. As we stand there, under the hulking peak and above
the sparkling lake, laughing and crunching on energy bars, I feel levity—
about life and our friendship and this wild place. It’s a runner’s high.
Introduction xi
Ahead of us looms one more pass, Buckskin Pass, but the trail makes us
dip lower still before we climb again. We cross Snowmass Creek and start
the 1,500-foot (450 m) ascent. There’s no way to describe this point in our
journey other than grinding. Kristin and I have been moving conservatively
all day, so although it hurts a little, we are able to powerhike and jog hard.
When we get to the top, we hug and high-five. We’re four for four, and the
hardest work of the day is done!
Down Minnehaha Gulch we go, some 3,000 feet (900 m) back toward
Crater Lake, where things began this morning. There’s no way around it;
the final downhill of many long trail runs is a challenge. The eccentric
muscular contractions that come with simultaneously bending our legs and
supporting our body weight makes our already tired quadriceps burn. Our
brains are tired, so although the trail is buffed out enough in some places
that we can cruise, in others we have to concentrate hard so that we don’t
trip over exposed rocks and roots.
After what seems like a long time, we finish off the descent, rolling
through the trail junction near Crater Lake, taking one last left back toward
the trailhead. We’re back in the rock garden, our final segment of the day,
and we play. We dance. We leap from rock to rock. We are completely
joyful. We move efficiently, lightly, even picking up speed in this human
version of smelling the barn.
At the trailhead, we peel ourselves out of our dirty, damp socks and
shoes, grab our recovery drinks, and make our way to a cold creek to soak
our tired legs.
“Now that was a ladies’ day out!” we hoot about our frolicking, rollick-
ing day.
About This Book

Whether Colorado’s Four Pass Loop sounds like your ultimate adventure
or will serve as inspiration for more moderate outings, give trail running
a chance and it will invigorate your mind and body. Trail running is exer-
tion and exhilaration, fitness and friendship, challenge and change. Trail
running is a means of exploring the landscape, our connection with it, our
lives, ourselves. If you want to start your trail running journey or take your
trail running to new heights, you’ve come to the right place.
You may already know this, but wherever you live—from a medium-
sized city to a rural hamlet, from a mountain village to a major metropo-
lis—there are trails near you. Perhaps you run them all the time but have
never thought of yourself as a trail runner. Maybe you know the trails are
out there but you’ve never ventured on them. Or maybe you’ve already
competed in several trail running races. From someone looking to take
his first strides down the trail to the experienced trail runner seeking to
improve her considerable skills, Where the Road Ends: A Guide to Trail Running
is a comprehensive how-to for trail running designed to assist you.
xii Introduction
In this book, we the authors, Meghan Hicks and Bryon Powell, combine
our more than 35 years of trail running experience with the expert advice
of other experienced runners and educators to explain the ins and outs of
trail running in a no-nonsense, let’s-get-on-the-trail fashion.
The book kicks off with chapter 1, “Stepping Off Road,” which delves into
the basics of trail running by answering the questions most often asked by
those considering or just starting trail running:
● What is trail running?
● How does it differ from road running?
● How do I locate trails to run?
● Do I need different shoes and gear for trail running?
● Is it safe?
● Where can I meet other trail runners?
In “Trail Running Techniques,” the second chapter, we jump into the
nitty-gritty of exactly how to run on trails. The core of this chapter (and
trail running) is foundational trail running techniques such as running
with an active body position, fixing your gaze in the right place, using quick
turnover and nimble feet when obstacles arise, and more. Along the way,
you’ll learn some drills for acquiring trail-worthy agility.
Chapter 3, “Finding Footing,” discusses the ground beneath our feet, one
of the most variable conditions that trail runners encounter. On the same
run, you can run over dirt, sand, roots, and rock, and each substrate might
be dry, wet, icy, or obscured by debris. Learn how to read and react as you
pass over and tread on a multitude of surfaces. A trail runner must also
respond to the dictates of the broader terrain. In chapter 4, “Techniques
to Match Terrain,” you’ll learn how to approach climbs and descents (both
steep and gradual), conquer curves in the trail, and overcome major obsta-
cles like boulders and logs. Be ready for it all! If chapter 2 is the classroom
driver’s ed class, chapters 3 and 4 are driving with your learner’s permit,
when you learn how to deal with real-world scenarios.
Even the most simple of trail runners uses equipment to facilitate single-
track sessions. Other personal preferences and scenarios call for a more
extensive set of gear when hitting the trail. In chapter 5, “Trail Tools,” you’ll
learn all about the physical tools that can facilitate your sport: shoes, apparel,
hydration systems, gear haulers, lighting, safety equipment, navigation tools
(GPS units, maps, compasses), and more. You’ll learn about everything from
matching shoes to terrain and footing to how to carry enough water for a
trail run, from what tools to take to find your way back home to the best
lighting options for night running. We also address gear use more generally,
including when you might be able to pare down your pack.
Sometimes, a mile on the trails can take two or three times as long as
it does on the roads, even at the same effort. On the other hand, a more
relaxed approach to trail running often facilitates longer outings (time wise)
Introduction xiii
The authors Bryon Powell and Meghan Hicks run in Utah’s La Sal Mountains.
than your typical road sessions. As such, adequate hydration and nutrition
come into play more often in the wilds. Chapter 6, “Hydration and Fueling,”
lays out the ingredients for staying happy and healthy out there.
Tips for successful trail running are provided for a wide array of condi-
tions such as heat, cold, rain, snow, sun, high altitude, darkness, and more
in chapter 7, “Conquering the Conditions.” For example, you’ll learn the
basics of layered clothing systems, what to wear in wet weather, options
for keeping feet dry and warm, and more.
Chapters 8 and 9, “Training for the Trail” and “Creating a Training
Plan,” both take broad and in-depth looks at trail running training. Chapter
8 first explains some well-known training theories for endurance running
such as long runs, hill repeats, various forms of speed workouts, and more.
It then discusses other activities you can use as cross-training for trail
running as well as specific trail running drills you can use to get faster,
stronger, and more comfortable. Chapter 9 focuses on how to combine
these different types of running into short- and long-term training plans.
Finally, the chapter wraps up with discussion points about the importance
of full-spectrum health for your running.
Trail running exposes runners to new and sometimes dangerous risks,
so chapter 10, “Trail Safety and Stewardship,” focuses on those plausible
risks and ways to minimize and address them. Some of the risks discussed
include wildlife, water crossings, thunderstorms, steep terrain, crossing
snow, dangerous humans, getting lost, and more. We also address the fun-
damental nonrunning skills needed for safe trail running such as effective
xiv Introduction
navigation, obtaining and purifying water in the backcountry, and more.

This chapter also introduces the ethics of running through wild spaces.
In chapter 11, “Health and Injuries,” you’ll learn how to prevent, identify,
and mitigate common backcountry bad happenings such as blisters, cuts,
bruises, altitude sickness, and sunburn.
The final chapter, “Trail Racing,” serves as a how-to for becoming accli-
mated to trail racing. From course maps to aid stations, markings to finish-
line environments, you’ll find out what to expect at a trail race and how
such events are likely to differ from their bitumen-based brethren. We also
clue you in on how to make the most of your big day.
In each of the chapters you’ll find a sidebar titled “Places and Races to
Inspire.” Each of these takes you to an inspiring trail race or locale. The
hope is that you’ll want to experience some of them, or places like them,
someday.
Although you can feel free to skip around the book to meet your inter-
ests, this book is designed to be read front to back the first time you read it.
We establish and expand on a knowledge base from chapter to chapter, so
you may find yourself better understanding something later in the book if
you’ve read the beginning first. Perhaps most important, this book is meant
to act as a resource that, over the years and as your relationship with the
sport grows, you’ll keep coming back to.
We hope that every time you shut this book you’ll have a new skill,
drill, task, inspiration, or nugget of knowledge to take with you onto the
trail—something that will enhance your experience.
Thank you for choosing Where the Road Ends!
Happy trails,
Meghan and Bryon
Sunrise views like this one of Wyoming’s Salt River
Range answer one of the whys of trail running.
Chapter 1
Stepping Off Road

Short, long, fast, slow, dirt, rocks, snow: It’s your turn to step on to the
trail. You’ve found Where the Road Ends because something about trail run-
ning speaks to you.
The basic beauty of trail running is that it’s at once a simple and dynamic
sport. Its simplicity is based on the facts that running is a natural human
motion—one of the first things we figure out how to do as toddlers—and
that it doesn’t require much preparation or gear for each outing. On the
other hand, the sport is dynamic because of the diversity of places you’ll
run, the obstacles you’ll work your way through, the wildlife you might
encounter, and the people with whom you’ll share the trail.
For some, the appeal of trail running goes even deeper. Many people
find that trail running helps them navigate an interesting, new way of
experiencing the world. As the population grows, humans gather them-
selves into cities for the convenient concentration of workplaces, schools,
supermarkets, doctors’ offices, family, and friends. Although humans live
inside homes and apartments, in close proximity to more buildings and
1
2 Where the Road Ends
many people, some are still called by something inside themselves to spend
time outside. Many people say they need to breathe a little fresh air, to let
sunshine fall on their faces, to see some greenery, and to move their bodies
to feel, well, human. An hour or so on the trail makes many people feel
refreshed in returning to the rest of life.
Trail running might speak to you in other ways, too. Perhaps you are
already a runner who revels in your daily dedication to mind and body.
You take to roads, bike paths, and treadmills. Maybe you race, entering
local 10Ks and marathons to help sate the competitive fire inside you or to
satisfy your desire to spend time with likeminded people. Maybe you’re on
the hunt for a new venue for the sport you love, and you’ve heard about
trail running through Twitter, a magazine, or a neighbor.
Maybe you’ve gravitated to Where the Road Ends because you already spend
time beyond this point. You are a hiker, mountain biker, backpacker—some-
one who already spends a good amount of time on the trail. You don’t need
anyone to sell you on how enjoyable time spent in wild places is. Chances
are you’ve seen another breed of trail lover in your explorations, trail run-
ners, and you’re curious about becoming one, too.
Maybe you’re a competitive gymnast or tennis player who has ended
your career but is looking for a place to play with your competitive drive.
You might be a new mom or dad who’s seeking quick access to quiet and
calm, and a way to reconnect with yourself. Perhaps you’re coming off
an injury from another sport and have heard that the soft surfaces of trail
running might cradle your delicate body. There are almost endless reasons
to try trail running.
As you begin your journey into this sport, you might find that you have
some questions about what to do and expect. In this chapter, you’ll find
basic answers to the very first questions you might have about trail run-
ning. What follows in this chapter should be enough information for you
to enjoy your first trail runs. Let’s do this!
What Is Trail Running?
The short answer is that trail running is the sport of running off paved
surfaces. The longer answer is that trail running is the act of running on
an unending diversity of substrates: dirt, gravel, grass, wood chips, roots,
rocks, sand, and more. Across flat ground, along rolling hills, up steep
climbs, or down bomber descents—trail running is traveling over whatever
terrain Mother Nature delivers. Trail running can include traveling short
distances very quickly and long distances somewhat slower. It’s a sport in
which your sweat comingles with dirt and mud. Trail running allows you
to flow through shady forests, over treeless alpine terrain, atop steep cliffs,
and through endless grasslands. It’s a sport whose community is strong
and gritty but also filled with warmth and welcome. The sport is as much
about running with interesting people or in beautiful places as it is about
minutes-per-mile paces.
Rory Bosio running at night during the 2013 UTMB®.
Why Trail Running?

Wow. That’s a great question, and, perhaps, the least straightforward one
of all to answer. We are all uniquely motivated in life, aren’t we? A survey
of all of us trail runners about our motivations for spending time off road
would yield widely varied results. Some of us trail run to be fit and fast,
and to win races. Others trail run as means to relieve stress, to carve out
“me time” from each day, and to instill confidence in ourselves. Still, more
of us trail run so that we can spend time in nature, away from highways
and skyscrapers. And some trail run to enjoy the company of the amazing
people who do our sport.
As a two-time winner of the UTMB® (formerly the Ultra-Trail du Mont-
Blanc®), a highly competitive race that circumnavigates Mont Blanc in
the European Alps, Rory Bosio is one of the fastest female trail runners
out there. However competitive she is, Rory finds deep joy in the act of
running along a trail: “I love the simplicity of running. The act of putting
one foot in front of the other is such a natural movement that one doesn’t
need to be taught how to do it. Do you remember someone teaching you
how to run? Probably not. As toddlers we progress from an unsteady walk
to a full-on trot, no instruction needed. Running is ingrained in our DNA.
Running outdoors provides an intimate connection with nature that at
times feels magical. I live for that feeling of flow: speeding down a trail,
opening up the stride, the worries of everyday life evaporating with every
step, the clarity of the mind that comes from being truly in the moment,
3
feeling enmeshed in the natural world as opposed to just being an observer

of it, the body moving in harmony with the earth.”
Is Trail Running Safe?
The sport of trail running has a small amount of inherent risk. We can fall
on some types of terrain, and a normal trip and fall is always a possibility.
Heat, snow, and other weather variations challenge us to keep our bodies
warm, cool, or dry. Wildlife such as snakes or large predators add some risk
when we run through their habitat. And as in life off the trails, dangerous
humans always pose a small risk.
But anyone can acquire the knowledge, skills, and abilities to keep the
risks of trail running very low. Chapters 10 and 11 of this book are devoted to
giving you some of the knowledge you need to be a safe, smart trail runner.
How Does Trail Running Differ From Road Running?
It depends. Some kinds of trail running look and feel fairly similar to road
running, whereas other kinds of trail running couldn’t be more different
from running on pavement. Let’s consider a couple examples.
Have you ever seen or gone for a run on a wood-chip or packed-dirt trail
at your local park? Or maybe you’ve seen the local high school’s grassy
cross-country course? A run on any of these routes is trail running! On
these trails, you’ll experience gentle terrain deviations—ups, downs, and
shifts to the left and right. The dirt or grass substrate, in comparison to
blacktop or concrete, will probably feel soft and impact absorbing. If you
wear a wrist-top GPS, you might notice that your average running pace is
15 or 30 seconds per mile (10 or 20 seconds per kilometer) slower than the
pace you run on roads as you slow to navigate hills, curves, and tree roots.
Overall, however, the differences between this kind of trail running and
road running are subtle.
Next, imagine a giant mountain range with peaks that claw high into the
sky and fall away into steep valleys, like the Appalachian Mountains, the
Rocky Mountains, or the Alps. Mountain ranges like these have thousands
of miles of trails that spider through them. These trails are replete with rocks
and roots that chop up trail surfaces, have climbs and descents that can take
an hour or more to go up or down, and possess twists, turns, and constant
changes to their direction. These trails might require you to cross snow or
wade through a creek. The trails might be difficult to detect in places, disap-
pearing into a big meadow and reappearing some distance later. Sometimes,
when two trails meet, you’ll find no sign to indicate which way to go, so
you’ll need the ability to navigate on your own. A mile on these trails can
take triple or quadruple the time it does on roads at the same effort.
Trails like these require the continuous attention of your mind and body
to help you dance among the rocks, to know which way is north, to not
give up when you feel like you’ve been climbing forever, and to keep you
Stepping Off Road 5
safe for the journey to come. Complex and burly, this sort of trail running
looks and feels like an entirely different sport than road running.
I’ve Heard of Ultrarunning. Is That the Same as Trail Running?
Ultrarunning is the sport of running distances in excess of a marathon, that
is, more than 26.2 miles (42.2 km). Common ultramarathon race distances
are 50 kilometers, 50 miles (80 km), and, believe it or not, 100 miles (160
km). Ultramarathon-distance runs and races take place on both roads and
trails, although the vast majority of ultramarathons occur on trails. In this
way, ultrarunning can be thought of as one kind of trail running.
How Do I Find Trails?
We bet you already know of trails near where you live. And if you don’t
know about them, we bet they are not far away. Many urban and subur-
ban parks have unpaved trails, sometimes extensive networks on which
you can run for hours. Meghan, for instance, grew up in the suburbs of St.
Paul, Minnesota, near a couple of parks. She ran on the paved bike path
through one of these parks dozens of times before she noticed singletrack
trails diverging into the woods from it. The trails weren’t marked and didn’t
appear on any maps, but they were there. Bryon was raised in Titusville,
New Jersey, northeast of Philadelphia, Penn-
sylvania. Washington Crossing State Park is
Did you know that Google
located there. Its 3,500 acres (1,400 ha) are
Earth and Google Maps con-
filled with the singletrack on which Bryon cut
tain hundreds of thousands
his trail running teeth as a youngster. Even of miles of trails all over the
in these developed areas, trails abound. Thus, world, with more being added
our first words of advice for finding trails are every day? Plan a trail run any-
to keep your eyes open. A bonanza of trails where with these online tools.
may already lie very close to your everyday
haunts—you just have to discover them.
Next up, ask the experts at your local running store for trail informa-
tion. Even if the store has a road running focus, surely at least one of its
employees runs frequently on trails and will be happy to tell you about her
or his personal playgrounds. If a visitor center or tourism office is located
nearby, stop in. These places collect and collate all kinds of information for
locals and visitors, and they may have trail maps and descriptions.
If you’ve exhausted your local, in-person resources and are still seek-
ing information, check the websites of nearby conservation or recreation
nonprofits and the websites for the agencies who manage any open spaces
in or near your home.
Finally, the last (and sometimes best) source is Google Earth and Google
Maps or even paper maps. No kidding! These are truly wonderful tools for
exploring your local landscape. You might find trails and a whole lot of other
things you never knew existed in your town. Find the green spots and go.
Do I Need Special Shoes for Trail Running?

On the most fundamental level, you absolutely do not need special shoes
to trail run. You can wear whatever athletic shoe you like on your feet to
trail run, and chances are you will have an enjoyable outing. The simplic-
ity of running is one of its greatest gifts, and trail running is no different.
That said, dozens of trail-specific shoe models are on the market, and they
have all been designed to help your feet and body navigate the challenges
of the trail. For instance, some shoes are meant to provide increased trac-
tion through mud or on wet rocks, whereas other shoes have been made
to drain well if they take on water in a stream crossing. Some shoes offer
waterproofing technology that can help keep your feet dry and warm while
running on a snowy trail. Still other shoes offer protection for the bottom
of your feet or the front of your toes in case you step on or kick rocks.
Depending on the complexity of the terrain and substrates on which you
trail run, you might find that such specialty shoes improve your experi-
ence by allowing you to run faster, safer, and with greater confidence that
you’re going to keep the rubber side down.
As you start trail running, we recommend keeping things simple. Go
for a run in a pair of sneakers you have lying around the house—maybe a
pair of road running or hiking shoes. If you decide that trail running is up
your alley, consider investing in a basic pair of trail shoes. Just as you would
when buying athletic shoes, take the time to do your research and try on
shoes at the store. First, buy a pair that feels good on your feet. Next, look
for shoes that possess some basic trail running features that will improve
your performance and confidence. Consider a trail shoe that offers protec-
tion to your toes with a toe bumper on the front of the shoe and to the
bottom of your feet with a rock plate or extra cushioning. A rock plate is a
device embedded in the sole of the shoe that prevents rocks from bumping
or bruising the bottoms of your feet. Also, choose a trail shoe with some
lugging on the outsole, the bottom of the shoe. This lugging should help
you maintain traction on mud, wet rocks, or snow.
Be sure to check out chapter 5, “Trail Tools,” to learn more about trail
running shoes in much more detail.
Do I Need Special Gear to Trail Run?
Just as with trail shoes, special gear isn’t a prerequisite for trail running. You
can take your standard athletic apparel on the trails for a 30- to 90-minute
run, and as long as the weather isn’t extreme, you’ll be perfectly happy.
But as with trail shoes, certain pieces of gear can enhance your experi-
ence. For example, a hydration pack to carry water, a bit of food, and a jacket
will go a long way in making your body happy on a trail run that lasts a
few hours. A waterproof jacket can extend your comfort on rainy or snowy
days. Some runners find gaiters, which fit on your shoes to keep debris
or snow out, a bonus in some conditions. A wrist-top GPS or a map and
A small hydration pack and water bottle aids this runner’s trail experience.
compass allow you to venture safely farther into the backcountry. To learn
more about various fun-extending gear, check out chapter 5, “Trail Tools.”
Do People Run on Trails at Night?
We sure do! In fact, trail running at night can be one of the most enjoyable
aspects of our sport. We race at night, too. An appropriate lighting system
is necessary for safe night running. Those starting out with night running
may want to run in groups of two or more to minimize risk and to share
in the experience. Check out chapter 5, “Trail Tools,” for an advanced dis-
cussion on lighting systems for night running.
How Do I Meet Other Trail Runners?
We think you’ll really like getting to know other trail runners and being
part of the trail running community. Right now, the sport is in explosion
mode. Interest in trail running is increasing in almost every country of the
world. With that expanding interest comes the development and growth
of robust trail-running communities.
Almost every decent-sized city or metropolitan area has a trail running
group or at least an organized running group that spends part of its time
on trails. All you need to do is find them. Many trail running groups are
active on social media and the internet with a website, Facebook group, or
Twitter feed. A quick Google search can link you with them.
7
A headlamp lights up a night run.
Your local running store will also be a font of community information,

as could be your local community or recreation center, gym, yoga studio,
or CrossFit box. Many of these health-centered ventures have their own
running groups or organize group runs, including trail runs.
Finally, perhaps the easiest place to meet trail runners is at a trail race,
which leads to the next question.
How Do I Find Out About Trail Races?
In general, the same places that offer information about trails and trail
runners will likely be able to inform you about trail races. Additionally, if
the town you live in hosts trail races, the race director will likely advertise
with posters on the bulletin boards of coffee shops, outdoor stores, librar-
ies, and community centers.
Online, Trail Runner magazine’s website has a robust trail-race calendar
that provides information on races out of town, out of state, and, sometimes,
in other countries. Also, Google is a solid tool for locating the websites of
nearby trail races.
You’ve unearthed the desire to run with dirt underfoot, you’ve found a
pair of shoes that will get you out there, and you’ve discovered a place to
run and perhaps a couple fellow adventurers with whom you’ll travel. All
the pieces have fallen into place. Don’t delay! Go test a piece of singletrack
and read on in this book to learn more about how to be your own best trail
runner. Let your trail running adventure begin!
8
PLACES AND RACES TO INSPIRE
MOAB, UTAH, UNITED STATES
Caution! The unusual beauty of the fire-red slickrock surrounding Moab, Utah,
will burn itself into your soul. It will captivate your senses and call you back
for visit after visit. We, the authors, speak about the slickrock’s siren song from
personal experience. Once vacationers to the red rocks, we now live here.
The red rocks enchant! Located in southeastern Utah at the edge of the mighty
Colorado River, what’s now Moab has been a home to Native Americans for
thousands of years. Now, Moab is largely a tourist town full of folks flocking
to the region’s unique geology.
Fully surrounding the town is federal land of various kinds, including Arches
National Park, Canyonlands National Park, the Manti-La Sal National Forest,
and more. What this means is that there are literally millions of acres of pro-
tected wildlands and thousands of miles of trails to explore. Out there you
will find arches, fins, and towers of rock improbably resisting gravity, miles
of road-less terrain in every direction that imparts a sense of solitude little
found in America today, all forms of wildlife, and even mountains exceeding
12,000 feet (3,700 m).
Trail runners have discovered Moab and you can enjoy the fruits of their
finds. More than a half dozen trail races take place over the course of each
year, from one that’s just 6.5 miles (11 km) long to a six-day stage race. As
locals, we endorse all the trail races around Moab, but we’re especially partial
to the Moab Red Hot 33 km (Bryon) and 55 km (Meghan) races each Febru-
ary and the Moab Trail Marathon and Half Marathon, which occur in the fall.
Their courses don’t fail in either their challenge or aesthetic.
(continued)
9
Moab (continued)
If you wish to run instead of race, your singletrack choices are endless.
However, may we politely direct you to Canyonlands National Park. Take
heed, this is a remote corner of the U.S. so you need to be smart and self-
sufficient out there with a map, water, food, appropriate clothing, and more.
The trail running you’ll do there will transport you into a whole new world.
10
Proper technique will help you
surpass all of the trail’s challenges.
Chapter 2
Trail Running Techniques

Running is about as natural an act as we engage in as humans. Whereas
you learned to talk and to read, running is something that just came when
your body was ready for it. To explain how to run, well, that would be as
unnecessary as telling you how to blink or swallow. Instead, you can recall
any time you’ve run to play a sport, to catch the bus, or to follow your child.
You know how to run.
At its simplest, trail running need not be any more complicated than
that, an act you’ve done thousands of times. Most trail running, however,
requires at least minor adjustments. In this chapter we’ll look at those
basic modifications. The subsequent two chapters, “Finding Footing” and
“Techniques to Match Terrain,” will explore variations on the foundational
concepts introduced in this chapter.
11
An Effective Mindset
Before getting to the physical adjustments required to run trails, you need
to look at another set of adjustments: the mental ones. If you’ve long been
a road runner, this adjustment might be the most important one you make.
On the other hand, if you’ve previously run only when the situation has
called for it, then you’re necessarily more accustomed to running the
obstacle course that is the world around us.
Be Aware
Let’s stop beating around the bush and, instead, observe it. To trail run
effectively, you’ll need to see the bush, the rock, the downed log, and any-
thing you might encounter from the top of your head to the bottom of your
feet. That’s not meant to sound overwhelming. You have to be alert when
walking around in new and changing environments every day of your life.
As your pace increases, however, the consequences of tripping on a stone
or running headlong into a branch multiply.
To trail run successfully, you have to be aware of what’s around you.
Open your eyes and ears and actively take it all in. At the beginning, you
should focus, on average, about 20 to 30 feet (7 to 10 m) down the trail.
If you have road running experience, this focus might seem too close, but
the shorter distance will help reduce the time between when you spot an
obstacle and when you have to react to it. If you focus farther out, you’ll
occasionally start piling up multiple obstacles between when you spot them
and when you have to react to them physically.
You should think of those 20 to 30 feet as your average focal point. If
you’re running a straight, flat trail with few obstacles, your focal length
should lengthen. On the other hand, if you’re running across a jumble of
wet rocks or a tangle of downed branches, you’ll bring your gaze in closer.
Your speed will similarly cause an adjustment in focal length; the length
increases as you run more quickly and have less time to react for a given
distance. Physical therapist and trail running coach Joe Uhan suggests,“even
when technical terrain has your focus zoomed into the terrain immedi-
ately in front of you—as little as 10 to 15 feet (3 to 5 m)—you should still
glance up to a 100-foot (30 m) horizon, so your brain has a vague idea of
what’s coming up.”
More generally, you’ll find yourself reading the ground ahead of you.
In doing so, you’ll scan ahead, catch sight of an obstacle, and track it until
your glance skips outward again, just as your gaze leaps and refocuses
while reading.
Over time, you’ll shift to looking for the positives rather than the nega-
tives. That is, your vision will gravitate toward the one or more lines that
you can run with the most efficient effort and track those lines more than
the obstacles you’re trying to avoid. You’ll be looking for where you can
put your feet rather than where you can’t.
Trail Running Techniques 13
a b
(a) If the trail isn’t technical, you can set your gaze further out on the trail.
(b) On rocky, technical terrain, focus your gaze on the obstacles you will
encounter in the next several footsteps.
You’ll also need to engage your peripheral vision. Catching a bit of motion
out of the corner of your eye can alert you to a mountain biker coming
around the bend or an animal in the trailside brush. Taking in the broader
view will also cue you in on upcoming variations in terrain as well as any
nearby streams, cliffs, or roads.
Although your peripheral vision works well, you should also actively
glance around at your surroundings for just a few moments every minute
or two. This approach will not only further inform you of the terrain,
weather, and other potential concerns, but also let you take in the natural
beauty that surrounds you, which is, after all, one of the primary benefits
of trail running. Of course, you’ll only want to take this look around when
you’re comfortable that you have a corresponding bit of easily negotiated
trail for a few seconds longer than the time you take to peek at the scenery.
Over time, as you become more comfortable with trail running and
more familiar with a particular trail or type of terrain, you’ll find yourself
looking farther down the trail as you run. You’ll also find yourself being
able to be less consciously alert, at least on familiar terrain, as the rhythm
and reaction of trail running becomes second nature. You’ll find beauty in
reaching this point both in your trail running career and on individual runs.
Believe it or not, part of being alert on the trails includes listening. While
you’re getting into the sport and becoming familiar with what you’ll encoun-
ter and how often you’ll encounter it, lose the headphones on the trails.
They’re not anathema to the sport by any means, but, depending on where
you’re running, you’ll want to know how often you might encounter other
pedestrians, mountains bikers, equestrians, pets, and wildlife that you might
be able to hear before you can see. Over time, you’ll know when wearing
headphones in both ears is appropriate, when you might want to have only
one ear bud in, and when you’re best off nixing the noise completely.
Be Engaged
Watching and listening to what’s going on around you is not enough. You
need to take that information and actively process it. We’ll get into details
on how to deal with various footing and terrain in subsequent chapters,
but in all situations you’ll want to read changes and adjust your stride and
gaze accordingly. If you’re engaged, changes in daylight, weather, and
other aspects might lead you to change your
hydration, your clothing, or even your overall
Because of the constantly plan for the run.
changing variables on trails, The flip side of this is that you don’t want
trail running is a little like the
to be overengaged. If you’re nervous or rigid,
ball sports that require you
to be energized and ready to
you’re less likely to find the fluidity that helps
move in any which way, at any you negotiate obstacles, tackle variation in ter-
moment. Stay engaged. rain, and enjoy trail running overall. In short,
be engaged, but not uptight.
Be Prepared
Aside from reading and reacting, being ready for the trails also means
being prepared. As we’ll describe in later chapters, you may have to plan
for bodily needs, weather, and the run itself. For the most part, planning
trail running is more significant than planning for a run of comparable
distance or duration on the road. A mental shift is needed. You’ll be taking
care of yourself out there, often with limited access to outside assistance.
An Effective Body
As mentioned at the outset, running is an instinctual act. At its easiest, trail
running can be as simple as running on a road, treadmill, or ball field. But
even when running slightly more challenging trails (and most are), you will
benefit from making some basic adjustments to your gait. As with running
in general, given enough time you would instinctually figure out how to
adjust your approach in various circumstances. But in this and following
chapters, we aim to help you make that process a whole lot less time con-
suming and less painful. We’ve even included a couple easy drills here to
help you practice a couple of trail running’s basic movements.
Pick ’Em Up!

One quick adjustment you can make as a new trail runner to save some
unpleasant learning experiences is to pick up your feet a bit higher than
you’d expect. The reason is obvious enough. Lifting your feet higher means
you’re less likely to catch your foot on a rock or root. The extra height
usually comes from lifting the knees, rather than kicking your lower leg
forward or flexing your ankle to raise your toes.
Now, if you catch yourself prancing like a

horse in a dressage competition, you might When trail running, lift your
feet just a little higher than you
be taking this concept a bit too far. This extra
might expect to avoid most
lift is meant to be a small adjustment to your
obstacles.
stride, not a switch to an entirely different
gait.
As with the adjustments in mental awareness, you’ll find yourself gradu-
ally transitioning back toward a lower foot swing over time. This adaptation
is natural and, from an efficiency standpoint, beneficial. Still, the most
experienced trail runners switch to a higher foot swing when low lighting,
poor visibility, or other obstructions limit their ability to see their footing.
Pick-Up Game
Head to a yard or park and find half
a dozen fallen logs or branches that
stick up 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm)
when on the ground. Obstructions
about 3 feet (1 m) long are ideal so
you’ll have some width to cross the
log or branch, but the item should
be light enough to give way easily
should you catch your foot. Drop
these logs parallel to one another
at approximately both arms’ length
(5 to 6 feet [1.5 to 2 m]) apart on a
soft, even surface (grass is perfect).
Some variation in distance between
The pick-up game helps train you to lift
the logs is helpful. your feet higher to clear trail running’s
Now, go run the length of this obstacles.
branch-strewn path, crossing the
branches. Run it a few times at an easy effort. Run it a few more times,
varying your pace and starting point, such that you have to clear the logs at
different points in your stride. If you’re catching your feet on the branches,
adjust your stride by lifting your feet a bit more.
Pick Up the Tempo

In addition to picking up your feet, you’ll improve your trail running by
picking up your cadence, at least occasionally, without necessarily picking
up your pace. With a long, loping stride, you’re more committed to your
path and less able to react to the obstacles that might be in it. With a shorter,
quicker stride, you have many more chances to push off the ground to alter
your body’s path. Joe Uhan notes that a quick stride also enhances energy
conservation: “A quick stride rate allows for instantaneous energy transfer

from the ground into the leg, then back to the ground. This quick energy
reversal creates a plyometric effect wherein the muscle stores the energy
only for an instant before releasing: like a bouncing ball.”
You don’t need to feel like a hummingbird out there, but modestly picking
up your stride rate from 160 strides per minute to 180 strides per minute
or more will make you more nimble. Likewise, a runner whose cadence
is normally 180 strides per minute will be more agile at 200 strides per
minute. This faster cadence is beneficial in a variety of situations, such as
when the trail is strewn with obstacles or when obstacles come at you more
quickly while running downhill.
According to Uhan, on most flat terrain, 180 strides per minute is ideal:
“This allows for maximal energy storage (through a long, strong, hip-
driven stride) yet is quick enough to pop off the ground. Any slower and
that energy is absorbed by the muscles; too fast and the legs don’t achieve
maximal range of motion.”
Uhan, however, advises a quicker stride rate on climbs and descents:
“Upwards of 240 steps per minute might be ideal on the steepest, most
technical terrain.”
Besides enabling you to pick your way through nature’s obstacle course,
a quicker turnover is safer and more effective when the running surface
becomes loose, uncertain, or slippery. In such circumstances, the smaller
you can make your incremental changes in direction and speed, the better
off you’ll be. That’s enough for now, because we’ll discuss dealing with poor
footing in more depth in the next chapter.
Naturally, you can resume your normal stride rate after the reason for
picking it up has passed.
Hot Feet
Grab your shoes, a friend, and a
stopwatch and step outside. You
can complete this drill without out-
side assistance if you have a count-
down timer with an alarm so that
you can focus on counting rather
than watching the timer.
Find an open, flat, obstacle-free
area where you can easily run up
to 200 yards without distraction.
Start running at a comfortable pace.
After you’re up to speed, have your
friend say, “Go” as he or she hits
start on the stopwatch. When your Understand and increase your stride rate
friend says go, continue running as with the hot-feet drill.
you were, but start counting every time either your right or left foot hits the
ground. Have your friend yell, “Stop” after 30 seconds. Multiply the number
you counted by four to get your number of strides per minute.
Many folks come in at around 160 strides per minute. If you naturally
hit 180 strides per minute, you’re in a sweet spot for trail running. If you’re
much over 200 strides per minute, that’s quicker than needed for all but the
steepest or most technical terrain.
No matter what your baseline stride rate was, try the drill again with a
somewhat faster stride rate but with what feels like the same pace. Note
what that feels like. Be ready to make a similar adjustment when a trail
becomes more treacherous.
If you have difficulty adjusting to a faster turnover, download a metronome
app on your phone and run in time to the beat.
Be Ready
Now that you have your feet moving higher and faster, you need to pay
attention to the rest of your body. If you’ve played a ball sport such as
baseball, softball, or tennis, you may remember being told to stand in the
ready position. In this position, you were up on your toes, engaging your
leg and core muscles, and putting yourself in a position to move as quickly
as possible in any direction.
Similarly, trail running requires that you be ready to react in any direc-
tion, and you’ll need to do so while you’re already moving. Therefore,
soccer, basketball, lacrosse, and field hockey are more apt analogies. In
each of these ball-based team sports, players spend much of their time in
motion without the ball. Throughout, the player’s body is in a responsive,
athletic position.
So how do you get into a ready position for trail running?
Before thinking about how you hold this or where you swing that, you
need to engage your core. You’ll want to activate your abs, lower back, and
even your butt to some degree. This action isn’t superficial, as if you are
posing for a photo on the beach. You want to firm everything up from the
inside out.
To help get a feel for this, imagine that you’re surrounded by friends who
are going to surprise you at random with pushes at shoulder height. Your
goal in this exercise would be to keep standing as upright as possible. What
happens? Your entire midsection firms up. It’s strong, stable, and able to
respond to movement in any direction, just as you want to be able to do
while trail running. If this mental exercise has you conjuring up yourself
as an immovable mountain, relax, literally. You’ll want to be fluid and
limber, not rigid, while trail running, but you will use all those muscles
that you would use to brace yourself.
Activating your core is a subtle but intentional act. First, your pelvis
should be in a neutral position. (A neutral pelvis is explained in depth in
It takes intention and practice to achieve good running form.
“Getting Technical: Powerful Pelvis”.) Next, to activate the muscles on the

front and the back of your core, draw your belly button in. Do this with
your deepest abdominal muscles, not your breath. This might take a little
practice, but if you can teach yourself to draw your belly button muscularly
back toward your spine an inch (2.5 cm) or so, you will activate your core
in a way that will benefit your running.
Although most of your torso should be nearly still as you run, you may
notice a bit of rotation in the middle of your back, just below your shoulder
blades. During nonreactive running, this location is the rotational pivot
point between the movement of your lower body and upper body, which
are always swinging in opposing directions. This motion is subtle. Allow
it to happen.
Most of the muscles you use in your upper legs during the running motion
attach to the bones of your pelvis or vertebral column. For those muscles
to do their job, their origin and insertion points—where the muscles attach
to bones—must be able to resist the powerful forces placed on them when
those muscles are in action. An example of this is the psoas major muscle,
a hip flexor. One of its main jobs in the running motion is to lift your knee.
The muscle originates in your low back and inserts on your femur, the big
bone of your upper leg. When you lift your knee, the psoas major contracts
and pulls forcefully on your lower back and femur. In this example, if one
side of your core is weakened and cannot hold your low back in its natural
position, then the psoas major on that weakened side may have to work
harder, opening up your body to injury.
Getting Technical: Powerful Pelvis
The pelvis is the skeletal structure that connects your spine and your legs. The
structure is complex, but it’s composed primarily of the sacrum and the tailbone,
which are the bottom couple of segments of the vertebral column, as well as
the two hip bones. To get a feel for the extent of your pelvis, feel for the bones
that jut from the front outside edge of your hips. These are the hip bones. Now
place one hand on the lowest part
of your back in the center, where Lumbar
vertebra
the crease between your buttocks
begins. Underneath your hand is Sacrum
your sacrum and lower down from
that is your tail bone.
This whole structure needs to
remain in a neutral position as you
run. Your pelvis can move in almost
any direction, but the pelvic motion
over which we have the most
conscious control is anterior or
posterior tilt. A posterior tilt is like Tail bone
tucking your tail as if you are a dog. (coccyx)
An anterior tilt is just the opposite,
Structure of a pelvis.
the sticking out of your buttocks. To
E6615/Hicks/F02.05/534993/jb/r1
practice this movement, put your hands on your hips and tilt your pelvis back
and forth. Runners often let the pelvis lapse into a posterior tilt when they are
fatigued (although a few runners introduce anterior tilt when tired). Too much
tilt in either direction while running can create injury.
a b
(a) Posterior pelvic tilt and (b) anterior pelvic tilt.
(continued)
19
Getting Technical: Powerful Pelvis (continued)

How do you keep your pelvis in a neutral position? It’s all in the core, baby!
When we say core, we are referencing the soft tissues of your pelvis, low back,
and abdominal cavity. The fundamental function of all those muscles is to hold
your vertebral column and pelvis in their natural alignment. All the muscles play
off each other, sometimes in tandem and sometimes in opposing motion. But
the result of the engagement of your core muscles in their natural and balanced
way is that the bones in the center part of your body are supported.
How exactly do you engage the

core? The simple act of drawing
the belly button in, as previously
described, helps you get there.
If you draw your belly button External
back toward your spine muscu- oblique
larly, not with your breath, you Transversus

will be using one of the deeper abdominis
abdominal muscles, the transver- Internal
sus abdominis. The transversus oblique
abdominis, along with a couple
Rectus
other deeper abdominal muscles, abdominis
when engaged, will hold the pelvis
and vertebrae in their natural
positions.
Engaging the transversus
The relative position of the transversus
abdominis can be an easy pro-
abdominis toE6615/Hicks/F02.07/534996/alw/r1
other abdominal muscles.
cess or a difficult process for
someone trying it for the first
time. If you’re trying this for the first time, lie flat on the ground with
your palms on your abdomen below your belly button. Lightly contract the
muscles beneath your hands. Use those muscles to draw your belly button
back toward your spine, about an inch (2.5 cm) or so for women and perhaps
two inches (5 cm) for men. You may instinctually want to use your breath
to draw in your belly button. If so, muscularly draw in your belly button
as you exhale. Getting the hang of this might take a while, or it may come
very easy. If it’s a bit of a struggle, practice until it comes naturally. This
practice, in relative isolation from the other abdominal muscles, will train
your transversus abdominis to engage with all the abdominal muscles to
help create your stable core which puts your pelvis into a neutral position,
the basis of the runner’s ready position.
In the imaginary bracing exercise discussed earlier, you may have also
noticed that many of the muscles in your legs activate as well. These weren’t
just the major propulsive muscles—the glutes, hamstrings, quadriceps, and
calves. You may have noticed the front and side of your hips engaging.
Likewise, the outside of both thighs energize. That’s great, because these
muscles are major players in any lateral movement. Although you might
not be able to articulate exactly how it happens, the entirety of your lower
legs is ready to go. Each of the muscles in that muscular quiver is ready
to fire in whichever direction your feet demand (they’re ready to go, too).
Your feet are your interface with the uneven, ever-changing ground
around you. If you’re a longtime road runner, you might be used to a
thought-free foot-on-the-ground transition that varies only with pace and
the mild inclines you encounter on pavement. That all changes on the trail.
Yes, you’ll have a neutral stride to fall back on, but you’ll need to be ready
both to absorb the constant small tilts, pebbles, trail undulations, and a
million other things thrown at your feet and to push off in any direction
to adjust your course.
In running on an undulating surface, you’ll constantly have to ask dif-
ferent parts of your feet to do different things. For example, say you land
on a small rock on your outer forefoot. The outer toes will need to relax
and spread out around those rocks, whereas the big toe may need to engage
more heavily than usual to support the body’s weight. A thousand other
scenarios will require a thousand different active reactions from your feet.
As such, your feet might feel a little worn out after a trail run. Give your
feet the time they need to adapt.
In recent years, the broader running community has been engaged in an
intense dialogue, and at times a fanatical debate, about whether runners
should first strike the ground with the forefoot, the whole foot (midfoot),
or the heel. We’ll skip that debate entirely by suggesting that whichever
foot-strike pattern you run with, trail running will, at times, necessitate
striking the ground with your forefeet first. When? Whenever you feel like
you need more agility to negotiate obstacles. You don’t want to be caught
firmly and decisively back on your heels when you’re descending hazard-
ous terrain.
Now, take a step back. When you put the length of your body—your feet
through your head—into action, think of standing upright in a straight,
unbroken line. Now, take that straight line and bend forward a few degrees
from your ankles. That stance is the general body position you’ll want to
return to as you’re trail running.
Focus on the “return to” in the previous sentence. As you negotiate
obstacles and oscillations, your legs will go this way and that, while your
arms and torso instinctively react as counterbalances. Let this happen.
Then bring yourself back into the active, ready position as soon as you can
so that you’re ready for the next adjustment.
As you run, your torso will stay relatively stable compared with your
arms and legs, which will be busily helping your body cover ground. No
matter what your arms and legs are doing—and no matter what the terrain
is requiring of your body—maintain the gentle forward tilt of your whole
body, including your torso, from your ankles. Avoid trying to achieve that
tilt by bending at the waist or rolling your shoulders forward.
Whenever your legs and torso move side to side to navigate obstacles, your
head automatically recenters itself toward your center of gravity. Likewise,
your head instinctively retains upright position relative to the horizon. Let
those two reactions work as they do. Don’t feel as if your head needs to
be mounted atop your spine with a metal rod. Like your torso, your head
should and will return to a neutral position in a line down through your
spine, pelvis, and beyond after you’ve cleared the obstacles at hand.
As for the horizontal aspect of your head, you’ll generally want your head
and chin upright. Adjust your gaze by tracking with your eyesight rather
than adjusting the angle of your head. Tilting your head forward a bit in
the diciest of sections is OK if doing so allows you a better look. If you do
this, tilt your head forward from the top of your spine rather than droop
from your shoulders or torso.
As your torso reacts to keep your center of balance over your feet, your
arms move about to maintain your balance. Most of the time, you’ll want
to keep your arms at your sides, bent 90 degrees at the elbow, swinging
back and forth in a relaxed manner. Generally, put as much effort into the
back swing as you do the forward swing. Keep those arms relaxed so that
they can aid you in balancing as needed. You’ll often see experienced trail
runners carrying their arms a little higher and a little wider as they descend
difficult terrain so that the arms can react quickly to counterbalance the
In navigating obstacles, the head stays upright and the feet seek landing
spots while the arms counterbalance.
movement of their legs and torso even more quickly. We’ll get more into
this topic in chapter 4.
Be aware that as you tire you might start to hunch your shoulders. This
posture breakdown will impede your ability to use your arms to balance.
If you catch yourself doing this, remember to keep your torso tall and your
shoulders back.
Walk the Walk

It’s OK to walk. Yes, you read that correctly. Here’s a running guide that
gives you permission to walk. If something feels too steep or rocky or
muddy or whatever to run, walk it out. Sometimes slowing yourself down
is the most efficient, not to mention most prudent, means of covering a
given stretch of ground.
Although walking is all good, so is testing your limits, whether you’re out
on one of your first trail runs or three decades into hitting the dirt. You’ll
often find that what you once thought was unrunnable has become a new
running playground. This transformation is one of the gifts of trail running.
So you’re running down the roads of your neighborhood when you
decide to turn down that path you’ve seen countless times but have never
explored. You look ahead at the trail before you. It’s not much different from
the road you were just running except that it’s dirt rather than asphalt.
As you enter the forest, you start to see tree roots stretching across the
trail. Don’t worry; you’ve already started picking up your feet a bit more
than usual and you easily clear the roots.
A few minutes later, you notice the trail is studded with a constellation
of tennis-ball-sized rocks. As you approach, you follow them in with your
gaze and easily pick your way through with a stride rate that has naturally
quickened. Your pace now quickens a bit, too, as you find yourself descend-
ing. The rocks grow in size, but decrease in frequency. With your active
body position, you find yourself playfully ricocheting side-to-side down
the trail as you deftly maneuver around the rockstacles. You land on your
forefeet gently but quickly, padding the earth almost silently.
Half an hour later, you are cruising down some buffed-out singletrack
when . . . Boom! The next thing you know, you’re on the ground, hands
stretched out in front of you superman style. You pause for a moment,
pick yourself up, brush yourself off, and carry on. No matter how aware,
engaged, and well adjusted physically you are for trail running, you will
fall. It’s OK. (You’ll learn more about how to minimize injury when falling
in chapter 10, “Trail Safety and Stewardship.”)
The trail pitches down, and you pick up the pace. Off to the right, you
catch a flicker of light. You listen carefully as you continue running. Noise
comes from that direction, and it’s getting louder. Your senses heighten.
A moment later a mountain bike whips around a turn 15 yards in front of

you. You sense an opening in the brush on your left and quickly step off
the trail, giving the rider a friendly nod as she carries on. So do you.
A few minutes later you’re back on the roads of your neighborhood.
You look to the right at the expanse of trees. Instead of seeing a tangle
from which deer can dart in front of your car, you see a vast playground
to explore. Congratulations: You’re a trail runner!
APPALACHIAN TRAIL, EASTERN UNITED STATES
Spanning 2,180 miles (4,520 km) between Maine and Georgia in the eastern
United States, the Appalachian Trail (AT) runs through its namesake moun-
tain range. If one word can collectively describe those several thousand
miles of trails, it would be diversity. From the thick deciduous forests of the
south end of the trail to the high, treeless balds over which the trail travels in
North Carolina and Virginia, from the remote, rocky terrain of New England
to places where the trail passes very close to civilization, the AT has all this
and more. Although most famous for its thru-hikers, those who travel the
entire distance of the trail in a multimonth trip, the vast majority of those who
use the AT are day trippers who tackle short sections of the trail, including
many trail runners.
If you’re looking for a race on the AT, you’ll find just one, the JFK 50-Mile
Run, which occurs in November each year in Maryland. Some of the early
miles of the race are run on the trail. The National Park Service, the federal
agency responsible for protecting the trail, generally disallows racing on the
AT—with the exception of this one race that is grandfathered in because
of its half-century-long existence—to help preserve the peaceful and wild
nature of the trail.
But that’s good news for trail running adventurers. Nearly 2,200 miles of
secluded singletrack await along with even more miles of side trails running
off the AT over its entire length. Although it’s impossible to go wrong with
any trail run that’s on or incorporates the AT, a couple of emblematic desti-
nations are where the AT traverses the rocky terrain above tree line in New
Hampshire’s White Mountains and the trail over the grassy balds of Great
Smoky Mountains National Park in Tennessee and North Carolina.
25
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High alpine meadows melt out late
in Colorado’s San Juan Mountains.
Chapter 3
Finding Footing
Now that you’ve learned the basics of trail running technique in chapter
2, you are ready to embrace change—the changing surface under your
feet, that is. One of the joys of trail running is the stimulus it provides to
both the body and the mind. One source of
this stimulus is the trail itself or, rather, the Each type of trail surface
surface that the trail is made of. Depending reacts differently under your
on when and where you run, you might run feet. As you trail run, you’ll
over compacted dirt, loose sand, sloppy mud, get to know what is required
wet rocks, deep snow, or slick ice. In fact, you of your body to negotiate
may encounter many of these conditions, various surfaces.
along with others, in a single run.
As you change from one surface to the next, you’ll want to adapt your
stride and approach accordingly. This chapter explains when and how to
do so.
27
A runner cruises hard-packed trails in Sonoma, California.
Terra Firma: Hard-Packed Dirt Trails

Trail runners will often find themselves running on relatively even, firm,
dirt trails not dissimilar to paths worn through the grass in a park or on a
school campus. If measured, the surface is softer than asphalt or cement,
but there’s no noticeable give underfoot. The trail is firmly compacted,
meaning that when you brush your hand over the trail, little to no debris
slips across the surface.
This surface is about the easiest on which a trail runner can trod. You
could easily enough just turn off your brain and run. But you’ll still want
use those trail running basics you learned in chapter 2. Be alert, be engaged,
and be in a position from which you can react quickly. The most experienced
trail runners will tell you that most of their falls aren’t on the gnarliest bits
of singletrack. Instead, they fall when they relax their concentration on the
easy stuff and the smallest of obstacles takes them down.
That said, if you have long stretches of well-packed, low-obstacle trail,
you can aim to be a bit more efficient. If you’re coming from a road running
background, you can move close to the gait you’re used to. For example,
you can lower your foot swing a bit, so long as you’re ready to pick up your
feet a bit higher when you next approach an obstacle. Likewise, you might
relax your arms and shoulders while you try to use as little unnecessary
energy as possible.
28
Squamish, British Columbia has famously plush forest trails.
Holy Grails: Soft Dirt Trails

Somewhere out there lies trail nirvana—an endless singletrack spider web,
soft and smooth. These buttery, buffed-out bonanzas are most often found
in the forest, particularly conifer forests. Their gift? To give ever so slightly
with each step while not noticeably sapping energy.
Like the hard-packed paths mentioned earlier, these tempting trails call
for basic trail running technique. But the possibility of variable underfoot
give from one footfall to the next requires a bit more overall engagement
from head to toe.
Although not meant to be the defining characteristics of this section, the
fact that these trails are most often found in conifer forests warrants two
cautions. First, if you’re running through a forest, you’ll likely encounter
roots, possibly quite a few of them. You’ll learn how to approach these and
other foot-level obstacles later in this chapter. Second, you may find pine
needles or loose soil on the surface of the trail. Keep reading to find out
how to deal with loose trail surfaces.
29
Volcanic pumice yields to each footfall on Spain’s Canary islands.
Slip Slidin’ Away: Loose Surfaces

Just like a bag of marbles emptied on a wooden floor, any loose material
that can roll atop the surface of a trail can cause your feet to slide beneath
you. Among the plethora of particles that can lubricate your landings are
dust, loose dirt, pebbles and gravel, pine needles, pine cones, and many
other items.
Although each such surface may behave slightly differently, the same
general principles apply to all of them. In fact, what you learn in this sec-
tion applies in large part to all slippery surfaces, such as mud, ice, and wet
rock. Pay attention, because this is one of the key lessons in this book.
Minimize Sudden Moves

The most important thing to remember when running on slippery surfaces
is to minimize sudden moves. The best way to do this is to be observant
and to change your direction or speed gradually. If you don’t do so, you and
your foot will tend to continue traveling in the direction you’re moving,
just as a car continues in the direction it’s been traveling when it hits an
icy patch of road at too fast a speed. But a car traveling smoothly through
a turn at 15 miles per hour (24 kph) is much more likely to retain enough
traction to avoid careening off the road than one traveling at 45 miles per
hour (72 kph) or another car traveling much slower but making an abrupt
turn. When asked how to maximize traction, 2015 Scottish Hill Running
champion Tom Owens said quite simply, “Straight line it.” That’s certainly
one way to minimize sudden moves!
30
Finding Footing 31
Travel at a Safe Speed

If you’re ever feeling out of control or otherwise unsafe on a slippery sub-
strate—be it a loose surface, mud, wet rock, ice, or something else—your
default option is to slow down. You might downshift from a run to a jog or
from an easy running pace to a walk. Yes, you should cautiously test your
skills and limits from time to time, but in general, slower is safer.
If you do continue running on a slippery surface, travel at a speed at
which you can maintain solid contact with the trail. Just as cars going too
fast or too slow on slippery roads will be unable to maintain their course
because of lost traction, there’s a near-perfect speed for trail running on
slippery surfaces. You will find that each surface is different, however, and
you will need time and testing to find your right speed on these variable
surfaces. Avoid slowing down or speeding up too rapidly, because doing so
is a recipe for a fall. Again, remember that you can walk as needed.
Brake With Caution

If you have to turn or brake quickly on a loose section of trail, try to plant
your whole foot evenly on landing and while applying pressure. If you
contact the ground solely with your toes or your heels, you’re applying
pressure over a smaller surface area than if you apply that pressure with
your whole foot.
Land Whole Footed

Landing with your whole foot will also help you add a more vertical com-
ponent to your footfall than usual (see figure 3.4). Horizontal motion is the
real culprit when you keep sliding on a slick surface. Accordingly, you want
to minimize the horizontal component of your footfall. When running on a
slippery surface, you might add a little prance to your trail running stride.
Take care to generate this action via knee lift rather than adding vertical
motion above your waist.
In such situations, you might also want to experiment with a faster
cadence, as described in chapter 2. A faster cadence will give you more steps
per length of trail and, therefore, allow you to make smaller incremental
adjustments as you turn or brake. You can also think about planting your
foot under your center of gravity. This technique will help prevent over-
striding, when your foot falls in front of your body, bringing the dangerous,
horizontal-motion component into play.
Anton Krupicka, two-time winner of the Leadville Trail 100-Mile Run
in Colorado, is no stranger to tackling uncertain footing:
“In order to maintain traction on the variable surface that a trail provides,
I find it best to run with a short, quick stride where each foot plant is land-
ing roughly under my center of gravity and on my midfoot. By doing this,
I’m never 100 percent committing all of my body weight and momentum
When landing on potentially slippery surfaces, try to hit the ground with your
whole foot.
to any one footfall, so if that surface or foot plant ends up being unstable I
can quickly shift my weight onto the next foot. Running with these less-
committing strides lets me respond instantaneously to the trail surface.”
If you do start to slide, go with it. Ride it until your other foot is able to
swing forward for your next footfall. Your instinct to correct your motion
will be to push against the motion, but that only further sends your foot
in the errant direction. Your instinct will also be to raise your arms for
balance amidst the slide. This reaction can help you stay upright until you
can get your other foot back on the ground.
Life’s a Beach: Sandy Trails

A little dust on the trail is one thing, but running on sand is something
completely different. What’s more, you might find yourself running on a
huge variety of sandy surfaces.
The most benign sandy trails will be firmly compacted. You can run
them more or less like the hard-packed trails described at the start of the
chapter. The caveat is that sections of well-compacted sandy trails are likely
to have areas with enough loose sand to warrant an approach outlined in
the preceding section for when a small amount of debris reduces traction.
Running on Loose Sand

If the sand isn’t cemented together yet it’s moderately compacted, you’ll
notice some give underfoot as soon as you hit it. This sand may slip if you
try to turn or stop quickly. If you’re likely to run on this type of loose, sandy
32
The Sahara Desert’s loose, shifting sand will challenge runners to adjust their technique.
surface for very long, test how well the ground holds together underfoot
with such actions and act accordingly. If you’re running quickly or run-
ning uphill, you might notice the toe of your shoes digging into the sand
each time you toe off. There’s nothing particularly wrong with or perilous
about this. In fact, you should just go for it if you’re charging up a short,
steep, sandy hill.
But if you’ll be running on this soft sand for a long time, especially if
you’re new to this type of surface, you’ll want to adjust your footfall. That
sand giving way under the front of your foot wastes energy and is an invita-
tion for sore calves, Achilles tendons, and more. As with slippery surfaces,
you’ll again aim to have a flatter footfall than usual. You do this not so
much for traction as for flotation. You want to maximize the surface area
of your shoe’s outsole and thus minimize sinking, just as you would use
snowshoes to float on snow. Focusing on planting your feet under your
center of gravity can help flatten your footfall. One nice thing about the
sandy surface is that you have instant visual feedback on whether your
adjustment is working based on whether that toe-off divot has shrunk or
not. Be aware that you will be slower and will tire more quickly when
running on a surface like this. That’s normal.
Now, imagine that you’re running on a sand dune, or at least trying to.
Depending on where you run, you might encounter similar stretches. Heck,
you could even seek out a run across the dunes the next time you’re at the
beach or you travel to a dune-filled desert. Away from the beach proper,
this sand becomes windblown, and running through it is often difficult
because it readily gives way underfoot. To run efficiently on flat stretches
33
of extremely soft sand, you’ll again want to adapt to a more up-and-down,

whole-foot landing. If you look back and see much of a toe divot, you’re
wasting energy. When ascending, you’ll want to focus even more on having
your foot hit the ground parallel to the surface of the sand. If the sand has
any sort of crust or cohesion, you might be able to scoot up the climb this
way. That said, if you’ve got a short climb on sand, sometimes it’s best just
to put your head down (figuratively), dig your toes in, and power up the
hill. On the other hand, running down a trail or bank of unconsolidated
sand is a simple joy. It’s one of those times that you can let your guard down
and just play. Using an aggressive heel strike is fine (good luck doing much
else), because the sand will give enough to absorb the shock.
Running on Wet Sand

Wet sand can act like anything from the most compacted to the loosest of
sands. You’ll find out what sort of sand you’re dealing with after stepping
on it. At one extreme, think of the breakwater along many ocean beaches.
Along the edge of the water, the surface is firm to slightly yielding, and
you can run on it as if you were in a grassy yard. At the other end, firm-
looking damp sand might turn out to be an aqueous sludge that easily
parts below your feet, quicksand style. If the latter happens and running
becomes impossible, just laugh as you walk through it.
Sticks and Stones: Obstacle-Strewn Trails

Although this chapter has so far discussed the primary trail surface, we
need to change directions for a minute, both literally and figuratively, and
discuss how to tackle trails strewn with obstacles such as rocks and roots,
secondary objects you’ll need to get safely around. While trail running,
you should always be aware of and prepared for obstacles on the trail, but
on some trail sections, obstacles will be frequent and significant factors.
The more obstacle filled the trail is, the more important it is to be aware,
engaged, and in the active body position outlined in chapter 2. You want
to be able to go both over low objects and around taller objects.
Low-Lying Obstacles
On trails with lots of low obstacles like roots and small stones, raise your
feet a bit higher than you do when running on obstacle-free trails. At the
same time, be ready to step even higher as needed. Often, the best approach
is to try to clear an obstacle in the middle of your stride, when your lead
foot is naturally at its highest. To do this, you’ll likely have to adjust the
length of your preceding couple of strides so that only a small shortening
or lengthening of your stride is necessary on the crucial step.
Sometimes, the best way to clear a low trail obstacle is to step on it. You
may be able to add efficiency by carrying on in a straight line without
Finding Footing 35
altering your stride length or speed by turning an object like a stone into
a stepping-stone. For obstacles likely to provide good traction on a stable
surface, you can often land with most of your weight on the object. You
should usually land with your forefoot on the object so that you can react
more quickly if it moves or doesn’t provide sufficient traction. The same
applies if you’re landing on a small object. If the object might be either slip-
pery or unstable, touch down on the object quickly and softly. Treat this
step as a way to keep the rhythm of your stride intact without relying on
the obstacle for significant propulsion or weight bearing. However adequate
an obstacle might be for landing on, it’s still best to exercise some caution
by not aggressively pushing off it.
Weaving Between Obstacles

Higher obstacles or the desire for a more obstacle-free path might call
for you to weave among the obstacles. If this is the case, you should be
scanning the trail ahead, looking
for the best route more than one
obstacle in advance. If the trail
surface isn’t slippery, you can
weave about at will so long as you
can find a spot to plant your feet
firmly. This running technique
can be one of the great joys of
trail running after you get the
hang of it. If you’re looking to be
most efficient, try to minimize
sudden lateral movements and
generally maintain a straighter
course. Regardless of whether
you take the playful or practical
option, you’ll want to be up on
your toes with the outsides of
your legs feeling energized so that
you’re ready for the next side-to-
side movement.
If you’re aiming for efficiency,
keep your torso laterally upright
and moving forward down the
trail in as straight a line as pos-
sible. Your feet and legs can be
dancing off to your right and left
while your center of gravity con-
tinues moving forward without Don’t forget you can use the lateral plane to
pause or deviation. move around obstacles.
Heads Up!
Finally, keep your eyes peeled for high obstacles like tree branches and
rock overhangs that you’ll need to duck under or around to pass. Because
these sorts of obstacles are uncommon, we trail runners sometimes neglect
to watch for them. Almost every longtime trail runner has a story about
a painful brush with some sort of high obstacle. Although your attention
might be focused on obstacles near your feet, use your peripheral vision
and regularly glance up to scan the trail ahead for higher issues if you are
in the forest or on closed-in terrain with rock exposure. When pushing
through areas of tall, thick brush, you can either alternately use your hands
to push away the brush from side to side or elevate one forearm parallel to
the ground at eye level to act as a blocker to protect your face.
Getting Dirty: Muddy Trails

More than any mountain or forest, the image of a mud splash is probably
most evocative of trail running. In some places, muddy trails are inevitable
almost daily whereas they’re
a rare occurrence elsewhere.
Still, running on mud is a basic
trail running skill that you
should have in your arsenal.
Heavily lugged shoes can
aid greatly while running in
the mud, but they have their
drawbacks, as well. They’ll be
discussed separately when we
tackle gear in chapter 5.
Before jumping into a discus-
sion of appropriate techniques
for running on mud, note that
important ethical consider-
ations are involved in when,
where, and how you run if the
trails are muddy. We encourage
you to read “Dirty Politics: The
Ethics of Muddy Trails” so that
you’re aware of the effects you
Learn to move efficiently through mud to have on muddy trails and ways
prevent slips, falls, and frustration. to minimize them.
Finding Footing 37
After a good, soaking rain, your trails might be covered in garden-variety

mud. Anywhere from a fraction of an inch to an inch (up to 2.5 cm) of
gloppy mud could cover the trail, and the ground as a whole will have more
give than normal. Just as when you encounter loose debris on top of the
trail, you’ll want to moderate your sudden adjustments when running on
mud, whether you are moving laterally, braking, or accelerating.
Less mud can mean less traction. Such can be the case when you encoun-
ter a thin coating of mud on hard-packed dirt. That thin layer of mud is
like grease on tile floor; it doesn’t take much to reduce traction to nothing.
What’s more, even the luggiest rubber-soled shoes won’t bite into the ground
because of the hard pack directly under the thin mud layer. You need to
exercise a great deal of caution when traversing such sections. Don’t act
quickly when changing direction or stopping. Pick up your cadence so that
you can make additional and, therefore, smaller adjustments as needed. You
can either stay up on your forefeet in a ready position or land whole footed.
With either style, but especially with the latter, try to contact the ground
with light feet—just tapping and going. Add more of a vertical component
to your footfall and more lift than normal. In this scenario, you definitely
want to avoid a heel-striking stride.
More mud means more problems. Sometimes you’ll encounter progress-
stopping, shoe-sucking mud. It can act like shifting sand, except that it grabs
onto your feet and holds tight. The best advice for this type of mud? Avoid it.
(Refer to “Dirty Politics” for information on when you should or shouldn’t
run through a muddy stretch of trail.) If you can’t avoid it, concentrate on
landing with your whole foot simultaneously flat against the ground. As
with running on sand, you do this primarily to increase flotation rather
than to improve traction. Tread softly and quickly to minimize how far
you sink in. If you do find yourself getting stuck, drive your legs forward
and exaggerate your arm swing for a little more oomph. If your feet are
getting stuck in deep, shoe-sucking mud, you can try pointing the toe of
your stuck foot while driving ahead with your other foot.
If you’re wearing lugged shoes, you might build up some mud in the tread.
Even if the mud makes your shoes a bit heavier, taking the time to stop
and clean off the mud is rarely worth it. That said, if the mud has clogged
up your shoes’ lugs to the point that you’ve got comically bad traction (and
an extra half pound per foot in mud weight), it might be time to clean the
bulk of the mud out.
If you find yourself in something more closely resembling a bog than
a trail, perhaps it’s time to stop and walk. We’ll tackle water crossings in
the next chapter.
Dirty Politics: The Ethics of Muddy Trails
Oh, the muddy waters of running on muddy trails. Yes, countless advertisements,
articles, and inspiring videos prominently feature imagery of people splashing
down muddy trails. But that kind of running is not always the right thing to do.
If heavy rains, snowmelt, or a major thaw means that a significant portion
of your planned run will be on muddy trails, simply choose another route. You
will damage the trail if you run on it by unnaturally displacing or removing the
trail substrate. This damage self-reinforces by collecting and holding water. The
sloppier the trail is and the more people who pass over a muddy stretch of trail,
the more damage occurs. Good trail ethics begin with each person making the
right call every time.
But that’s not to say you can never trail run when it rains. Hardly. Many trail
systems drain incredibly well. Other trail systems are packed hard enough that
clear water pools on top and the ground remains firm under foot. Dirt roads
and doubletrack (parallel trails that are, in fact, tire tracks) are also fair game. If
any of these situations apply, run on.
At times when you come upon muddy singletrack, it’s appropriate to carry
on. For example, you may encounter a few short, muddy sections on a trail
that is 99 percent mud free, or the trail may have brief muddy stretches where
it transitions to snow and back to dry trail. In both examples, a vast majority of
the trail is mud free. Trail races are almost always held rain or shine, whether the
trails are bone dry or muddy slop fests. In these cases, the organizer decides
whether holding the race is the right call. For a multitude of reasons, we should
all hope that the race organizer mitigates any negative effects the race may
have on the trails on which it’s run.
Likewise, at times you may honestly think that a trail will be runnable, but
it turns out to be muddier than expected, and you’re not reasonably able to
backtrack to avoid causing damage. This happens. It’s OK. If anything, ponder
the conditions and signs leading to the mud so that you can better avoid dam-
aging a trail in the future.
If you do encounter mud, mitigate the damage you cause. If the existing trail
is wide and you can avoid the mud while staying entirely on the trail, go for it.
But if the mud spans the entire trail, go straight through the middle of mud.
Do not go off the trail to avoid the mud, because doing so will widen the trail
without resolving the underlying problem. The same holds true in avoiding
standing water on a hard-packed trail. Stay on the trail!
Increasingly, trailheads signs, community websites, and trail-user forums
issue guidance on trail use in muddy conditions. When available, please refer
to these resources and adhere to their advice.
On the other hand, in some waterlogged communities slogging through mud
is accepted practice. Indeed, in such places the trails might never be suitable
for running if held to general standards. Think of the United Kingdom or the
wetter areas of the Pacific Northwest. When in doubt, ask a local.
38
Steep terrain can often mean rocky trails.
Rockin’ It: Rocky Trails

Rocks are trail running’s box of chocolates; you never know what you’re
going to get. OK, that’s only true in that the huge variety of rocks out there
all offer their own flavor of traction. Some rocks are extremely grippy under
all conditions. Others offer adequate traction when dry but might as well
be banana peels in a comic book when wet. And some rocks never offer
enough traction to be trusted.
The best advice for running on rocky surfaces—be it the endless slickrock
outside Moab, Utah, a talus pathway over an alpine pass, or a trail in the
Appalachian Mountains that’s got more rock than dirt for tread—is never
to trust the rocks until you’ve tried them under similar conditions. The
marble floor of a grand public building is a worry-free luxury on a sunny
day. If you visit on a rainy day, however, the lobby is likely to be filled
with freshly unfurled carpets and signs cautioning you to watch your step,
because the marble is slippery when wet.
When running on rock or a trail that requires you to step on stones, you
can minimize the risk of slipping by looking for places where the exposed
rock is generally flat and aiming your footfalls there, if possible. That said,
a little bit of surface variation can help with traction. If you have doubts
about the grippiness of a rock, avoid landing on rock surfaces slanting in
the direction that you’re traveling. Whether you strike with your forefoot
or your whole foot is a matter of personal taste, but you should make quick,
light steps with an increased cadence. Touch down and lift off right away.
39
Don’t let this talk of slipping keep you from running on rocky terrain.
Rocky travel offers playful, adventurous, and challenging opportunities.
Sometimes you’ll find that the rock over which you’re traveling offers
incredible grip, better than any other trail surface, even if the rocks are
angled steeply in different directions. Using your increased traction to run
up and down very steep pitches is amazing fun. In other words, rock play
rocks!
Hidden Obstacles
What can you do when grass, brush, dry leaves, or another obscurer pre-
vents you from seeing the trail surface? Keep on running! But do so with
caution, and possibly a bit slower. Remember the kinds of obstacles you’ve
encountered in the preceding minutes and how frequently you encountered
them. In addition, try to read the clues from the surrounding terrain. If a
big tree of a species that tends to have large, exposed roots is growing right
next to the trail, adjust your stride to account for these obstacles. Likewise,
if you’re running below a cliff face that ends in a talus slope, prepare to
encounter rocks.
If obstacles have been infrequent or low to the ground, you can slow your
pace while lowering your stride to a “worm-burner” motion that feels more
horizontal than vertical. This technique allows you to kick up against any
low obstacles rather than land unpredictably atop an uneven or unstable
Fallen leaves can mean tricky running.

Finding Footing 41
one, possibly leading to a sprained ankle or fall. One way to visualize this
stride is to think of a thin covering of dry leaves on the ground and try to
swish through those leaves continuously with your feet. An alternative to
the worm-burner method is to increase your stride rate, land delicately,
and be ready to react immediately to what happens underfoot. You should
experiment and find which method works best for you.
If you encounter a section that presents frequent, high obstacles, your
best bet is to walk until you have a better view of your footing.
Water and mud can also obscure underlying footing. If you encounter
shallow puddles or mud patches, you should adhere to the general advice
given earlier about running on concealed trails (as well as the advice on
mud running). If you’ve come to a full-scale water crossing, you can find
advice on how to tackle that in chapter 4.
Snow can also hide what you trod upon. We talk more about that in the
following section.
Winter Wonderland: Wintry Trails

Winter trail running can be magical. It’s quieter. Fewer people are on the
trails. The transformed landscape provides new challenges. Let’s see how
you should tackle some of those challenges.
While it can be slower going, snow can enhance the silence and
stillness of the trails.
For starters, if your trails aren’t snow covered and it’s below freezing,
you’re likely to encounter more hard-packed trail than usual. If they’re
damp when temperatures drop, normally soft trails and even sandy trails
can firm up. This harder surface can make them faster to run than usual,
although at the cost of a bit more pounding. Occasionally, a soft trail with
good grip can become a bit more slippery if it freezes up with a little loose
debris on top.
Freeze and thaw cycles can sometimes leave the surface of a trail hon-
eycombed. This frozen lattice might be an inch or two thick at times. Such
stretches are rarely very long. The most notable attribute of this footing is
that it will intermittently collapse underfoot. You’re not in any danger, but
you should be prepared to drop perhaps an inch more than expected, so
keep your legs and core engaged and be ready to balance things out with
your arms.
Let It Snow!
Oh, snow! The Inuits have myriad words for it, and, as a trail runner, you’ll
find that there are, in fact, countless kinds of snow and that each reacts
differently under your feet. By its very nature, snow also obscures what lies
below, thus adding additional complexity. Nevertheless, if you can learn
just a few techniques, you can unlock a winter wonderland.
The biggest issues with shallow snow, from a trace to half a foot (15 cm),
are the possibilities of slipping and of encountering obscured obstacles.
When snow makes the trail very slippery, you should focus, of course, on
not slipping. Use a more vertical footfall and land more on your whole foot.
Have your core engaged and your arms ready to react. On the other hand,
if the snow only minimally hampers traction, go into obstacle-protection
mode. In snow up to a couple inches, you should be able to pick up clues
about the location of snow-covered obstacles
and pick your way around them. As the snow
Running trails in the winter
gets thick enough to obscure small obstacles, try
provides a completely new
set of footing challenges.
landing with a flat footfall to provide some extra
But practice makes perfect, flotation so that you sink slightly less deeply
and you’ll soon get the into the snow. This method will help keep you
hang of what snow feels like above the small deviations and obstacles that
underfoot. you can no longer see. Regardless, continue
landing quickly and carefully while remaining
mentally engaged so that you can react quickly
should you land in a less-than-ideal spot. You should still be able to see
larger rocks and roots so that you can maneuver appropriately.
As the snow deepens, pay attention to how much the snow packs down.
Dense snow, which may seem heavy or wet, better retains the shape of
underlying objects and retains more of its original volume when compressed.
This type of snow makes for easier travel because you’re better able to see
Finding Footing 43
larger obstacles, and the snow quickly compacts to enough depth that you
can simply run over smaller obstacles. As a bonus, heavier snow can com-
pact on itself in a way that provides excellent traction.
Now, a foot (30 cm) of champagne powder? What is a gift to a skier can
challenge the most adept trail runner. The light-as-air snow drifts with the
wind and can easily obscure objects on the trail. It also compacts to next
to nothing, such that a foot of snow can be less than an inch of snow after
you’ve planted your foot on it. That means you can’t see obstacles, and the
snow doesn’t do much to smooth out the underlying trail. This is a time to
be cautious. If you know the trail and it’s free of larger obstacles, you can
run with a more-or-less normal stride. When larger obstacles are more likely,
Staying on Top: How to Avoid Postholing
At times, especially as winter nears spring and the snow goes through freeze
and thaw cycles, a crust will develop on the snow. If you’re fortunate, that
crust will be thick enough that you can run over the snow as if it were solid
ground—almost. You might be running along for 10 yards (m) or 10 miles (16
km) when, bam, your foot crashes through the crust and your leg sinks ankle,
shin, knee, or even waist deep in the snow. Welcome to the “posthole,” a funny
and sometimes frustrating experience that most adventurous trail runners have
at one time or another. If your foot hasn’t sunk too deeply and the crust isn’t
too thick, you may be able to remove the sunken foot and accelerate it quickly
enough to catch yourself with nothing more than an awkward stride or two. If
you sink deeply or the crust is hard, you’re likely to be stopped in your tracks
with your torso lurching forward. The good news is that you’re on snow, which
should minimize the damage. If you’ve gone in really deep, have a good laugh
and maybe snap a photo before extricating yourself.
The chances of postholing can be minimized by landing with your whole foot
at once as well as by wearing shoes with larger outsole surface area to increase
flotation marginally. It sounds silly, but every little bit helps. To be prepared for
a posthole, keep your arms ready to react and consciously remind yourself to
be ready to transfer weight quickly away from a foot that’s postholing, as well
as to accelerate that foot forward to help keep you moving. If the snow is deep
enough that you might be postholing, wear high socks or long pants because
the rough edges of crusty snow can make postholing painful for exposed skin.
One of the gifts of wintertime can be the smoothing out of uneven trails. In
places where snow is copious and enough folks are willing to pack it down, the
toughest of trails can become significantly easier and possibly faster in winter-
time because snow temporarily eliminates obstacles that would normally need
to be negotiated. Still, when running on what looks like densely packed snow,
you should stay aware of the possibility of postholing. Staying to the center of
the trail, where the snow is likely to be packed the densest, should also help
lessen the risk of postholing.
slow your pace and shuffle your feet along the ground. Yes, you might kick
the occasional rock, but that’s far better than unpredictably landing on one.
The diehard trail runners and winter lovers out there might be tempted
to hit the trail in a foot and a half to three feet (45 to 90 cm) of snow. In
reality, a run in such conditions quickly turns into a hike. Whether you’re
boldly taking on such challenges or merely having a chance encounter with
a snowdrift, adapt to what works best in the moment. In wet, heavy snow,
you might need to high-step through the snow with foot lifts and footfalls
that have a greatly exaggerated vertical component. You might find that you
need to swing your leg out to the side over the snow, possibly even leaning
your torso in the other direction to get enough lift to clear the snow. On
the other hand, deep tracts of light, dry snow may warrant driving your
legs straight forward with maybe a little extra lifting of your feet. In either
case, you should drive your arms as needed to aid in propulsion.
Snowshoes can open up trail running terrain in the winter. You can even
trail run in them, as long as the trail is well packed or you’re on groomed
snow such as a Nordic ski trail. (Check whether this is permitted on the
trail you want to use first.) If you’ll be on virgin powder or crusty snow,
snowshoes can get you out there, but there’s unlikely to be much running
involved. The finer points of snowshoeing are beyond the scope of this book.
Ice Dancing
Wintry conditions also conjure images of slipping and falling. Besides
dealing with the hazard provided by snow, you’ll have to watch out for ice
and mud. Ice can be found where snow has glazed over, where frozen rain
has fallen, and where water has pooled and frozen. The inherent danger
of running on ice should be obvious—it’s slippery as anything. You can
easily end up on your butt by irreverently running on ice. However, with
good technique, some confidence, and some practice, you can run reason-
ably safely on ice.
As with any slippery situation, you want to minimize making sudden
moves. This desire is greatly amplified on ice to the point that you want to
eliminate rapid reactions. Aim for vertical footfalls, because any horizon-
tal component to your footfall is likely to continue sliding outward. You’ll
want to make quick, light contact with the ground under your body with
a rapid rebound. Long, committed foot plants are an invitation to slip and
fall. You can also quicken your cadence, which will not only help to shorten
your stride but also put you in a rhythm that allows you to take the next
step even more quickly should your foot start to slide. Keep your body in
rapid-reaction mode so that you can quickly take another step, throw your
arms out for balance, or prepare for an imminent fall. Obviously, slowing
down can reduce your chances of slipping.
If you’re uncomfortable with running on ice or a particular stretch of
it, don’t! It’s OK to walk, and traversing ice can be an entirely appropriate
Finding Footing 45
time to do so, especially when you have to ascend or descend on ice. Err
on the side of caution here.
Although most ice on the trail will be readily apparent, you may occasion-
ally encounter “brown ice,” the trail equivalent to unseen “black ice” that
you can come across on asphalt roads. Your best bets for spotting brown
ice are to look for a glare or unexpected color change on the trail’s surface.
Run on it as you would on other ice.
A thin layer of mud on a frozen base can be as slippery and as treach-
erous as ice. This condition occurs during thaws when the surface layer
is melting while the underlying ground remains frozen. Run on it as you
would run on a layer of mud on hard-packed trails as described previously
in “Getting Dirty: Muddy Trails.”
Although the previous sections may have prepared you for individual
wintry conditions, you’re likely to have runs in which you encounter two
or more flavors of frigid trail. Observe how they transition and interact so
that you can prepare yourself as you move from one to the next. You can
try a number of methods for improving traction in wintry conditions, from
putting screws in the bottom of your shoes to wearing slip-on, over-shoe
traction devices, which we’ll discuss in chapter 5, “Trail Tools.”
ZEGAMA-AIZKORRI MARATHON,
BASQUE COUNTRY, SPAIN
Picture this: a trail coursing through beech forest and grassy meadows, up and over
several peaks and ridges made of white rock exposed in uber-technical fashion, and
wildflowers thickly lining the singletrack, along with a start and finish perched in the
center of an idyllic mountain village. Sounds like a fair number of trail races, right?
Then, add in bad weather like heavy rain, high winds, and dense fog, which always
seem to be the prevailing race-day conditions at this particular event. Yep, many races
have bad weather, too.
Now, imagine thousands of fans lining the entire course, start to finish, even the
highest, most exposed sections and even if the weather is terrible. And imagine those
fans partying all afternoon and night after the race, often until the sun rises the next
day. Trail racing is a niche sport, and the raging fan culture seen in sports like American
and European football is almost entirely undeveloped in this one. Except in Spain’s
Basque Country each May at the Zegama-Aizkorri Marathon.
Indeed, racing the Zegama Marathon is, in part, about experiencing some of the
highest mountains in northern Spain in a 26-mile (42 km) loop that boasts 9,000 feet
(2,700 m) of climbing. More than anything, though, racing Zegama is about immersing
yourself in this fan culture. It’s about absolutely sprinting off the start line—as if you are
in a 1-mile (1,500 m) race—because the town is vibrating with cheering fans. It’s about
pushing harder over each mountain summit because hundreds of people are there to
urge you on. It’s about taking that last descent back into town with your arms stretched
wide to high-five the tunnel of fans through which you run. It’s about clanging glasses
of locally made cider in the restaurants and bars of town with everyone after the race,
downing your serving of the sweet alcoholic treat, and filling your glass again and again.
Trail running is growing quickly in popularity, and some day, maybe a decade or
two off, it will be so popular that many races will have sidelines lined with adulating
fans. Consider a pilgrimage to Zegama sooner than later to see and join in the future
of trail running.
46
Cruising sweet Swedish singletrack.
Chapter 4
Techniques to Match Terrain

Finding footing is only part of the challenge (and fun) of trail running.
When you zoom out, the world is literally your playground. All those zigs,
zags, ups, and downs on the trails are your roller coaster, skate park, and
slalom course all rolled into one. Let the terrain turn you into a kid again!
Of course, knowing what you’re doing out there can make things even
more fun. In the following chapter, you’ll learn techniques to help you
tackle a wide variety of terrain.
47
Taking a Turn for the Best

Wherever you hit the trail, you’ll come across twists and turns, and some-
times those zigzags will be the defining feature of the trail.
Tangents Versus Wide Cornering

If you’re running along at a moderate pace on a flat trail that weaves this
way and that, choose the best line as dictated by the footing. If the trail is
wide or you’re on a dirt road, you can gradually make your way over to the
inside of the turn. That is, you work on taking the tangent on wide trails
while moderating that tangential line based on footing. But, if you’re on
relatively narrow singletrack and hit a sharp turn (think of a turn of 90
degrees or more within a few strides), consider heading toward the outside
of the turn so that you can maintain better momentum.
When you’re running at a faster pace, you’ll need to exercise a bit more
caution when taking a sharp turn. In particular, you need to take care that
you have enough traction to take the turn without having your feet slide
out from under you. Obviously, you can slip on mud or ice, but you should
also be on the lookout for loose debris atop hard-packed trail. Moderating
your speed before the turn is the surest way to stay safe in a potentially
slide-inducing turn. While turning on loose footing, try to plant your
feet on the most stable spots and generally avoid making sudden correc-
tions. But if it looks like you have great footing for a step or two during a
treacherous turn, take advantage of those islands of security to help carve
a b
Cutting the tangent (a) can be shorter and faster, but take the natural line (b)
E6615/Hicks/F04.01/535021/jb/r1
if that feels more comfortable.
Techniques to Match Terrain 49
the corner. Regardless, you should choose a general line and commit to it
throughout the turn.
Anna Frost, one of the world’s best trail runners at all distances, suggests
that personal preference should be your guide. “It’s up to the individual as
to what’s going to be your tactic, what are you better at or more comfort-
able with. Some people might want to cut straight around the corner, and
some people might want to bank around the outside of the corner. In the
end, the time difference won’t be big.”
Quick Cornering
If you’re rolling quickly though a turn with good footing, you might catch
yourself leaning into the turn like a cyclist whipping around a bend. Go
with it. But you don’t want to lean excessively. Instead, trust your body’s
natural reaction, which should have you leaning from your ankles, like a
cyclist who leans with both her bike and her body rather than just her body,
so that you commit all your mass to the lean. This technique becomes great
fun when you encounter a banked turn that allows you carry your speed
around the turn while slanting your body into the turn and not having
to lean actively. Although you’ll encounter banked turns here and there,
they’re a prominent feature in trail systems developed with mountain
biking in mind.
Blind Turns
You may encounter an occasional blind turn in which you can’t see the
trail on the other side of the turn. This sort of turn is especially common
in forested areas. Changing topography and rock outcroppings can also
hide the trail ahead. If you’re moving fast or have recently encountered
challenging conditions, consider moderating your pace when heading into
the turn. Even if you don’t slow down preemptively, be ready to slow or
otherwise react as needed should you encounter a challenge in or after
the bend.
When approaching a blind turn, you should also reengage your senses.
Listen for any noises coming from the direction you’re headed and see
whether you can pick up any movement to give you a heads-up. Although
four-legged animals are an occasional concern, you should be especially
cautious about not running into another person. If you’re in an area fre-
quented by many outdoorsy folks, decide whether the conditions (traffic
levels and degree of the turn’s blindness) warrant slowing down. Regardless,
you’ll want to be able to stop in a hurry, so be ready put on the brakes. In
heavily congested areas, making a bit of noise can give others a heads-up
that you’re coming. On singletrack, you’ll also want to stay to the center
or right side of the trail. In areas with lots of mountain biking, be prepared
to step off the trail—just in case.
Going Up!
Want to get your heart pumping? Then head out and run uphill on trails.
You will often find steeper climbs on trails than you would on pavement,
and negotiating even small obstacles can add an energy-sapping challenge
to your run.
Short Uphills
When you encounter a short, steep hill, you’ll have to decide whether you
want to run up it. If it’s particularly steep, slick, or a makeshift obstacle
course, good sense might dictate making a quick hike of it. But your mental
approach will often dictate whether you walk or run up such a climb. Stevie
Kremer, the 2014 Sierre-Zinal champion, embraces a mix of running and
hiking, or “riking” as she calls it. So when does Stevie rike? Her answer:
“When my shuffle of a run is very slow and my breathing is very heavy
and I see there is still quite a ways to go on a hill or when I notice people
riking around me are passing me and breathing less heavily than me.”
Should you decide to walk up a steep slope, try hiking with small, fre-
quent steps as opposed to taking monstrous strides outside your normal
range of motion. On such climbs, trail runners have a tendency to bend
too far over at the waist and hunch their torsos. This posture is counter-
productive because it restricts airflow to your lungs. Bending forward when
climbing is natural, but try to do so by leaning from your ankles. If you do
bend farther than that, do so only slightly from the hips while keeping your
torso straight, thereby maintaining your full lung capacity. On the steepest
grades, some trail runners put their hands on their thighs and push down
in sync with their footfalls. Again observing the immediately preceding
words of wisdom, bend minimally from your hips, don’t hunch over your
torso, and be conscious of taking deep breaths to inflate your lungs fully.
Says champion trail runner Kilian Jornet of his powerhiking, “I often go
really low and push a lot with the hands on the legs to use all the upper
body to climb. My back is low, but it’s straight and I can look in front.”
Jornet advises consciously switching climbing technique. “The more you
use shorter steps with a higher cadence, the more you are working with
your cardiovascular system. If you go with longer steps, you’re working
with the strength of the muscles. So if you start to feel your muscles tire,
you can reduce the length of the step and increase the frequency. Like
this, you will rest the muscles a bit while keeping a fast speed. If you are
struggling cardiovascularly, you can take longer steps and work more on
the muscular side.”
Often times, running powerfully up a quick hill is more fun. Yes, the effort
may leave you winded at the top, but the earned inner pride of leading a stiff
charge is an ample reward. To get started, speed up before you hit the climb
to build momentum. After you start ascending, drive your legs and arms
forward and upward with more power than normal. Work hard to carry the
Use short but powerful steps, large arm swings, and an engaged core to
run up short-but-steep climbs with good footing.
momentum you built heading into the hill. When running up a short hill,
Kremer suggests, “take short, small steps, almost shuffles, while pumping
the arms a lot. This is where a strong core and arms are important.”
Bad footing can slow your steep ascent. If slick footing is the cause, you
might shoot for building more momentum ahead of the climb and working
even harder than usual to maintain it. Getting restarted will be tough. In
addition, as discussed in chapter 3, try landing with your whole foot against
the trail to maximize contact area. If that fails and you’re wearing well-
lugged shoes, you can try actively kicking your forefoot into the ground
on each step in an attempt to find greater purchase. Also, look for little
ledges with surer footing. These might come in the form of a root, rock,
or a drier, flatter bit of trail. Multiple-time Skyrunning world champion
(think “pro at running difficult terrain”) Emelie Forsberg suggests, “when
climbing on loose terrain find something that looks stuck in the ground and
take normal steps but maybe with a bit more strength to keep the material
planted in the ground.”
If obstacles are impeding your uphill progress, choose the line that
reduces the need to take oversized steps. Land with your feet underneath
your body to minimize the dangerous horizontal motion that can cause you
to slip. Western States 100-Mile Run podium finisher Dylan Bowman has
this advice: “When running uphill on rocky sections of trail, it’s especially
important not to get frustrated and to be as efficient as possible. Oftentimes,
these trails steal our momentum or force us out of our rhythm. It’s easy to
let this challenge affect our attitude, so the first step is to find the fun in the
situation and embrace the circumstances underfoot. Though it may feel like
a two-steps-forward, one-step-back scenario, chances are you’re moving
better than you think. If the rocks are small and spaced out enough, I do
my best to find patches of dirt or rocks solidly fixed in the trail to plant my
foot. It may not work for more than a couple steps, but it keeps my mind
engaged and my attitude positive. If the rocky footing is particularly loose,
don’t be afraid to hike. It will be far more efficient and cost far less energy
by the top of the hill.”
Longer Uphills
Long climbs, be they a few
minutes or a few hours,
require a different approach.
In general, shoot to main-
tain an even effort through-
out and on par with your
sustained effort on flat ter-
rain. You want to run at the
same effort at the top as you
do at the bottom, as well as
minimize the frequency
and duration of spikes in
effort along the way. Push-
ing too hard on climbs risks This runner enjoys the sweet reward of topping out
making the remainder of on a long climb at sunrise.
your run a less enjoyable
slog. By nature, your pace
will be slower when climbing than when running the flats. This disparity is a
completely normal part of trail running.
On shallower grades that are generally runnable, keep your effort such
that you can keep running them. Staying efficient can help with this.
Whereas a short, steep climb requires you to pump your arms and relax
your shoulders and arms on longer climbs. Likewise, you don’t need to
drive your legs forward as you do on those quick bumps up. Instead, focus
on maintaining the same cadence you run with on the flats while keeping
your stride to a length that yields a sustainable effort. Your stride length
on a sustained, runnable climb could be up
to one-third shorter than the stride length
If you’re running up a hill at
an effort that is becoming too you use when running at the same effort
difficult to maintain, switch on the flats. The slower pace of a climb and
to a strong powerhike before the upward pitch of the hill mean that your
your legs or your lungs are gaze can be a bit closer to your feet than it
totally tapped out. is on even ground. On the other hand, the
slower pace also means that when you per-
ceive some smooth trail ahead, you’ve got a bit more time to take in your
surroundings.
You’ll have even more time to take in the sights if a longer climb requires
walking. If you’re out for a casual run, you would walk on any hill with a
combined grade and length that would leave you speechless if you were to
run it. If you experiment, you’ll also find that you’ll have particular grades
at which you walk faster than you run given the same effort. For hills that
require stretches of walking that last minutes at a time, focus on keeping
your torso lengthened and avoid bending over too much from the hips so
that you keep your lungs open.
Over time and with practice, you’ll build a sense of which combinations
of grade and duration call for you to walk and which don’t. Many times, a
climb of even just a few minutes calls for a mixture of walking and run-
ning. In such cases, work on smoothly transitioning between the two,
carrying some of your momentum from running into walking and easing
back into running. As you perfect these transitions, you may switch from
one form of locomotion to the other for stretches as short as five or six
strides. Brandy Erholtz, a U.S. Mountain Running champion and USATF
Mountain Runner of the Year, still works on finding the right balance.
“I used to think if I could run, I should. However, there have been many
races in which ’powerhikers’ have passed me. So, I’ve been working on my
powerhiking when training on steep terrain and have actually found it to
be more efficient at times. It also allows me to make bigger strides with a
lower heart rate. I think this takes practice and experimentation.”
Of course, sometimes you won’t want to think about the length of a hill.
Erholtz tries not to. Instead, she thinks, “for sure, I can get to the next tree.”
Then, when she’s at that tree, she thinks, “I can make it to the next rock.”
And on she goes, climbing from one landmark to the next.
Aside from grade, obstacles, loose footing, and even tight turns can alter
your approach when climbing for a prolonged period. The general goals are
to maximize efficiency and maintain momentum, but each of these factors
also increases the likelihood that you should walk a given grade. Trails
with steep grades are more often rockier than the surrounding flat terrain,
whether because of water runoff or the terrain itself. If you encounter small
rocks, that is, rocks generally no taller than a foot (30 cm), head up the line
with the fewest obstacles. If you encounter larger rocks (that don’t require
you to use hands for scaling), minimize the number of oversized steps you
take. On loose footing, your first approach should be to maximize contact
area between the tread of your shoe and the surface of the trail. If this
method isn’t providing traction, try kicking your forefeet into the ground
as described previously.
If you’re on a runnable climb and you encounter a tight turn, running
along the middle of the trail often helps you maintain an even grade and
therefore an even effort. Those already familiar with hiking or cycling in
a b c
Staying to the center of the trail (a) often feels most comfortable on a
E6615/Hicks/F04.03/535025/jb/r1
switchback. Trying to keep to the inside of a curve (b) is only efficient in
gentle turns or grades. Staying to the outside (c) can ease the effort on
steep switchbacks.
the mountains may be familiar with switchbacks, an alternating series of

near hairpin turns that provides a more mellow grade than a trail head-
ing straight up a mountain. When you’re fatigued, you may be tempted to
run toward the inside of the turn, but the grade there is steeper than it is
in the middle of the trail. If you’re looking for a couple of easier strides to
recover, take the outside of the switchback where the grade is shallowest.
Going Down!
Whereas the slower pace of climbing can lend itself to taking in breathtak-
ing views, descending on trails is a thrill in and of itself. With gravity on
your side, it’s time to play.
A gradual descent on smooth trail is a great time to catch your breath and
collect your thoughts. You may also want to use this time to take in water
and food if you’re on a long trail run, but we’ll get to that in chapter 6. If you
want to take it easy, settle into a comfortable effort, which will naturally be
a bit faster pace than your pace on flat ground. Or, you can up the output
a smidge and feel like a speedster. Either way, avoid overstriding, that is,
landing with your feet far out in front of you. Instead, aim to have your
feet land under your body or at least close to it. If you’re landing far back
on your heels while feeling a jolt with each
impact, chances are you’re overstriding. To From a momentum perspec-
avoid this, try picking up your cadence by up tive, mountain biking and trail
to 20 strides per minute. With the increased running are similar. As you
speed that comes with descending, adjust your pass around obstacles and up
gaze another couple of feet (1 to 2 m) down and down hills, look for the
the trail. On corners, taking an outside line simplest, smoothest line to
is often the best way to maintain your speed. maintain your momentum.
Steep Descents
When you hit a steep descent, you need to be cautious. Steep descents can
be a blast, but the consequences can be serious should you make a mistake.
That said, remaining confident and relaxed are two of the most important
things you can do when running down a steep hill. Keep a slight forward
lean originating from your ankles and pick up your cadence. You’ll have to
read your running line quickly, while simultaneously picking up clues from
farther down the trail than usual. If you need to slow down, do so gradu-
ally when you have good footing. Slamming on the brakes can get you in
trouble. It’s far better to maintain a slower, consistent rate of descent than
to alter your speed rapidly. Keep your arms loose and reactive. Likewise,
stay loose and reactive through your lower body. Locking out any of your
leg joints, which is a common reaction to muscle fatigue on descents, can
be painful and may cause injury. Hardrock 100-Mile Run champion Anna
Frost recalls, “It took me a while to get confident going straight down the
mountain. There was nothing I could change apart from just doing it and
getting practiced at it. That was the only thing that made me more confi-
dent.” She adds, “One of the biggest things that happened to me was getting
a good pair of trail running shoes. The added traction gave me confidence
to lean forward. Without that, one leans back, gets on his or her heels, skids
out, and lands on his or her butt. . . In the end, you need to find what’s best
for you on the downhill. Some of the best descenders take massive steps,
while others take tiny, tiny steps. Which one is better? Neither. You need
to find which is best for you. That’s part of the practice.”
Kilian Jornet echoes Frost’s call for practice, but with a twist. “To go down
technical terrain fast, you cannot look to your feet because then you go
too slowly. You need to look 10 feet (3 m) in front of you and maybe 5 feet
(1.5 m) if it’s very technical. For that, you need to memorize the terrain to
know how you need to put your feet and have this coordination. You can
practice with some exercises like trying to run with your eyes closed for
three seconds. You memorize this terrain and for these three seconds you
run and you know where you put your feet. I think that’s good.”
Steep and technical descents require quick feet and focus on each footfall.
If you have trouble relaxing on descents, here’s what Jornet advises: “Go
down as if you are dancing. Jump with the feet, with no tension in the
body. Allow your body to stretch more when you go down. That’s a nice
thing. Go with good music. Try to dance and enjoy the downhill so that
you relax more.”
Descending With Obstacles or Poor Footing

Should you need to negotiate obstacles, especially on a steep descent, let
your arms instinctively trend away from your torso. If the situation calls
for rapid course corrections, your arms will flap around a bit. That is fine
because they’re acting as natural counterbalances to the equally rapid
lateral motions of your lower body. All the while, you’ll want to quicken
your cadence to near its maximum, taking rapid-fire steps as you adjust
course with each one. Try to follow the smoothest line down; you should
factor in both the necessity of shifting from side to side as well as abrupt
drop-offs. In other words, take the path that keeps your hips and torso on
the smoothest path even if your legs and arms are going this way and that.
Descending a trail with poor footing can be one of the biggest challenges
in trail running. If a hard-packed trail has just a bit of loose dust or debris,
you only need to worry about that when you’re cornering, braking, or
descending the steepest bits of trail. The best way to brake or take tight
turns in such cases is to ease off the speed ahead of time, gradually slowing
over 5 or 10 strides. When cornering, make the speed adjustment before
the turn. When she started mountain racing, Brandy Erholtz found she
56
was too slow on the descents. “I knew if I wanted to be a serious mountain

runner, I had to learn how to run the downhill fast. To get better and gain
confidence on the downhill, I had to practice running fast over technical
terrain. I know some mountain runners who run hard up the hills and
easy back down, but even on my easy days I try to work on my downhill
technique.”
On a short technical descent, Jornet advises, “Lean forward and have
your feet adapt to the terrain. Many times you just jump, and it’s with your
feet that you touch and realize how this surface is. You need to have a lot
of perception in the ankles. You see a lot of rock and you go there with the
foot, and it’s when the foot touches the rocks that you say, “OK, I will stay
like this,” or “I will make it more strength on the right side or the left to
keep the body in good position.”
According to Jornet, technical descents are one area where experience
with other sports can be a big plus. “I think all the sports of balance like
slacklining or climbing or skiing or mountain biking are good. Skiing and
mountain biking are good because you are used to looking forward, to
having the knowledge of how the body quickly reacts, and to choosing
the good line to go down. For perceiving terrain, slacklining and climbing
are good for practicing how to place the feet and building strong ankles.”
If you trail run enough you’ll encounter a moderate to steep descent with
poor traction because of mud, ice, or loose debris. At times, these descents
might seem impossible, but that’s rarely the case. For many trail runners,
the best bet is to minimize speed going into such sections and aim to keep
that speed quite low. Do not turn or brake rapidly. Have your arms slightly
out to the side to help with balance and be ready to make rapid reactions
should you need them. That might entail side stepping down the trail or
grabbing branches, tree trunks, trailside rocks, or other fixed items to slow
your speed and provide stability. Although you may have an instinctual
reaction to lean back, avoid doing so because it will increase your chances of
slipping and ending up on the seat of your pants. (Leaning back and land-
ing on your bottom, however, can be a reasonably safe way to fall should
you start going down. We’ll get into that more in chapter 10.)
If, or rather when, you start sliding, point your feet in the direction of
the slide and ride it out, so long as that option is safe. This scenario is not
unlike hitting an icy patch as discussed in the previous chapter. In both
cases, reacting by turning against the slide is a good way to end up on your
butt. As experienced British fell racer Tom Owens explains, “some slipping
is OK. Relax and go with the flow.”
If you break out of the slide while treacherous footing persists, try to slow
your speed over the next few strides, if that seems possible, or try running
with very quick, short strides. Emelie Forsberg finds descending on loose
terrain advantageous. “I think some of the best surfaces to run downhill
on are the ones that slide, whether it is small rocks, grass and mud, or pine
Stephanie Howe dances downhill in California’s Sierra Nevada.
needles and sticks. You just have to deal with it! To let go, don’t think about
anything else other than how fun it is to play with the ground, the ground
that also helps you get a very fast pace. If the incline is not very steep, I
can enjoy going really fast when I have control. If it’s steeper, it demands
more bravery to go faster.”
On the other hand, there’s something to be said for saving your own skin.
Dylan Bowman takes a more cautious approach. “When running down-
hill on rocky terrain, I just try to remain safe while being guided by my
instincts. Most of the biggest and most painful falls I’ve taken have happened
in these situations, so it’s important to have a feeling of self-preservation
when descending particularly technical sections of trail. Once you feel
you’re at a controlled pace, relax as much as you can and use your instincts.
I’ve found that looking five or six steps ahead really helps me maintain a
rhythm as opposed to staring at each individual foot strike. Widening the
scope of vision will give you a better feel for the entire environment and
will allow you to move with more grace and confidence. Again, keeping
a good attitude and embracing the challenge are important to improving
these types of skills.”
Prolonged Descents
Prolonged descents are a separate matter altogether. If you’re in the moun-
tains, you can easily find yourself descending a few thousand feet (many
hundreds of meters) at a time. Here, efficiency becomes increasingly
important. Your quads are powerful muscles and can handle some serious
punishment, but if you overdo the eccentric muscle contractions that occur
58
while descending, you might find yourself walking sideways down stairs
two days later. To minimize the chances that this will occur, aim to run
downhill smoothly and consistently. You do not want to be running out-
of-control fast, nor do you want to be braking constantly with your quads.
Finding the right balance can be tough, but it’s important. Of course, if you
feel like you’ve gone too hard, you can always take a break. Jornet suggests,
“If you start to feel yourself going too fast and your quads are starting to
work a lot, just stop for a second. Break the speed and start running again
with slow, small steps to preserve your strength.”
As you’ll learn later in chapter 8, repeatedly running descents helps
season your quads for future efforts.
Trees, Boulders, and Streams, Oh My!

As you may have recognized by now, the challenges of trail running are
often its rewards. Figuring out how to negotiate obstructions on the trail and
actually doing so can be a blast. Some folks pay $100 or more to participate
in an obstacle-course race that’s here today and gone tomorrow. Well, the
same thing can happen any day on the trails. Fallen trees, boulders, water
crossings—trail running has them and more.
Downed Trees
Toppled trees are a routine impediment for those who run forested trails.
Wind, rain, snow, fire, and time can all lay logs across your desired path,
leaving you with three choices: over, under, or around.
In most cases, your preferred option for dealing with a downed tree will
be to go over it. If the log is small or lies below your knee, all you have to
do is step over it. No big deal.
If the top of the log is between your knee and midthigh, you might
be able to step carefully over it sideways, kicking one leg over before the
other. Alternatively, you can place one foot on the log and step the other
leg over. You can take a break with both feet on the log, if you prefer. If the
log appears at all slick, take care to place your foot or feet on the log with
a vertical motion to reduce your chances of slipping. When stepping off a
potentially slippery log, lean forward and drop your leading foot toward
the ground before picking your rear foot up. Trying to push off horizontally
with your trailing foot can lead to perilous slippage.
If the top of the downed tree falls from midthigh to slightly above waist
height, you can try swinging your legs over it in several ways. One option
is to plant one hand on the log as you step over it, lean slightly toward that
arm, using it for a little extra “hang-time” as you take the log in stride. As
an alternative, you might be able to lift one foot on top, put your hands to
both sides of that foot, and then pull the trailing foot through straight to
the other side. In a final option, turn away from the log but put both hands
on it. Lift yourself so that you sit on the log. Now, swing your legs, one at
If a log is low enough, planting one Planting both hands can offer stability
hand can get you over. when crossing a log.
a time or together, from one side of

the log to the other before lowering
yourself back down the other side.
If climbing over a tree won’t
work, try going under it. Going
under a tree might be as simple
as ducking. If the trunk is high
enough, you might have success
in crouching while running below
the barrier. Chances are, however,
that you’ll have stopped in your
tracks already. If that’s the case,
bend your knees and waist, hunch
over, and walk slowly forward.
Putting one hand on the log above
you can give you a good sense of
its location so that you’re less likely When needed, you can sit on the log
to bump your head or, if you’re and swing your legs over.
wearing one, catch your hydration
pack. Although getting hung up is still annoying, you’re far more likely to
do the latter than the former. Depending on how far you’re bent over, you
can put a hand on the ground to balance. In some cases, crawling under
the downed tree is the best option. Just remember to watch out for your
head and pack.
Presumably, if you can go around a downed tree while staying on the

trail, you don’t really have much of an obstruction, do you? That being
the case, you should go around a downed tree by leaving the established
trail only if going over or under it is unreasonably dangerous, impossible,
or would literally take minutes to crawl your way through the branches.
With that said, if an apparent trail reroute goes around the downed tree,
follow it. If a new trail has not been established, take the shortest easily
negotiated path around the tree while taking care to minimize damaging
vegetation. If you can easily open up a blocked trail by breaking branches
off the downed tree, feel free to do so.
Big Rocks
In most cases, boulders and rock ledges on the trail offer one fewer option
than downed trees do: You can go over or around them, but usually not
under them. Because boulders and rock outcroppings tend to be fixed as
opposed to transient impediments, trail builders are likely to have given
you a route past the rocks. If you can stay on the trail and get around a
rock that would otherwise require a tricky maneuver to overcome, go for
it. Otherwise, adapt some of the techniques for overcoming logs when deal-
ing with large rocks. Use your hands as needed and find a way to get safely
up and down rocks. Don’t rush yourself. Take your time and find a way to
execute a move in a way that you’re comfortable with, both physically and
mentally. If a bunch of boulders block your way, Emelie Forsberg suggests
this approach: “Try to find a way on top of the blocks and boulders. That
is the most economical way, I believe. For sure, if it’s only a few boulders
you can always run in between them, but if the fastest line is on top, then
go for it. It’s so much fun jumping from rock to rock!”
Two-time USATF Trail 50-Mile champion Anton Krupicka notes, “when
there are obstacles in the trail, I am constantly glancing a few yards up the
trail so that I can pick the most efficient line. When picking a line, I would
recommend stepping over—not on—small obstacles and either on or around
large obstacles, depending on the situation. In order to be the most efficient
and to save energy, when I am stepping up onto a large obstacle—be it a
boulder, log, or large step in the trail—I find it easier to maintain a run-
ning cadence by stepping as close to the obstacle as I can before actually
springing up onto the obstacle with my next step.”
Heads Up! Head-Height Branches

Whenever you’re running in forested or brushy areas, be alert for the
possibility of branches overhanging the trail. True, you can brush some
of these away in stride, but most experienced trail runners have unwit-
tingly run headfirst into a limb or two in their day. Whether you should
brush such a branch aside; run under it in stride by some combination of
bending at your knees, folding at your waist, or crouching your torso and
head; contort around the edge of the limb; or stop to negotiate carefully;
the choice should be readily apparent. The key thing is to stay alert. It’s
easy to focus entirely on the trail below you or to bliss out on tame trail.
That’s all fine as long as you sneak a peek at head height along lengths of
relevant trail.
Streams and Rivers

Running through a stream or shallow river can be a blast—and perhaps
refreshing on a summer day—and plenty of trails incorporate such cross-
ings in their established route.
Before we get to the how-to of crossing a moving body of water, let’s
get the safety warning out of the way. Water crossings can be dangerous.
If a stream is flowing quickly enough, knee-deep water can knock you
over. Waist-deep water can topple you that much more easily. Flowing,
cold water can quickly numb lower limbs, making a water crossing even
more dangerous. A slip and partial or full submersion into even warm
water can lead to discomfort or hypothermia when the air is cool or will
become so before you dry. Unless you have a great deal of experience and
confidence in the situation (both in crossing successfully and being safe
overall should you fall in), we generally recommend not crossing streams
in freezing conditions. Do not cross a stream on an ice or snow bridge, a
thick layer of snow over a stream that can unpredictably collapse, drop you
into freezing water, and possibly trap you in the water below a solid snow
layer. Turning back if you can’t cross a stream safely is always perfectly
fine. You should always have contingency plans in place for situations like
this, as we’ll discuss further in chapter 10.
Before crossing a body of water that is part of an established trail, check
for signs of whether the water is flowing much higher than normal: Is ter-
restrial streamside vegetation submerged? Is there a ring of fresh flotsam
at or near water level? Is the water muddy? Of course, recent heavy rains
or snowmelt can give you a good heads-up for such conditions. If the water
is higher than usual, you’ll have to exercise additional caution in deciding
whether to cross and in actually crossing the stream. If the water is flow-
ing at what signs say is its customary level, go ahead and cross the stream.
Please note that if you come to a stream along a trail and signs indicate
that a bridge has been washed out, the previous guidance obviously doesn’t
apply because the standard stream-crossing route is out of the picture. In
that case, you’ll have to make a full, independent assessment of whether,
where, and how to cross the stream.
The most common streams most trail runners encounter are very shallow.
You can clearly see that the stream is never more than a foot (30 cm) deep
and you can see the footing the whole way across. When this is the case,
you can go ahead and run or walk across, whichever is most comfortable.
When crossing a swift stream, move deliberately, face slightly upstream,

and use trekking poles if you have them.
Just as with running on wet rock on land, use caution, a quick cadence,
and minimal horizontal push off from your planted foot as you cross these
shallow streams.
If someone has put stepping-stones across a stream or a natural path of
stones leads across it, consider using them. Follow the advice in the previ-
ous chapter about treading on rocks. Any rock can be slippery, particularly
wet ones. Because stepping-stones can unexpectedly wobble underfoot, we
recommend walking across them.
When in doubt about the safety of rock hopping across a stream or when
no such option is present, prepare to ford the stream if it doesn’t appear too
deep. Because appearances can be deceiving, proceed with caution. Unless
the stream is clearly but a few inches (about 20 cm) deep, slowly edge out
into the water one small step at a time. Feel around with your forward
foot for firm footing. After you’ve found it, pick up your trailing foot and
find a place for it. Try to keep one foot firmly planted at all times. Even if
the footing seems relatively good, hold your arms a bit farther out for bal-
ance and let them drift higher should the footing deteriorate. If the stream
bottom is rocky (which is often the case) and the visibility poor, keep your
feet low in the water as you move them forward. They’ll gently kick into
rocks, letting you know their location. You can then feel your way to the
next secure foot placement. Just remember to keep one foot firmly planted
and move slowly enough to feel secure and balanced.
In swiftly flowing water, you’ll have to brace against the current. Turn-
ing your torso partially upstream can help with this. When moving your
feet and legs underwater, you’ll also have to push actively upstream against
the current. In this scenario, taking very small side steps will help keep
you stable.
Always cross streams well upstream of any drop-offs. Should you acciden-
tally fall into the water, this precaution will give you a chance to extricate
yourself from the water before you plummet over a precipice.
Finding a Line
Anyone can choose a line down a trail. That line may differ from person
to person, day to day, and season to season. Snow, sun, speed, and simple
preference can change the approach. Without thinking, you might choose
the same rocky uphill route step for step nearly every time you run it, but
you might never take the same path down a wide trail with many low-risk
roots and rocks.
Still, an experienced trail runner is more likely to find the more efficient
or quicker line (depending on his or her desires) than a novice trail runner
is. To be honest, many aspects of effective route finding are best learned by
personal experience over years, given the disparate ranges of our personal
anatomy, physiology, psychology, and running philosophy.
Nevertheless, one principle can guide your route finding as you tie
together and implement all the lessons learned so far in this book: Flow
like water.
Take that figuratively rather than literally. Water usually flows gently.
Water doesn’t correct course abruptly; it makes sweeping turns. With time,
watercourses reflect obstacles found both upstream and downstream.
A few pointers can help you flow like water. Read the trail in front of you
and make each step with the subsequent few steps in mind. When you’re
not moving in a straight line, aim to keep your hips and torso moving in
close to a straight line with only gentle variations. In other words, avoid
jarring movements unless they’re unavoidable (and they rarely are).
Up and down, side to side in rhythmic cadence—trail running is your
dance with nature. Your surroundings choose the songs, while the trail
always leads. Just pick up the cues, follow the steps, and you’ll star in a
beautiful performance.
GRAND TETON NATIONAL PARK, WYOMING,
UNITED STATES
Let’s face it, as human civilization grows, fewer and fewer places are left in the world
where we feel small, insignificant, and totally surrounded by the wild. Grand Teton
National Park in western Wyoming is one such place. Here live several animal species
that are higher than you are on the food chain. The Teton Mountains claw thousands
of feet into the sky and overshadow everything around them. The roadless expanse is
huge. In Grand Teton National Park, the power of nature is all encompassing.
Because this is an American national park, regulations prohibit trail races inside its
boundaries. Therefore, all the trail running you do will be independent. The diverse
trails of Grand Teton National Park offer opportunities for flat to rolling, easy runs to
epics in excess of marathon distance. Any kind of trail running you do will offer up
Teton mountain views and a chance to see elk, moose, bear, bison, and the park’s
other charismatic megafauna. Try running the trail around Jenny Lake; you can go
around either the north or south side. When you reach the west side of the lake, make
the short grunt of a climb past Hidden Falls to Inspiration Point for a panoramic view.
You can either run back the way you came or take the boat shuttle across the lake for
an interesting end to your run.
The park’s 18-mile (29 km) Paintbrush and Cascade Canyons loop is an iconic route
for hiking, backpacking, and trail running. Run it in a big day by heading up Paintbrush
Canyon and down Cascade Canyon for a truly intimate encounter with the wild. You’ll
clock about 3,700 feet (1,100 m) of elevation gain up Paintbrush Canyon to Paintbrush
Divide, the high point between the two canyons.
Before you head out, learn the proper safety practices for playing in big mountains
and among big wildlife, especially summer thunderstorms, grizzly bears, and moose.
You’ll need to be 100 percent self-reliant when trail running here. Safety first!
65
Taking in the views high above Italy’s
Val d’Aosta.
Chapter 5
Trail Tools
Even the most minimalist of trail runners uses equipment to facilitate her
or his singletrack sessions. From shoes to apparel and packs to lighting,
having the right gear can make your time on the trails more enjoyable. That
said, you don’t need to become a gear geek as you become a trail runner—
simplicity is one of the sport’s defining characteristics and, we dare say,
virtues. In this chapter you’ll learn about the most common types of gear
a trail runner uses, the options you might see within a gear category, and
the best ways to use the gear.
67
Shoes
So, you want to dip your toes into trail running, but spending $100 or
more on a new pair of shoes just to give it a try makes you hesitate? Well,
the dirty little secret of trail running is that you can safely and enjoyably
complete most trail runs in a pair of road running shoes. If you’re already a
road runner, just slip on your favorite pair of shoes and head out the door.
Even if you’re not a runner, there’s a good chance that you have a pair of
running shoes lying around somewhere that you can slip on for a couple
runs. (A word of caution: If you give trail running a go with a pair of shoes
you’ve been wearing casually for some time,
please do yourself and your body a favor and
One of the best parts of trail pick up a new pair should you decide you
running is its simplicity. You enjoy trail running and plan to do more of it.
don’t need expensive gear to
Your old pair is broken in for casual wear and
enjoy it. But if you make one
trail running gear purchase,
may be spent, as well.) Top trail runner Dylan
make it a pair of trail running Bowman echoes that sentiment, “a common
shoes with a good grip on the misconception is that runners need a trail
soles and a little protection shoe in order to run effectively on trails. That
from the rocks. usually means shelling out for a pair of shoes
that are a bit heavier and more technically
aggressive than your average road shoe. For
people who come from a road running background or people who live where
nontechnical trails are abundant, this may be an unnecessary expense when
their tried-and-true road shoe of choice would perfectly suffice.”
Still, for reasons you’ll learn in the text to come, you might want to skip
hitting the rockiest, muddiest, and other superlative-warranting trails in
road running shoes unless your personal experience has shown you that
your combination of road shoes and running style are sufficient for those
trails.
Why Trail Shoes?

Why wear trail running shoes at all? Well, the primary benefits of trail
shoes are protection and traction.
Trail shoes can offer two types of additional protection over that offered
by road shoes. First, they give underfoot protection in the form of a rock
plate in the forefoot and, possibly, running the length of the shoe. This
rock plate, which usually consists of either a piece of plastic a few mil-
limeters thick or a dense woven fabric somewhere above the outsole and
below your foot, is meant to prevent rocks, roots, or other obstacles from
painfully impacting your foot from underneath upon footfall. This feature
is sometimes known as push-through protection. With portions of outsole
rubber increasingly removed from road running shoes to decrease weight,
the full or nearly full coverage on the outsoles of most trail running shoes
provides an additional layer of push-through protection. The thicker mid-
Trail Tools 69
Well-lugged trail shoes can aid with traction.
soles (the foam bit between your feet and your shoe’s outsole) found in
some of today’s oversized shoes can also add some underfoot protection.
Bowman points out, “Of course, there are some advantages to having a
trail-specific footwear option in your quiver. First, trail shoes generally have
more of a pronounced rubberized outsole to help with traction. Beyond the
advantage of sure-footedness, extra rubber (and a rock plate in some cases)
will also help with improving protection while increasing the shoe’s dura-
bility. Because most road racing shoes have larger areas of exposed midsole
foam, they often break down quicker and need to be replaced more often
than their trail counterparts.”
The upper of a trail shoe, the fabric and overlay materials that wrap over
the foot, can also provide strategic protection. The most important aspect of
this over-foot protection is the toe bumper. The toe bumper often consists
of the outsole of the shoe bent up in front of the toes in combination with
heavier fabric or a rubber horizontal wrap around the front of and, some-
times, the sides of the toes. Its purpose is to save you (and your toes) from
a world of hurt when you inevitably kick a rock, root, or cactus. Trail shoes
with uppers made from more robust fabrics or with more substantial fabric,
plastic, or rubber overlays can help protect your feet should you brush a
branch, cactus, or other pointy object. Although more subtle, the materials
chosen for the upper of a trail shoe often reduce the entry of dust and sand.
Although trail running shoes a decade or two ago were the heavily con-
structed brethren of hiking shoes, the trend has been to streamline both
underfoot and upper components to provide just enough protection while
maximizing overall performance.
With the recent popularity of the minimalist and barefoot running

movements, the term stability took quite the bashing when applied to run-
ning shoes. What was once an entire category of running shoes suddenly
became antithetical to what running should be. Although some running
shoes may indeed have been trying to do too much to control most runners’
feet, stability shouldn’t be seen as a dirty word when talking about trail
shoes. One term that rose to prominence during the shunning of stability
is lockdown. Quite simply, lockdown is the ability of the upper to secure
your midfoot and heel and, as a result, lock your entire foot into your shoe.
If someone says a trail shoe feels sloppy or loose, he or she could be talking
about insufficient lockdown.
Trail shoes can offer an increased feeling of stability by flaring the outsole
and midsole wider than your foot. In essence, this flare works in a similar
manner to the outrigger on a canoe or training wheels on a bike; the wider
platform reduces excessive movement in either direction.
The more obvious benefit of many trail shoes is the increased traction
they provide. Before continuing, we must reiterate that good technique and
some experience can go a long way in maximizing the traction inherent
in any pair of running shoes. Nevertheless, adding deeper lugs to a shoe
certainly makes it easier to find purchase amidst some slippery situations. If
you compare the outsole of a road running shoe with a general-purpose trail
shoe, you’ll notice that the trail shoe has deeper, more widely spaced lugs.
Some trail shoes also have soles that are partly or fully made up of softer
rubber. Although softer rubber wears down more quickly than the harder
rubber found on road shoes and most trail shoes, the softer rubber is stickier,
which helps when trying to find footing on rock. (The same concept applies
to rock-climbing shoes.)
A final advantage of some trail shoes is additional durability of the upper.
This increased durability can come from more robust meshes or material
used in the body of the upper as well as strategic use of fabric, rubber, and
plastic overlays. Even with a more durable mesh, if you find your shoes
caked with mud or sand at the end of the run, a quick hose off can increase
the life of the upper.
Yes, an extremely small subset of runners hits the trails in sandals or
entirely barefoot. If this idea appeals to you, we suggest checking out the
multitude of online resources or other texts.
As for an overall approach, Bowman says, “Many runners are looking
for the footwear ideology that will allow them either to unlock some secret
potential or simply to run injury free. My advice would be to choose a shoe
that makes you feel good after you run rather than a shoe that makes you
feel good during a run. Oftentimes, a minimal and agile road racing shoe
is what feels best during a trail run, but it leaves us broken down the next
day. Recovery and longevity factors should be considered along with per-
formance when choosing our trail footwear.”
Trail Tools 71
Waterproof Shoes
All too often, the marketing and subsequent purchase of waterproof trail
shoes centers on the waterproofing as an essential technical feature. In a
small subset of conditions, a trail shoe with a waterproof membrane or
other waterproofing technology is the best choice or, at least, a good one.
For instance, a waterproof shoe can be great if you’ll be running through
a few inches (5 to 10 cm) of snow for an hour or two. Similarly, if it rained
recently, and you’re likely to run through small puddles. In really cold con-
ditions a waterproof shoe might be effective. Other than that, leave mem-
brane shoes at home. Running in waterproof shoes through a downpour or
other conditions that are likely to direct significant amounts of water into
your shoes from around the ankles will simply leave you running around
in heavy, nondraining fishbowls.
Trail Threads
For the most part, running apparel is running apparel. Indeed, a great deal
of athletic apparel translates well enough to the trails as well. Anyone who
tells you otherwise is probably trying to sell you something.
Essential Ensemble
The essential trail running kit is in line with what you’d wear for most any
sport: some bottoms, a top, a pair of socks, and applicable undergarments.
Chances are you can go out for a trail run with something you already
have at home. No matter what apparel piece you’re looking to pick up, top
international trail runner Anna Frost suggests, “We’re all different, so the
only way to find out whether a piece of clothing is for you is to try it. Even
if I love this fabric and that fit, someone else who’s the same size as me
could think the same fabric is horrible.”
Tops and Bottoms
Because running is a sport in which we engage in the same repetitive
motion thousands of times, the friction of clothing against skin can lead
to a significant and painful problem: chafing. You’ll quickly learn what
types of materials, fits, seams, and other features of a piece of clothing act
as skin irritants when you run. It should go without saying to avoid those.
A good pair of athletic bottoms might be the most important part of
the mix. If you have a pair of athletic bottoms that are breathable, offer a
good range of motion, and are comfortable, they should work. Satisfactory
choices might include your gym shorts, yoga pants, or board shorts. (But
you might take a pass on padded cycling shorts.) If it’s warm or hot, most
trail runners opt for a pair of shorts, be they traditional running shorts,
short tights, or a pair of general athletic shorts you might wear to the gym.
Whatever bottoms you wear, useful features include a secure pocket

for a key as well as another pocket or four to stash additional items you
might need. (More on that in a bit.) Dylan Bowman notes, “Shorts with
an abundance of pockets are usually particularly expensive in comparison
to the other simple necessities inherent to running. However, for me, the
cost is a no brainer in exchange for the utility and convenience of having
at least one pair of shorts capable of carrying a picnic.”
Avoid excessively baggy shorts that might be prone to snagging on brush
along the trail. Men, you’ll also want to find bottoms with suitable support
where you need it, whether that’s from a built-in pair of briefs or some of
your own.
More or less any T-shirt will do for trail running, although a breath-
able, wicking technical shirt made in the past 10 years will add comfort to
your runs. If you don’t already have one, you can find a basic version for
less than $30 at any local running store, sporting goods shop, or outdoor
retailer. Heck, head on down to your local thrift shop and try one out for
just a couple bucks. High-end shirts do come with some nice add-on fea-
tures, such as built-in pockets or a partial zip down the front. The pockets
can carry a key, cell phone, music player, or snack, and the partial zip can
help keep you cool.
Frost reminds new trail runners, “You don’t need something super techni-
cal. You need something that’s comfortable and that’s going to do the job.”
She also suggests avoiding shirts with plastic-like printing or seams, which
might promote chafing. Similarly, she says, “If you get chafing under your
arms when you wear a tank top, wear a T-shirt.”
Socks That Rock
Again, at their most basic, any pair of socks can get you out the door and
on the trails. A step up would be a pair of athletic socks with some breath-
ability. Any pair of running socks is yet another step up because they offer
targeted breathability and cushioning as well as plenty of elastic to prevent
the sock from wandering around your foot during aggressive maneuvers and
descents. Some folks get away with low-cut or no-show socks on the trails.
This choice comes at the expense of a bit more pain when you inevitably
kick up a rock or stick that then hits your ankle. Although mostly benign,
these ankle biters sure sting! A sock covering the ankle dampens the blow.
On the technical side, some trail socks feature PTFE (i.e., Teflon) fibers
to reduce friction and the blisters it causes, whereas others, known as toe
socks, individually wrap each toe in material to reduce the chance of blisters
on toes caused by friction between them. In general, socks marketed as trail
socks should have reasonable resistance to wear from trail grit.
Blocking the Sun
For most runners, a bit of sun shielding for the eyes also falls within the
realm of essential kit. The combination of a cap or visor and sunglasses is
Summertime can mean less clothing and more freedom on the trails.
usually the solution. Any old hat or visor will do, but an inexpensive mesh
running hat or visor with a sweat-wicking headband is even better. As long
as they’re UV protectant, a five dollar pair of gas-station sunglasses will
work. A better choice might be a relatively inexpensive sporting model
that grips your nose and hugs the sides of your face to keep your glasses
on during sudden movements on the trail. Even photochromatic lenses
that change their opacity based on apparent brightness can be had for a
reasonable price. The biggest benefit to high-end sunglasses is often the
scratch resistance and clarity of their lenses. Folks who lose things often
might want to stick to the inexpensive end, whereas folks who keep things
around for a decade might benefit from long-wearing but pricier brands.
Sports Bras
Sports bras are essential gear for women. If you’re a road runner, whatever
you run in on the roads will do equally well on the trails. For women who
are transitioning to trail running from other active pursuits, make sure your
sports bra is supportive for high-impact activity. In general, high-impact
sports bras are of two kinds: compression bras that press and hold your
breasts firmly against your rib cage and encapsulation bras that separate
and encapsulate each of your breasts into unmoving cups. Some women
can wear either kind, but others prefer one or the other. Women with larger
73
cup sizes generally find that encapsulation bras provide the support they
need. All sports bras are made with a wicking material. A few offer a wool
lining, which is a little like heaven on a cold, winter day. Now, there are
even sports bras made for nursing mothers, which have detachable cups to
allow easy breastfeeding access.
Beat the Heat

Although we will address the topic in detail in chapter 7, “Conquering the
Conditions,” beating the heat is pretty easy. You will notice that wicking
technical shirts are made of various weights. Seek out the lighter weight
materials for hot days and, possibly, wear less of it. Lighter colored shirts
can also make you feel cooler. In most instances, a thin, wicking, technical
T-shirt is the best option.
A short-sleeve shirt is a must in the heat, unless you want to go with a
tank top, sports bra, or, for men, no shirt at all.
Hot weather also counsels for the use of thin, breathable shorts and, to
some degree, socks, although that can be more a matter of personal taste.
Along the same lines, a pair of shoes with a thinner, more breathable upper
can be more comfortable on a hot day.
Cool and Inclement Conditions

When heading out in the cold, dress so that you’ll be a bit cold for the first
10 minutes. Running will quickly warm you, and you should be just the
right temperature after that. Trust us, that’s far better than setting off all
toasty and then being a hot, sweaty mess for the rest of the run. That latter
scenario is actually more dangerous, because an unexpected stop can leave
you shivering in damp, sweaty clothes in no time.
Pants and Tights

Cool conditions call for wearing a pair of tights or running pants. As
with shorts, choose a pair that is breathable and doesn’t constrict your
movement. You’ll have to choose the coverage and warmth of the fabric
based on personal preference, because many options are out there. Tights
are available in full- and three-quarter (capri) lengths in thin, moder-
ate, and heavy weights. Some tights have strategically placed windproof
panels for additional protection from the cold, and options for warmer
weather include mesh panels to shed warmth. Full-length pants have a
similar range of options. Even more important than with shorts, avoid
wearing excessively baggy pants, especially over your lower legs, because
they are prone to catch on obstacles, collect mud, and all around get in
the way. As with shorts, having a pocket or two in your pants or tights
can be useful.
Trail Tools 75
Warm Shirts
Cool weather can mean a switch to long-sleeve shirts. As with pants, you’ll
have to be the judge of how warm a shirt you’ll want because they run
the gamut from ultrathin and breathable to heavyweight fleeces. A long
chest zipper (along with rolling up your sleeves) can make a long-sleeve
shirt comfortable through a wide range of temperatures. Some folks are
big fans of thumbholes in sleeves that allow the sleeves to provide some
hand warmth should you need it, and a few shirts have tuck-away hand
covers. Pockets are more common in long-sleeve running shirts than in
their short-sleeve cousins.
Jackets
If you plan to trail run in the
When a long-sleeve shirt isn’t enough or a stiff rain, the trick is not to stay
wind is keeping you cold, throw on a wind- dry—you’re going to get
breaker. A high-quality, lightweight, wind- wet sooner than later—but
resistant jacket can be had on the cheap these to stay warm when you are
days. This jacket will get you through most dry wet. Plan your clothing to
conditions with ease. Many are highly com- help maximize retention of
pactable and can be folded into a self-contained your body heat.
pocket for easy storage if you’re wearing a pack.
A pocket or two are useful if you won’t be wearing a pack, but others prefer
the lighter weight and cleaner lines of a pocket-free jacket. Those looking
for the lightest products on the market can now find plenty of options at
three ounces (90 g) or less. Such jackets are light and compact enough that
you can throw one in your running pack and not think of it until you need
it. Some wind jackets come with a DWR (durable water-repellent) coating.
This coating won’t help you in a downpour or constant rain, but it sure is
helpful in mist or falling snow.
For really rough weather, you’ll want a fully waterproof jacket. The water-
proof membrane excels in these conditions. A three-layer, seam-taped jacket
with hood will keep you dry in a storm. Marketed for decades as waterproof–
breathable jackets, the breathable part was a stretch; such jackets quickly
became uncomfortable from the inside out. (Try running for 10 or 20 min-
utes in a traditional rain jacket.) But the current iterations of membrane
jackets are more breathable, less annoyingly crinkly sounding, much lighter,
and better designed with good use of venting appropriate for running.
Keep the venting part in mind if you buy a waterproof jacket because it’s
a key feature in a sport like trail running that involves high energy output
and relatively low forward speed. Many waterproof jackets are made with
zippers in or below the armpit that you can unzip to allow ventilation in a
protected fashion. Some jackets also offer permanent vents in the back, with
overlapping material that promotes airflow. Remember, though, that these
vents can also allow water in if you’re running in a storm accompanied
by high wind. Although

somewhat pricy, the light-
est of these jackets now fits
in as a viable alternative to
a wind jacket, negating the
need to own two jackets.
Layering Is Your Friend
The secret weapon for cold-
weather running is layer-
ing. If the temperature
is near freezing, a wind
jacket over a lightweight
or midweight long-sleeve
shirt is much more versa- Dressed in a rain jacket, layers, and gloves, this
tile than one thicker shirt. runner is ready for inclement weather.
Aside from fully wearing
both layers, you can partially or fully unzip the jacket or take it off entirely.
Layering provides an exception to the rule to start out a little cold. If you
can quickly and easily make your outfit cooler, you have no reason to start
out cold. On calm days, a second shirt, whether short- or long-sleeve, on
top of a long-sleeve shirt can also work well. Indeed, layering possibilities
are endless. Don’t hesitate to add even more layers as temperatures fall.
Layering works on your legs, too. You can slip a pair of running pants
over some shorts and then take the pants off when you get too warm. The
same goes for throwing running pants over tights in very cold conditions.
The saying is that there’s no such thing as bad weather, only bad clothing
choices.
Accessories for Appendages
You’ll also want to keep your extremities warm in the cold. Any variety
of winter hats and gloves or mittens should work at the outset. Avoid
wearing too warm a hat. Also, aim for breathable head and hand covers
lest the sweat turn a source of warmth into a sapper of it. Multiple hand-
covering layers might be necessary when the temperature is significantly
below freezing. In conditions like those, we recommend a thin fleece glove
with an overmitten, which can be wind resistant, waterproof, or insulated
depending on conditions.
Arm sleeves and Buffs are two accessories that you may be unfamiliar
with, but they can be great in cool weather. Arm sleeves are essentially a
pair of detached long sleeves you wear along with a short-sleeve shirt. Then,
when you warm up, you just slip them off over your wrists or leave them
scrunched down over your wrists. You can slip them back on in seconds
should your arms get chilly. And then there’s the Buff and Buff-like prod-
Trail Tools 77
ucts. A Buff can be used in so many ways that we cannot highlight them
all here, but these tubes of highly elasticized fabric are most often used as
hats, neck warmers, and face covers, occasionally all at the same time. A
face cover, be it a Buff or a balaclava (or maybe a beard), is a necessary
tool for running in extremely cold temperatures. We’ll address running in
severe conditions more fully in chapter 7.
Carrying the Essentials

From time to time (or, perhaps, all the time), you might want to bring along
something more than your shoes and apparel on a run. What then? Well,
you have a multitude of options.
The first option, which we’ll get back to later, is to leave it at home. Really,
running is simple. Embrace it!
If you still think you need to bring along some additional gear or a bit of
food, improvise. Will a couple of energy gels or your key fit in your shorts
pocket? Can you tuck your pair of gloves in the waistband of your pants
or the pocket of your windbreaker? A light jacket or an extra long-sleeve
shirt is easily twirled into a roll and then tied around your waist. Although
it’s a tad risky if you’re carrying a phone or camera, holding something in
your hand also works. Handheld hydration bottle systems work that way,
more or less, by using an adjustable strap to hold a water bottle against your
hand. These simple systems often include a small pocket with space for a
key, a couple bits to eat, or another small item.
If you still need extra carrying capacity, a waist belt or backpack can
greatly add to what you’re able to bring along with you on the trail.
Waist Belts
For a simple and light solution for carrying a limited amount of gear, con-
sider a waist belt. Yes, such a pack may remind you of a grandparent on
vacation, but they can work quite well out on the trail. They range from a
step-in fabric tube (it lays flat and almost unnoticeable around your waist)
with openings into which you can shove items, to a small pack with a rear
pocket that clips together in front of your waist, to the same concept with
a place to slide in a water bottle behind you, to large systems that hold two
26-ounce (750 ml) water bottles with many pockets to boot. For runs with
long stretches without drinkable water, you might pair a handheld bottle
with a waist belt, swapping out the bottle that you’re carrying in your hand
with one from the pack as needed.
But not everyone is a fan of waist packs, including Dylan Bowman: “In
the case that I need to carry a bit of extra food, water, or clothing, I much
prefer a stripped-down backpack to a waist pack. I’ve experimented heavily
with both options and find that waist packs upset my stomach after a few
hours from all the jostling that occurs around my midsection.”
A hydration pack can help make your runs safer or longer.
Backpacks
To carry more gear or get things off your waist, slip on a backpack. Run-
ning packs are typically called hydration packs because almost all are
intended to carry fluids in some manner. They have improved a great deal
over the past decade, and significant changes have been made in the past
few years. These days, hydration packs are lighter, more breathable, and
altogether better designed. Packs start at little more than a mesh sleeve in
the rear designed to carry up to a two-liter hydration bladder with a few
small, easily accessible pockets on the front straps.
The sweet spot for a new trail runner would be a hydration pack with
approximately five liters of storage space in the main, rear compartment.
That’s enough storage space to carry a few liters of water and some extra
gear for your longer adventures while still being light and compact enough
to use if you want to jump into a race with it. With ultramarathons and
fastpacking taking off, running packs are available with 10, 20, 30, or more
liters of rear storage space and a slew of side and front pockets.
Some amazing running-specific backpacks are on the market these days.
As you’re getting started, however, don’t hesitate to throw on the 10-year-old
Camelbak you used to hike with or a mountain-biking hydration system.
Yes, the 10-year-old pack will be heavier than the latest and greatest, and
the cycling pack won’t have ideal ergonomics, but you’ll be trail running.
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Trail Tools 79
Less Is More
As mentioned throughout this book, one of the great joys of trail running is its
simplicity. There are no chains to oil, tires to pump, kayaks to stow, or skis to wax.
Ah, but there’s a ton of helpful running gear you could buy and might end up
collecting over time. You may be tempted to throw it all in your pack when you
go out for your next run. After all, you might need it. Think again. Take time to
consider whether you really need all the gear and food that you’re taking with
you. Consider each piece of gear individually. Ask yourself these questions:
● Do I need this item to run safely today?
● Will this item make me considerably more comfortable today?
● Is there another item I’m carrying that can fill the same role today?
When you see how enjoyable it is to run with less stuff, you’ll naturally shift
to carrying less over time under the same conditions. In paring down your
pack, take care not to go too far. Going fast and light is wonderful, but safety
is paramount. Don’t forget to read chapter 10, “Trail Safety and Stewardship,”
and heed its cautions about going into the wilds.
Lighting the Night

Whether you’re headed out the door before the sun peeks over the horizon
or you’re tempted to stay out after the sun sets, a lighting system makes
trails accessible around the clock.
Trail runners have two main options on the lighting front: headlamps
and flashlights. Of the two, headlamps are the more popular because they
leave your hands free to run with a natural motion, scramble over obstacles,
and manipulate any other items that you’re carrying. In addition, they
automatically track wherever you’re looking.
Handheld flashlights have their advantages. For one, they’re great at
pinpointing objects, whether it’s a rock on the trail, a distant trail marker,
or an animal in the woods. Held at waist level, the lower angle of a flash-
light is better for casting shadows of low-to-the-ground obstacles, such
as rocks. These shadows enhance your depth perception and therefore
enable you to react appropriately instead of running overcautiously on
uneven terrain.
Some trail runners like to wear a light around their waist or on their
chest. For many years, folks made this happen by stepping into or pulling
down a headlamp with an elastic strap. Some runners still do that, but
commercial products on the market now integrate a light into the front
of a waist pack or the chest strap of a hydration pack. This solution allows
hands-free running while enhancing beneficial shadows on trail obstacles.
Runners climb a steep hill during a night race.
Night owls and early birds who often hit the trail under cover of night,
as well as those looking for a little extra help at night, should consider
running with both a headlamp and a flashlight. This setup provides great
overall light with a head-synced light source along with a shadow-casting,
spotlighting source.
Just as with hydration packs, don’t let a lack of up-to-date gear stop you
from experimenting on the trails. That said, updating from your 10-year-
old headlamp will make a world of difference when night running. For
starters, the current generation of LED-based lights are a couple of times
brighter and last a great deal longer on a single set of batteries, or a single
charge for rechargeable models, than those made five years ago. Some of
the high-end headlamps are programmable through a USB cord and your
computer. In just a minute or two, you can optimize light intensity versus
burn time (i.e., duration of a charge or set of batteries) depending on your
needs for a particular run or set of runs. From a safety perspective, the big-
gest enhancement is the replacement of filament bulbs with LEDs, negating
the need to bring spare bulbs. Yes, you can render a modern headlamp or
flashlight inoperable, but you really have to try.
Don’t discount the value in having a light source so that you can be
seen. Whether you have to run a few miles of road before hitting the trail
or need to cross a road, you want to let the drivers know you’re there. If
this might be a frequent scenario for you, consider a headlamp or flashlight
with a rear-facing, blinking red light that you can turn off. Such a light
could be annoying on the trail if you can’t shut it off, but it’s a nice safety
bonus on the roads.
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Trail Tools 81
Navigation Equipment
You might often be running trails that you’re quite familiar with or running
with folks who know the route well, but you may also venture into new ter-
rain. A useful tool for such adventures is a map, whether a fancy plastic map
from the outdoor store or a quick printout from a website (adequately protected
from your sweat as well as potential precipitation and water crossings). If you’re
in an area with tons of natural space, your map should extend beyond your
planned route in case you take a wrong turn or need to bail. If you’re not well
acquainted with the broad geography of the area or can’t reliably read nature’s
clues on cardinal directions,
take a compass with you.
Even a tiny compass with only
five degrees of accuracy can
help sort things out if you’re
on trail and have a map.
It’s been more than a decade
since wrist-top GPS units first
hit the market. They’re now
much smaller and more reli-
able. Some have a helpful
back-to-start function that
plots your course to that point
in case you need to backtrack
your way out of going off
course. You should also be able
to preload GPS waypoints or Maps, compasses, and a GPS should be part of
even entire routes to keep you a trail runner’s navigational tool kit.
on the right track.
Smartphones are another navigational tool. Whatever phone and operat-
ing system you have, map apps can plot your current position. If you might
be using your phone to navigate and there’s a chance that you’ll enter areas
without cell service, try to find an application that preloads map data so
that you’re not stuck staring at a blank screen when you need it most. As
with wrist-top GPS devices, some map applications allow you to preload
waypoints and entire routes.
A word of caution: If you’re relying on an electronic device as a navigation
aid, be sure to top off the charge before heading out. Turning off unused
features, such as putting a phone in airplane mode until you need it or
disabling the heart-rate function on a fancy GPS watch, can extend the
battery life. But consider yourself warned: The usefulness of these devices
is negated completely when the end of their battery life is reached. Even if
you plan to navigate with an electronic device, carry a map as a backup.
You’ll learn a great deal more about the ins and outs of trail navigation
in chapter 10, “Trail Safety and Stewardship.”
Scenario-Specific Gear
So far in this chapter, we’ve looked at the gear most commonly used by
trail runners, the real bread and butter stuff. In this section, you’ll learn
about equipment more suited to specific conditions or gear used because
of personal preference.
Gaiters
A prime example of the role of personal preference in choosing trail run-
ning equipment is gaiters. Gaiters are pieces of fabric that attach to your
shoe and cover some or the entire upper of your shoe and ankle. When
trail running, the primary purpose of gaiters is to keep debris out of your
shoes by covering the shoe openings at the tongue and ankle as well as to
provide an extra barrier over the mesh portions of the uppers. Gaiters can
be effective in keeping loose dust and dirt as well as small debris (pebbles,
pine needles, bits of twigs, and so on) out of your shoe. So, the more of that
stuff you’ll see on the trail, the better the case is for gaiters. On the other
hand, gaiters can trap heat, leading to damp, sweaty feet, and they can
keep shoes from draining or drying should they get wet. Gaiters also make
adjusting your shoelaces more difficult. Despite their possible usefulness,
many trail runners forgo wearing them because they’d rather deal with
some occasional grit in their shoes than the downsides of gaiters.
Perhaps the two strongest cases for using gaiters are sand and snow. A
full-coverage, breathable gaiter can eliminate the need to stop frequently
to remove sand from your shoes if you’ll be running in long stretches of
it. Waterproof gaiters worn with waterproof shoes can be quite effective
when running through snow.
Trekking Poles
The use of trekking poles is one of the major differences between trail
running in the United States and continental Europe. In Europe, runners
use them in trail races of all sorts, and you’re bound to see runners with
them on the most popular Alpine trails. In the United States, you have to
head to the highest and steepest of races to find runners with poles. Even
then, the proportion of runners with poles will be much smaller than that
seen in Europe. That difference may largely reflect the difference in ter-
rain. The heart of Europe, where a huge number of the continent’s trail
runners train or race, is full of long, steep climbs, whereas most trails in
the United States, even in the mountains, are at shallow grades that reduce
the usefulness of trekking poles.
Sustained, steep trails are where trekking poles are most useful. If you
already have them with you, they can provide a boost on shallow climbs
and even a bit more pace on flat ground when your legs are fatigued. They
can also be useful as a third or fourth point of contact when crossing a
stream with uncertain footing or swift water. (A couple of streamside sticks
Give yourself a boost with trekking poles on long or steep climbs.
can serve the same purpose in a pinch.) Finally, they can be used to take
some strain off your quads on prolonged descents.
Many general-use trekking poles are on the market, so what should
you look for in a pair? Well, light weight is a bonus because most trekking
poles are designed with hikers in mind. Even more desirable are collapsible
poles. These will be either telescoping poles or accordion-style poles, both
of which lock into place. Some poles have an additional adjustment that
lets you fine-tune their height. Be sure to check whether the poles you’re
buying are sized in addition to being adjustable. Unless you intend to use
trekking poles on snow, look for poles with only tiny baskets above the tips
to lessen the chance that they’ll get caught on low brush.
Gaining Traction
Should you encounter wintry conditions, you might welcome a little extra
traction. One way to gain that advantage is to slip a set of traction devices
over your trail shoes. A multitude of manufacturers have now entered the
market and offer a range of designs. Two designs stand out: the Yaktrax
Pro and Kahtoola MICROspikes. Of these, the Yaktrax Pro are lighter, less
expensive, and the best all-around option. If you’ll be running on much
ice, the MICROspikes offer a little more bite.
The cheapest way to add traction is to “screw your shoes.” Aside from
providing a good chuckle over the phrase, inserting 8 to 20 sheet-metal
screws into the outsoles of a worn pair of running shoes (most folks convert
a previously used pair and dedicate them to this use) can add a great deal of
traction. A number of similar commercial products are on the market, but
3/8-inch or 1/2-inch (10 or 12 mm) #8 hex-head sheet-metal screws from
83
the hardware store work just fine.

Make sure to insert the screws into
deeper lugs so that they don’t poke
through into your foot. Use an elec-
tric screwdriver with a 1/4-inch (6
mm) socket to keep yourself from
going crazy trying to hand crank
screws into dense rubber. The head
of each embedded screw thus offers
bite into snow or ice. You can find
full instructions on how to make a
screw shoe online.
A few shoe brands offer models
with carbide tips embedded in
the outsole. At the moment, these
brands include Icebug, Inov-8, and
Salomon. The tips don’t do much
on soft snow, but they can provide
extra traction on ice.
Safety Items
A number of safety-related items
that we’ll discuss further in chapter
10 should be carried on some trail Screw shoes ready for winter exploration.
runs. These include water-purifi-
cation systems, fire starters, signaling devices such as a mirror or whistle,
and first-aid supplies.
Outfitting yourself for the trail isn’t rocket science. Wear clothes that keep
you comfortable. Bring the food, drink, and auxiliary gear you’ll need to
stay happy, as well as a way to carry it. Remember, you don’t need much.
One of the allures of trail running is that often all you need to do is throw
on some shoes and clothes and head out the door. Now, get out there!
One Last Thing
So you’re out for your awesome trail run when, uh-oh, you have to take care of
some urgent business! Did you remember to bring some toilet paper or some
paper towels (they work better if you’re sweaty or otherwise wet) in a pair of
Ziploc baggies? We hope so. The usefulness of the paper is self-explanatory
and one of the bags is obviously for keeping the paper dry, so what’s the other
bag for? Carrying out that used paper consistent with the Leave No Trace
principles discussed later in chapter 10. No one likes to see used toilet paper
blowing around the trails. Refer to the instructions in chapter 10 on how to
poop effectively and ethically in the woods.
MONT BLANC REGION, THE ALPS OF FRANCE,
ITALY, AND SWITZERLAND
Approach Mont Blanc from any direction—its north and west sides in France,
its east side in Switzerland, or its south side in Italy—and it becomes imme-
diately apparent why it’s named the White Mountain. Draped with a cloak
of snowfields and glaciers, the 15,782-foot (4,810 m) behemoth is the Alps’
tallest mountain. With its first-known ascent in 1786, the mountain has long
been an icon for mountaineers, skiers, hikers, and now, trail runners.
The French town of Chamonix and the Italian town of Courmayeur sit on
the mountains’ respective north and south shoulders, and they serve as
year-round recreation gateways to the mountain. If the mountain itself is an
icon, so, too, are Chamonix and Courmayeur. A saunter through either town
will have you sharing sidewalks with dedicated mountain athletes of many
disciplines. In the past decade, these towns have become hubs of both trail
running and racing. Indeed, they make superior vacation destinations for
the singletrack inclined.
The UTMB® is the region’s most famous trail race. Each year some 2,000-
plus runners make the race’s 105-mile (169 km) circumnavigation of the big
mountain. If 100 miles is not your cup of tea, don’t worry; a passel of other
races of all distances start or finish in Chamonix or Courmayeur, such as
September’s Trail des Aiguilles Rouges in Chamonix, which offers distances
as short as 9 miles (15 km). Arrancabirra is an 11-mile (18 km), well, let’s call it
event, taking place from Courmayeur each fall. Along the path of Arrancabirra
are several beer aid stations.
(continued)
85
Mont Blanc Region (continued)
If you would prefer a trail running vacation that doesn’t include a race,
take heart in the knowledge that hundreds of miles of trails snake away from
both Chamonix and Courmayeur, a lifetime’s worth of exploration. Buyer
beware: This is the land of great vertical, and every trail run here will involve
going up and down big hills. But the distractions are grand, from the hulk-
ing Mont Blanc to the rest of the Alps spanning in every direction, not to
mention the wine, cheese, pizza, and gelato awaiting you back in town. You
don’t necessarily have to wait until your run ends to enjoy such indulgences,
either; mountain refuges all over the Alps offer drinks, sandwiches, multi-
course meals, and more.
86
Stephanie Howe on her way to winning the 2014
Western States 100-Mile Run.
Chapter 6
Hydration and Fueling

Often enough, because of the challenges of a trail, you’ll need more time
than you might expect to cover a given distance. Further, a more relaxed
approach while trail running facilitates long outings. Therefore, adequate
hydration and fueling can come into play out in the wilds. Learn here about
what to ingest to stay happy and healthy on the trail.
Before diving into specifics, you should know that most of your trail
runs won’t require hydration and fueling. They will be short enough that
you can rely on your body’s own water- and fuel-storage capabilities. That’s
right. We’re telling you that much of the information in this chapter is
irrelevant to most of your trail running. But when the water, electrolytes,
or fuel needed for a run exceeds your body’s natural storage capacity, you
will need to take in more of that item to have a healthy and enjoyable
experience. This chapter covers those situations.
87
Many new approaches to hydration and nutrition have recently been

developed. Some are based on emergent science, but others are simply
gimmicks. Those based on emergent science need more time for repeated
research before they become accepted by the endurance-sports community.
With that in mind, this chapter focuses on the tried and true theories on
hydration and fueling immediately before, during, and after your running.
Finally, hydration and fueling are an experiment of one. Your body
has unique and variable hydration and fueling requirements based on the
weather, your fitness, and your body’s specific needs and tolerances. You
should repeatedly test various approaches in differing conditions to see
how they apply to you. The good news is that such testing involves run-
ning and is loads of fun!
Hydration
Water and electrolytes are crucial parts of the hydration equation, and the
right quantities of each are required by your body’s systems, organs, and
cells. Almost every part of your body needs water to operate, and water
makes up well over half of your body’s weight. Your blood needs sufficient
water to transmit oxygen and nutrients around the body. Your muscles need
it to perform their continued contractions. Your kidneys require water to
excrete waste products from your body. And on it goes.
Electrolytes, particularly sodium, as well as potassium, calcium, mag-
nesium, and others, are also crucial to the body’s health. The role of elec-
trolytes is even more complex than that of water. These electrolytes do two
things—help maintain appropriate water balance both inside and outside
our body’s cell walls and incite miniscule electrical currents that cause
certain cells, like those of a muscle or nerve, to behave as they should. You
need to regulate both your water and electrolyte intake to maintain the
right ratio for all of your body’s functions.
When you run, you lose water and electrolytes through sweat and waste
elimination while you lose water through respiration. You should replace
whatever water and electrolytes you lose. You don’t always need to do that
during your trail run, so much as over the course of a day through adequate
hydration and refueling.
The human body can healthfully lose about two percent of its body weight
in water before it is dehydrated and before the previously described bodily
functions begin to function inefficiently. In some athletes, however, this
shortfall leads to performance decline. But scientific research has shown
that some human bodies can perform just as well at this and even higher
states of dehydration. Although we don’t advocate undergoing significant
water and electrolyte loss while running, you don’t necessarily need to
take water and electrolytes during shorter trail runs in pleasant conditions.
In the balance of this section, you’ll see how to hydrate immediately
before, during, and after trail running. You’ll then learn the reasons behind
Hydration and Fueling 89
these basic principles. In this sense, you’re getting the sum of the equation
first, followed by descriptions of its parts.
The Quick and Dirty on Trail Running Hydration

Magda Boulet is an Olympic marathoner who converted to competitive
trail running in 2013. She works in research at Gu Energy and has a mas-
ter’s in exercise physiology. Magda says that you need to maintain proper
hydration on a daily basis, not just when you’re running, including taking
in water and electrolytes. All-day hydration is where it’s at, says Boulet: “A
key aspect of maximizing performance is arriving at the start of a workout
or race well hydrated. Many, if not most, athletes cannot consume enough
fluid during exercise to match rates of loss, which has been documented
by many studies. Therefore, prehydration before starting exercise can help
ensure that athletes start the event or exercise bout in a hydrated state and
can improve performance.”
How can you do this? Drink when you’re Staying hydrated in life
thirsty, and stop when you aren’t anymore—in and running is simple:
life, when running, anytime. It’s just that simple. Drink to thirst.
Here are a few more hydration basics:
● Continue to monitor changes in your thirst and resulting fluid intake
in variable environmental conditions such as cold weather, high heat,
high humidity, and an average day of running in your hometown.
Track your sweat rate to compare your thirst and fluid intake with your
fluid expenditures. This record should give you a good idea of your
body’s fluid needs during exercise in various environmental conditions.
(The “Sweat-Rate Test” sidebar explains how to do this.) As mentioned
earlier, in many circumstances you don’t need to hydrate during a run.
You may find that you develop thirst in the later stages of these types
of runs. If that is the case, drink to thirst as soon as your run ends.
● Use extra care and attention to monitor your thirst and hydration in
high heat when your sweat rate can be extremely high and dehydra-
tion can occur more rapidly. Research has shown that some people
have depressed thirst cues in extremely hot environments, so in those
conditions you may need to rely more on your understanding of your
fluid needs than your thirst cues.
● You consume electrolytes naturally through the food you eat. If you
need to supplement your natural electrolyte intake during a long run,
use a food product or supplement at a rate that agrees with your body.
● Lastly, safety should always trump the body’s ability to operate in
low-level dehydration. If you’re headed to a remote place or if it’s a
hot day, carry water, even if you don’t think you’ll need it. If the run
takes you longer than you think or you take a wrong turn, you’ll be
glad you have that water!
Sweat-Rate Test
Because hydration is linked to overall health and performance during running,

we encourage you to take a scientific approach toward understanding your water
expenditure. Magda Boulet explains, “Weighing in before and after exercise can
help athletes figure out the right amount of liquids to consume during exercise.”
First, weigh yourself naked before a run. Then, run for one hour without eating
or drinking anything and without using the bathroom. Weigh yourself naked
immediately afterward and record the weight difference. One fluid ounce of
water weighs 0.065 pounds, so 10 fluid ounces of water weighs 0.65 pounds
(1,000 ml of water is 1 kg.) Do the math to see how much water you lost. That
number represents your sweat rate, the amount of water you lose per hour of
running in those conditions.
Keep in mind that your sweat rate will vary according to temperature, humid-
ity, your attire, your fitness level, and more. For this reason, you should repeat
this test in various conditions so that you can collect a series of data points
representing your sweat-rate range.
Thirst Cues and Drinking to Thirst

The human body has thirst cues, such as the feelings of parched lips, a
dry mouth, or a raspy throat. These are responses to water loss. Scientists
believe that people who listen to their thirst cues by drinking when they
feel thirsty and stopping when those feelings disappear, during daily life
and exercise, hydrate adequately.
As recently as a decade ago, doctors were categorically recommending
that we drink eight 8-ounce (240 ml) glasses of water per day, whatever our
body size, our daily exertion, or the weather. Dr. Timothy Noakes, author
of Waterlogged: The Serious Problem of Overhydration in Endurance Sports, points
to another culturally pervasive issue, at least in our running culture—the
historical recommendation to drink to excess during sports be it through
water or sports drinks. But overhydration can be a serious medical issue,
which is addressed later in this chapter. In response, Noakes began promot-
ing the drink-to-thirst principle as a way to encourage people to drink the
proper amount of water in daily life and during exercise.
Although thirst cues are now believed to be a solid guide to deciphering
how much water each of us should drink daily, scientists also know that
human bodies’ thirst cues occur at different times. Some bodies won’t
produce a thirst cue until a person is approaching dehydration, whereas
others produce thirst cues much earlier. But research shows that, in the
end, thirst cues usually lead to proper hydration when they are heeded.
For instance, people who have a late thirst cue may remain thirsty longer
as they drink. The feeling of thirst disappears more slowly, which allows
them to take in more water to recover their water loss.
When drinking to thirst, some runners find that they feel better when
they sip small amounts frequently, whereas others like to guzzle at irregu-
lar intervals. The water you drink goes to your gastrointestinal tract, and
it’s then transferred elsewhere in your body. The stomach has an average
maximum processing capacity of about one liter of water per hour during
aerobic exercise, an amount that will vary depending on how hard you’re
running, the climate in which you’re exercising, and how much liquid
and material containing calories is in your stomach. Drinking a beverage
containing calories can also slow the emptying rate of your stomach. If you
exceed that emptying ability, water will begin to pool in your stomach,
which can lead to the sensations of bloating, sloshing, and even nausea.
Of course, this is uncomfortable when it happens. With practice, you will
learn your body’s preferred rate of water consumption.
We encourage you to test the drink-to-thirst concept to learn how it works
for you. Spend a day following your thirst cues, including before, during,
and after your trail run. Monitor the color of your urine throughout the
day. If your urine is light yellow, you’re likely adequately hydrated. Any
lighter- or any darker-colored urine could mean that you’re overhydrated
or dehydrated, respectively. You may find that it takes a little while to
identify your thirst cues because people in Western cultures often drink
for purposes other than quenching thirst.
Dangers of Extreme Overhydration and

Underhydration
As noted earlier, water and electrolytes are the two components of hydration,
and hyponatremia is defined as a state of inadequate sodium. This condition
typically manifests in athletes when they ingest too much water and not enough
sodium, resulting in dilutional hyponatremia.
Acute hyponatremia is serious and can lead to coma or death because of
brain swelling following nausea, headache, confusion, and possibly, seizures.
Occasionally, runners are hospitalized or die because of hyponatremia, most
commonly after a race. Use drinking to thirst to avoid this dangerous condition.
On the other hand, extreme dehydration causes your body’s cells, organs,
and systems to malfunction because of insufficient water. The initial symptoms
of acute dehydration include lightheadedness, dizziness, and extreme thirst.
Left untreated, acute dehydration can lead to death from heart failure or brain
swelling. Extreme dehydration is rare because reaching this condition takes a
while, and the body gives off numerous thirst cues along the way to stop you
from getting there. Generally, people who experience a medical event because
of extreme dehydration are in an exceptionally hot environment, which speeds
the dehydration process, is often lacking in water access, and is thought to
suppress thirst cues in some populations.
Staying hydrated in the heat is important for both your basic health and athletic
performance.
Electrolyte Intake
How and when do we actually take in electrolytes while trail running?
Generally, you’ll need to supplement electrolytes only on outings of several
hours, or, rarely, during shorter runs in extreme environments, like high
heat. But unlike achieving adequate hydration by simply drinking to thirst,
getting electrolyte supplementation right is a challenge because the rate
at which you lose electrolytes through sweating varies depending on your
fitness, the amount of electrolytes you consume, the ambient temperature,
your acclimation to the environmental conditions, and more. Every long
trail run can require a different electrolyte intake.
Numerous electrolyte supplements, as well as food and drinks contain-
ing electrolytes, are on the market. Test them one at a time, using each for
a couple of long runs, to see how your body responds. If you’re trying a
supplement, follow the recommended dosing. Start at the low end of the
dosing recommendation and adjust up or down on the basis of your body’s
response. The onset of nausea immediately after taking electrolytes often
suggests that you’re taking too high a dosage or not drinking enough water
when taking the supplements. Electrolyte ingestion should not have negative
side effects, and you should feel like your normal self when you are running.
Pre-Dehydration
As mentioned earlier, dehydration is scientifically defined as a water loss
of more than two percent of your body weight. Scientific research often
92
shows that performance during aerobic sports begins to lapse when an

athlete becomes dehydrated.
Still, the body can perform well in a state of pre-dehydration, before hit-
ting that point of two percent body-weight loss, and some athletes perform
well in a state of moderate, true dehydration. Some scientific studies have
shown that very fit endurance athletes can tolerate a loss of at least six to
eight percent of their body weight before performance starts to drop off.
In fact, the fastest finishers at a marathon or Ironman triathlon often have
the greatest body-weight loss among those in the front of the pack.
What all this tells us is that dehydration and the performance loss that
results from it, as well as the serious health issues that can arise from
moderate to severe dehydration, are all a study of one. Treat yourself as
an experiment, because that’s exactly what you are. We don’t recommend
regularly operating in a state of dehydration, even if you feel good during
it, because every single part of the body requires water, it’s clearly one of
the most crucial parts of our lives. Water your body!
Fueling
Stephanie Howe has a master’s in exercise physiology and a PhD in nutrition
and exercise physiology, and she was the winner of the revered Western
States 100-Mile Run in 2014. She explains the basics of energy sources in
the human body: “Carbohydrate, fat, and protein are the macronutrients
(energy-yielding nutrients) that provide our bodies with energy. We need all
three nutrients to survive and to optimize performance. For an endurance
athlete, an ideal nutrient profile includes 55 to 65 percent carbohydrate, 20
to 30 percent fat, and 10 to 30 percent protein. The exact amounts required
depend on the individual (gender, training level, fitness, genetics, and so
on), but the basic framework remains the same.”
Our bodies can tap carbohydrate reservoirs as well as fat dispersed
throughout the body as fuel for endurance exercise. (The body consumes
a small amount of muscle protein as a fuel source during endurance exer-
cise, but because the rate is extremely low, let’s leave it out of our fueling
equation for the moment. The “Amino Acid Supplementation” sidebar in
this chapter addresses this.) Explains Howe, “First, we have stores of carbo-
hydrate—glycogen—in the muscles and the liver. When we start activity,
the body begins to use this stored glycogen for energy. Around 90 minutes
or so, the amount of stored glycogen begins to dwindle, and the body turns
to another source, blood glucose, to supply energy to the working muscles.
This strategy works only for some time because the amount of glucose we’re
using is not replenished fast enough (by gluconeogenesis in the liver) to
prevent a decline in blood glucose. Blood glucose is closely monitored by
the brain and maintained in a narrow physiologic range, and fatigue sets in
after it starts to decline. Low blood glucose is a sign to the body that there’s
not enough fuel available and subsequently fatigue sets in.”
The body can convert massive amounts of fat for endurance exercise, and
even runners with very low body-fat percentages have many thousands of
calories of usable fat. Because our bodies differ, the amount of carbohydrate
and fat that your body stores and is able to convert varies.
In running, the average human body calls on those energy stores at a
rate of about 100 calories per mile (60 calories per km). At moderate to high
heart rates, the body draws significantly on its glycogen stores and more
minimally on fat. At lower heart rates, the body uses smaller amounts of
glycogen and a lot of fat. You can run at higher heart rates until you deplete
your accessible glycogen. Unless you are consuming carbohydrate-based
running fuel, you will have to slow to a lower heart rate, but you will still
be able to run using your fat stores. This phenomenon—running out of
internal glycogen and not putting in more fuel—is sometimes called “hit-
ting the wall” or “bonking” because it makes you feel weak and forces you
to slow down. To prevent that, we take in fuel during prolonged exercise.
In the following sections, you’ll learn the basic principles of fueling
immediately before, during, and after your trail runs, as well as how you
will need to adapt those ideas to the specific needs of your body. The infor-
mation is presented as the main concepts of fueling first, followed by larger
explanations of those principles.
The Quick and Dirty on Fueling While Trail Running

Here are a few fundamental concepts for fueling before, during, and imme-
diately after trail running.
● Properly fuel on a daily basis, not just when you’re running. Make sure
that your calorie intake roughly matches your calorie expenditures.
Eat a variety of whole, unprocessed foods as much as possible.
● Eat a small meal containing foods you know you can digest two to three
hours before a long trail run. Consume 100 calories of a carbohydrate-
based, easily digestible food source 15 to 30 minutes before beginning
a long trail run. This food could be a fuel designed for consumption
during aerobic exercise, like a gel.
● As mentioned earlier, in many circumstances you don’t need to fuel
during a run, such as a two-hour run during which you can rely
entirely on your body’s energy stores. You may find that you have
hunger cues during such runs. In this case, you can consume a small
amount of fuel to quell those cues until your run is over.
●● Consume 200 to 300 calories per hour of fuel designed for consumption
during aerobic exercise, which includes glucose through maltodextrin
and fructose at a ratio of 2 to 1. Avoid consuming much more than 100
calories at once and try to space those calories over the entire hour.
Howe says, “Fueling should begin within the first 60 minutes and
continue at regular intervals throughout exercise. Normally a feeding
schedule of every 20 to 30 minutes is ideal to supply a steady stream of

energy and prevent stomach distress (by maintaining blood flow to the
gut, rather than a large bolus of fueling with long periods in between).”
● Consume 150 to 300 calories of your preferred recovery fuel in the
first 30 minutes after ending a long trail run or at the end of a shorter,
intense run.
● Safety should always trump the body’s ability to operate well without
fuel while trail running. If you’re headed to a remote place or if the
weather is particularly bad, bring a bit of food with you. What will
happen if you become lost or stuck out there? Although the human
body can survive for days without food, eating food can help keep your
body warm and energized, as well as keep your spirits up.
Fueling Before Running

If you’ve eaten a regular meal within 12 hours or so of a run without having
exercised much, your muscle glycogen stores will be full. But the glycogen
stores in your liver vary from hour to hour. Thus, the purpose of a prerun
meal is to restore the glycogen in your liver to its maximum capacity. The
general recommendation is to eat a meal containing 100 grams (400 calo-
ries) of carbohydrate two to three hours before your run. This interval is
enough time for your stomach to absorb the food and convert it to liver
glycogen. This should also be enough time for any insulin-level changes to
occur and return to normal, which affects how fast you burn through that
liver glycogen. Many experts also recommend a very small dose of glucose
in the 15 to 30 minutes immediately before starting a run. This fuel may
come from a sports nutrition product.
Fueling While Running

As noted, you don’t need to put energy into your body before or during
your run unless you’re planning to burn through your body’s accessible
glycogen stores. And even after that, you could keep going much farther
at a slower pace using your body’s fat stores.
But if you are planning to run long and fast enough to expend your
accessible glycogen stores and you would like to keep running at that pace,
you will need to fuel. You are limited, however, by what your stomach can
process. Shoot for up to 300 calories per hour if you are running at an easy
or moderate effort. If you’re pushing hard, you might be limited to process-
ing 200 or even 150 calories per hour because blood flow shifts from your
stomach to the muscles you’re using to run. Most of your calories should
come from easily digested, high-carbohydrate foods.
For maximum performance, Howe says that we should consume multiple
carbohydrate sources, namely glucose through maltodextrin and fructose at
a ratio of 2 to 1. If you are consuming maltodextrin, your body can process
Sports gels are an easy, portable way to fuel during longer trail runs.
about 60 grams (240 calories) of it per hour. But if you consume fructose
along with maltodextrin, notes Howe, your total carbohydrate absorption
rate increases to 75 grams (300 calories) per hour. She emphasizes, how-
ever, that more is not better in this scenario. The 2-to-1 ratio of maltodex-
trin to fructose is best in terms of what your body can process. When you
combine carbohydrate sources, such as by simultaneously ingesting both
maltodextrin and fructose in that ratio, says Howe, the rate of absorption
will increase and you will have the lowest risk of stomach distress.
Many fueling sources are available, from
On long trail runs, take in 200 sports gels and blocks to cookies, from carbo-
to 300 calories of running fuel, hydrate-laden sports drinks to fruit juice, and
like gels, blocks, or sports others. Test a number of products to see how
drinks, per hour to maintain they make your energy level and stomach
your energy level. On short feel as you run. Runners who have sensitive
trail runs, you won’t need to stomachs or plan to fuel while running at a
eat until afterward. decent effort may find that their stomachs
tolerate run-specific fuels better.
Running fueling is an experiment of one.
Your stomach will tell you what it likes and what it can process per unit
of time. Its ability to process foods while running varies according to how
fast you’re running, what the weather is, how well you’re accustomed to
eating while running, and more. For instance, many people would never be
able to consume 300 calories per hour while running. For others, fueling
on the run comes easy, and their stomachs are flexible to both the kinds
96
Amino Acid Supplementation for Very Long Bouts

of Endurance Exercise
The human body uses a very small amount of its own protein as fuel during
endurance exercise. In most cases, protein represents around 6 percent of
the body’s fuel consumption, but this number can inflate to 12 percent under
endurance exercise duress or if carbohydrate consumption during very long
endurance exercise is not adequate, such as during high-mileage training or a
run of ultramarathon distance.
Says Magda Boulet, “If you are planning to run in these circumstances,
branched chain amino acids (BCAAs) play a significant role in inhibiting central
fatigue during exercise as well as promoting recovery post exercise.” Boulet
continues, “As important as carbohydrate is in sustaining endurance activity,
BCAAs are equally important in the ability to recover and perform optimally
the next day. Studies have shown that BCAAs may reduce muscle damage
associated with endurance exercise and delay fatigue. As exercise intensity and
duration increases, the importance of BCAAs in muscle tissue repair increases.”
Some running and recovery fuels already contain these amino acids. A number
of BCAA supplements are on the market.
and number of calories they consume. Other people have to experiment

with fuel sources and volumes in varying conditions until they find a set
of consumption parameters that works for them.
Recovery and Other Postrun Fueling

You’ve gone for a run using some of your body’s glycogen, some of its fat, and
a bit of its protein stores to fuel yourself. “Nutrition in the postexercise period
is also critical for recovery,” begins Magda Boulet. “Your recovery meal should
include quality protein to maximize protein synthesis rates, speed recovery,
and promote muscle repair. As important, the consumption of carbohydrate
will maximize glycogen synthesis to prepare for the next workout.”
To elaborate, your body has an increased capacity for synthesizing carbo-
hydrate back into your muscles and liver in the 30 to 60 minutes immedi-
ately after exercise. If you’ve gone on a run during which you’ve depleted
a significant amount of your body’s glycogen stores, use this window to
replenish. Make sure that your recovery fueling also includes some protein
to help repair muscle tissues stressed by your exercise and to replace the
small amount of protein you burned as fuel. Today, many recovery prod-
ucts are available, typically powders of easily digestible carbohydrate and
protein that you mix into water before drinking. But many people refuel
with readily available food and drink that are rich in carbohydrate and
contain a modest amount of protein. Pick what tastes good and what your
body responds to best.
Although a detailed discussion of daily nutrition is beyond the scope of

this book, check out Racing Weight: How to Get Lean for Peak Performance by
Matt Fitzgerald for its deep discussion of full-spectrum fueling and nutri-
tion for endurance athletes.
Metabolic Efficiency and Crossover Training
The body uses its internal carbohydrate and fat stores to fuel exercise. Stepha-
nie Howe says, “If we examine the distribution of energy coming from fat and
carbohydrate at varying intensities, there is an increase on the reliance of car-
bohydrate as intensity increases. There is a point, referred to as the crossover
point, where the amount of carbohydrate becomes greater than the amount . of
fat being used for energy. This . usually occurs around 60 percent of V O2
max.”
We’ll talk in detail about VO2max . in chapter 8, “Training for the Trail,” but
for now you should know that your VO2max is the amount of oxygen your body
can absorb during a minute . of the fastest running you can possibly tolerate.
Envision running at your VO2max as running as fast as you can.
Howe continues, “Training can help shift. the crossover point, meaning that fat
can be used at a higher percentage of VO2max to fuel activity. But the important
thing to note is that both carbohydrate and fat contribute at any given intensity.
At rest, we rely
. primarily on fat, but as exercise intensity increases, even to 25
percent of VO2max, we rely on both nutrients. Even though fat may be the
primary fuel at a lower intensity, we never rely solely on fat.”
This crossover point is not fixed. It can vary over a person’s training cycles
and running career. The way you train and fuel can change it. You will benefit
by increasing that crossover point, by training your body to burn additional fat
at higher running intensities.
Moving that crossover point and thereby increasing your metabolic efficiency
requires you to modify your training and fueling. While training, spend the
beginning of a training cycle running below your crossover point, which you
can determine by an exercise test conducted by sports medicine profession-
als. When fueling and not running, decrease your intake of carbohydrate that
is not fruit based or vegetable based. For fueling while running, when you are
training below your crossover point early in your training schedule, don’t fuel.
Later in your training, when you are running at speeds above your crossover
point, supplement with traditional carbohydrate-based running fuel. But if
you’ve increased your crossover point, you’ll find that you should need much
less than the standard intake of running fuel.
The benefit of all this is to make you more fuel efficient when running, in all
of these respects.
To learn more about metabolic efficiency and implementing its concepts into
your running, read Metabolic Efficiency Training: Teaching the Body to Burn
More Fat by Bob Seebohar.
Troubleshooting Hydration and Fueling

Problems
No matter how hard you try, you’re going to mess up your hydration or
fueling at some point in your trail running career. More likely, it’s going
to happen many times. Sometimes you’re going to feel awful as a result,
so you need to troubleshoot those circumstances, get back to feeling good
again, and add that experience to your knowledge base so that you can
avoid or minimize similar problems in the future.
Here are some of the more common problem scenarios you might encoun-
ter and ways that you can cope with them.
Symptom
Sudden fatigue (especially if you’ve run more than three hours)
Potential Cause
Glycogen depletion
Correction
If you go from energetic to feeling weak or seeing your pace slow signifi-
cantly over a short time, you’re likely experiencing glycogen depletion.
Consume about 100 calories of a running-fuel product every 15 to 20 min-
utes. Stephanie Howe explains, “The best choice is simple carbohydrate,
in either liquid, gel, or energy block consistency. I think a soda, like Coke,
works well in this situation. It’s easy to get down and quickly enters the
bloodstream. Drinking something for a quick pick-me-up is the first step.
Then, to prevent a relapse, you need to get back on a schedule of frequent
fueling—every 20 minutes. Keep the calories coming in. You may have to
slow your intensity for a little bit until your body can recover.” You’re likely
to start feeling better within 30 to 60 minutes.
Symptom
Bloated or sloshing stomach
Potential Cause
Overhydration, electrolyte deficiency, or overfueling
Correction
If your stomach begins to feel or look noticeably bloated (in contrast to
swelling in your hands or feet), or if you can hear or feel your stomach
sloshing, you have a buildup of unprocessed food or liquids in your stom-
ach. In this case, either you’ve consumed too much material too quickly
for your stomach to process or you’ve consumed too much material and
not enough electrolytes. Howe suggests that the right ratio of water and
electrolytes is necessary for the processing of materials in your stomach.

In this situation, you may be able to decipher the cause by recalling what
you’ve most recently consumed.
Did you take in a whole bunch of water quickly because you felt thirsty?
If so, give your stomach some time to catch up by not putting anything into
it, either food or water, for 30 minutes. In addition, think about slowing
your pace so that your body can divert oxygen being used in your muscles
to your stomach for increased absorption capability.
Have you been drinking water normally but not consuming electro-
lytes? If so, take some electrolytes and wait for at least 30 minutes to see
whether the bloating and sloshing start to disappear. If they do, return to
your normal electrolyte schedule, if you have and need one. If they don’t,
take another dose.
Symptom
Swollen fingers, feet, or other body parts
Potential Cause
Electrolyte deficiency
Correction
The occurrence of swollen fingers, feet, or other body parts during trail
running can be the result of consuming too few electrolytes for the amount
of water inside your body. If this is the case, your body will siphon those
electrolytes (along with adequate water) to the place it needs it the most for
the aerobic exercise, the bloodstream. Excess water, if it has already been
absorbed by your gastrointestinal tract and is among your body’s systems,
will be shuttled to extracellular spaces. The result is noticeable swelling,
which concentrates in the hands and feet of some people and causes gen-
eral body swelling in others. Correcting this issue should be simple: Give
yourself a dose of electrolytes along with a bit of water so that they can be
absorbed by the stomach, and then return to proper electrolyte (according
to your personal experiments with electrolytes) and water intake about 30
minutes later. The swelling should begin to recede within an hour.
Be aware that appendages can also swell in cold weather, at high altitude,
or when you’ve been walking for long periods.
Symptom
Cramping
Potential Cause
Muscle fatigue or electrolyte deficiency
Correction
Cramping of your major running muscle groups, such as your quadriceps,
hamstrings, and calves, can occur because of simple muscle fatigue. For-
tunately, if you call it a day when this happens, the cramping will stop. A
short walking break can cure those cramps, as can drinking or even swish-
ing an electrolyte beverage around your mouth. Although it’s not a cure,
some light stretching of the affected muscle can also feel good.
The cramping of random muscles, such as those of your hands, forearms,
or neck, along with your major running muscles can result from electrolyte
deficiency. If electrolyte deficiency is likely the cause, consume electrolytes
along with appropriate water. If the conditions haven’t abated in 30 min-
utes, take another dose. This should correct the issue. Maintain a proper
electrolyte intake afterward, if you take electrolytes.
Symptom
Nausea (which can progress to vomiting)
Potential Cause
Presence of undigested food in the stomach, not enough water for food to
digest, overhydration, or too many electrolytes
Correction
Phew! Nausea is the most complicated condition to troubleshoot because it
can result from many causes. The best way to start troubleshooting nausea
is to think about what you’ve been eating and drinking to see whether
you’ve taken too few or too many electrolytes or something else. If you
suspect that you have undigested food in your stomach, you’ll probably
need to slow down a bit so that oxygen can divert from your muscles
to your stomach to aid digestion. If you feel nauseous in addition to the
sensation of a bloated or sloshing stomach, you may have overhydrated or
you may not have enough electrolytes in your stomach. In this case, take
electrolytes and give it a little time to see whether the nausea (and stomach
sloshing) abates. Finally, you may have too little water in your stomach for
the amount of food or electrolytes that are there and waiting to be digested.
If you suspect this could be the case, you’ll need to consume enough water
to get the job done. Sip water slowly, however, so that you don’t further
inundate your already taxed stomach. In this complex scenario, what you
do may not fix your stomach and you will have to try something else. Don’t
forget that slowing down or stopping your run will probably help, too. If
worse comes to worst and you do vomit, this unpleasant emptying might
reset your stomach and give you a clean slate with which to work.
TORRES DEL PAINE NATIONAL PARK, CHILE
Way down in the southern tip of South America in Chile’s Patagonia region, not far
from where the land yields to the meeting of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, lies
Torres del Paine National Park. Although the park’s namesakes, the insanely pho-
togenic Torres del Paine—three rock fingers sticking vertically into the sky—have
helped the park become a household name around the world, the park gets relatively
few visitors and not many people arrive knowing much about the park beyond those
impossible rock towers.
When they do arrive, tourists find glacier-carved mountains, glaciers, rivers, lakes,
forests, and steppes, as well as robust wildlife populations including guanacos, pumas,
birds, and more. They’ll also find a national park, although it was first established in 1959
and has expanded multiple times since then, the park is still in the throes of recovery
from pre-national-park farming and grazing. Throughout, visitors will find a climate of
extremes; wind and rain are almost everyday occurrences.
Finally, trails await, of course. The O and W Circuits are the most popular trails of
the national park, named because of the shape they make on a map. The W Circuit is
an abbreviated version of the O Circuit, which is a full-monty loop of the Paine Massif
including a couple of out-and-backs into side valleys. Trail runners can plan anything
from a daylong out-and-back on these circuits to a multiday running tour supported
by overnights in the refuges of the park. Beyond these popular routes, the park has
many other hiking trails that you can run, as well.
If racing is your thing, you’ll be happy to know that the racing scene of the Patagonia
region of Chile, including Torres del Paine National Park, is rapidly expanding. Every year
for the last couple of years, new trail races of varying distances have been established.
Should you decide to participate in a trail race here, do your research and be prepared
for a more remote, less-supported trail racing scene than you may be accustomed to
in other parts of the world.
102
Challenging conditions empower a runner atop
Pritchett Canyon outside Moab, Utah.
Chapter 7
Conquering the Conditions

The world can throw some pretty nasty conditions our way, from blistering
heat to frigid cold and much in between. Although such conditions might
send some folks inside to the treadmill or the sofa, the good news is that
you can trail run in almost any condition so long as you are adequately
prepared and equipped.
That said, heading out into treacherous conditions underprepared or ill
equipped is a major no-no. In doing so, you risk not only your own well-
being but also that of anyone sent out to aid you or search for you.
With that in mind, three steps can greatly increase your safety and the
safety of others when you tackle extremes while trail running:
1. Plan. The first step to being safe in any extreme trail running situ-
ation is to assess both the likely and long-shot dangerous aspects for
the run and develop a plan to minimize danger to yourself by your
route, fuel and hydration, and equipment selection.
103
A twilight run can be captivating, not to mention cooler.
2. Share. Share that plan, including a preferred route and one or more
bailout options, with someone not on the run in case something does
go wrong. Counsel them about how much time cushion they should
allow after your planned return before they take action. The more
extreme the conditions are, the shorter the time cushion should be.
And the more personal experience you have in those conditions and
the more equipment you carry, the longer the time cushion may be.
3. Play it safe. Finally, whatever your plan and safety backup, you still
need to take care of yourself out there. Ultimately, you are responsible
for your well-being, so err on the side of caution. The 110-degree Fahr-
enheit (43-degree Celsius) day likely isn’t the best day to check out
that stone spire on the other side of an unknown canyon. Likewise,
you shouldn’t test your rock-hopping skills across a stream when it’s
minus 10 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 23 degrees Celsius) or practice
your alpinism 10 miles (16 km) from home with a storm blowing in.
With that in mind, let’s look at exactly how you can maximize your
enjoyment and safety when running in extreme heat and extreme cold,
how to brush off the elements in heavy rain or snow, how to avoid getting
burned by the sun or lost in the dark, and what to do in the thin air at
high altitude.
Extreme Heat
Extreme heat is extremely detrimental to performance. Even moderate heat
can slow you down. In a study of road marathoners, runners slowed from
1.6 to 3 percent for every 10 degrees over 55 degrees Fahrenheit (every 6
104
Conquering the Conditions 105
degrees over 13 degrees Celsius). This performance decline occurs because

your blood supply is shifted from the leg muscles to the blood vessels near
the skin in an attempt to prevent overheating.
Heat-Related Health Issues

Aside from decreased performance, heat can lead to a host of minor and
major medical issues. On the minor side, nausea can quickly creep into
the picture, especially if you’re eating or drinking, as blood is moved from
your gut to your skin and muscles.
Heat exhaustion and heatstroke are more serious. Heat exhaustion can
include the following symptoms: heavy sweating, rapid pulse, nausea,
vomiting, fatigue, cool skin
with goosebumps, headache,
and dizziness. At this point,
the solution is to stop run-
ning, move to a cool place,
drink cool water or sports
drink, and, if possible, use
cooling methods like a cool
shower, a fan, towels with ice,
and more. If your condition
doesn’t improve within an
hour, seek medical attention.
If untreated, heat exhaus-
tion can progress to heatstroke,
an extremely urgent and seri-
ous medical condition in which
the body temperature rises to
104 degrees Fahrenheit (40
degrees Celsius) or higher.
Heatstroke requires imme-
diate emergency medical
treatment because it can
quickly damage the heart,
brain, kidneys, and muscles.
If untreated, heatstroke can On a hot day, the shade of a rock offers a runner
lead to coma and death. respite.
Sy m pt om s c a n i nc lud e
altered mental states or behavior (reduced level of consciousness, confu-
sion, agitation, slurring of speech, delirium, seizures), alternation between
sweating and not, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, flushed skin, rapid breath-
ing, rapid heartbeat, and headache. While awaiting emergency medical
treatment, a suspected heatstroke victim should be moved to a cool place,
have excess clothing removed, and be actively cooled (but do not place the
person in an ice bath).
Avoid the Heat

Perhaps the best way to deal with extreme heat is to avoid it altogether.
Finding shade is often a good way to stay cool. In a forest, the shade and
plant-respiration-based cooling can often make the environment noticeably
cooler than open space. Likewise, a run in the shadows of mountains or
hillsides can be cooler than running on ridges. One key caveat for seeking
out shade is that narrow, rocky canyons that receive midday sun can be
much warmer in late-afternoon shade or even the following morning as
the rocks bake and then radiate heat long after the sun is gone.
If you can’t find a locally cool environment for a midday run, try run-
ning early in the morning or at night. On average, days are at their coolest
right at dawn, so the early bird certainly has an advantage here. Although
it’s noticeably hotter at sunset than at sunrise, the environment cools down
after the sun goes down. The longer you wait after sundown, the cooler
things should be, so night owls have an advantage here. To avoid the worst
heat, avoid running in mid- to late afternoon when temperatures are usu-
ally at their highest.
If you run enough in the same area, you may notice that some locations
simply tend to be cooler than others. Obviously, seeking out such places on
hot days can be beneficial. Some spots to look for your local microclimate
icebox are higher elevations; along cool bodies of water such as a river, lake,
or ocean; or a vegetated valley into which the night’s cooler air might settle.
Get Naked, Get Wet

Should running in extreme heat be unavoidable, you have a couple of
options for keeping yourself cooler.
To start, you can often wear less clothing that is lighter in weight and
lighter in color. When running in full sunlight in the very hottest envi-
ronments, however, you may want to opt for full-coverage clothing that is
light colored, lightweight, and loose fitting to keep you cooler by reducing
the amount of sunlight absorbed directly by your skin. Likewise, wearing
less clothing on hot days needs to be weighed against exposure to the sun’s
ultraviolet light, which you can read about later in this chapter.
Pam Smith, who won the Western States 100-Mile Run in a blazing hot
year suggests, “When getting dressed for a hot run it may seem like a good
idea to wear as little as possible, but your clothing can actually assist you in
combatting the heat by keeping the sun’s rays from directly warming your
body. Either a hat or a visor will keep the sun off your face, but I always
choose a hat because I can get it wet or put ice in it to cool my head. Some
hats have attachments to keep the sun off your neck. Light-colored cloth-
ing is preferred because it reflects sunlight away from your body. I like a
short-sleeve shirt to keep the sun off my back and shoulders, but others
wear full sleeves to protect the arms, too. I cover all my exposed skin with
a thick layer of sunscreen. This will not only prevent a nasty sunburn, but
also block ultraviolet rays (and their energy), which will keep you cooler.
Many sports-specific sunscreens are available now that don’t feel sticky
when you run.”
In drier conditions, you can dowse yourself in water that you’re carrying
or with water that you find along the way. That water will evaporate and
cool your body the same way your sweat does. In rare circumstances when
you’ll be running for a long time in hot, dry conditions and have ready
access to water, you may choose a light- or moderate-weight cotton T-shirt
to absorb water for prolonged evaporative cooling, like a swamp cooler in
a desert environment.
So long as all signs point to safety, immersing yourself partially or fully
in a body of water also cools you quickly. In particular, submersing your
core, neck, and hands can quickly lower your body temperature, so jump
into that lake or lie down in that shallow stream on a scalding day.
When running from home, you can throw some ice in a water bottle you
carry (great for quick cooling through your hands too) or in your hydration
pack for internal cooling whenever you drink. Although a much rarer find
on the trail, natural ice and snow also provide respite from the heat. Tuck-
ing some snow in a cap can keep you cool for longer than you think. You
can also throw some clean-looking snow or ice in your hydration system.
Speaking of hydration, you want to be even more vigilant than normal in
hydrating in extreme heat. You can read up on proper hydration in chapter 6.
A stream can provide an excellent cool-off spot during a hot trail race.
Staying Healthy in the Heat

Finally, each person reacts differently to extreme heat. In effect, we all have
different heat tolerances. Our individual tolerances vary with our fitness
levels and our acclimation to the heat in the preceding weeks and months.
A lack of acclimation and its accompanying physiological changes is why a
70-degree Fahrenheit (21-degree Celsius) day in early spring can feel and
be debilitating, whereas the same conditions would be welcomed during
the heat of summer. Allowing yourself 10 to 14 days to adjust to warmer
conditions before a particularly strenuous run in heat can leave you more
comfortable and safer.
Smith, also a medical doctor, advises, “On your run, start conservatively.
Because your heart has to do extra work pumping blood to the skin, all
of your normal paces will require more effort. If you are racing, you will
likely need to adjust your goal pace. If you do find yourself overheated,
stop running! Even if you are in a race, remember that your health and
well-being are more important than any finish time. Douse yourself with
water to try to bring your body temperature down. If you feel OK, you
can continue walking, but if you are lightheaded, having vision trouble,
or throwing up uncontrollably, you should find a shady place to sit or lie
down. Find help if you can. Otherwise, wait until you are feeling better
and daytime temperatures have dropped before beginning to walk again.”
Extreme Cold
To some degree, dealing with extreme cold is simpler than dealing with
extreme heat. Although you can take off only so many clothes in the
heat, you can keep putting them on when it gets colder. Just as in cool and
moderately cold conditions, layering is the key. You’ll want to be able to
add layers quickly should your progress slow or conditions worsen. Just as
important, you’ll want to be able to shed layers as temperatures warm or
as you increase your aerobic output. Zippered apparel and tops with sleeves
you can push up add the option for fine-tuning along the way. Basic options
for cold-weather apparel are discussed in the section “Cool and Inclement
Conditions” in chapter 5. Also, don’t forget your hat and gloves.
Hot Foot
Keeping your feet warm can be a bit trickier. Geoff Roes, an Alaska resident
and the 2010 Western States 100-Mile Run champion notes, “The number
one thing to be aware of in regard to keeping feet warm is circulation. It’s
not primarily the amount of insulation that you wrap around your feet that
will keep them warm, but rather your circulation in conjunction with this
insulation. In most cases, increased insulation leads to decreased circula-
tion, and this will always cause your feet to be colder rather than warmer.
In this sense, anytime you

start to add insulation, it’s
important to take measures
to avoid decreased circula-
tion.”
Roes wears “a medium-
weight, over-calf-length
sock (keeping the lower
legs warm will help keep
the feet warm) with a pair
of shoes that are at least a
half-size larger than normal
sizing.” If it’s also windy,
Roes suggests “a water- or
wind-resistant shoe.”
Cold-Related
Health Issues Extreme cold is no reason to shy away from trail
Although the basic method running, including on Colorado’s Mount Elbert.
for dealing with extreme
cold may be simple, cold can quickly lead to injury, loss of an appendage,
and even death. In some cases, we’re talking minutes rather than hours
for frostnip or frostbite to occur when temperatures fall well below freez-
ing, especially if it’s windy. Generally, hypothermia settles in over longer
periods as your core temperature slowly falls. It can happen quite quickly
if you become wet, particularly if you’re immersed in water. Hypothermia
can occur even if you’re moving.
Frostbite is the freezing of skin. It’s characterized by skin that first turns
very cold and red before becoming numb, hard, and pale. Frostbite is most
common on the fingers, toes, nose, ears, and other exposed facial skin.
Minor frostbite, such as its first stage—frostnip—can be self-treated with
gentle rewarming of the skin. Seek emergency medical attention for sig-
nificant frostbite, indicated by skin that is pale or white, skin that remains
numb, or skin that blisters within a day or two of rewarming.
Hypothermia is the dangerous lowering of the body temperature below 95
degrees Fahrenheit (35 degrees Celsius). Mild hypothermia includes symp-
toms such as shivering, dizziness, hunger, nausea, rapid breathing or rapid
heart rate, trouble speaking, or slight confusion. As hypothermia progresses
to its moderate or severe stages, symptoms include increased shivering or
inappropriate cessation of shivering, lack of coordination, slurred speech,
confusion or poor decision making, drowsiness, decreased consciousness,
weak pulse, or slow, shallow breathing. Seek immediate medical treatment
for anyone who exhibits symptoms of hypothermia.
Eating Icicles: Fueling and Hydrating in the Cold
One nonintuitive consideration for very cold days is hydration and fueling.
Although your hydration needs may be slightly lower on colder days, longer
runs will still require some drinking. The problem is that darned tendency for
water to freeze! For shorter runs, you can heat up some water before heading
out, which will give you a bit more time until it freezes. Using an insulated water
bottle, water-bottle holder (whether handheld or waist pack), or hydration blad-
der sleeve can also add time before freezing occurs. Still, the nipple on the water
bottle and the nipple and hose of the bladder system are the items most likely
to freeze. Keeping the bottle or hydration system (hose and nipple included)
under a jacket and closer to your body can help keep the fluid flowing. Smaller,
more frequent sips can also help keep the smaller, more susceptible pieces of
your hydration system from freezing. Blowing water out of the nipple and hose
and back into the bladder after each time you drink also prevents water from
freezing in the nipple and hose.
On the fueling front, gels, chews, and bars can get rock hard in the cold. If
you put your food against your body for 10 minutes before you want to eat,
you’ll have a much more manageable meal. Try placing the item against your
palm inside a glove or mitten, in an interior hip pocket, in the band of your
running bottoms, or, for women, in your sports bra.
Avoid the Cold

Just as you do on hot days, you can adjust when and where you run in
cold weather for a more comfortable experience. Running in mid- to late
afternoon usually means maximizing the day’s warmth, whereas an early
morning run will assure that you’re running in the deep freeze. Choosing
a time and route that keeps you in the sun will also keep you warmer. On
the other hand, you’ll want to stay out of any strong, sustained winds. On
a windy day, a leafless deciduous forest can be a good wintertime solution
for running in the sun with reduced wind.
Dry Body, Warm Clothes

The quickest way to fall victim to hypothermia is to get wet. This can
happen by being rained on, sweating heavily, or being immersed in water,
partially or fully. As such, you should take great care to stay dry in cold
conditions. You need to be even more cautious than normal around bodies
of water and to take greater care to stay dry when it’s cool and raining.
More on that soon.
In terms of mere comfort, Roes notes, “Warming up your head is one
of the easiest ways to warm up your entire body, so often times it’s worth
adding an extra layer on your head, even if that’s not where you are feeling
cold. I have had dozens of times in which I’ve had a chilled-to-the-bone
feeling when running in the cold and had it disappear within minutes of
adding an extra layer to my head.”
Carrying spare clothes is good insurance if you underestimated the cold
or some of your apparel becomes wet. Gloves and mittens have a tendency
to get wet, so carrying an extra pair can be well worth the marginal weight.
Make sure you have a way of keeping the apparel you carry dry from sweat,
precipitation, and possible submersion.
Two additional items you might want on your coldest trail runs are
something to keep your face warm—be it a mask, balaclava, or Buff—and
chemical hand warmers, which can be used to keep just about any body
part warm.
Rainy Days
If you want to hit the trails most
days, you’ll get a little wet at times.
In some climates, you might be rained
on during most runs for months on
end. Either way, you’ll want to be
prepared. How you prepare depends
on the apparent temperature, which
includes the effects of wind. What feels
cool varies significantly from person
to person, so the advice here is subjec-
tive. Besides, preparation represents a
continuum of measures. You’ll want
to experiment (while being cautiously
overprepared) with the rain setup you
use in various conditions. Let’s work
our way from coldest to warmest,
shall we?
Cold Rain
On cool to cold days, you need to stay
dry as well as warm. After you’re wet, Anton Krupicka motors through driving
the cold can make life miserable in a rain at the 2014 UTMB®.
hurry. Therefore, you’ll want to run
in a waterproof membrane jacket. These jackets, along with their options
and features, are discussed in full in the section “Cool and Inclement Con-
ditions” in chapter 5. Here, your goal is to keep out all water. You’ll want
a jacket with a hood to keep water from rolling off your head, down your
neck, and on to your otherwise dry torso.
Unless you’re out for a very long run (more than a couple hours), it’s
a matter of personal preference whether you wear waterproof pants to
complement your jacket. Some people prefer to stick with running shorts,
tights, or maybe light windpants over shorts. The same sort of personal
preference goes along with whether to wear waterproof gloves or mittens.
Temperate Rain
In milder conditions, staying dry in a passing shower is nice, but ultimately,
your goal is to stay warm enough. Doing this can mean getting a bit wetter.
Indeed, if you run in a zipped-up waterproof hooded jacket for long in warm
conditions, you’re likely to get wet from the inside out as you sweat. There-
fore, you might consider a waterproof jacket with additional zipped vents or
even always-open covered venting. Unless the rain will be pouring for hours
or you’ll be running into colder conditions, you might opt for going without
a hood. In light rain or sporadic rain showers, a jacket coated with durable
water repellent (DWR) may be more than enough. In such conditions, a
long-sleeve half-zip shirt can be a valuable tool in fine-tuning your warmth.
Another option in mild conditions where
It is often said that there you’re aiming to stay warm, not dry, might be a
is no truly bad weather in light fleece jacket or vest over either a midweight
outdoor pursuits, only bad wool or synthetic long-sleeve shirt. The key here
gear choices. For a long is in material choice and thickness: You want
trail run, always bring a layers that offer enough insulation even when
little more—whether it is wet to help hold in your body heat and keep
water, food, warm clothing, you warm. Getting the right thickness of these
or other items—than you layers can be a challenge, so make sure to test
think you’ll need.
gear in a benign situation first.
Hot Rain
On hot days, embrace the rain! Rain can be a welcome break from a swel-
tering day. Do keep in mind, however, that rain, especially rain from a
thunderstorm or at high elevations, can be a great deal colder than the
ambient temperature. So if you’re out for a long run or in a remote area,
consider carrying an emergency backup layer if cold rain is likely.
General Considerations on Rainy Days

Of course, rain itself isn’t the only thing you need to deal with on a rainy
day. You’ll likely have to deal with mud. Look at the section in chapter 3,
“Getting Dirty: Muddy Trails,” to learn about various techniques for finding
additional traction on mud. Heavily lugged shoes can also help you find
more traction. Sometimes, however, the right call is to skip running on
muddy trails altogether. Read “Dirty Politics: The Ethics of Muddy Trails”
in chapter 3, which will give you the tools to decide when and where you
should seek out drier trails.
In any wet conditions, from cold through warm, you’ll want to have a
full change of dry clothes to change into when you finish your run. Oth-
erwise, after you lose the warmth produced by running, you can become
cold quite quickly.
Finally, if you’ll be carrying nonwaterproof electronics, such as a mobile
phone or camera, make sure to place them in a resealable plastic bag or
a small waterproof stuff sack. If you’re on a run long enough to warrant
extra clothes, you’ll want to keep them dry in a plastic bag or stuff sack, too.
Snow Day!
As discussed in the section “Winter Wonderland: Wintry Trails” in chapter
3, running in and on snow can be a blast. A short trail run in light snow
might not call for an alteration of your normal routine. Throw on your
shoes and some cold-weather clothes and get out there!
Colorado resident Anton Krupicka uses winters as a chance to change
up his trail running. “In general, I use the winter weather and trail condi-
tions as a good excuse to slow down and take a less-intense approach to
my running. I know I’m not going to be setting any PRs on my local climbs
when there’s a foot (30 cm) of fresh powder, but for me the winter trails
provide an experience that I find extremely rewarding in other ways. With
fresh snow covering everything, the scenery completely changes, providing
some of the most beautiful surroundings that I encounter all year. The snow
muffles sounds, too, offering a very calm, peaceful environment. All of this
combined with the challenging footing means that in the winter I focus
on just maintaining the ritual of getting out there every day and enjoy-
ing my surroundings, not necessarily being concerned with maintaining
a certain pace, heart rate, or intensity of effort. Most of my uphill efforts
end up being no more than a hike, because of the footing. After the snow
melts in the spring, however, I’m often surprised at how simply focusing
on consistency and not intensity through the snowy months has laid a solid
foundation of basic fitness for the spring and summer.”
Snow Comfortable
The same cautions and appropriate reactions laid out in the previous two
sections apply to running in the snow, but staying dry is often much easier
than when running in the rain. If it’s more than a few degrees below freez-
ing, snow will routinely bounce off your apparel without sticking. If it’s close
to or slightly above freezing and sloppy snow is falling, you might want a
waterproof jacket. In between, a jacket with a DWR treatment can be the
answer. Just be aware that the DWR properties fade with use and wash-
ings, although after-market products can reinvigorate the DWR coating.
You’ll also stay drier (and warmer) if you stay on your feet. If you skipped
over it, go back to the section “Winter Wonderland: Wintry Trails” in chap-
ter 3 for an extensive discussion on staying upright on snowy or icy trails.
Anton Krupicka amongst Colorado’s Flatirons after a snowstorm.
Navigating in the Snow

Aside from staying upright on snowy trails, you might occasionally be in
a situation where navigation issues arise from the snow. This issue will
rarely come up when you’re running on familiar trails, but use caution
when exploring new trails in heavy snow. First, your ability to visually
navigate by landmarks and topography can diminish or vanish in heavy
snow. Second, trails and even your reassuring footprints can quickly be
erased in heavily falling or blowing snow. In other words, you might con-
sider forgoing an exploratory trail run on a snowy day and instead enjoy
your favorite trails with a twist.
Although the topic is largely beyond the scope of this book, you should
be aware that snow, whether fresh or weeks old, can present avalanche
danger on some slopes. If you’ll be running through steep, mountainous
terrain, do your due diligence to see whether, when, and where your trail
running might put you in avalanche danger. If that’s a possibility, avoid the
danger or continue your learning to mitigate your risk. A good first stop
is the American Avalanche Association’s website (www.avalanche.org).
Sunny Days Are Here Again

Although feeling the sun on the skin can energize like few other things,
too much of a good thing isn’t all that good. Sun is particularly troublesome
the closer you get to the summer solstice, when the sun is at its highest
angle and the earth’s protective atmosphere between the sun and your
skin is at a minimum.
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Sun Exposure
Obviously, brilliantly clear
skies maximize exposure
to harmful ultraviolet (UV)
rays, but you can sunburn
even on an overcast day.
The arid air of the desert
can result in a stronger
sun. Snow cover can reflect
massive amounts of U V
radiation and cause wicked
burns (as well as tempo-
rary sun blindness). Higher
elevations also expose you Anna Frost and friends running in the sun high in
to higher levels of UV light, Montana’s Beartooth Mountains.
which can be made all the
worse by lingering snowpack. If you’re light skinned, red-haired, or freckled,
you probably know that you’re particularly susceptible to sun overexposure.
Avoiding the Sun

So what can you do to keep from being sunburned while out on the trails?
Well, for starters you can avoid the worst of the sun. One way to do this is
to minimize exposure between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. (The sun is at its stron-
gest at midday, but this range is centered one hour later to acknowledge
that many locations apply daylight savings time during the summer.) As
with avoiding heat, you can seek out shade whether from a forest canopy,
canyon wall, or another source.
Blocking the Sun

Whether or not you can avoid the worst of the sun, additional protection
might be in order. As anyone with a farmer’s tan can testify, clothing makes
a good sunblock. For skin that you leave exposed—particularly on your
head, hands, arms, and torso, apply a broad-spectrum sunblock of SPF 30
or higher. Look for a sports-specific or sweat-resistant sunblock.
On its own, a brimmed cap can provide moderate protection for your
face and a second layer of protection when you use sunscreen. A cap is
paramount for men who might not be as lusciously locked as they once
were. Prolonged exposure to extreme solar radiation may mean wearing a
hat with a rear cape or 360-degree brim.
One final piece of protection you’ll want for those sunny days is sun-
glasses. Sunglasses make trail running much more comfortable in bright
light, and a pair with broad-spectrum UV protection significantly shields
your eyes in both the short and long term.
Into the Night

Trail running at night is magic. The world is quieter. The sun’s harsh shad-
ows are replaced with soft moon shadows or even star shadows. (Yes, the
light of the stars and planets can be strong enough to cast shadows on the
darkest and clearest of nights.) The world feels smaller and more intimate.
The distractions of the day seem to fade away. In short, the solace many
seek by trail running is amplified come nightfall.
Rory Bosio has twice run through the night to win the prestigious
UTMB® in the European Alps, and she loves it. “Instead of ogling the
gorgeous scenery, running at night forces us to focus more intently on the
body, on the actual act of running. I love the intense mind–body connec-
tion that comes with running in the dark. The stillness in the air at night
makes running feel spiritual, like one is seeing the world during a time when
humans aren’t supposed to. I don’t feel scared or uneasy being in the woods
at night. Instead, I feel adventurous. I feel like I’m getting a sneak peek at a
part of the world that usually goes unnoticed by most people. Everything
changes in the darkness. The entire vibe of the natural world at night feels
more peaceful, more soothing than it does in the harsh light of day. I love
how time passes differently at night, as well. It’s like the world has hit the
pause button. Mother Earth gets a respite from the turmoil and hustle and
bustle of the daylight. I love experiencing this quietness. It somehow seeps
into my body and makes me feel at peace. Running at night, whether it’s
under the stars or in the glow of the moonlight, is as close to going to church
as I get. It provides a spiritual sensation that connects my mind and body
to the natural world around me like nothing else can.”
Runners congregate before a night run.

If you decide to take on the trails at night,

you’ll usually want to run with supplemental A headlamp is one of the
best tools for running, on
lighting. Various lighting options are discussed
the road or trail. Using one
in full in chapter 5.
opens up extra hours in your
For a bit of adventure, if you find yourself out day for running.
on a night with a bright moon (or a cloudy night
with manmade light reflected off the clouds),
you might want to turn off your light and keep moving by the ambient
light. As your eyes adjust, you’ll be amazed at how well you can proceed.
Navigating at Night
As long as you have a functioning light, your toughest challenge at night
might be navigation. Now, if you know the trails well or they’re well signed
and you have a map, navigating at night poses no added challenge. But if
you’re on less familiar or poorly signed trails, you won’t necessarily have
the visual assistance of landmarks or topographical features to help you
navigate.
Although it can be fun to try on occasion, you don’t particularly want to
get caught on the trails at night without a light. Even if you plan to be home
well before dark on a late-day run, you might want to bring an emergency
light source, perhaps a small penlight or even a fully charged smartphone,
in case your run goes longer than expected.
If you are caught off guard and find yourself on the trails after dark
without a light because you didn’t bring one or your battery dies, err on the
side of caution. Go slow. Follow the established trail. (Don’t try a shortcut
through the bush!) To the degree needed, use the techniques described for
running when the trail tread is obscured outlined in “Hidden Obstacles”
in chapter 3.
Into Thin Air

The high mountains have always drawn humans. They are revered by our
species, and those who venture into them are celebrated. After we start
our way up a mountain, we are called onward by the sirens of the summit.
As we ascend, our spirits soar, and the amount of oxygen in the air
plummets. The less oxygen that is in the air, the greater the reduction is in
your cardiovascular performance. In other words, expect to move slower
on high-altitude runs and prepare accordingly. Above 5,000 feet (1,500 m),
performance decreases by roughly three percent for every additional 1,000
feet (300 m) of elevation gained.
Altitude-Related Health Issues

Aside from leaving you huffing and puffing, the lower oxygen levels at
higher elevations can also make you feel acutely awful. Beginning at
Finding freedom high in the Himalayas of Nepal.
around 6,500 feet (2,000 meters), people can begin experiencing acute
mountain sickness (AMS). Above that height, the likelihood of developing
AMS increases as altitude does. The constellation of unpleasant symptoms
of AMS can include headache, fatigue, nausea, dizziness, and poor sleep.
(It’s kind of like a mountain hangover.) Symptoms can come on within 6 to
10 hours of arrival at high elevation. They rarely last longer than a couple
days. AMS affects people quite differently and can affect the same person
quite differently on different occasions.
You can avoid the effects of AMS by not going high, but that’s probably
not the answer you’re looking for. The good news is that short outings into
the mountains shouldn’t result in AMS. More commonly, AMS becomes
an issue when you travel somewhere to run high in the mountains for a
few days. In that case, try hydrating better than usual throughout the day,
suck down some extra carbohydrate in your meals, and take some over-
the-counter remedies to lessen the symptoms should you encounter the
effects of AMS.
Even relatively short trips to very high elevations can result in the much
more serious, but quite rare, high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE).
HAPE is fluid in the lungs, and it can occur at an altitude as low as 8,000
feet (2,400 m) in healthy people. Signs and symptoms of HAPE can include
difficulty in breathing at rest, coughing, chest congestion or tightness,
wheezing, a blue tinge to the skin, rapid shallow breathing, and a rapid
heartbeat. The initial treatment for HAPE is to descend to lower altitude as
quickly as possible. After that, a doctor’s visit along with rest, oxygen, and
possibly common prescription drugs will get you back to normal.
118
Much rarer is high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE), which starts to

become an issue above 13,000 feet (4,000 meters) and is nearly exclusive
to high-altitude mountaineers. Therefore, we have little need to delve into
it here. Should you be venturing to the high Himalaya or the like, you can
learn more at the Institute for Altitude Medicine website (www.altitude
medicine.org).
As George Herbert Palmer wrote, “Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor
gloom of night” prevents the trail runner from hitting singletrack. A little
forethought and some simple gear can have you ready to run in the gnarliest
conditions. Braving such conditions can enhance your sense of accomplish-
ment as well as the adventure quotient of your runs.
KEPLER TRACK, SOUTH ISLAND, NEW ZEALAND
New Zealand’s South Island is known for its untrammeled terrain. Fiordland National
Park, in the southwest corner of the island, is perhaps its most wild part. Here, in Fiord-
land, as it’s colloquially called, land rises abruptly from fiords—valleys once carved by
glaciers and now submerged in water—and lakes through thick, green forests before
giving way to alpine terrain and jagged, snow-capped mountains. From the town of
Te Anau on the east side of the park, the Kepler Track climbs from the shores of the
town’s namesake lake and makes a 37.3-mile (60 km) loop through the high mountains.
Highlights of the Kepler Track include taking in pretty much all the views above tree
line, gaining the 360-degree perspective from the track’s Mount Luxmore high point
at 4,829 feet (1,472 m), staying overnight in one or more of the huts along the route,
examining Luxmore Cave by flashlight, climbing the steep limestone bluffs that guard
the alpine terrain from the low-country valleys, enjoying the thick beech forests at lower
altitudes, and meeting the spirited trampers, as hikers are called in New Zealand, with
whom you will share the trail.
If you’re keen to tramp the entire Kepler Track trail running style, consider taking
either two or three days to do so, to split the mileage into reasonable chunks and allow
time to enjoy side trips, picnics, and the vistas. The Kepler Track is one of New Zealand’s
most popular trails, and the huts offer limited bed space, so you’ll have to book your
bunk well in advance. Also, bring your own food because it isn’t offered at the huts.
If you don’t have time to take on the whole track, make a long day trip out of an out-
and-back run from the Kepler Track car park to the top of Mount Luxmore and back.
This run of right around 20 miles (32 km) roundtrip will offer you huge bang for your
buck in experiencing much of what the Kepler Track offers. Take note that the weather
in New Zealand’s alpine zones can become severe quickly, so watch weather forecasts
and plan accordingly, no matter how long or short your run is.
120
Max King runs strong midway through
the Western States 100-Mile Run.
Chapter 8
Training for the Trail

Because you’re still reading this book, chances are you’re interested not only
in being a trail runner but also in being a better, stronger, more comfortable
trail runner. This chapter will help you make that happen, whether you’re
looking to run your heart out in a trail race after following a structured
training program or you’re a recreational trail runner looking for ways to
improve part of your trail running game.
This chapter starts by sharing five basic types of workouts used by run-
ners of all kinds: easy runs, recovery runs, long runs, speed work, and hill
workouts. Those tools can make any runner better, and each has a distinct
purpose. Read on to see which might appeal to you and how each type
can be applied to trail running. The chapter also includes sections on drills
and cross-training that you can use to make yourself a stronger and more
agile trail runner.
121
Easy runs can take place on trails as long as you can control your effort based on
the conditions.
Trail Run Training Components

A standard running training program consists of five types of runs: easy
runs, recovery runs, long runs, speed work, and hill work. Keep reading
to learn the how and why of each so that you can effectively use them in
your own training.
Easy Runs
Easy runs are the bread and butter of a trail runner’s training, making
up from 70 to 80 percent of it. Their purpose is to build your foundational
aerobic capacity and fitness. Max King, who was a Division I All-American
steeplechaser and has won road and trail races ranging from 5 to 100 kilo-
meters in length, advises, “The bulk of your training should be done at a
low heart rate between 120 and 150 beats per minute, what’s called the
aerobic endurance zone. This is important for fat metabolism, capillary
development, oxygen utilization, and so on.”
Easy runs are also just plain enjoyable! We don’t need to overcomplicate
what an easy run is: It’s a run that feels easy, in both pace and distance.
You should recover from an easy run almost immediately, feeling about
the same 15 or 30 minutes after the run as you did before it.
122
Training for the Trail 123
With personal and terrain variations, the pace of an easy run might
range from 7 to 12 minutes per mile (4 1/2 to 7 1/2 minutes per kilome-
ter). Regardless of pace, easy runs should always remain conversational;
your effort should allow you to talk easily throughout the run. While
trail running, your heart rate can occasionally rise on short hills, but it’s
best to scale back your effort on longer hills to keep your heart rate from
spiking for more than a minute or two. King notes, “Keeping your heart
rate low is what is important and it may require walking to keep it there,
especially on a trail run.” His recommendation is to keep your heart rate
below 75 percent of its maximum. This is a perfectly legitimate reason to
walk a steep or long hill.
The distance of your easy runs varies based on your running history and
current goals. It may range from 2 to 10 miles (3 to 16 km). In general, an
easy run should not exceed 90 minutes, whatever distance you cover. Vary
the time or distance from day to day by making some easy runs shorter
and others longer.
Easy runs can take place on any surface, including roads or trails, or
some of both in the same run. If you decide to tackle a trail with significant
elevation change, be sure to regulate your effort so that the run still feels
easy. You’ll also find that trail conditions will dictate your effort. Fresh
snow, mud, sand, and rocks, for example, will require more effort than
clear, dry trail. When you encounter these conditions, control your effort
to keep the run in the easy category.
Understanding Heart Rate
The big muscle beating in your chest is an incredible piece of machinery.

Twenty-four hours a day, the heart pumps blood—which is filled with oxygen,
minerals, and other nutrients—that body tissues need to function. When you
run, your heart pumps blood faster to keep the supply chain operating. But, like
any muscle, your heart has a maximal capacity, something in the hypothetical
range of 220 beats per minute at birth. As you (and your heart) age, the heart’s
maximal frequency decreases. A good rule of thumb to estimate your heart-rate
maximum as the following:
220 − your age = your maximum heart rate
In this chapter, you’ll notice that target heart rates are offered for several
types of runs and that those targets are shown as percentages of heart-rate
maximum, which you can easily calculate from your estimated max heart rate.
Keep in mind that everyone’s heart is a little different. Some people have
maximum heart rates that defy their age and their estimated maximum, whereas
the hearts of others beat close to the hypothetical drum.
One of the most common mistakes endurance runners make in their

training is running their easy runs at too hard an effort. You might make
this mistake for many reasons: You’re running with friends and their pace
is faster than your easy-run pace, you feel as if you should be running
faster than you are, you encounter bad trail conditions and push through
them trying to maintain an even pace, or you just get excited while enjoy-
ing a run. Occasionally running your easy runs too fast is OK, but if you
do this often enough, you are likely to find that your body performs more
poorly during your speed work and long runs and generally becomes run
down, as well. Instead, revel in the fact that your fitness allows your runs
to feel easy, and appreciate that you could go much faster. You should feel
no shame in running easy.
Recovery Runs
Recovery runs are easy runs taken one step further. That is, they’re one, or
sometimes two, gears easier. Although the purpose of an easy run is to have
an easy aerobic workout, the purpose of a recovery workout is to increase
blood flow into your body’s soft tissues to help them recover from previous
runs, including the longer or faster runs described later. Those runs have
the effect of fatiguing, tightening, and causing microscopic damage to the
body’s soft tissues. The recovery run actively aids the body in returning to
a healthy status quo.
Like an easy run, a recovery run can vary in pace and distance, but the
pacing is slower than that of an easy run. It’s probably slow enough to call
it jogging, and that’s alright. When you begin a recovery run, perhaps after
a fast run or a race in recent days, your legs may feel sore or heavy. Your
goal for a recovery run is to create an experience that allows your body to
feel better at the end of the run than it did at the beginning. Perhaps you
can channel the thought of “gentle” on your recovery runs. Most experts
recommend recovery runs shorter than one hour, usually in the 20- to
30-minute range.
You can do recovery runs on any surface. The soft surfaces of trails are
especially helpful for recovery because the soft terrain absorbs some of the
impact of your footfalls so that your muscles and joints don’t have to. Some
people find that benign, rolling trails make better grounds for a recovery
run than trails that are more technical or that have significant elevation
change because the latter two types of trails require greater effort to nego-
tiate. Steep climbs and descents can also cause discomfort in sore muscles.
A trail on such terrain might be too taxing for a recovery run.
There’s also nothing wrong with taking days entirely off from running.
An aching muscle or flagging energy can make such a rest day more useful
than an easy run or even a recovery run. On rest days, you can rest com-
pletely or, perhaps, do some light cross-training, which is discussed later
in this chapter.
Long Runs
Few things are better than enjoying a long run on the trails. Although it
can be challenging, a long run—a run substantially longer than most you
complete on a weekly or biweekly basis—is a wonderful opportunity to
travel a significant distance through a beautiful natural environment. A
long run can end up feeling a lot more like play than work. Beyond these
mental benefits, long runs increase your aerobic fitness, strengthen par-
ticular muscles, and generally prepare your body to run farther.
You can define your long run either by the distance you cover or the time
you are out running. A long run can vary from one to five or perhaps more
hours in duration, and the length could vary from 10 to 20 miles (15 to
30 km) or more.
As with an easy run, shoot for conversational pacing. If you go on a long
run with friends, you should be able to talk your way through the entire
run. A long run differs from an easy run in that the length or duration of
the long run is often enough to fatigue your muscles significantly or oth-
erwise exhaust you. In the later stages of a long run, you might find that
although your heart and breathing rates still allow talking, the accumulat-
ing fatigue in your muscles might distract you from lengthy conversations.
For the more technically minded (or the gear geek), aim to keep your heart
rate at roughly 65 to 70 percent of its maximum.
If you pace your long runs correctly, they will feel very easy for the first
half or more. As your muscles fatigue in the second half, you will have to
concentrate on continuing to run despite the discomfort. A common mistake
among trail runners is to start long runs too fast or to work too hard when
climbing or navigating obstacles, which forces them to slow significantly
toward the end of the run. A well-executed long run allows you to run
very close to the same pace at the end as you did at the beginning. Because
of accumulating fatigue, you may find that your heart rate increases for
an identical effort toward the end of a long run. This phenomenon, called
cardiac drift, is one of the reasons that running a given pace at the end of
a long run feels more difficult than it did at the beginning. With this in
mind, it’s OK to run through that sense of accumulating fatigue or to let
your heart rate increase a few percentage points above the recommended
70 percent of maximum, but you should avoid running at this increased
effort for more than the final 20 or 30 minutes of your long run.
If you want to add a little spice to your long run occasionally, try a pro-
gressive long run during which you intentionally increase your effort during
the second half of the run. Progressive long runs garner all the benefits
of the long run while forcing you to work on maintaining a strong effort
when fatigue makes doing so a physical and mental challenge. Avoid taking
your progression to the extreme, or it will take quite some time to recover
from the effort. It shouldn’t feel as if you’re doing speed work; it should
be a steady, challenging push at the high end of conversational effort. For
those interested in heart rate, don’t exceed 80 percent of your maximum

heart rate at the end of a progressive long run.
A progressive long run has many looks. For example, you can gently
increase your effort starting at about the halfway point and then gently
increase it again when you have about a quarter of the run left. In another
example, you can complete almost the entire run at a steady effort and
then significantly increase your pace for the final 3 to 5 miles (5 to 8 km).
A final recommendation on progressive long runs is to be a bit more
mindful of difficult trails than you are on a standard long run so that you
can keep your effort within the preceding recommendations. Keep your
effort in line with your intentions as you progress, even if mud or a hill
requires you to slow your pace a bit.
Speed Work
Getting out on the trails and putting the pedal to the metal is not only a
blast but also will make you a better trail runner. Although speed work
should make up only a small portion of the running you do, it can improve
all of your running, no matter the speed. With speed work, you attempt to
increase your lactate threshold (the running speed at which lactate begins
to accumulate in .your muscles and bloodstream and therefore affects your
running), your VO2max (the amount of oxygen your body can absorb
during a minute of the fastest running you can possibly tolerate), and your
running economy (the physiological and biomechanical efficiency of your
running stride). These gains transfer to your slower running. For example,
an increase in your running economy makes your slower running more
Use speed work to jumpstart your trail running.

efficient, as well. The balance of this section introduces various breeds of

speed work, the effects that each has on the body, and ways to implement
them on the trails.
Measurements in meters, such as 100 or 400 meters, are used to explain
and prescribe some forms of speed work in this section. This is how distance
is measured on a modern, 400-meter (at least around the inner, first lane)
track. Yes, even trail runners can do speed work on tracks because they
provide a perfectly uniform place to monitor the distance you’ve run and
the improvements you make from workout to workout. Just in case you
are still living only in the imperial-units age, a meter equals 1.09 yards,
400 meters is a little under a quarter mile, and 1,600 meters is a bit less
than a mile.
Fartleks
Fartlek is a funny-sounding word (at least to us English speakers) that means
“speed play” in Swedish. Unlike the more structured types of speed work
described later, the basis of fartlek runs is their unstructured nature. The
entire concept is that you play with speed over the course of a fartlek run.
What this means is open to interpretation and, perhaps more important,
your interest. Fartlek workouts are superb workouts for runners who are
new to speed work or who aren’t interested in more structured kinds of
speed training. With fartleks, you’ll reap the benefits of running fast, but
you’ll do so in an unregimented, creative way.
To prepare for a fartlek, warm up by logging 20 or 30 minutes at an easy
effort. Then jump into the speed play. By its nature, your speed play will
vary, but it should include time running faster followed by time running
slower, at the effort of a recovery run, to recover. You repeat this faster and
then slower combination a number of times. The speed and duration of your
faster running can vary among one fartlek run. For example, you could run
hard for 2 minutes, easy for 3 minutes, even harder for 45 seconds, easy for
3 minutes, and so forth. Many possibilities are feasible here, but make sure
to regulate the length of your faster running and include enough recovery
running in between so that you can do each bit of faster running feeling
nearly as good as you did during the previous one.
After your fartlek, make sure to do a cooldown wherein you run at an
easy, conversational effort for at least 15 minutes. The total length or time
of your fartlek run, including the warmup, speed play, and cooldown, will
vary depending on your conditioning and goals, but keep the total distance
of your faster running to no more than 2 miles (3 km) if you are new to
fartleks or 6 miles (10 km) if your body is more acclimated to speed work.
Although technical or steep terrain is detrimental to some speed work,
such terrain can enhance a fartlek. For example, you could use a meadow
that separates two stands of trees or a shorter uphill to define the length
of your fast running. You could then accentuate your recovery period with
a section of flat or gentle downhill terrain. Indeed, defining the hard and
easy sections of your fartlek using your natural surroundings is one of the
joyful aspects of fartleks. The sky is truly the limit with the diversity of
fartleks you can run. Have fun and get fast at the same time.
Steady-State Runs
As suggested previously, various types of speed work target different
aspects of your running physiology. Steady-state runs work on your lactate
threshold, the speed you run when more lactate, a by-product of running,
is produced than your body can utilize and it begins to accumulate in your
body’s muscles and bloodstream. At slower running speeds, the body uses
lactate as quickly as it is produced. But as your running speed increases, so
does lactate production, and your body reaches a point where it is unable to
clear the lactate as fast as it is produced. This point is your lactate threshold.
You cannot run for very long at speeds above your lactate threshold because
your body tolerates the buildup of only so much lactate before you must
slow down and wait for your body to process it.
Lactate threshold varies from runner to runner, but for all runners, it
ultimately limits the length of time you can run at faster speeds. You can
increase your lactate threshold by running just below it for short periods,
which can help train the body to efficiently clear lactate.
Greg McMillan is a renowned running coach and owner of the McMillan
Running Company. The McMillan Running Company website is a go-to
tool for all distance runners looking to improve their running ability. On
his website, McMillan recommends running steady-state runs at an effort
you would race at for races lasting from 75 minutes to 2 1/2 hours, which
equates to about 83 to 87 percent of your maximum heart rate, and which
should be just under you lactate threshold. You will find that running at
a steady-state pace feels like an easy challenge when you first begin. You
will be putting some effort into it, but you might wonder if you are possibly
going too slowly. Stick with the pace and soldier on because maintaining
the pace will get harder. In the end, you should be able to maintain the
same pace, but doing so will require focus and concentration, and it defi-
nitely won’t be easy.
Like a fartlek run, a steady-state run should begin with a warmup and
end with a cooldown. A 20- to 30-minute warmup should feel like an easy
run, and the 15- to 20-minute cooldown should be like a recovery run.
Between the warmup and cooldown is when the steady-state running takes
place. Like all speed work, the length of your steady-state sessions will
vary. Runners new to speed work might try a run in which the steady-state
portion lasts 20 minutes, whereas those who are more experienced could
build up to an hour of running in the steady-state zone.
You can easily run a steady-state workout on trails, roads, or a mix of
both. If you run on a trail, monitor your effort when the trail pitches up
or down so that you don’t overdo or underdo it. Doing steady-state runs or
any of the faster speed work described in the following sections on technical
trails is not recommended. The technicality can distract you from monitor-
ing your effort, and the navigation of rocks and roots can slow your speed
to the point that you are no longer working at the intended effort level.
The best sort of trail for steady-state runs or faster speed work is one with
a relatively even surface over flat to rolling terrain.
Tempo Runs
A tempo run is another type of lactate-threshold run in which you run
the fast part faster and for less time than you do in a steady-state run. The
fast part of a tempo run is generally run at your lactate-threshold effort,
such that you are accumulating significant lactate in your body as you run,
explains Olympic marathoner turned trail runner Magda Boulet. Herein is
the challenge of a tempo run: pushing through that accumulating lactate,
which makes your legs feel like they are burning or weighed down with
lead. This kind of challenge can be a fun one. Boulet says, “This pace should
feel comfortably hard. This pace is a little faster than marathon pace, but
slower than the pace you can maintain for 30 minutes.”
Greg McMillan recommends doing tempo runs at an effort you could race
at for 40 to 75 minutes, which equates to 85 to 90 percent of your maximum
heart rate. After an adequate warmup and before your cooldown, run at
tempo effort for 15 to 30 minutes. When you start doing these runs, you
will find that 15 minutes is a challenging amount of time at tempo effort.
But as your body adapts, you will find that you can increase the amount
of time you run at this effort without an increase in deleterious effects
that make you slow down. This adaptation process is precisely what you’re
shooting for. “These runs are my bread and butter,” says Boulet. “I aim for
a total of 30 to 60 minutes of running at threshold pace each week.” If you
plan to run a tempo run on the trail, choose a benign one.
.
VO2max Intervals
If you want to run fast
. and get even faster on . the trails, you should think
about logging some VO2max intervals. These VO2max intervals approach the
fastest. speed work we. do, and they are meant to be conducted just below
or at VO2max. Your VO2max is the amount of oxygen your body can absorb
during. a minute of the fastest running you can possibly tolerate. Basically,
your VO2max is a measurement of the fitness of your aerobic system. Like
lactate threshold, it varies naturally among humans over the course of a
lifetime and over the.course of training cycles. The good news is that if you
run near or at your VO2max, you can increase it.
If you’ve ever had to sprint a couple blocks for the bus or pushed a
middle-distance
. run in gym class, you know that running near or at your
VO2max is extremely difficult. You can do it for only a. very short time
before your body automatically slows. For that reason, VO2max workouts
are run as intervals.
. In these intervals, you run for a short time at or just
below your VO2max effort and then slow to a jog to recover for the same
amount of time. You repeat this sequence anywhere from 4 to 12 or more

times. Interval lengths can range from 400 meters to 1 mile (1,600 m). The
McMillan Running Company website says to run the intervals at an effort
you could sustain for a race lasting from 5 to 25 minutes. The shorter the
intervals you do, the faster you can go, and the longer the intervals
. you do,
the slower you go. Max King recommends that you run these VO2max inter-
vals at between 90 and 95 percent of your. maximum heart rate. To find
the appropriate pace if you are trying VO2max intervals for the first time,
sprint as hard as you can and then tone things down by one or more clicks,
depending on the length of your intervals.
Your recovery between intervals is as important as the fast running.
Because running at the extreme end of your aerobic capacity is extremely
taxing, you need to give your body adequate recovery. To do so, your recov-
ery periods of slow jogging should be the same duration as your intervals.
Obviously, you will cover much less distance, but the time at recovery
effort is crucial.
As with .all speed work, you’ll want to warm up and cool down. Before
you begin VO2max intervals, do several strides, described later in the drills
section of this chapter, to help warm up your body for the fast running.
The strides can be integrated
. into or done just after your warmup.
One of the beauties of VO2max intervals is their diversity.
. You can use
hundreds of combinations of intervals to create a solid VO2max interval
workout. Here are a couple examples:
● 15- to 30-minute warmup, 4 × 400 meters (or 60 to 80 seconds, if you
want to measure by time rather than distance) with equal recovery
time, 20-minute cooldown
● 15- to 30-minute warmup, 6 × 1 mile (1,600 m) (or 4 minutes and 30
seconds to 8 minutes) with equal recovery time, 20-minute cooldown
● 15- to 30-minute warmup, 2 × 400 meters (or 60 to 80 seconds), 2
× 1,000 meters (or 2 minutes and 45 seconds to 4 minutes), 2 × 400
meters (or 60 to 80 seconds) with equal recovery time, 20-minute
cooldown
.
In trying a VO2max workout for the first time, run just a couple of shorter
intervals. You’ve run enough when you’re unable to maintain the same
pace as when you started the workout. After you start getting
. comfortable
with the pace, try running up to 1.5 miles (2.4 km) at VO2max effort over
the course of your whole workout.. Runners experienced in speed work can
tackle up to 4 .miles (6.4 km) at VO2max pace, and up to 8 miles (13 km)
at a bit below VO2max . pace.
You should run VO2max workouts on a track, pavement, or only the
most
. manicured of trails. Because you need to run quite fast to reach your
VO2max, you need focus to reach and maintain that speed. Distractions
on the trail are likely to slow you and sap your concentration. If you want
to do such a workout on a trail, seek out a flat, wide, dirt stretch such as
a Rails-to-Trails path.
Anaerobic Intervals
.
Anaerobic intervals are intervals run at faster than VO2max pace, at a pace
you can tolerate for only a short time. According to Max King, your heart
rate will be in excess of 95 percent of its maximum during these very short,
fast intervals. In fact, the human body can withstand an anaerobic effort for
only about two minutes. A trail runner runs anaerobic intervals primarily
to improve running economy. The intervals also have some positive effect
on your aerobic capacity. In addition, you sharpen your mental fortitude
when you push through the intense discomfort of anaerobic running.
After a warmup and some strides, you’ll run intervals of between 100
and. 400 meters. In between, the recovery periods will be longer than those
of VO2max workouts. In fact, they should be up to five times the interval
duration. Because anaerobic workouts are extremely taxing, they should
be brief and include just a few intervals so that you can get the most out
of each of them.
Here are a couple examples of anaerobic interval workouts:
● 20-minute warmup, 6 × 200 meters (or 20 to 30 seconds) with recovery
jogging for five times the duration of the interval, 20-minute cooldown
● 20-minute warmup, 4 × 400 meters (or 50 to 70 seconds) with recovery
jogging for five times the duration of the interval, 20-minute cooldown
Anaerobic workouts are best run on a track or the easiest of trails, like
a bike path or rail trail. In other words, do these workouts on a surface
where you can focus 100 percent on the effort rather than worry about
what is underfoot.
Hill Workouts
A trail runner looking to build strength quickly while improving aerobic
capacity needs to look no further than the nearest hill. By varying the
grades and lengths of the hills you charge up, as well the speed at which you
run them, you can imitate every type of speed work described previously.
Says Magda Boulet, “I love incorporating long and short hill sessions into
my training program. I like to balance hill workouts with speed workouts
since both provide similar benefits of improving
strength and economy, which is something that
If you want to be fast run-
all runners can improve.” As a trail runner, hill
ning uphill and downhill
workouts kill two birds with one stone because on the trail, practice to
you’re preparing specifically for the literal ups gain the aerobic ability,
and downs you’ll face on the trail. With stron- strength, and coordination
ger legs and an improved cardiovascular system, you’ll need to do so.
your ability to run hills can make your daily trail
Build strength by hitting hills of all kinds, including shallow and steep
grades.
runs even more enjoyable. On the flip side, hills can be a real drag if you’re
underprepared.
Although you may instinctively think of training to run uphill, do you
need to train to run downhill? Guess what? It’s important, too. If you’re
aiming to be a smooth and sturdy descender, a few types of workouts can
help get you there.
Keep reading for ideas about workouts to get you ready for the hills. If
you want a reminder about effective body position and mental approaches
to running uphill and downhill, look back at chapters 2 and 4, respectively.
Hill Fartleks
As with the speed play on flatter terrain discussed earlier in this chapter,
you can head out for some hill-focused fartleks, too. If you’re brand new
to trail running or you aren’t interested in more structured hill intervals,
hill fartleks might be right for you.
Hill fartleks are made for the trails. Almost any trail, as long as it has
some hills, is appropriate for this type of run. Carry out a hill fartlek as
you would a regular fartlek run, except do the speed play on the uphills
and the downhills of the trail and recover from those efforts on the flatter
sections. Alternatively, you could focus your speed play solely on either the
ascents or descents—whatever strikes your fancy.
Note that you may need to curtail the length of your intervals if a hill
is quite long. Don’t be afraid to roll back the effort a bit if the trail is really
technical.
Structured Uphill Workouts

Uphill workouts are made to be run on the trails. Seek trails with the
appropriate gradient and degree of technicality for what you are trying
to achieve with your workout. In general, the faster your uphill workout
gets, the more you’ll appreciate smoother trails so that you can focus on
the effort, not the terrain. Choosing steeper hills for shorter intervals is a
great way to develop strength and power. On the other hand, you’re likely
better off finding a more gradual slope for workouts during which you’ll
be pushing for stretches of 10 minutes or longer. One easy way to recover
during hill intervals is to jog or walk back down to where you began your
previous climb. If you jog down, do so at a recovery-run effort, no harder.
Always warm up before and cool down on calm terrain after your hard
efforts. Read on to find out how to tweak each of the four types of speed
work to the hills.
● Uphill steady-state runs. Run your uphill steady-state run up a
long, continuous, mostly gentle uphill.
● Uphill tempo runs. For an uphill tempo run, find an uphill that’s
long enough to accommodate the length of your tempo session. Adjust
your pace to the steepness of the hill, so that your effort is at your
lactate-threshold level.
.
● Uphill VO2max intervals. Again, the steepness of the hill defines
your pace.. Although you don’t necessarily need to run a steep hill to
achieve VO2max effort, doing so will help you get into that zone quickly.
.
● Uphill anaerobic intervals. As with VO2max intervals, use steeper
trail terrain to help you get anaerobic more easily.
Downhill Repeats
When you see a trail runner flying down a technical trail, you’ll see that his
or her torso is steady and leaning forward slightly, the head is tilted down
to look at the ground ahead, the legs are cycling quickly underneath the
runner, the feet are landing underneath the center of gravity, and the arms
are flailing to counteract the small changes in balance that occur when
landing on uneven ground. Strong downhill trail runners are a sight to
behold, and nothing can stop you from becoming one of them—you just
need to learn and practice. On the learning side, you can read more about
downhill technique in chapter 4.
The purpose of running downhill repeats is quite different from that
of running uphill intervals. Here, your goals are not to get an aerobic
workout, although your heart rate may increase when negotiating a tough
downhill. Instead, you’re looking to train the muscles of your core, hips,
and legs as well as your nervous system to be fast, efficient, and durable
when running downhill.
Strong downhill running is achieved through practice.
“Muscle Seasoning” Downhill Repeats When you run hard downhill,

you’re asking some of the muscles of your lower body to do a difficult
thing: to be in a lengthened state while absorbing the impact of your body
weight and the extra force created by your body’s mass descending. It’s
like asking someone whose arms are extended and carrying a large load
to manage another bag or two. When exposed to such work, untrained
muscles fatigue and fail quickly. Some trail runners say that muscles need
to be “seasoned” to the act of running downhill, but it’s more accurate to
say that the muscles need to be strengthened by repeated exposure to and
recovery from the extra work of downhill running so that they can do it
without soreness and muscle failure. The quadriceps’ four muscles are the
main muscles that need to be strengthened for downhill running because
those muscles are significantly lengthened in the downhill-running motion.
The best place to run muscle-seasoning repeats is on descents of decent
steepness and light to moderate technicality. Doing them is simple: Run
downhill. Hike or run easily back uphill as the terrain dictates. (Remem-
ber that working the climb isn’t the focus of this workout.) Repeat until
your quadriceps start feeling fatigued. Don’t worry; you’ll really feel the
workout a day or two later when delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS)
kicks in. As you continue to season your legs for downhill running, once
leg-crushing workouts will quickly become easy. That’s when you know
you can increase your downhill workload. See “Ouch! The Scoop on Sore
Muscles” for more information on DOMS.
How long should each downhill interval be? For those trying this work-
out for the first time, the downhill intervals should last no longer than five
minutes each, and they can be repeated a couple times. As your muscles
Ouch! The Scoop on Sore Muscles
Acute muscle soreness is the immediate pain felt by doing a significant amount
of work with a muscle. In contrast, delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is
the soreness you develop belatedly—usually 24 to 72 hours afterward. Muscles
doing work are contracting either concentrically, shortening while being loaded,
or eccentrically, lengthening while doing work. Scientists aren’t exactly sure why
it occurs, but they do know that repeated eccentric contractions cause more
DOMS than concentric contractions do.
As we run across relatively flat ground, various muscles of our body contract
concentrically or eccentrically to support those actions. One muscle group that
contracts eccentrically while running is the quadriceps. When we run downhill,
our quadriceps undergo significantly increased eccentric contractions, which
exposes them to significant opportunities for DOMS development.
If you wake up quite sore a day or two after a run with lots of downhill, don’t
fret. This is normal. Although scientists tell us that exercising when we have
DOMS is OK because the act of light exercise doesn’t further damage muscles,
you’ll still need to allow your muscles recovery time to repair and rebuild. The
cool thing is that if you repeat this process a couple times, soon your quadriceps
muscles won’t get sore at all.
become seasoned, you can increase the length and number of intervals.
Some long-distance trail runners do their intervals at ski resorts that are
open for summer activities. These runners descend a ski hill, take a chairlift
back up, and repeat. Other seasoned trail runners opt for logging a long run
with a great deal of elevation change during which they push the descents
in lieu of running organized repeats.
You should run these workouts on trails to accustom your body to the
steeper grades found only on trails. But you shouldn’t regularly run these
workouts on trails so steep that you can’t maintain good running form.
Coordination Improvement Downhill Repeats If you want to become a
gravity-defying descender, you’ll need to work on your motor coordination.
In trail running, a few key items contribute to our coordination:
1. Muscles and joints of the feet communicate with the brain through
the body’s central nervous system about what is under them and
what is needed to negotiate it.
2. With information collected visually, the brain analyzes a section of
trail and decides what actions will be needed by what body parts to
travel through it. The brain then uses the nervous system to com-
mand those movements by the body.
3. Muscle groups communicate with each other through the nervous
system about how much of the load each is going to take to perform
a motion.
Your coordination is important whenever you’re trail running, but it’s

especially important while descending because you’re moving faster with
greater forces and have less time to react. The good news is that improving
your downhill coordination is easy and fun, even if occasionally harrowing.
Throughout these workouts, you’ll want to focus on good downhill technique.
Ideally, you should run downhill coordination improvement workouts on
moderate or steep technical descents. In these places, the terrain requires
your full attention and all of your body parts must work in synergy with
each other. Your comfort level is important in choosing a spot for these
workouts. Sometimes you’ll want to choose trails that are technically within
your wheelhouse on which you can practice pushing your speed. At other
times, you’ll want to push up to and perhaps beyond your technical comfort
zone to work on becoming more comfortable (and skilled) on such terrain.
Both muscle and nervous-system fatigue will occur when doing these
intervals. For example, proprioception, which in trail running is the way
that the muscles and joints of the feet communicate to the brain and rest
of the body what they are encountering and how to react, lapses during
fatigue. When you find it becoming mentally or physically challenging to
negotiate the obstacles on the trail, that’s a sure sign to stop practicing them
to avoid a dangerous fall.
Your overall approach to the volume of your downhill intervals should
be similar to how you approach the muscle-seasoning downhill intervals
in that you should start with small intervals, build up, and not overdo it
until your mind and body adapt. In addition, you don’t need to do formal
intervals if you care to incorporate meaningful and mindful descents into
some of your training runs. Use care not to overdo downhill running
practice on easy runs.
Trail Running Drills

In the previous section you learned that including highly specific kinds of
running in your training can make you a better all-around trail runner.
Using drills, you can similarly break down the components of your stride
and repeatedly engage them in a highly focused manner. The goals of drills
are to strengthen muscles needed for running and improve motor coordi-
nation. Although you can do dozens of drills, this section outlines a few
that can help take your trail running to the next level.
Strides
If this book were a trail running infomercial, at this point we’d pitch you the
incredible returns that will result from just five minutes of exercise three
times a week. Strides are the simplest drill a trail runner can do, yet they’re
incredibly effective. In essence, strides are 75- to 100-meter (or 10- to
20-second) sprints in which you gradually build up your speed for half the
distance before cruising along for the remainder at a notch or two below
full speed. The goal is to improve your running economy by running fast
briefly without taxing your aerobic system. You should do strides at the end
of an easy run or ahead of very fast speed work. Run five or six strides with
a full-minute break after each (no need for a watch, though). You can jog,
walk, or stand around between strides.
Practice strides to gain running economy.
Fast Feet
Trail runners must be quick on their feet; the brain and body should be
“talking” to each other constantly. The fast feet drill works to develop motor
coordination in a safe, obstacle-free environment. The goal here is to lift
and lower each foot as fast as possible while maintaining good form.
To practice fast feet, find a grassy, flat surface with 20 meters of open
space and get into the runner’s ready position discussed in chapter 2. That
is, lean forward slightly from the ankles and keep the legs and trunk in a
straight, slightly forward-leaning line. Your core muscles should be engaged
but not rigid. Swing your arms and lift your knees, but lift the knees much
less than you do with the typical running stride. Your feet should lift only 3
or 4 inches (7.5 to 10 cm) off the ground

with each step, and you should land on
your midfoot. Let the arm swing come
naturally to reinforce this leg lifting.
Repeat this drill five times for 30 sec-
onds each and rest for 30 seconds after
each repetition. You can do the drill by
staying in one place or by slowly moving
forward, whichever you prefer.
You may find that when you first prac-
tice fast feet you’ll be tired at the end of
the final repetition, and you’ll struggle
to keep your feet lifting and falling as
fast as they did when you began. This
deterioration won’t occur because
you’re breathing hard or because your
legs are fatigued, but because you’re
reaching the limits of your motor coor- This fast feet drill encourages
dination. Focus and concentrate. speedy, coordinated feet.
High Knees
To run trails well, you need a stable
core and a strong, hip-flexor-based
leg lift. The high knees drill helps make
this happen. Practice this drill on a flat,
grassy surface with at least 75 meters of
open space. Put yourself into the run-
ner’s ready position and then lift one
knee up until your upper leg is roughly
parallel to the ground.
This knee lift should be a powerful,
exaggerated one. Bam! Lift hard and
fast. After you drive the knee up, let
the leg naturally return to the ground,
making certain you land gently on your
midfoot. Repeat with the other leg,
speeding up the drill as much as you
can while maintaining good form. Your
arms should swing to act in opposition Gain core and hip-flexor
to each leg lift, just like in the running strength with the high knees
stride. The leg lift and arm swing propel drill.
you forward, but not as far as in a typical
running stride.
A common error is to lean your torso back, past vertical. You need sig-
nificant core strength to keep the torso leaning forward ever so slightly. If
you feel your torso slipping back, you don’t yet have the core strength to
do this drill properly. Don’t worry; this is normal and why we practice.
Be conservative when you add high knees to your routine. Start with five
times for 12 seconds with 30 seconds of rest between repetitions. Over time
you can work up to five 30-second iterations.
Push Backs
When one of your legs is driving for-
ward, the other is pushing off behind
you. That push off is key to generating
speed and power, and the push back
drill will help you develop it.
For push backs, find 75 meters on
a flat, grassy surface and get into the
runner’s ready position. Essentially,
you’re bounding during this drill,
except that your forward motion
comes from the back leg pushing
back rather than the front leg driving
forward. Lift one leg and swing the
arms in natural counter-reaction, as
you would to run normally. With force
and gusto, push backward with the
leg that is still on the ground, which
will propel your whole body forward, Push backs help develop strength
and let that foot naturally lift off when and stability in the push-off
the time is right. When the forward element of the running stride.
leg lands, use it to push back and then
off, continuing to propel your body forward. Although the movement should
look like bounding, it might take practice to get to that point. Repeat push
backs five times for 20 seconds and rest for 30 seconds after each repetition.
The challenge of this drill is to exaggerate the push back while balancing
on one leg, so you might find yourself going slowly at first to get the action
right. That’s OK; your goal is not speed, but rather that push-back action.
You will find that as you develop the strength and coordination to push back
and balance yourself at the same time, the motion will speed up.
Arm Swings
Try running, especially trail running, with
your arms tucked motionless against
your torso. Yeah, it doesn’t work too
well, does it? Developing powerful arms
to assist in driving forward will make you
a better trail runner.
Unlike the other drills in this section,
you can do arm swings anywhere you
can find a pair of 5- to 8-pound (2 to 4
kg) weights (rocks work) and enough
room to swing your arms in a running
motion. To get going, pick up a weight
in each hand, get into the runner’s ready
position, and begin swinging your arms
as fast as you can in a running motion
while standing still. Although your arms
should be moving quickly, maintain
good form throughout the drill. The
Powerful and efficient arm
angle between your upper and lower
motion will improve your
arms should be 80 to 90 degrees, and running stride.
your arm should swing nearly straight
front to back and parallel to your body.
As with high knees, you may tend to tip your torso backward, past the
vertical plane. Use core strength to keep your torso in the correct position,
leaning a few degrees forward of the vertical plane. Your shoulders will
naturally rise with tension as you tire, and you may find yourself tensing the
muscles of your neck and face. Stay relaxed and keep your shoulders down,
letting the effort come in your arm swing and core engagement.
Do this drill to exhaustion or until you can no longer maintain proper
form, whichever comes first. That may mean from 30 to 50 swings of each
arm. Rest completely for a minute and do it again. Repeat no more than
three times the first time you try this and build up to five to-exhaustion sets.
Cross-Training
You can do plenty to make yourself a better trail runner even when you’re
not out cruising singletrack. Such cross-training can purposely accentuate
your trail running fitness or simply be an activity you love that happens to
complement your trail running. Cross-training also provides a good physi-
cal and mental outlet if you are injured or taking a break from running.
The greatest benefit of cross-training, other than the pure enjoyment, is
engaging muscles that are neglected or used differently while running.
This activity results in a more balanced musculature, which helps us avoid

running overuse injuries.
Although you don’t necessarily need to have a purpose or plan for your
cross-training, breaking it up into categories, such as aerobic, strength, and
flexibility, can be helpful. Yes, some activities certainly overlap between
these designations, but let’s roll with them for now.
Other aerobic activities are a natural supplement to your trail running.
All will help build your aerobic engine, and most will work at least some
of your major trail running muscles. For example, hopping on a bike,
whether it’s a mountain bike, a road bike, or even a spin bike in the gym,
will get your heart pumping and your leg muscles working. Activities like
Nordic skiing and snowshoeing imitate running, and their benefits are even
greater. Of course, you can participate in a slew of other enjoyable aerobic
activities including swimming, soccer, canoeing, skinning on skis, using
cardio equipment in the gym, and backpacking, to name a few.
Aerobic cross-training provides a workout similar to running with at
least some and often much deviation from the running motion. This activ-
ity can give your muscles and other soft tissues a chance to rest if you’re
tired or injured. Many trail runners more or less play around with their
cross-training, but you can usually mimic any one of the five major com-
ponents of running training—easy runs, recovery runs, long runs, speed
work, and hill workouts—with another aerobic activity. For example, you
can go. on a long road bike ride that aerobically mimics a long run, carry
out VO2max intervals on an elliptical machine, or sneak in a steady-state
workout while snowshoeing.
You’ve probably gotten the sense that trail running takes more than just
a strong heart and big set of lungs. Agility, strength, flexibility, and more
come into play out on the trails.
If you’re looking to enhance your strength, you can go the traditional
strength-training route by weightlifting or using your own body weight
to strength train. Other sports, such as downhill skiing (moguls anyone?),
cycling, climbing, and others can help you tone up.
The words flexibility and runner aren’t often found together except in
negative association. So why are runners so notoriously inflexible? The
reason is that runners engage in a highly repetitive weight-bearing exer-
cise within a limited range of motion. Runners perform the same stride
thousands of times in each run and maybe millions of times a year. Their
muscles become incredibly efficient at the running motion but little else.
Some research has shown that too much flexibility can be detrimental
for endurance runners, because it decreases running economy and possibly
makes runners more susceptible to overuse injuries. That said, too little
flexibility does precisely the same thing. Flexibility work, such as yoga or
Pilates, dynamic stretching, or active isolated stretching, should be a twice-
weekly part of your running routine.
Trail Run Training Cheat Sheet
Here you’ll find the various kinds of trail run training you can do in one, simpli-
fied cheat sheet.
Easy Recovery Long Hill Trail Cross-

Speed work running
run run run workouts training
drills
Hill
Fartlek
fartlek
•Steady-state run Structured Downhill •Strides

•Tempo run uphill repeats •Fast feet
•VO max interval workouts •High knees
. 2
•Anaerobic interval •Push backs
•Arm swings
•Uphill steady-state run •Muscle seasoning •Aerobic cross-

•Uphill tempo run downhill repeats training
•Uphill VO2max interval •Coordination
.
•Strength.
cross-
.
•Uphill anaerobic interval improvement training
downhill repeats •Flexibility cross-
training
E6615/Hicks/F08.X/539117/jb/r4-kh
Consider this chapter a gigantic buffet of trail run training opportuni-
ties. Among all these kinds of runs, drills, and cross-training, you’ll find an
abundance of opportunities not only to improve your running but also to
have fun in the process. Of course, now that you know about the diversity
of specific trail run training you can do to improve, flip over to chapter 9,
where you’ll learn how to put it all together into an effective and healthy
training plan. Read on!
PIKES PEAK ASCENT AND MARATHON, COLORADO,
UNITED STATES
Participating in the Pikes Peak Ascent or Marathon is about racing hard,

sure, but it’s also about experiencing history in the American West. Pikes
Peak is a mammoth mountain with a unique coral-pink color that stands a
staggering 14,115 feet (4,302 m) tall. It protrudes separately and starkly from
the rest of Colorado’s Front Range, the range of mountains that makes the
eastern front of America’s great Rocky Mountain chain. The mountain itself
has long been an American icon. A paved road, a cog railway, and a network
of trails facilitate tourist journeys to its top.
Manitou Springs, a small mountain village perched at 6,400 feet (1,950 m),
some 7,700 feet (2,350 m) below the summit on the east side of the mountain,
has been a Pikes Peak jumping-off point since the 1800s. In earlier days,
Manitou harbored mineral prospectors, and tourists used the town as their
adventure base camp. Manitou Springs and the top of Pikes Peak are linked
for foot travel by the historic Barr Trail, completed in 1918 and originally used
to carry tourists on burros up and down the mountain. Today, the Barr Trail
has become one of America’s most popular hiking trails.
Every year since 1956 (and even once in the 1930s before that), a group
of hardy runners has participated in races of various kinds on Pikes Peak.
Although the format and starting line changed in the early years of the race,
the Pikes Peak Ascent and Marathon has grown to nearly 2,000 annual par-
ticipants. The weekend’s races have long been among the most competitive
mountain races in North America.
(continued)
143
Pikes Peak Ascent (continued)
The Pikes Peak Ascent is a one-way half-marathon race from downtown

Manitou Springs up to the summit. These days, the Ascent is run on Saturday.
Then, Sunday morning dawns with the Pikes Peak Marathon, the round-trip
voyage from town to the mountaintop and back again. Both races use the
Barr Trail, and competitors must contend with the continuous 8,000-foot
(2,450 m) climb (and descent if they’re running the marathon), the thin air of
the high-altitude summit, and sometimes awful race-day weather up high,
which can include snow. No matter the challenge, the races and Pikes Peak
itself represent all things American West.
144
Hal Koerner and Stephanie Howe
training hard.
Chapter 9
Creating a Training Plan

This chapter provides you with the tools to make a structured and well-
thought-out training plan. For instance, you’ll learn about the 10 percent
rule, periodized training cycles, the components of a training plan, and
more. Your health on and off the trails affects your experience on them, so
this chapter closes with considerations of overall health issues like overtrain-
ing, sleep, and stress, as well as a discussion about balancing running with
the rest of life. Even if you wish to keep your trail running entirely free
and unstructured, the casual application of the principles in this chapter
to your life will help you maintain a sustainable and long-lasting relation-
ship with running.
145
Building a Training Plan

Some trail runners run off in search of fun without any real structure
to their training. Heck, most trail runners probably don’t think of what
they’re doing as training at all; they see their running as a simple act of
moving through beautiful places. But for trail runners who want to add
a framework to their trail running, a structured training plan—contain-
ing a balanced combination of running, cross-training, and rest—can be
as fun as it is rewarding. Building and following through with a training
plan can maximize your fitness, increase your speed and strength, build
your confidence as you complete tough workouts, reinforce your goals,
show your commitment to a long-term process, give you the edge in trail
races, help prevent overuse injuries, and more. This section is a how-to for
creating a training plan for those runners who desire one.
Note that structured training and the freedom of trail running are far
from mutually exclusive. Even with a training plan, you choose your own
routes, run with friends, take in the sights, and ditch the plan and embrace
spontaneity when you desire.
Periodization Primer
As much as there is to love about trail running, you must recognize that the
sport is mentally and physically taxing. You need to rest and occasionally
take time away from it to stay healthy. Periodization is the organization
of your running on yearly, monthly, and even-smaller scales that balance
periods of focused training with necessary rest.
Although the concept of periodization is most often
applied to runners seeking strong race performances,
Train hard and rest all trail runners should periodize their training to some
harder! It is on your
extent so that they have some down time. First, let’s con-
rest days that your
body absorbs the
sider the periodization of short time frames. Max King,
hard work you do. the 2011 World Mountain Running champion, who has
had success running on the track, roads, and trails, rec-
ommends that we organize our training into four-week
blocks. “Studies have found that the body responds best to three weeks of
increasing training followed by a week of decreased volume. I like to stack
three weeks together increasing volume or intensity by 5 to 10 percent per
week followed by a week of decreased volume and intensity that is equal to
the first week of the block, or about 70 percent of the maximum week. This
four-week training block allows people to increase volume slowly while
working on each physiological system and specific workouts targeted to
their goals.”
In addition, the weeks of decreased volume that King describes allow
your body to assimilate the hard work you’ve been doing, give little aches
and pains a chance to heal, and offer reprieve for your mind. With that
understanding, if you find that three weeks of hard work and one week of
Creating a Training Plan 147
recovery is a bit too much for your body to sustain, shorten the work part
of this periodization to two weeks and follow that with a recovery week.
About longer-scale periodization, King explains, “Many athletes periodize
their training into three- to six-month blocks depending on their seasons
and races planned. These longer periods of buildup allow athletes to reach
closer to their potential but also limit the timeframe they can race at or
near peak fitness.”
Your running cycles may be defined by the seasons if your off-season run-
ning aligns with your participation in winter sports. Maybe your running
takes a downturn when your work, family, or social schedule gets busy.
Or perhaps you simply schedule some intentional time off from running.
If you’re looking to crush some big trail races or take on a major new
challenge—we’re talking about anything from a 10K to a trail marathon
here—it’s best to stick to three or fewer major outings per year. These are
the races or runs you care most about, the places to which you want to
take your A game. If you have any more big events on your calendar, you
may not be able to train specifically enough for them or your body may not
be able to recover fully from them. You can still run other races as part of
training for your goal events, but you probably won’t be at your fittest for
them. When building toward a big goal, divide your training block into
four parts: base building, peaking, sharpening, and recovery. Depending
on the length of the goal event and how specifically you want to train for
it, these blocks can last anywhere from 15 to 26 weeks long.
Base-Building Phase
In the base-building phase of your training block, you build aerobic fit-
ness by running most of your runs at an easy pace. During this time, your
muscles grow, you develop more efficient channels for blood flow into
those muscles, and your skeleton and soft tissues adapt to the stresses of
running. Nearly as important, you establish a positive routine and become
accustomed to the sometimes-challenging nature of running. An average
base-building phase lasts 8 to 12 weeks, but it could be longer for runners
who are training for longer trail races.
Peaking Phase
After base building, you move on to the peaking phase, during which you
continue your easy running while adding speed work and hill workouts
that are applicable to the type of event for which you’re training. These
workouts, explained in chapter 8, build on your aerobic base to make you
faster and stronger. This phase is normally 6 to 10 weeks long.
Sharpening Phase
Sharpening serves up your body’s final preparations for your goal event.
During sharpening, you cut a significant part of your easy running and
maintain most of your goal-appropriate speed work and hill workouts.
Smooth trails can make for speedy training.
Aside from keeping your mind and body sharp, this period allows your
body to recover physically from the tolls of hard training. But this period
isn’t about rest, because fitness can be lost if you do too much of that for
too long. Sharpening should last from seven days to three weeks.
Recovery Phase
Taking time off after your goal event is often a good idea. Time off can mean
100 percent rest, cross-training, or disorganized running. You do this to
give your mind a break and your body’s various systems a chance to recover
fully from the stresses of running. For shorter goal races, like a 5K or 10K
distance, this phase might be a couple days long, but longer goals like half
marathons or marathons may require two to three weeks of recovery.
Additional Periodization Considerations
Suppose that you really want to run two races that are only four weeks
apart. You can perform well and enjoy both of them, but you’ll have to
exert special care in the weeks between races so that you are as ready for
the second as you were the first. After the first race, your immediate goal
should be recovery. After your body has bounced back, you’ll reenter the
sharpening phase. Depending on the length of the first race and the time
between the two races, you may have to restart sharpening before you’re
100 percent recovered. This second sharpening phase should emphasize
even more the reduction of easy running while retaining speed work and
hill workouts.
148
Tracking Your Training
Most people track their workouts on a weekly basis, such as from Monday to
Sunday or from Sunday to Saturday. Rarely, an unusual work arrangement or
personal preference will cause someone to choose a 10-day, biweekly, or some
other schedule. The exact length of your training period doesn’t matter, but you
should keep it a uniform length for significant spans so that you can compare
your running from period to period.
If you build a training plan, you may want to keep tabs on how much you
run so that you don’t do too much too soon, which can open you up to injury.
Some people track their running by the distance they run, whereas others track
their time spent running. Either is fine.
Organizing Your Training Schedule

Whether or not you develop a training plan, you should vaguely aim to
include an easy run, recovery run, or rest day every other day or at least
every third day. After you get into the heart of your training program, your
weeks might be a roughly even mix of hard days—long runs, speed work,
or hill workouts—and easier days.
Although the focus here is organizing your running schedule, don’t
forget that you can add in cross-training. Just make sure not to do a hard
cross-training workout on a day you are supposed to be recovering from a
hard running workout. Give your body the rest it needs.
You’ll also want to make sure that you don’t increase your training too
quickly at any one time. You should follow the 10 percent rule, meaning
that you shouldn’t increase your training volume,
measured by either distance or time, by more than Consider tracking the
10 percent from week to week. More experienced patterns and progress
runners can use this as more of a guideline than a of your training with an
rule, but you should still avoid massive increases of online tool like Strava,
20 percent or more. Your body needs time to adapt, in a Microsoft Excel file,
and you may be only a couple of weeks from injury or in a hand-written
if you increase your training volume too fast. notebook.
Schedule for the Base-Building Phase

When you are in the base-building phase of your running, your weekly
running schedule should be composed of easy runs, one long run or short-
ened long run, and one recovery run the day after your long run. From
time to time, it’s OK to infuse a little extra effort into your running, but
keep in mind that your goal with base building is to create a strong base
of aerobic fitness to use in later phases of training. Also, don’t be afraid to
replace easy runs, recovery runs, and cross-training with a rest day when
you need one. Many top athletes take one full day of rest for every week of
training. This sample base-building weekly schedule (see the base-building

phase table) is one example of how you can build your own schedule.
Schedule for the Peaking Phase
In the peaking phase of training, a typical weekly schedule includes the
easy, long, and recovery runs of the base-building phase and at least one
speed work session or hill workout added and possibly two workouts if
your body can tolerate it. The most challenging part of designing a weekly
plan in your peaking phase is deciding what speed work and hill workouts
you should do. Keep in mind the type of race you are training for and
consider workouts that mimic it. For example, if you’re training for a half
marathon, consider steady-state workouts an important part of your plan,
wherein you’re training at half-marathon effort. Especially important for
trail running is to practice running fast on the kind of terrain you’ll face
in the race. If you are training for a very hilly 10-mile (16 km) trail race,
then hill workouts would be of enormous benefit. Still, your body’s aerobic
system should be worked at all speeds, so you should cycle in a diversity of
speed work and hill workouts.
As mentioned previously, alternate hard and easy days. Although you
must do hard work to grow stronger, it’s during recovery that your body
absorbs and incorporates that hard work. We’ll say it again and again: Fear
not the rest day! Sometimes a day of rest can help heal an aching muscle
or restore your energy much faster than an easy or recovery run.
The following sample weekly schedules (see the peaking phase table) from
the peaking phase demonstrate two of the many ways to compose a training
schedule that offers freedom and diversity but will also help you improve
your running.
Schedule for the Sharpening Phase
In the sharpening phase, remove much of your easy and long running but
keep speed work and hill workouts in the schedule. The sharpening phase
is when it’s most important to tailor your speed work and hill workouts
specifically to your goal race. You can also practice a bit of your high-end
running here, such as anaerobic intervals, to help solidify your running
economy for game day. The sharpening phase table provides an example
of a weekly schedule in this training phase, which includes more rest and
shorter easy and long runs than you’ll have in the schedules for the other
phases.
Schedule for the Recovery Phase
Don’t forget to take time off after your goal event. This section doesn’t
prescribe a recovery schedule, because you shouldn’t have one. Your run-
ning should be dictated by how your body is feeling, not by instructions
on a piece of paper.
Sample Base-Building Phase Weekly Schedule
DAY TRAINING TYPE
Monday Recovery run
Tuesday Easy run
Wednesday Rest or cross-training
Thursday Easy run
Friday Easy run
Saturday Easy run or cross-training
Sunday Long run or shortened long run
Sample Peaking Phase Weekly Schedules

DAY SAMPLE 1 TRAINING TYPE SAMPLE 2 TRAINING TYPE
Monday Hill workout Rest
Tuesday Easy run Easy run
Wednesday Speed work Speed work
Thursday Recovery run Recovery run
Friday Easy run Speed work
Saturday Long run Easy run
Sunday Recovery run Long run
Sample Sharpening Phase Weekly Schedule

DAY TRAINING TYPE
Monday Rest
Tuesday Short, easy run
Wednesday Speed work
Thursday Rest
Friday Speed work
Saturday Easy run
Sunday Shortened long run
151
Your training can inspire those around you.
Running Healthy
No matter how easy it is to focus on your trail running and how tempting
it can be to run as hard and as fast as you want, whenever you want, your
body is only so resilient and your running is but one small factor affecting it.
Nonrunning stress can set back your running more than any workout
or training block can move it forward. Work, family, school, and more
can cause boundless stress. If left unmitigated, stress changes the body’s
hormone production, which can leave you feeling physically and psycho-
logically drained. Life stress can destroy your desire to work out, physically
hamper your ability to run, and combine with the (beneficial) stress of
running to leave you burned out.
You cannot eliminate all of life’s stress, but you can minimize and miti-
gate it as it happens, before it negatively affects your well-being. Running
is an incredible stress-reduction tool, but only if it’s a healthy part of your
life. Reading, yoga, meditation, cooking, writing in a journal, walking your
dog, and taking a weekend camping trip can all be effective stress-reduction
tools. Choose the tools that interest and work for you, practice them enough
to counter everyday stress, and employ them when irregular stress happens.
To be a strong trail runner—and a good, contributing, sustainable
member of society—you need to take care of your health outside running.
Adequate sleep is probably the most underutilized health tool in Western
culture. Sleep experts say that people generally need seven to nine hours of
sleep per night. You may find, however, that you need increased sleep when
you are training hard for or recovering from a goal race. Get enough sleep!
152
Should you start feeling tired when you first set out for your runs, lack
motivation to head out the door to run, need far more sleep than normal,
or wake up tired, you should start thinking about if you’re not fully recov-
ering from your runs and the other stresses of life. If these symptoms have
just appeared, a few recovery or rest days, a few good nights of sleep, and
a reduction in stress can turn you around.
But if those or similar symptoms—such as sleeplessness, increased irri-
tability, or a set of nonchronic grumbles—lasts for more than a week (and
you’ll often only notice them in hindsight), you may be heading toward
overreaching in your training. Another sign of overreaching is that you’re
training hard but encounter a period of several weeks to perhaps a month
in which your running fitness is not progressing or appears to take a step
back. Overreaching is most common in trail runners who run a significant
amount (generally, 10 or more hours per week) or who have significantly
increased their running in a short period. Overreaching affects runners
whether or not they have an organized training plan. After they identify
the problem, most runners recover from overreaching with a couple weeks
of rest or near rest.
Overtraining syndrome is the big, bad brother of overreaching. You
experience the same symptoms as you do in overreaching, but with great
intensity and duration. Overtraining syndrome can be crippling and, sadly,
can take months or a year or more to overcome.
But it’s heartening to know that overreaching and overtraining syndrome
are preventable. You just need to monitor your body carefully and rest
when your body gives you the appropriate signs. One of the most common
paths to both problems is performing a major upswing in fitness and piling
more and harder work onto your training plate. Avoid this temptation!
The same goes for the temptation to run numerous longer trail races at
100 percent effort in a short period. Another problematic situation occurs
when a runner with a well-established and seemingly safe training routine
encounters a ton of new life stress. The nonrunning and running stresses
combine to overwhelm the body’s systems, leading to burnout. Athletes
need to minimize, monitor, and mitigate stress.
With this in mind, life balance is a worthy topic to close this chapter.
Although difficult to define (and often harder to attain), life balance can
mean that no aspect of your life should negatively affect another. You prob-
ably know this already: Running isn’t everything. We all have jobs, friends,
families, nonrunning hobbies, vacations, and many other ways in which we
spend our nonrunning time. Running should make you happy and healthy
and provide an outlet to challenge yourself. Symbiosis between running
and the rest of life keeps trail running a positive experience.
You can certainly have short periods during which you focus on your
running more than other aspects of your life, just as you surely have short
periods in which you focus on something else that is important. New moth-
ers and fathers, for example, know that the first year of their child’s life
requires extreme focus. During that time, other aspects of life are tempo-
rarily set aside. And students can attest to the fact that during finals time,
hobbies must take a backseat to exams and essays. On the other hand, if
you decide that a running goal is important, your preparations may require
extra time and energy. To focus effectively on your trail running for a time,
make sure you provide the space for it in your life by spending less time
with other hobbies or by cutting back on socializing with friends.
Life ebbs and flows, just like a winding trail. Some trail runners find
deep enjoyment in the unregimented freedom of trail running for what-
ever distances and times they are inspired to do on a given day, whereas
others enjoy the sense of accomplishment derived from creating a training
schedule and completing it before a goal race. The purpose of this chapter
is to provide you with the knowledge and tools you need to create your
own diverse training schedules that will suit your changing interests and
needs. Whatever you do, enjoy the run!
DIPSEA RACE, CALIFORNIA, UNITED STATES
If you want to experience

American trail running his-
tory, then head to California
for the Dipsea. The first offi-
cial Dipsea Race was held in
1905, making it the oldest
trail race in the United States.
The 7.4-mile (11.9 km) course
traverses the equally famous
Dipsea Trail connecting Mill
Valley with Stinson Beach in
the San Francisco Bay Area’s
Marin Headlands. From the
starting line, the Dipsea Trail
ascends and descends more
than 670 steps through lush
greenery, including towering
coastal redwood trees and
ornate ferns, before eventu-
ally yielding to endless views
of the Pacific Ocean.
Each year, some 1,50 0
people run the race. Its unique age-handicapping system allows runners
in all age groups to compete on an equal playing field. In recent years, the
Dipsea has been won by an 8-year-old, a 56-year-old, and a 72-year-old,
whose performances at their respective ages were superior to everyone
else’s. Olympian Jackie Joyner-Kersee once said, “Age is no barrier,” and
that’s definitely true at the Dipsea.
The main barrier for competitors is the steep and staired terrain. During
the race, things get wild and wooly. Locals who know the Dipsea Trail well or
those who aren’t afraid of a little (or sometimes big) fall do some seriously
aggressive running. The trail itself is well used and in most places pretty
wide, allowing racers who desire a more tempered approach the space to
do so. This all results in one big, fast-moving party.
Even more, the 7.4-mile Dipsea Trail is open for proverbial business every
day. You don’t have to participate in the race to enjoy the Marin Headlands
environs, the multi-thousand-foot hills that separate the Pacific Ocean from
the inland territory of the northern San Francisco Bay Area. Aromatic euca-
lyptus trees, coyotes, the sounds and sights of the Pacific crashing against
America, and raucous songbirds flitting among the forests are just a couple
of the treats in store for you.
155
Grass and snow, valley and mountain: Trail running has it
all, including in Colorado’s San Juan Mountains.
Chapter 10
Trail Safety and Stewardship

With apologies to Dr. Seuss, oh the places you’ll go! Trail running is a
hall pass to adventure. The rewards of a grand adventure on the trails are
endless: sunsets and sunrises that will take your breath away, views to
the horizon and the heavens, glimpses of wild animals in their natural
habitat, time spent exploring with interesting people, and more. But with
adventure comes risk, the chance for an adventure to go awry. Because of
remote locations, challenging weather, or inexperience in negotiating prob-
lems when they arise, a small issue can quickly escalate into a dangerous
situation. Just because the proverbial trail to adventure has some potential
bumps doesn’t mean you shouldn’t enjoy the run. As previous chapters
have emphasized, the best way to deal with a problem is to prevent it from
happening in the first place through planning, having the right gear, and
acquiring the appropriate skill set for the adventures you wish to tackle.
157
This chapter addresses the most common risks—wildlife, thunderstorms,

steep terrain, snow crossings, dangerous humans, and more—that trail
runners encounter, and it dishes up the know-how for dealing with each.
This chapter also describes the fundamental nonrunning skills you need
to trail run safely, such as navigating effectively, obtaining and purifying
water in the backcountry, taking the right actions if you become lost, and
much more. Of course, this chapter can’t fully prevent an adventure from
becoming a misadventure, but it can dramatically decrease the chance that
this will happen. We also address stewardship in this chapter, the important
idea that we must take care of the places through which we run.
Basic Backcountry Skills

If you’re planning to take your trail running to the backcountry, places we
define as roughly 10 miles (16 km) or more from civilization, you need to
take with you a small but crucial set of skills to help you negotiate unplanned
situations and problems.
Trail Navigation
At first blush, finding your way on singletrack seems downright simple. Uh,
you just follow the trail, right? In many cases, that’s 100 percent true. You
show up at the trailhead and start running. The trail twists and turns but
eventually ends up back where you started. In this case, you can negotiate
the trail on intellectual autopilot.
The setup of some trail systems, however, is not that simple. Often, you’ll
encounter unmarked trail intersections. Sometimes a trail continues for a
long way until it simply fades out for a while. And, once in a blue moon,
bad weather like fog can obscure your route even at close range. In these
cases, you’ll need to employ navigation skills. Navigation is often considered
a difficult skill to master, but in fact, it’s pretty darn easy.
First things first: Many trail networks are well marked with maps at
trailheads and major intersections. Those maps are often decorated with
convenient “You are here” labels. Some trail systems have signposts delin-
eating divergent trails. These trail networks are nearly navigationally fool-
proof. So long as you have a plan and keep your head up at intersections,
you’ll have no trouble finding your way.
The farther you get from civilization on a trail or the more remote the
whole trail network is, the greater the chances are that your trail will not
have maps, signs, or other navigational aids. If you’re traveling into the
backcountry, be ready for this reality and always carry a map.
The main question about maps is, how do you read the darn things?
Maps vary in layout, although most have a couple of features in common.
First, trails and other prominent geographic features like roads, creeks,
mountains, springs, and more are marked by symbols. For instance, a trail
Trail Safety and Stewardship 159
might be delineated as a dashed line. Almost all maps are scaled, meaning
that a certain distance on the map corresponds to a distance in real life.
For example, one inch on the map might represent a mile (1 cm would
represent 625 m on a map of this scale). Most maps have a north symbol,
which indicates which way is due north relative to the other map features.
And almost all maps have a key that describes the symbols.
One feature of high-quality backcountry trail maps is topographic lines,
which express in the two dimensions of the map the three-dimensional
topographical features of the landscape. Each topographic line signifies a
particular elevation with a specific amount of vertical change, such as 40,
100, or 200 feet, between each line. (Of course, maps that use a metric scale
have intervals measured in meters.) The map key will tell you the amount
of vertical change represented by the space between each line, as maps vary
in their detail. You will notice that, on a map, the lines grow close together
in some places and spread apart in others. Such areas on the map represent
steeper and flatter terrain, respectively, in the real world. As a trail user,
you can use these lines to determine how much climbing or descending
awaits you on the trail and to navigate through the landscape by pairing
surrounding topography with what is on a map. Further, understanding
the topographic lines on a map is like unlocking a secret code: You’ll be
able to identify many smaller, real-life topographic nuances like mesas,
ridgelines, gullies, and more.
A topographic map is a powerful navigation tool for trail runners.

Compass Basics
In the rare case when one of

the other kinds of navigation
described in this section won’t
work, a trail runner will need
a compass to navigate. You
should carry one on any run
into the backcountry and know
how to use it.
Liza Howard, a champion
trail runner and instructor for
the Wilderness Medicine Insti-
tute and the National Outdoor
Leadership School since 2003,
humorously explains, “a com-
pass can be an intimidating
piece of equipment. Fortu-
nately, the only part that’s tricky
is compass vocabulary. Com-
passes themselves are entirely
straightforward. A compass
points north. That’s all it does. Liza Howard demonstrates compass use.
Your toaster and coffee maker
are wildly more complicated. And once you know where north is, you can figure
out all sorts of other things like what direction you’re heading, where you want
to head, or where you are.”
If possible, bring a compass with at least two degrees of accuracy, meaning
that each tick mark on the compass dial is two degrees apart, and one that
allows you to adjust for declination, the number of degrees that magnetic north
deviates from true north in a particular location. Declination is a funny reality of
our world. Maps display arrows pointing toward the North Pole, what we call
true north, but magnetic north, where the magnetized arrow in your compass
points, isn’t necessarily located precisely at the North Pole. This difference, the
declination, varies by your location and is noted on quality maps.
If you want to use your compass to determine which way you are headed,
follow these simple steps:
1. Set your declination as noted in the key of your map. On most compasses,
this means adjusting a small dial underneath the regular compass dial.
2. Point the arrow extending away from the compass dial itself in the direc-
tion you’re headed.
3. Look at the compass dial and notice where the magnetic arrow inside it
is pointing. This magnetized arrow always points toward magnetic north.
Taking care to keep the long arrow pointing toward your direction of travel
and the whole compass itself flat (some compasses come with bubble bal-
ances to assist with this), rotate the compass dial until the arrow pointing
toward magnetic north is between the two parallel lines inside the dial itself.
160
4. Read the number on the dial next to the small arrow pointing at the dial,
which will be somewhere between 0 and 360 degrees. This number rep-
resents your direction of travel. For your information, zero equals north,
90 degrees equals east, 180 degrees is south, and 270 degrees is west.
You can use a compass in many other ways, the most common being the
triangulation of your position in real life onto a map. You use a compass to deter-
mine the position relative to you of three known geographic landmarks—high
points, usually, that you can identify both on a map and in real life. Doing this is
simple. Point the arrow extending from your compass dial at the first landmark
and follow the previous instructions. Then, draw a line on a map representing
your sight line to that landmark. For example, if you determine that a certain
mountain is located 270 degrees relative to you, you would draw a line on a
map representing your sight line to it, which would be 180 degrees opposite
on a compass, or 90 degrees. When you do that two more times, for two other
landmarks, you will find that the three lines intersect at precisely one point.
That intersection is exactly where you are. If you have nothing to write with,
place a piece of grass or a tiny twig on your map to represent each sight line.
A one-day orienteering class or compass-use course at your local outdoor
store will fully open the wide window of compass navigation. You might never
need to use a compass to find your way out of the backcountry, but it’s incred-
ibly empowering to know that you can.
Finally, some detailed backcountry maps contain other features that

indicate variations in terrain, like shading to indicate steep slopes or dense
vegetation. Using the many features of a map and studying the way that
your intended route spans them, you can gain authentic knowledge of
where you’re headed long before you get there.
The landscape through which you’re running offers numerous navigation
clues, too. For instance, if you know the trail on which you are running
is headed toward a high pass between two mountains, you might be able
to pick it out long before you begin your climb to it by looking for a low
spot between two tall points. In places where sparse vegetation allows long
views, a keen observer can often pick up the trail itself far ahead. Or, if you
know that a certain mountain or a river should be on your right as you’re
running a trail, you can look for it before you get there. All this said, the
landscape of the earth is extremely complex, and you’ll commonly find
yourself fooled by canyons not visible until you get close to them, ridges
that ripple more times than you expect, and false summits.
In rare cases, weather can impair your view entirely, prevent you from
seeing the trail just 10 or 20 feet (3 to 6 m) ahead, and not allow you to read
the landscape at all. More common, however, is dense vegetation that does
the same thing, like thick tree cover, tall grass, or overgrown shrubs. When
this happens, rely on a map, compass, or maybe a GPS device, as needed.
Obtaining Drinkable Water

If you run in the backcountry enough, the time will come when you’ll
need more water than you’ve carried, perhaps when it’s hotter than you
expected, a run takes longer than you planned it to, or you accidentally
spill your water. Therefore, you should always carry a means to treat water
when you trail run in the backcountry.
First, you have to locate water. The difficulty of doing this depends on the
environment and climate through which you’re running. In a high alpine
environment, small streams and cascades can be ubiquitous. In a desert,
you’ll have to plan your water acquisition at the rare water access points.
In any case, the map you’re carrying contains clues on how to find water.
Check the map key for water-related symbols and then seek them out on
your map. The best approach is to figure out the water-access points along
your route in the planning process.
In any environment, look for valleys, big and small, or places where
the land crinkles or creases downward, because water follows gravity on a
downward path. The presence of deciduous trees and shrubs—cottonwoods,
aspens, willows, and tamarisks, for example—is also an indicator of nearby
water in many environments. Also, look for outcrops of solid rock, because
water may collect in depressions.
Finding potable water from potholes in Canyonlands National Park’s Maze

District.
The water you find may be safe to drink untreated, but it may also contain
any number of bacteria, parasites, and other creatures that can make you
sick. You should presume that any water you find in the backcountry needs
to be treated, either chemically or mechanically, before consumption. An
array of water-treatment products are available, including filters, iodine,
chlorine dioxide, and ultraviolet radiation, that will ready your water for
safe drinking. Each water-treatment product has pros and cons relating to
the speed with which the treatment process occurs, the effort you must
put into treatment, the taste of the water after treatment, and the weight
of the water-treatment product.
Here are a few tips to help you find the best water source. Try to acquire
water from a moving body rather than a still one, like a creek as opposed
to a pond, so that the water has presumably had less time to interact with
the microscopic creatures that can sicken you. If signs indicate that your
water source has recently been used by wildlife or livestock, move upstream
from where they’ve used it so that you collect water before it runs through
more likely contamination. Look for water with good clarity, because sus-
pended sediment can clog a filter, block ultraviolet treatment, or add grit to
water if you chemically purify it. In a pinch, you can use a piece of fabric
to prestrain cloudy water.
What to Do if You Get Lost

We hope you never need to use the information in this section, but knowing
exactly what to do if you become lost can mean the difference between a
mere misadventure and an unnecessary tragedy. Here’s how to save your
own bacon.
Don’t Panic
“Take a deep breath. People get lost and then found a lot. The key when
you’re lost is not to get more lost,” says Liza Howard. If you do become
highly emotional, stop everything and ride out those feelings. Literally,
don’t move, make decisions, or do anything until your emotions settle and
your rational side returns.
Stop Moving Forward
If you don’t know where you are, you most likely have even less of an idea
of where you are headed.
Consider Retracing Your Steps
Next, Howard recommends considering the possibility of retracing your steps
in the direction from where you came. The goal here would be to backtrack
to the last place you knew where you were. Are your footprints visible in
dirt, sand, or snow? Are you nearly 100 percent confident that you’ll rec-
ognize the features of the landscape that you passed through earlier? If so,
carefully retrace your steps until you are again in familiar terrain.
Triangulate Your Location

If you have a map, compass, and a good view of the terrain, triangulate
your location. How to do this is described in the “Compass Basics” sidebar
earlier in this chapter. After you have located yourself on the map, plan
your way from there back to your intended route. Do so by retracing your
steps instead of taking a new route. Use a compass to guide yourself back.
Don’t Take a Shortcut
Don’t leave the trail to cut cross country in an effort to take a shortcut.
Often, terrain deviations and difficulties aren’t fully visible, and the shortcut
may not be one after all. Also, if you will require rescue by professional
search and rescue, they can more easily find you on a trail, even if it’s not
the one you’re supposed to be on, than off trail. The only exception to this,
explains Howard, is when you can see something extremely obvious and
helpful: “If you can see an unmistakable ‘handrail,’ like a road, stream, or
valley that will take you to a known location, you can try following it.” But
be prepared to turn around if you encounter dangerous terrain; do not add
more risk into your already risky situation.
Don’t Split Your Group
Two or more heads (and bodies) are better than one. Pooling resources and
working together is much easier and safer than splitting into smaller groups
or going solo. The only exception to this rule is if a member of your group
is incapacitated and unable to move. Depending on the situation, you may
have to leave someone alone so that you can get the needed emergency
assistance.
Work Together as a Group
If you are part of a group, you can work together to create a search system
of people looking for your last known location, but be certain to stay in
voice or visual contact with each other. This method will allow your team
to search a greater area than you could solo but keep you safely together.
Take Note of Your Supplies
Survey your emergency provisions such as food, water, fire-making tools,
clothing layers, light sources, first-aid supplies, communications technol-
ogy (and their power supply), and more. Make a plan for rationing them
in a way that keeps you healthy now and for a reasonable period into the
future. Gather emergency provisions from nature, such as water, kindling
and wood for a campfire, and dry leaves or pine boughs that can be placed
inside your clothing for extra insulation.
Personal Climate Control
Taking care of your personal climate control is of utmost importance if you

become lost. Staying warm, cool, or dry, depending on your circumstances, is
key. If you need to get warm or dry, make fire or keep moving and consume
available food and water to keep your metabolism working. You can use leaves
and pine boughs as extra insulation inside your clothing, and don’t hesitate to
huddle with your companions. Cold appendages can be warmed against your
body or someone else’s, especially in the armpits, between the legs, or against
the torso. Friction creates heat, so work together with your companions to rub
cold body parts.
If wet weather is an issue, you must find a dry place to get out of the ele-
ments. You may have to create your own dry place by building a shelter out
of natural material if you can’t find a rock overhang or a dense stand of trees.
Don’t forget to store your kindling and firewood in that dry place, too. Use fire
and body heat to help dry wet clothing. Consider the wind and stay out of it
to help stay warm.
If the temperature is very hot instead, find or make shade immediately and
limit your activities during the heat of the day. Drink water if you have it to stay
hydrated.
Seek Professional Rescue Assistance

If you can’t resolve your situation independently, consider the access you
have to the outside world. Do you have cellular or satellite communica-
tions service? If so, make appropriate outside contact with search and
rescue (SAR) or a reliable person who can make such contact for you. Relay
crucial information on your last known location, the number of people in
your group, the condition of the group, your survival provisions, and the
landscape features around you.
If you have requested the outside help of professional SAR or if the
person with whom you left your trail running plan at home enacts a request
for assistance when you don’t return at your previously designated time,
here’s what you need to know about the process. If weather, time of day,
and other risk factors allow, a SAR team first engages in a hasty search. A
small, quickly assembled team goes out looking for you, by helicopter, foot,
horse, or vehicle, shortly after they learn you are missing. As a hasty search
is being conducted, other SAR professionals make plans for a full-blown
search effort, which generally begins near dawn of the first day after they
receive a request for assistance. A SAR team concentrates first on the area
they determine you are most likely to be in and radiates outward if they
find no sign of you.
Pros and Cons of Trail Running Alone
Deciding whether you want to trail run alone is a conscious decision you must
make. First, you have the enjoyment factor to consider; some people prefer
solo runs, whereas others enjoy the company of their friends. Next, you must
decide whether you are willing to undertake the extra risk involved in trail running
alone. Should you become incapacitated or lost, you have no one with you to
provide or obtain assistance. A good rule of thumb for true backcountry travel
is to travel with no fewer than three people in your group so that if someone
is injured, one person can go for help and the other can care for the injured
person. But some people, particularly those who have a lot of experience trail
running in remote places, choose to run alone because they feel confident in
their abilities or think that the rewards of the outing exceed the risks.
If you are awaiting rescue, Howard recommends that you make sure
you’re as visible as possible from the ground and air and that you’re away
from loud noises like rushing water that can keep you from hearing search-
ers. She adds, “It’ll also help if you can make some noise to attract atten-
tion to yourself. Whistles do a great job of making noise and not sounding
like anything but whistles. A lot of running packs have tiny whistles built
into them now. You can also help attract attention by hanging something
colorful up high.”
Wildlife
Glimpsing a wild animal behaving naturally in a wild place—now that’s
a fantastic fringe benefit of trail running! Wild animals big and small
deserve our utmost respect. Each of them is entitled to space to roam and
be free. The backcountry is their home, so this section is designed to help
you understand how wildlife behaves and
Wild animals are not to be how to be a deferential visitor where these
feared, but respected. With a wild things are.
little knowledge, you’ll under- The best thing you can do for a wild
stand why certain animals animal is to give it a wide berth as you pass.
behave the way they do and As you will see, most wildlife often goes to
how to act in their territory. great lengths to get what they think is a safe
distance from you. Give them space so that
they don’t have to expend extra energy flying
off, running away, or becoming stressed by your presence. A good rule of
thumb is to give a wild animal enough room so that it doesn’t modify its
behavior because of you.
Trail running offers special experiences in nature, like this glimpse of a sandhill crane
mother and colt.
Follow these general tips on trail running among wildlife:

● Don’t feed wild animals, intentionally or unintentionally. For a number
of reasons, accessing human food is unhealthy for wildlife.
● Use great care when you spot young wildlife, because mothers will
act defensively if they think your presence is threatening their young.
Don’t come between a mother and its young.
● Herd animals are called that for a reason. They feel comfortable living
in groups. Avoid accidentally separating members from a group of
wildlife because this may cause them behave erratically.
● Give ungulates like deer, antelope, and elk extra space during the time
of year when females are in season, because male members of the spe-
cies may act in defense of females they think are being threatened.
This season happens during autumn in North America.
● If you’re trail running with your dog, maintain control of it at all times.
Don’t allow it to harass wildlife. We’ll address dog issues while trail
running in greater depth later in this chapter.
● If you travel abroad and trail run in another country, get local advice
on what wildlife you may encounter and how you should behave
around it.
● Enjoy, enjoy, enjoy! Relish in the opportunity of seeing a wild animal.
167
A bull elk in Yellowstone National Park.
Deer, Elk, and Moose

All over the world, deer species commonly occur in wild and, often, not-
so-wild places. Deer are usually harmless and almost always sprint away
when they see you. The exceptions to this are males who will defend
in-season females and mothers who will defend their young. Give these
types of animals a lot of room. If a deer runs at you in defense, get away
as quickly as possible.
Elk, which are common all over the western part of North America, are
mostly harmless, as well. Although their flight response to humans is not
as well developed as it is in deer, elk will generally trot away if you sight
them at close range. Male elk, however, are extremely volatile during what’s
called the rut, when females are in season. Male elk separate females into
protected harems with which they breed. Males aggressively fight with other
male elk, sometimes causing injury because of their giant antlers and great
strength, to defend their harems and add females to them. The power of
these males is truly a sight to see, but you could be gravely injured if you
get in their way. During the rut, give elk loads of room. Give a female elk
with a calf or calves plenty of space, too. If an elk charges, run away and
place trees or other substantial obstacles between you and it for protection.
Moose are found in many places throughout North America, mostly in
wetland and woodland habitats. Generally, moose are gentle giants, but they
168
do not like to be surprised at close range. When this happens, moose usually
run away, but once in a while, a moose will charge whatever has surprised
it. Use extra caution when running through their habitat, especially if your
view is obscured. If a moose charges, get away as fast as you can and put
trees or other big objects between you and the animal for protection.
The mothers of many ungulate species hide their young babies during
the day. Mothers do this because they walk and graze for many hours,
and babies don’t yet have the endurance to do so. If you come upon a baby
ungulate in hiding, leave it alone. The baby will likely freeze in place. If
you touch it, there’s a small chance the mother will abandon it because it
has your human scent on it. Also, be aware that the mother may be near.
Venomous Snakes
Rattlesnakes, copperheads, and other poisonous snakes are relatively
uncommon members of ecosystems all over North America. These snakes
will strike at animals that make them feel threatened by coming too close,
including humans. The venom they may inject upon biting is highly toxic
and requires immediate emergency medical treatment.
Snakes are cold-blooded reptiles, so
they need warm air or sun to be active.
Trail runners running in snake habitat
during warm, sunny weather need
to be observant for snakes stretched
across or coiled near the trail. If you’re
on steep terrain and are using your
hands for assistance, use caution when
placing them. Your powers of obser-
vation and avoidance are your best
defense. If you see a venomous snake
or hear the quintessential rattlesnake
rattle, get at least six feet (2 m) away
from it, beyond a snake’s striking
range, as fast as you can. A black-tailed rattlesnake trailside in Texas.
Insects
Bees, wasps, biting ants, scorpions, and poisonous spiders all occur in the
many places we trail run. Avoidance is the best measure for all of these
wee beasts. Watch where you stand or sit for a break on your trail run,
and look where you put your hands when raising or lowering yourself over
steep terrain. Avoid swatting at a bee or a wasp that flies by you so that it
doesn’t sting or bite to defend itself. If you hear the distinctive hum of a
beehive or see a beehive or wasp nest, get the heck out of Dodge. If you
are stung by an insect, a small amount of pain and swelling is normal,
but a large amount of either combined with difficulty breathing and
swallowing constitutes a dangerous allergic reaction that may require

immediate medical attention. Those who experience anaphylaxis because
of insect stings should carry emergency epinephrine and have a plan for
obtaining emergency medical treatment.
Bears
Black bears are regular members of many ecosystems around North Amer-
ica. Although they are much larger and stronger than we are, most black
bears react to humans by running away. Black bears can become dangerous
if they think you are threatening their food source or young. Put as much
distance as you can between you and any black bear that doesn’t immedi-
ately run away from you by walking backward as fast as possible. In only
a few cases have black bears, which are omnivores, intentionally preyed
on humans. If a black bear attacks you, fight back with all your might.
Grizzly bears live throughout Alaska and western Canada as well as in
parts of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming in the continental United States.
In their habitat, grizzlies are truly the highest members of the food chain.
Contrary to black bears’ natural flight response to stress, grizzlies react to
stress by fighting. We need not dwell on the fact that an altercation with a
creature perhaps three times as big as you will not go well! Grizzlies charge
and attack if they think that something threatens them, their food, or their
young. But if a grizzly bear knows that a human is nearby and it has the
opportunity, it will most often choose to leave the area.
Grizzlies that charge and attack are usually those that are surprised at
close range, so avoid this situation by yelling to let grizzlies know you are
around, scanning all around you for bears, and slowing to a walk when the
view becomes obscured by brush, trees, or bends in the trail. Give them the
opportunity to detect you and move away before you get too close. Carry
bear spray, which is an oversized container of pepper spray made especially
for humans to protect themselves in the event of a charging grizzly bear.
A grizzly charge can happen in a split second, so carry that bear spray in
an accessible location on the front of your hydration pack or in hand. If
a grizzly bear charges at you, spray a cloud of pepper spray between you
and it, creating a temporary barrier of the highly irritating chemical that
you hope the bear won’t go through. If a grizzly bear makes contact with
you, cover your head and neck with your hands and arms and play dead.
A grizzly bear’s goal in this situation is to minimize what it perceives as a
threat as fast as possible. If you lie motionless, the bear may believe that
you no longer represent a threat. Don’t move until you are certain that the
bear is long gone.
Mountain Lions
Elusive, shy, and highly dispersed, mountain lions are the highest member
of many food chains where they live across western North America and in
some places in the central and eastern parts of the continent. Because of
their lifestyle and small population, your chances of seeing them are slim.
But mountain lions are predators that hunt by stalking and attacking. A
mountain lion attack on humans is inordinately rare but possible. If you see
a mountain lion, remember that it’s a cat, a mammal that has an incredible
chase-and-pounce instinct. Running away is likely to trigger that instinct,
so resist your natural reaction to get away quickly. Instead, do things that
make you look and sound big and aggressive: Yell, wave your hands over
your head, and throw things at the cat. Walk backward at the same time to
put distance between you and the animal. Generally, avoid bending over
or otherwise making yourself look small or vulnerable. If a cat determines
that an animal it is attacking could injure it, it may give up and flee, so fight
back as hard as you can in the infinitely small chance you are attacked.
Other Wildlife
Wolves are rare members of some ecosystems in North America, and coyotes
are common all over the continent. Only in an extremely rare circumstance
will a wolf or coyote attack a human. Aggressive coyotes are typically those
that have become acclimated to getting food from humans. If a wolf or
coyote attacks you, react in violent defense of yourself.
Bison live in a very few ecosystems of the North American West. If you
are lucky enough to trail run through their habitat, give them space. Bison
charge animals that threaten them, and the few humans who have chosen to
walk close enough to elicit that charging response have been gravely injured.
Mountain goats live on the high, alpine ridgelines and peaks of the
North American West. Typically, mountain goats run away on seeing a
A mountain goat perched at 13,000 feet in the Colorado Rockies.

human, but occasionally they don’t. Because mountain goats have limited
access to water and salt in their high-altitude environments, some goats
have become acclimated to getting liquid and salt from human urine. Yes,
it’s true. Mountain goats that have discovered such a “delicacy” will follow
humans around. Occasionally, you might meet a stubborn mountain goat
that doesn’t want to move to allow you to pass on a trail. If you are in an
alpine environment with no safe way around a goat, you may have to wait
patiently or turn around.
Weather
We’ve discussed before how to deal with rain, snow, heat, cold, and sun
in enough detail to make your trail runs through them as enjoyable and
comfortable as possible. But you should be aware of two other kinds of
weather before trail running through the backcountry.
Lightning
Sadly, every year a few outdoor recreationists are struck by lightning, even
though such incidents are easily preventable. There is no reason for any
trail runner ever to be struck by lightning. For the most part, lightning
becomes a risk to humans when they are in exposed areas, like a high, open
meadow or a ridgeline or mountaintop that doesn’t have the protection
of trees. Lightning occurs mostly during summer and fall thunderstorms,
which tend to build up after midday and sometimes continue into the
night. To avoid lightning, leave those exposed areas when thunderstorms
are building or occurring. It’s as simple as that.
If you are in the mountains of western North America, plan to be back
down into the relative protection below treeline by noon, or earlier if thun-
derstorms form sooner. If you are in the other parts of North America, don’t
cross meadows, high bald hills, or other open areas during a thunderstorm.
The same rule holds true for urban road running or trail running: Don’t
run through exposed areas during a thunderstorm.
If you find yourself in an exposed location and a thunderstorm
approaches, use your trail running skills to sprint back to cover. If this isn’t
possible and you have to wait out the storm in a precarious place, get into
the “lightning position.” Separate yourself from any metal you have with
you and your companions by about 50 feet (15 m). Squat with your feet
together, keeping only your feet on the ground. Wrap your arms around
your legs. Don’t allow your butt or hands to touch the ground because this
additional contact point can create a line through which electrical current
can flow through your body should lightning strike. Maintain this position
until the storm passes.
Lightning flashes during a desert storm.
Flash Floods
Flash floods occur mostly in North America’s desert ecosystems after a
significant amount of rain falls during a short time. Desert ecosystems
generally lack absorbent soil, and solid rock allows rain to run off downhill,
pooling into gullies and canyons. These gullies and canyons can become
flooded within a matter of minutes in or after heavy rainfall. Avoiding flash
floods is as easy as avoiding lightning. Don’t go into a low place before,
during, or even after a storm.
Because big drainage systems can extend for many miles, a flash flood can
originate from a storm over a part of a drainage system that’s far upstream
from your location. If you are trail running through the desert during
summer or early fall, when thunderstorms are common in the afternoon
and evening, know the rough layout of the drainage systems through which
you’re traveling and take note of weather in the upstream direction.
Have a plan for getting out of a flood path in the event of a flash flood.
If you hear a rumble reminiscent of a freight train approaching or observe
water or debris starting to fill a drainage, seek high ground immediately.
173
Potential Terrain Problems

Surmounting terrain challenges is part of trail
running. Some trail runners find terrain chal-
If you’re unsure that you’ll lenges so enjoyable that they seek out routes
be able to retrace your steps that include a great deal of elevation change,
backward through natural
technicality, or other challenges. Although
obstacles such as snowfields,
cliffs, and disappearing trail,
you’ll have to practice negotiating most ter-
don’t continue forward— rain challenges before you master them, the
even if you don’t plan to way to surmount obstacles is at least partly
return the way you came. self-evident. In this section, you’ll learn how
to take on a couple of terrain challenges that
might seem daunting at first (or 400th) pass.
Exposure
Some humans have it in their nature to be uncomfortable with exposure—
an open and airy location—and heights, whereas others are unbothered. No
matter your proclivity, you should use care when a trail travels through an
area with steep drop-offs. Cliffs can warrant walking, because moving across
one would be a very bad time to catch a toe! If you have some wiggle room
in the width of the trail tread, use that space to stay away from the cliff.
For travel through extensive exposure, the use of your hands or trekking
poles can add stability. Look in the direction of where you’re headed, not
down the exposure. If you are the kind of person who goes weak kneed at
the sight of steeps, that’s totally alright. Seriously, your ego won’t be dam-
aged by avoiding what you don’t like.
Once in a while, you might encounter a section of trail that makes you
incredibly uncomfortable because of its combination of exposure and
extreme technicality. Such a stretch of trail might make you think, “I could
get up that, but I’m not sure if I could get down.” In such situations, you
will have to use your best judgment about whether to proceed. Do you have
to return this direction, or are you continuing a different way? Even if you
are continuing, what might happen if for some reason you have to turn
around and come back through? Can you really get through the techni-
cality in the first place? As you decide, let your backcountry skills be your
guide, not your ego or your desire to see what’s beyond that swath of trail.
Snowfields
Snowfields can be short or long bits of snow that are left over in high alpine
locations from the previous winter. They are common during the early
summer season on the north and east slopes of mountains or high passes.
At first sight, they look like an absolute blast to play on and they very well
may be. But in the wrong conditions they can be extremely dangerous.
The trail disappears into the snow high in the Spanish Pyrenees.
When you encounter a snowfield, observe the hardness and steepness

of the snow. Generally, if a snowfield is flat or nearly so, it will be safe to
cross, because even if it’s slippery and you fall, you won’t slide anywhere.
If a snowfield is hard, that is, if the snow is frozen solid and doesn’t give
in any direction under your feet, and steep, crossing it is dangerous. A fall
could turn into a slide that ends in serious injury. If you encounter a snow-
field like this, scan the terrain for a way to get around the snowfield on
bare ground or flat terrain. Get past the snowfield this way if it’s safe and
doesn’t damage the environment to do so. With proper light mountaineer-
ing equipment including crampons and an ice axe, as well as the skills to
use this equipment properly, crossing a frozen, steep snowfield is possible.
Mountaineering is beyond the scope of this book, but you can take a class
from a local outdoor store to learn how to do this.
Suppose that you encounter a snowfield that is steep but soft, and you
are able to kick flat steps into it or follow the steps of people who have
come before you. Before you decide to cross, consider a couple things. Be
aware that some snow, even though it’s soft, can still be quite slippery. Also,
consider what might happen if you are going to a mountain peak and have
to return the same way. Will the snow freeze and harden again before you
return? You will have to use your best judgment to decide whether to cross
the snow. As they say in mountain climbing, the journey doesn’t end at the
summit; it ends when you are safely down from the mountain.
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Be aware that although the traction devices discussed in chapter 5 can

aid in snowfield crossings, you must use them with care. Don’t let extra
traction on your feet embolden you past your skill and comfort level.
Finally, you need to exercise caution on snow bridges, the snow that
covers creeks or streams, which is a common feature of many environments
during winter and spring. You will be tempted to use such snow to cross
creeks in lieu of submerging your feet in cold water. But these features are
extremely dangerous because they can collapse, thereby flushing you into
the water and underneath the snow downstream. When crossing snow,
listen for the sound of water rushing below. Avoid crossing atop this snow
and water at all costs.
Disappearing Trail
A good singletrack trail may occasionally disappear, almost as if some sort
of black magic had been conjured. One minute you are running along an
easily discernable trail, and in another minute—poof—you can’t find it
anywhere. You can lose the route when the trail opens into a meadow and
grass covers the trail and meadow equally, where the trail crosses a section
of solid rock, where a trail crosses an exposed area of talus (an extended
field of rocks that can take up a whole hillside), on a trail recently exposed
from snowmelt, or on a trail that isn’t used often. Sometimes the trail dis-
appears for only a short distance, but other times it’s gone for good.
If the tread of the trail you’re running on disappears, look for other signs
of the direction you’re supposed to travel. Stacks of rocks made by humans
called cairns, paint or other markings on exposed rock surfaces, hash
marks in the bark of trees, and small trail markers hanging from trees are
all directional indicators. Keep your eyes peeled for details, because there
is almost always a human-made hint of where you need to go.
If you can’t find any indication of where you should go, you will have
to look for the trail on the other side of the treadless space. For instance,
if the trail disappears into a meadow, cross to the other side and look for
its reentrance into the forest. You may have to scan the opposite margin
of the meadow for quite a ways until you find it, because sometimes the
trail angles across an open space in a way you don’t expect. If you have
to cross an area of talus or exposed, hard rock, remember that the trail
will usually take the path of least resistance, even if the distance is a bit
longer, using switchbacks, cliff bands, and the like. In this case, letting
your natural instinct guide you over the terrain may lead you back to easily
distinguishable trail.
As you are searching for the continuation of the trail, don’t lose track of
where you came from. If you can’t find where you need to go, you’ll have
to backtrack.
Human-Related Trail Issues

Most people you encounter along the trail will be joyful and respectful of
you. They will almost all inspire you to treat them the same way. A wave
of greeting and a generally kind attitude toward others go a long way in
creating good vibes among the people with whom you share the trail. What
follows is a short discussion about how to keep the trail safe for yourself
and the other people out there.
Trail systems usually have rules that govern rights-of-way for different
kinds of trail users, and you should know these regulations before you set out.
But even when the trail runner technically has the right-of-way, common
sense, courtesy, and community relations can sometimes counsel toward
yielding, such as when a mountain biker would have to unclip her or his
shoes and dismount when a trail runner could let the rider pass in an instant.
Dogs—Yours and Theirs

Many outdoor recreationists enjoy time on the trails with their dogs. In fact,
many breeds of dogs love trail running, are good at it, and are healthier
and happier dogs because of the sport. Doggone it, trail running with your
dog can be a truly pleasurable experience. But every dog owner has the job
of preventing his or her dog from creating a dangerous situation for other
trail users or harming the natural world. Dog lovers, here’s how to create
safe, enjoyable situations for everyone on the trails:
● Follow local regulations on dogs. Maintain voice control, leash your
dog, and pick up your dog’s poop. Don’t bring your dogs on trails where
they are disallowed.
● Don’t allow your dog to chase wildlife. It can stress, injure, or kill
wildlife, and you need to prevent this from happening. Letting your
dog do any of these things is often illegal.
● Although you love your dog, remember that not all humans are com-
fortable with dogs and do not wish to interact with yours. Respect
their rights by not allowing your dog to approach other humans or
their dogs uninvited.
● If your dog displays aggressive behavior toward other trail users, other
dogs, or wildlife, don’t bring it trail running. You need to make sure
that everyone out on the trail stays safe from your dog. You can teach
your dog appropriate social skills off the trail.
On the other side of the leash, you may have an altercation with a dog.
These confrontations often happen so quickly that it’s hard for you or the
dog owner to act in a way that will stop it. If a dog is threatening, you’ll
have to ward it off aggressively. If you are trail running and a dog threatens
you, defend yourself by yelling, waving a trekking pole or stick, or by using
pepper spray. Report details about the incident to local authorities as soon
as you can safely do so.
Mechanized Vehicles
Many trails are open to mechanized vehicles like mountain bikes, off-road
vehicles, and, possibly, jeeps. Depending on the nature of the trail, these
vehicles may be moving quite fast or slow. When the terrain allows fast
travel, keep your eyes and ears peeled and avoid surprise encounters. Use
special care when you negotiate blind corners and when brush or rocks
obscure the trail. Follow right-of-way regulations for the trail system you’re
on, but be mindful of your personal safety because you are unlikely to win
in a collision with a machine, even if you have the right-of-way.
Hunting
On many trails, you will cross public lands that may offer hunting seasons
for various animal species. In these seasons, you’ll be sharing the landscape
with people using guns or bows and arrows. State and federal governments
enact rules to help keep hunting safe for hunters and others who share the
trail. Nevertheless, a mistake made by a hunter can be lethal. You need to
be extremely careful when trail running during hunting season. Stay safe
out there using these guidelines:
●● Wear safety orange or a similarly highly visible color.
●● Stay on designated trails so that you are traveling in places where
hunters expect to see you.
●● Run during midday, if possible, because hunters prefer dawn, dusk,
and, occasionally, night.
●● Make noise if the view is obscured so that hunters know you are
coming. Some hunters might find noisemaking bothersome if they
perceive that it will scare their prey, but it is entirely your right to keep
yourself safe and to make noise when running down a trail.
●● If you see hunters and they don’t see you, announce your presence
until they do. Again, this action may bother some hunters, but it’s the
safest course of action and you can do it in a friendly way.
●● Some hunters, like those hunting bears or mountain lions, use dogs
to facilitate the hunt. These dogs run in packs, bark loudly, and seem
incredibly imposing. But if you encounter them, they will likely be fix-
ated on their job and oblivious to you. Although an attack on humans
by hunting dogs is extremely rare, it’s possible. An aggressive response
of yelling, waving your arms, kicking your legs, waving sticks, or
throwing rocks is warranted for your protection.
● If you run with your own dog, put safety orange on it. Keep it leashed
and under your control.
Dangerous Humans
Most people on the trail seek experiences similar to yours. Very rarely,
people are on the trails for malicious or illegal reasons. These people are
wholly unpredictable, which makes offering advice about how to deal with
them almost impossible. Instead, we’ll say that you should treat interac-
tions with potentially dangerous humans on the trails the same way you
would in town. These few tips could help keep you safe around people who
might be dangerous:
● Don’t leave valuables in your car at trailheads. If you do, make sure
that they’re out of sight. Always lock your doors and leave your win-
dows up.
● Don’t give strangers your detailed trail running itinerary or contact
information.
● Avoid people who are behaving in ways you don’t expect of regular
trail users or those who act secretive or nervous about your presence.
● If a person makes you feel uncomfortable, you don’t need to have a
conversation with him or her. You can simply keep going on the trail.
Maintain your personal space.
● Use your cell phone or satellite device to report problems with people
in a truly dangerous situation. Report the details of illegal or suspicious
activities to authorities as soon as you can safely do so.
● Remember that you’re a fit trail runner and can run fast and far. Use
your skills to escape a truly dangerous human.
Pack Animals
Pack animals such as horses, mules, and donkeys have long been used
to transport people and goods through wild places, and they, along with
llamas, are commonly seen along the trails. Pack animals may behave
erratically if surprised, and they could injure you or the humans with
them if this happens. On almost all trail systems, pack animals have the
right-of-way over every other trail user. Thus, you have to yield to them.
Ask for and await instructions from their human leaders and help to create
a safe passing situation.
If you come upon a pack animal or a train of pack animals from behind
and you would like to pass, politely announce to the humans leading the
animals as much, but stay at least 50 feet (15 m) back. The pack-animal
leader will tell you when and how to pass safely. The leader may pull the
pack animals to the side of the trail and tell you to pass, ask you to go off
trail and around them, or offer another solution.
A mule carries supplies out of the Grand Canyon.
If you encounter a pack animal or pack train head on, step off the trail
well before you meet and give the animals plenty of room to pass. Say hello
and talk gently to the animals as they pass so that they know exactly what
and where you are. If you meet a pack animal in exposed terrain and there’s
nowhere for you to safely step off the trail, you will have to back up until
a pass can happen safely.
Pack-animal leaders are quite adept at caring for their animals and other
trail users in passing situations. Let them lead your interactions.
Domestic Herd Animals

The public lands through which you run may be used for cattle, sheep,
and goat grazing. Many times, these domestic animals behave similarly to
their wild brethren: They run away when they see you. Although they are
domesticated, they spend much less time around humans than those living
on farms. You will find that cows are highly protective of their calves, espe-
cially young ones, and will charge you in defense if they feel threatened.
Give them a wide berth.
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Perhaps most dangerous are the dogs that live with and protect sheep
herds. These dogs also have little experience with humans, and they are
bred to protect sheep from potential predators. If they perceive you as a
threat, they will charge, bark, and bite. Avoid sheep herds altogether. If
aggressively approached by a sheep dog, firmly and exactly tell it, “Go back
to the sheep,” because this is the safety phrase with which some are trained.
Caring for the Trails

While trail runners are attracted to our sport for a number of reasons,
most of us share a common motivator: the desire to experience and move
through natural landscapes. We take to the trails for their clean air and
water, abundant and healthy wildlife, diversity of plant life, quiet, lack of
human impact, aesthetic vistas, and more. These resources are, in some
cases, sensitive and rare. And these resources, in all cases, are finite. Impact
by humans can and does change, damage, and destroy them.
It is, thus, a privilege as trail runners to be stewards of the lands through
which we run. What does it mean to practice land stewardship? On an
individual level, such as that of a single trail runner, a land steward is
someone who takes care of natural places. Land stewards believe that all
of the resources in a landscape as well as the people who use those places
should be carefully cared for. Thus, our goal as trail runners is to travel
with care, thereby minimizing the impact we have on natural spaces. As
they say, knowledge is power, so here is the basic framework for responsible
trail running.
The Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics (LNT), a non-profit orga-
nization that promotes land stewardship in everyone who recreates out-
doors, developed seven core principles to help guide outdoor recreation of
all kinds, including trail running. Here they are:
1. Plan Ahead and Prepare
2. Travel and Camp on Durable Surfaces
3. Dispose of Waste Properly
4. Leave What you Find
5. Minimize Campfire Impacts
6. Respect Wildlife
7. Be Considerate of Other Visitors
© Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: www.LNT.org.
The balance of this chapter applies these principles to trail running

and discusses the many ways you can be a caretaker of the places through
which you travel.
Preparation
The legwork of a trail run begins before you reach the trail. Natural areas
are administered by towns, counties, states, the federal government, or
private entities. Each natural space has a unique set of rules designed by its
land managers to protect and preserve its equally unique resources. Things
get tricky for trail runners because, from wild place to wild place, rules
change. That’s because different resources need to be differently cared for.
It’s your job to know the rules of the natural spaces through which you
run. Knowing and adhering to the rules helps trail runners avoid behav-
ing in a damaging way.
Here are a couple rules commonly found in natural spaces that apply to
trail running:
● Opening and closing times. Sometimes this rule is established to
give space to wildlife that is active nocturnally. As an example, some of
the trails through Yellowstone National Park close daily a couple hours
before sunset and open a couple hours after sunrise so that humans
don’t impact grizzly bears at night, and vice versa. Other times, this
rule is in place because natural spaces aren’t staffed at night.
● Group sizes. The larger the group, the more the impact that group
will have on the environment and the other people also using it. Many
land managers establish a maximum group size that they believe is
sustainable for a particular open space.
Another way that trail runners can plan ahead is to research the potential
hazards and special qualities of natural spaces. Is there a certain type of
wildlife to be watching for? Are there rare plants growing along the trail?
Is the trail easy to follow or are there tricky intersections to navigate? Being
prepared for the conditions you are about to experience will help prevent
negative interactions. For instance, knowing how to react when you see
a wild animal can prevent a negative interaction that might harm that
wildlife or you. Being able to identify a sensitive plant should mitigate the
chances of you accidentally damaging it.
LNT encourages trail users to consider the time of day in which you use a
trail. Humans heavily use some trail systems, such as those in or near urban
and suburban areas. And, at certain times of day, those trail systems receive
even-heavier use. For instance, midmornings and late afternoons on urban
and suburban trail systems, and weekend days on trail systems that are within
a couple hours of an urban or suburban area are high-use times. Using the
trail in off hours takes some of the pressure off those high-use times.
Substrate Impacts
Walking and running on trails, next to trails, at overlooks along trails, and
off trail can have a negative impact if the surfaces over which you travel
Switchbacks prevent erosion on open mountainsides.
degrade as a result of your footsteps. Examples of the nondurable surfaces

you might encounter include mud, riparian areas, alpine environments,
and cryptobiotic soil. Cryptobiotic soil exists in many desert ecosystems
with microscopic organisms that help fix soil in place and prevent erosion
due to wind, water, and gravity.
LNT asks that trail users travel single file, on trail, and down the middle
of the trail, even if it’s muddy or wet. Walking along the trail margin or
outside of the trail tread to avoid mud or water can cause the trail to widen
and erode. In some deserts, land managers forbid off-trail travel to protect
cryptobiotic soil, which can take decades to redevelop if damaged, and
prevent erosion.
As a trail runner, you will shortly become familiar with switchbacks, or
the bends trails make on hillsides so that you don’t have to travel straight
up or down that hill. Switchbacks are in place to prevent the erosion that
would occur in a path that was as steep as a hill. It might be tempting to
cut switchbacks, especially when going downhill, to save distance traveled
and maybe time. However, cutting switchbacks leads to the erosion that
the switchbacks themselves are trying to prevent. Please stay on the trail.
Proper Waste Disposal

By waste, LNT means everything you bring with you or produce while trail
running: the wrappers of the food you’re eating, leftover organic matter
like apple cores and banana peels, and your body’s waste products.
In terms of the trash produced, it’s pack it in, pack it out, each and
every time. Everything you bring for a run must be brought back out. We
additionally encourage you to pick up any trash you find that was left by
someone else. The reasons for this are self-evident: Trash isn’t natural,
it doesn’t easily biodegrade, animals that eat it can become sick, and it’s
unsightly.
When it comes to bodily waste, always use a bathroom when it’s provided.
Here’s Liza Howard’s no-nonsense recommendation for dealing with your
bodily waste on the trail, “You shouldn’t poop in the middle of a trail. You’d
think that could be one of those unwritten rules, but sometimes new trail
runners equate the liberating feeling of running in nature with liberation
from social norms, mores, and basic hygiene. So, just as you shouldn’t
poop in the middle of your neighborhood sidewalk, you shouldn’t poop in
the middle of a trail. The same goes for emptying your bowels right next
to a trail. A mound of poop is about as attractive there as it is in the grass
next to a sidewalk. The social impact is even worse if there’s toilet paper
wadded up in the fly-ridden mess. The best practice is to walk about 70 steps
from the trail or water, dig a hole about six inches deep and big enough to
accommodate your deposit, wipe with a smooth stone, stick, or snowball,
and then fill the hole in and cover it up.”
LNT asks us to carry out all toilet paper and sanitary products. Toilet paper
and tampons, even those that have been labeled flushable or biodegradable,
take many years to degrade and, thus, should not be buried. You can bring
a couple Ziploc bags to carry out these things. Side note, baby wipes or
hand sanitizer might make this experience more sanitary and comfortable.
Some natural areas have additional rules for trash treatment. For example,
on the most popular approach trail to the summit of Mount Whitney in
California, humans must carry out their feces along with their toilet paper
and sanitary products. Don’t worry; in unique cases like this, commercially
available products assist you with doing so in a sanitary manner.
Take Nothing, Leave Nothing

There are plenty of interesting objects that will capture your attention along
the trail such as fossils, plants, historical artifacts, and more. LNT asks that
you leave everything just as you found it. Enjoy the heck out of whatever
you find. Stop, take photos, dream about what the world was like when
the artifact was made, whatever trips your trigger, but leave the objects
exactly as you found them.
This is because not only is a fossil or artifact important, but also the situ-
ation in which it’s found can help tell its story. For example, if a number
of historic horseshoes are found in one location, this might indicate that
the location was a historic camp where horses were kept and shod. If the
horseshoes are moved away from their original location, part of their story
becomes lost in that movement.
Step 1
70 step
s
Trail
Poop
X spot!
70 steps
Water
Step 2
Dirt you dug

from poop hole
Poop hole! 6 in
Step 3
No poop visible
Filled in with dirt!
Poop!
Where and how to dig a hole for disposing bodily waste.

E6615/Hicks/F01.04/534985/jb/r1
185
Leave what you find on the trail—like this Native American projectile
point—where you found it.
LNT asks trail users to additionally leave natural places unaltered. Rock
cairns and wind shelters, made by stacking rocks atop each other, for
example, leave unnecessary, long-lasting, visible, and unnatural remind-
ers of your visit.
Liza Howard adds, “My son hates this principle. What’s the point of find-
ing arrowheads, antlers, cool-looking rocks, or even a really great stick if you
can’t take them home with you? He doesn’t buy into the ‘if everybody took
one, there would be any left’ logic. But he’s young and he’s still working on
recognizing the impact of his behavior on others. If every trail runner took
something interesting or beautiful home from a run, the scenery would
change and the trails would lose their ‘Wow!’ factors. So be the example
and preserve the ‘Wow!’”
Consideration for Wildlife

As previously discussed, wildlife roams in the places you trail run. Birds,
insects, reptiles, ungulates, and predatory mammals call open spaces home.
To see a herd of elk grazing in a meadow, to watch butterflies pollinate
flowers, to listen to birds chirp from treetops, to hear frogs croaking from
desert oases, to see a bear searching for food, or to hear a pack of coyotes
yipping at sunset: A glimpse of wildlife living free in its native habitat is
an incredible benefit of trail running.
In being a land steward, it’s your job to make sure wildlife have the
continued opportunity to live unbothered by your passage. Most impor-
tantly, you must give wildlife its space. A national-park ranger once gave
Meghan a wonderful recommendation for providing wild animals with the
space they need to feel comfortable: If an animal modifies its behavior for
you, you’re too close. Different land managers have a variety of rules and
recommendations for how far you should stay away from certain kinds of
wildlife. Check those rules before you run.
Wild animals should never be allowed access to human food or trash.
Don’t feed animals and always supervise your food and hydration pack so
that you don’t unintentionally provide wildlife access to your food. Wild
animals can become sick from the consumption of human food. Access to
human food additionally makes many animals behave aggressively as they
attempt to gain access to more human food. For example, bears in the Lake
Tahoe region of California who access human food have been known to
charge other humans, and squirrels that have been fed in Zion National
Park in Utah have bitten other humans.
Dogs can be especially impactful to wildlife. Dogs love to chase and, in
some cases, kill wildlife. Control your pet at all times by leash or voice. If you
are unsure of your ability to control your dog by voice, kindly use a leash.
Finally, some wildlife species become especially sensitive to the presence
of humans at certain times of the year, such as when they are mating or
raising young. Land managers often set temporary closures to take the
pressure of human presence off wildlife during these sensitive times.
Consideration for Other Visitors

Trail runners share the trails with all sorts of other human users, including
other trail runners, hikers, dog walkers, mountain bikers, birders, backpack-
ers, equestrians, hunters, ATV riders, motorcyclists, jeepers, astronomers,
and more. Each legal trail user has a right to experience the trail, and none
should behave in a way that degrades another’s experience.
Most land managers for areas that are visited by multiple user groups
have established rules to govern how these groups interact. Rules estab-
lishing right-of-way designations, one-way trails, limited-use trails, trails
where motorized use is allowed, trails where motorized use is prohibited,
and more are meant to help prevent negative and dangerous encounters
among user groups.
For example, multiple user groups, including hikers, trail runners, and
mountain bikers, heavily use Park City, Utah’s trails. Some Park City trails
have been designated as uphill-only or downhill-only trails for some or all
user groups to prevent negative encounters between users. Also, some trails
have been designated as pedestrian only to prevent dangerous interactions
between pedestrians and mountain bikers.
LNT also asks trail users to respect other users’ desire for quiet. If you
would like to listen to music while you run, use headphones. Avoid extended
bouts of shouting or other loud noises that can intrude upon another per-
son’s experience.
As previously mentioned with regard to wildlife, trail runners should
control dogs via leash or voice so that other trail users don’t have to interact
with them if they don’t want to.
LNT says that a trail user should keep courtesy and respect in mind each
time he or she interacts with other trail users, that this simple but mindful
approach can effectively guide our actions in a way that will help sustain
strong, kind relationships between all trail users.
To learn about the rules, potential hazards, and special qualities of a
natural space you would like to run through, consult that natural space’s
manager. Call them, check out their website, stop by a visitor center, or
read interpretive signs at trailheads. Be aware that rules vary from loca-
tion to location because of different resources, and that rules can change
throughout the year to protect resources at seasonally critical times.
As much as we would like it to be, trail running isn’t exclusively about
gallivanting carefree through beautiful places. Trail running in wild places is
a privilege. We believe that the more skills you take with you trail running,
the more problem free and therefore the more pleasurable your experience
will be. Running with as little impact as possible on the resources through
which you travel and the other trail users you meet ensures that our wild
places stay wild for generations of trail runners and other outdoor enthusi-
asts to come. You now have a solid set of knowledge and skills for beginner
to intermediate-level trail runs. Get out there and use it, but remember to
be a perpetual learner.
LAKE DISTRICT, ENGLAND, UNITED KINGDOM
In a group of British trail runners, whisper the words “Lake District” and watch
eyes glimmer, lips curl into smiles, and minds disappear into dreams of big
adventures in huge landscapes. Watch too as brows furrow and conversa-
tions turn to the inevitable weather-induced misadventures for which this
region of the world is also known.
The Lake District refers largely to England’s Lake District National Park,
located in the country’s northwest corner. Known by its name and by lower-
altitude recreationists for its lakes and other water bodies, the Lake District
is famous among trail runners for its fells, as the mountains of the area are
known. In the Lake District, these fells reach as high as 3,209 feet (978 m)
atop Scafell Pike, England’s highest mountain. The fells are basically gar-
gantuan piles of alpine rock rubble, making them a challenge to negotiate.
The Lake District’s infamous rain, wind, fog, and often even worse weather
add difficulty to outings here. The lowlands offer challenges as well, by way
of shoe-sucking mud and bogs.
These variables shouldn’t deter you, however, because they haven’t
deterred the many generations of fell runners who have preceded you. Fell
running is a bit different from trail running in that race courses or the places
you run aren’t necessarily on marked trails; rather, they are routes that you
self-navigate. Fell racing has been taking place throughout the United King-
dom, including in the Lake District, since the 1800s. Fell running itself dates
back farther than that.
(continued)
189
Lake District (continued)
You can join in the fun in many ways, such as by one of the dozens of fell
races that take place each year in the Lake District, predominantly but not
exclusively in the summer. Or, with a Lake District topographic map, you can
choose your own fell adventure by linking one, two, or perhaps more summits
together into an out-and-back or loop. Do use care with any adventures you
undertake because England’s notoriously bad weather is even worse in the
Lake District. Scarily, clouds and fog can obscure the view even 20 feet (6 m)
in front of you, making the navigation of an off-trail route a true challenge.
You should probably tackle your first fell-running adventure on a clear day,
even if it’s cold or windy, when you can see where you’re going. A couple
starter outings in the Lake District are to England’s tallest mountain, Scafell
Pike, from the agricultural hub of Wasdell Head or to the top of Skiddaw
from the village of Keswick.
190
The view from Utah’s White Rim Trail at sunset.
Chapter 11
Health and Injuries

There are no ifs, ands, or buts about it: If you trail run long enough, a physi-
cal malady of some sort will result. Maybe you will trip and fall. Perhaps
you will run straight into a branch. You might take a poorly fitted pair of
shoes out for too long a run. By reading this chapter you’ll learn how to
avoid many ailments with knowledge and planning. You’ll also learn how
to address issues as they happen with swift first aid.
191
Preventative Care
Throughout this book, you’ve read about the benefits of planning. A little
knowledge, a good plan of action, and the right preparation yield positive
trail running experiences. In this section you’ll learn what you can do
before you trail run to help keep yourself healthy.
Sunburn
The ultraviolet light of the sun can burn both your skin and eyes, so both
require protection that can be found in sunscreen, protective clothing, and
sunglasses. Head back to chapter 7, “Conquering the Conditions,” to see
how to prevent sunburn.
Chafing
One thing that can be awful about running is chafing. Exquisitely painful
and not uncommon among trail runners, chafing refers to the repetitive
rubbing of your skin against itself, your clothing, or your gear and the skin
abrasions that result. Because the human body comes in all shapes and sizes,
chafing happens in different places for different people. Examples from the
top down include your shoulders or back against
Chafing is a common a pack; your underarms against your inner arms;
runner ailment. Sports anywhere a sports bra touches the skin; nipples
lube, tape, and properly against a shirt; shorts waistbands against your
fitting shoes, clothes, and waistline; various genitalia against themselves or
gear will eliminate virtually your shorts, tights, or liner within your shorts;
all chafing problems. and your inner thighs against themselves or your
running bottoms. Ouch!
But there’s a solution for almost all kinds of chafing. Hurrah! By finding
gear that fits correctly, pretaping, lubing areas that are apt to chafe, and
reapplying lube when necessary during your run, you can eliminate almost
all of your chafing problems. You might find portions of this section a bit
forward—sorry about that. The goal here is to get right to the point and
prevent a painful skin disaster.
Pretaping means that you cover the portions of your skin that may chafe
with tape so that the tape takes the friction, rather than your skin. You’ll
need to use a tape that will stick even when you get sweaty and has a smooth
outer surface. Lubing means that you cover your potential chafe points with
a substance that will reduce friction. A number of commercial sports lubes
out there are oil based, so you won’t sweat them off for several hours. In a
pinch, a petroleum jelly like Vaseline will do the trick, but it tends to wear
off more quickly and is more prone to attracting grit. If chafing is a serious
issue for you, carry lube on your longer trail runs and reapply as necessary.
Don’t run (and shower afterward) in pain.
Health and Injuries 193
Note that chafing becomes more common the longer you run. Also, in
certain circumstances chafing is more common, such as in extreme heat
and humidity, cold, and rain. Triggers vary by person. Over time you’ll
learn what conditions put you at higher risk for chafing, and you can take
preventive action before runs in such conditions. You certainly shouldn’t
need to initiate preventive countermeasures before every run.
Pack
Packs shouldn’t chafe. Occasionally, something might rub you the wrong
way for a short time, but on a regular basis, the pack you run in should
feel like part of your body. If that’s not happening, first try to readjust the
gear you’re carrying as well as the various adjustment straps. If that doesn’t
work after a few attempts, you need to try a different kind of pack.
Underarms
Some people experience chafing of their upper arms against their arm-
pits. You can avoid this by wearing a shirt that places at least one layer of
clothing between your chafe points, by pretaping your chafe points, or by
lubing as necessary.
Sports Bra
Unfortunately, many women have serious issues finding a sports bra that
fits them like a glove. For some women, poor-fitting sports bras can result
in chafing in any spot the sports bra touches skin, but it’s most common
in the small of the back, on the sternum, where the shoulder straps rest,
or under the arms.
Fortunately, an immense diversity of sports bras is available these days.
As with a pack, if you’re wearing a sports bra that chafes (or otherwise
pains) you, find one that feels good. There’s no need to run like that! To
address sports-bra chafing, pretaping your chafe points works best. Make
sure to cut the tape large enough that the edges of the bra and tape don’t
overlap and cause the tape to rub off.
Nipples
Oh, men! If you’ve ever attended an endurance-running event, chances
are you’ve seen that dude with two red streaks on the front of his light-
colored shirt—right in front of his nipples. That’s not sports drink from the
aid stations; that’s blood from his nipples rubbed raw. Men can completely
avoid this problem by slapping a Band Aid or tape over each nipple. For
the fancy, there are nipple covers made specifically for running. It might
take a little trial and error to find the nipple protection you need, but find
it and let your nipples run in peace.
Waistband
The chafing of a shorts waistband against the waistline is rare, but it can
happen, especially when your clothing gets sopping wet. If you know that
one small spot of your shorts waistband is apt to chafe against your waist-
line in certain conditions, pretape your skin accordingly.
Genitals
All kinds of chafing can occur in the genital region, and the issue varies
between women and men, of course. But whoever you are and however it
occurs, this sort of chafing is the most miserable. Genitals rubbing against
skin or clothing can quickly make your entire life painful. If you chafe
anywhere in the genital region, you’ll need a heavy dose of lube, and
you’ll need to reapply it when you feel the friction start to increase again.
The good news is that with adequate lube use you can prevent virtually
all genital chafing problems. Use a lube that’s recommended for sports use
on the genitals, and use it externally only. That said, if this happens, you
should seriously consider finding a new innermost layer for your running.
Inner Thighs
Both men and women deal with inner-thigh chafing. In fact, this form of
chafing is the most common in running. It can be a huge problem for those
who are prone. Folks who prefer traditional running shorts (i.e., a liner
with a looser overshort) should opt for a skin lube in situations when thigh
chafing is likely to occur. Alternately, runners might opt for some form of
running short or tight that extends down to at least midthigh so that the
fabric provides a mechanical barrier similar to taping.
Caring for Your Feet

On every run, your feet hit the ground thousands of times. They take a
literal beating in this sport. Read on to learn how to ready your feet as
much as possible to reduce the chances of foot problems.
Shoe Size, Fit, and Lacing Techniques
If nothing else, use this chapter to help find a
comfortable pair of running shoes. Hundreds
To keep your feet healthy
for a lifetime of running,
of suitable running-shoe models are out there,
pick up the fantastic book and surely some of them fit your feet better than
Fixing Your Feet: Prevention others. Seek them out!
and Treatments for Ath- Shoe sizing and fit is a matter of personal pref-
letes by Jon Vonhof, which erence, but these tips should get your feet headed
addresses dozens of foot in the right direction toward maximal comfort.
issues that arise before, Some shoe experts recommend wearing a trail
during, and after running. shoe that’s a half size larger than your regular
running shoe to accommodate your toes in the
What’s not to love about running on soft singletrack through a sea
of wildflowers?
front of the shoe on steep downhills, but that additional room can some-
times create too much extra space elsewhere in the shoe. A properly fitted
shoe for trail running will provide about a half inch (about 1 cm) of space
between the end of your longest toe and the front of the shoe’s toe box.
When you are running downhill, your feet may move forward a bit, and
this extra space helps prevent your toes from banging against the front of
the toe box. Your trail running shoes should otherwise offer the sort of toe
box fit that you prefer. Some people find that they prefer a more glove-like
fit in the toe box, whereas others want a looser fit so that their toes can
wiggle and splay to help provide balance.
The rest of the fit of your shoe, through the midfoot to the heel, should
be relatively snug. You will find that when the midfoot of the shoe envelops
your own midfoot well, you will feel stable and as if the shoes are part of
your feet rather than something foreign attached to them. You’ll achieve
that midfoot snugness through a combination of shoe fit and lacing, a topic
to be addressed shortly. Your heel should sit snugly into the heel cup of your
trail running shoe. Although you don’t want to have too much movement
of your heel in the shoe, you also don’t want to have to wedge your heel in.
If the fit of the heel is too tight or too loose, you are likely to suffer serious
blistering problems on the backs of your heels.
You can attain a more custom shoe fit through varied lacing. For example,
some trail shoes offer an extra top eyelet that, when you thread your laces
through it, helps some people achieve a snugger shoe fit that feels more
secure while trail running. Runners with low-volume or long, thin feet can
especially benefit from this feature, as can those with small ankles. You
195
can also alter the tightness of your laces in certain places across the top of
your feet to achieve a slightly different fit. For instance, some people like
to loosen the laces above the toes and tighten the laces over the midfoot.
Others prefer the laces over the midfoot to be a little bit looser than the
laces up toward the ankle, especially when they’ll be descending a great
deal. When you look at the tops of your feet, you’ll notice an intricate array
of muscles and tendons. You also have several nerves passing through the
tops of your feet. Altering your lacing techniques ever so slightly can make
the tops of your feet—with all those tendons, muscles, and nerves—more
comfortable.
Although uncommon, the ankle collar, the upper ring of the shoe that
contacts your lower leg, may bang uncomfortably into the bottom of your
outer anklebone. If this happens more than once in a pair of shoes, you
should find another shoe with a lower ankle collar.
Sock Choice
These days, choosing trail running socks is like going to a buffet. Just as
you need to find a shoe that feels comfortable on your feet, you have to find
a sock that works best for you. Trail running socks can do several major
things while you are trail running:
● Wick foot sweat and other moisture away from your foot and into the
upper of your shoe (where, ideally, it then evaporates out of the upper).
● Protect your foot with extra cushioning on the bottom of the sock as
well as the ankle where a kicked-up rock might bite your ankle.
● Act as a mechanical barrier to the friction created by your feet making
contact with the shoe and, sometimes, your toes making contact with
each other during the running motion (think toe sock).
● Provide support to the arch of your foot, which is constantly rising,
falling, and angling this way and that as the muscles and tendons of
your foot contract and relax in the running motion.
Although not all socks do all things, these functions represent the diver-
sity of your options, and you should choose a sock that matches your desired
assistance. For instance, if your feet sweat a lot when you run, you should
choose a sock that wicks appropriately for your needs. If you get friction
blisters between your toes when you run, think about wearing toe socks,
which encase each toe separately and help eliminate the friction caused
by your toes making contact with each other. If you have pain in your foot
arches, a pair of socks with extra arch support may help you.
Drying or Lubing Agents
Some trail runners find solace in using a drying or a lubing agent on their
feet for their longest trail runs. When your feet sweat, that moisture can
cause several problems, including a bit of extra friction as well as softened
Catching the light just right above the Pacific Ocean in Big Sur, California.
foot skin, which can more easily blister and break. Foot powders are meant
to help absorb your foot sweat, and lubes are meant to take on friction so
that the skin of your feet doesn’t have to.
Pretaping
Some people swear by foot powder or sports lube, but others prefer to
pretape areas of their feet that are prone to blistering for trail runs lasting
several hours or more. In the same way that pretaping was discussed in
reference to chafing, pretaping the feet at their friction points allows the
tape, not the skin, to bear the brunt of any friction, thereby preventing
blistering. Runners who use pretaping generally do so to their toes, the
balls of their feet, or the backs of their heels, as dictated by their personal
trouble areas. Again, if you’re a trail runner who has persistent blistering
issues on your long runs despite wearing a pair of shoes that feel good on
your feet and socks that work well for you, consider the option of pretaping
for blister prevention. Vonhof’s Fixing Your Feet instructs on foot pretaping
with incredibly helpful detail.
Acute On-Trail Issues and Injuries

No matter how carefully you prepare, accidents can still happen when you
are trail running. Read on to learn about the most common accidents and
acute injuries that occur in our sport and ways to care for them on trail.
Although you can’t predict when an issue will arise, you can know how
to deal with one when it does.
197
Falls
Even if you’re superbly coordinated and just plain lucky, as a trail runner
you’re going to fall. Falls happen, and here’s what you need to know about
them.
First, falls can occur in bad ways and in less bad ways. You can do more
or less damage to yourself when you go down depending on how you do it.
One of the worst things you can do is to lock out your arm and fall with it
perpendicular to the ground. You can easily break your arm or wrist that
way. Instead, you want your hands to hit the ground in either a semiex-
tended state (i.e., with elbows bent) or, if you’re flying face-first, fully
extended but angled far enough in front of you so that you land superman
style. Try not to tense up, because this can worsen the effects of the fall by
concentrating the impact in one location and not allowing it to reverber-
ate through the body. If a forward fall has you pitching at all to the side,
consider tucking a shoulder and converting the fall into a tuck-and-roll to
help spread out the impact and lessen the chances of a single major injury.
Likewise, the superman fall (or, if you prefer, the headfirst slide) spreads
out the impact over various body parts, ideally leaving you scraped up but
unbroken. Both techniques demonstrate the valuable lesson of spreading
out impact forces rather than landing full force on, say, one knee.
In most of your falls, you will be running one second and be on the
ground in the next, shocked. It all happens so fast that you have no control
over how your body goes down. In this case, you might land on your knees,
elbows, hands, hip, or some combination of these.
Cuts and scrapes (often with embedded matter), as well as bruises, are
the typical results of a trail running fall. Most of the cuts will be superfi-
cial. They may bleed some, but you’ve done no real harm and can continue
running. Usually, by the time you’re back to the trailhead, you have a nice
dollop of blood dried on your knee or elbow, a badge of honor perhaps.
After you get home—and this goes for any skin you break while trail run-
ning—you’ll need to clean your wound well, making sure to remove any
foreign matter. To prevent infection, you’ll also want to apply an antibiotic
cream a couple times a day until a protective scab has fully formed.
Occasionally, a serious cut can occur because of a fall or running into a
sharp object like a tree branch or rock. This injury will require stitches or
even more serious medical care. Deep cuts that expose part of a muscle, fat,
bone, or some other subcutaneous body tissue, cuts that don’t stop bleed-
ing in a few minutes, cuts that open unnaturally wide because of their
placement near a joint, and similar injuries will need stitches. If you cut
yourself so severely that major bleeding occurs, you will have to compress
the wound to decrease bleeding and evacuate to a medical professional for
further treatment.
Bruising is another common result of a fall. In almost all cases, although

the bruising of a muscle or other soft tissue is quite painful, and although
you might develop swelling and discoloration, you will be able to resume
running as soon as the initial pain has decreased. If you happen to fall on
a bony part of your body, you can bruise that bone. These bruises are more
serious, may require some medical treatment, and may mean that you’ll
need to take days or weeks off running until the pain subsides.
Your fall may occasionally involve a skid, as if you’re sliding legs or arms
first into home plate in baseball or slide tackling in soccer. This kind of fall
tends to be more painful than serious because superficial scrapes occur over
a large surface area. As with cuts, foreign matter can become embedded in
the skin. Although an injury like this is painful at the outset, it doesn’t look
severe. In extreme cases, however, medical attention may be required to
remove the embedded foreign matter. This process usually involves scrub-
bing the abraded surface and washing the wound with liquid through a
high-pressure hose or syringe. Whoever does it, removing the foreign matter
will be painful, but if it is not done properly, you risk unnecessary infection.
Finally, a fall can conceivably result in a broken bone. If you suspect you
have broken a bone, get yourself off the trail as quickly as possible and visit
an emergency room for an X-ray. Depending on the bone and your abil-
ity to move it, such evacuation can be difficult and painful, and you may
need the assistance of others or a search-and-rescue (SAR) team. Use great
care not to make your already serious injury any worse in going off trail.
Use clothing and tree branches to help immobilize your injury, if needed.
Joint Issues
One extremely common on-trail injury is the old rolled ankle, when your
foot tips to the outside as a result of landing on an uneven surface. Occasion-
ally, trail runners roll their ankles the other way, tipping the foot severely
inward toward the midline of the body. Depending on how badly you roll
your ankle, you can do a variety of damage including a minor strain of
some muscles, tendons, or ligaments all the way to a full tear of some of
the soft tissues of the ankle.
If you sprain your ankle only slightly, you will probably be able to con-
tinue running after the initial pain subsides. If after a minute or two you
can run on it without notable pain, you can do so, although when you
get home you may want to ice it, take some anti-inflammatories, and lay
low for a few days. If you have sprained your ankle severely—torn one
or more of those ankle ligaments—you will have a hard time extricating
yourself from the trail because you will likely be unable to run or possibly
even walk. You may be able to limp slowly to the trailhead, possibly with
makeshift immobilization. If you continue to experience severe pain or
your ankle can’t support your weight to walk or run in the days following
your injury, you’ll need to seek medical treatment.
Rarely, rolling an ankle can lead to breaking one of the bones adjacent
to the ankle joint. As previously mentioned, if you suspect you’ve broken
a bone, get yourself off the trail and to an emergency room. You’ll need to
immobilize your ankle, perhaps using a piece of your clothing and some
sticks. Depending on your location and your ability to get off the trail
without worsening your injury, you may require the assistance of a SAR
team for evacuation.
Other joints can experience acute, on-trail problems, most often the
knee. Although acute knee injuries are extremely uncommon in trail
running when compared with other sports like soccer or skiing, they can
happen when the foot missteps or the land underneath your foot moves
unexpectedly. This circumstance can cause your upper and lower legs to
do two opposing actions that end up severely stressing the knee joint. In
the same way that injury occurs in the ankle joint, the muscles, tendons,
and ligaments traveling across the knee or connecting the bones together
can be strained or torn. A severe knee injury should be treated similarly
to an injury resulting from an ankle roll: Get off the trail (using SAR, if
needed) and seek medical treatment.
Painful Muscles
Most of the muscle pain we acquire because of running is overuse related.
We work a muscle beyond exhaustion, and the muscle becomes tight,
inflamed, and painful as a result. Because this chapter focuses on the acute,
on-trail problems of trail running, we won’t address chronic injuries any
more than to say that they can and should be avoided altogether, but they
should be treated professionally if they do occur.
Trail runners can also strain a muscle or a tendon while running as a
result of falling or misstepping. The most common significant muscle strains
are those that occur in the calves, quadriceps, and back, and they generally
feel like a sudden pulling or ripping sensation followed by immediate muscle
tightness and pain. Some muscle strains are insignificant, in which case
you’ll be able to finish your run. Others result in significant muscle tearing
and might require you to walk or limp painfully home from your run and
take several weeks off running while the muscle heals. Seek medical care
if you have extreme muscle or tendon pain.
Snakebites
Snakebites were addressed in chapter 10, “Trail Safety and Stewardship,”
so be sure to page back for a look. If you are bitten by a venomous snake,
seek immediate medical care. When venomous snakes bite, they may inject
toxic venom that causes immediate and progressive damage to your body’s
tissues. Hospitals located where venomous snakes live generally keep anti-
venom on hand and may administer it to envenomated snakebite victims

to counteract the effects of the snake’s venom. Most people who are bitten
by venomous snakes require hospitalization to assist the recovery process.
Insect Stings and Bites

The sting or bite of many insects is annoying but often benign, as discussed
in chapter 10. Swelling and pain may occur at the bite site. But some insect
bites and stings, as well as some humans’ reactions to them, are serious. For
example, those who experience insect-related anaphylaxis should always
carry epinephrine and have a plan for seeking emergency medical assistance
in the event of a bite. Also, scorpions and some spiders, like black widows,
administer toxic chemicals into their victims when they sting and bite.
This envenomation, like that of a venomous snakebite, requires medical
assistance. Be sure to do your research about the dangerous insects you
might meet before heading out on a trail run.
Injuries From Animals

In almost all cases, wild animals go to extreme lengths to avoid close con-
tact with humans. Very rarely, a sick animal or one that is acclimated to
getting food from humans might bite or scratch someone. If this happens,
get away from the animal as fast as possible using the tips we described in
chapter 10. Seek medical attention for wounds inflicted by a wild animal
because the wound needs to be carefully cleaned to prevent infection.
You may require medication or shots to counter potential diseases. Also,
immediately report this unusual and dangerous animal behavior to the
appropriate authorities, such as the local land managers.
The most common animal-induced injury is the dog bite. Chapter 10
addresses dog encounters in detail. Treat a bite or scratch from an unknown
dog like you would that of a wild animal. Although serious infectious dis-
eases are almost nonexistent in domestic dogs, a wound created by one of
them needs thorough care to evade infection.
Altitude Sickness
You may have read about altitude sickness in detail in chapter 7, “Con-
quering the Conditions.” If you have not, look back at the section about
acute mountain sickness (AMS), which occurs in some people who visit
high altitudes. With the exception of its more serious uncles, high altitude
pulmonary edema and high altitude cerebral edema, both of which are
extremely unlikely to occur unless you go to a very high altitude, AMS is
merely an annoyance and a performance inhibitor. AMS sets in not long
after arriving at higher altitude and may persist for several days until your
body begins to acclimatize to its new environment. The nuisance headache,
nausea, loss of appetite, and other AMS symptoms will slowly abate as your
body gets used to being at altitude.
Any Life or Death Emergency

Sadly, oodles of (highly unlikely) scenarios can occur while trail running
that are life threatening, such as a heart attack, a gaping wound, or a severe
head injury. A life and death emergency that occurs on the trail needs two
things immediately:
1. The condition incompatible with life must be treated immediately.
A person who is choking needs the Heimlich maneuver. Someone
who has stopped breathing is in need of cardiopulmonary resusci-
tation (CPR). A giant open wound needs compression to slow the
bleeding. A person who could have a head or spine injury needs to
be immobilized.
2. Emergency medical services (EMS) must be summoned immedi-
ately. Someone, preferably not the person or people administering
life-saving care, needs to get EMS on its way to the injured person.
If you are doing this job, you need to explain calmly where you are
and what the life-threatening issue is. The faster, more efficient,
and more precise you can be, the better assistance you can be to the
person in need.
As they say, safety first! The preventative care addressed in the first half
of this chapter is crucial to comfortable and enjoyable trail running, and
the how-to explanations for acute on-trail issues will help you negotiate
a difficult or potentially life-threatening situation should you encounter
one while on the trail. Knowledge is certainly power when it comes to
problem-free trail running, so let this chapter be a jumping-off point to a
lifetime of learning.
LANTAU ISLAND, HONG KONG
As Hong Kong’s largest and least-developed island, Lantau Island is an excel-

lent outdoor playground. Home to a number of tall peaks stretching more than
3,000 vertical feet (900 m) into the sky, the popular 43.5-mile (70 km) Lantau
Trail, and many shorter trails, the island is a magnet for trail running.
The Lantau Trail, the best known place to trail run on the island, is a well-
organized loop that starts and finishes in the village of Mui Wo on the east
side of the island. The trail is divided into 12 sections of varying distances, and
signposts with distance markers are found every half kilometer. You’ll always
know where you are on the Lantau Trail. Also, along this organizational vein,
many of Hong Kong’s trails are different from trails in other parts of the world
in that pavement and stairs are frequent fixtures. Development aside, the
Lantau Trail can take you to some spectacular places, including the island’s
highest peak, Lantau Peak, at 3,064 feet (934 m) above sea level, the giant Tian
Tan Buddha and associated Po Lin Buddhist Monastery, as well as many small
mountain and fishing villages.
If you’re in the mood for trail racing, you’re in real luck because the Hong
Kong trail racing scene is robust. A trail race is almost always happening on
Hong Kong, although the races are clustered from October through May, the
region’s cooler season. On Lantau Island, try the Lantau 2 Peaks 23 km event,
which is run every October. Some locals call it the hardest half marathon they’ve
ever run. You could also try one of the three race distances at TransLantau in
March: the, 25 km, 50 km, or 100 km.
Whether you plan to trail run or race on Lantau Island, be prepared for major
vertical. The trails are never flat and often climb or descend steeply; grades of
over 1,000 vertical feet per mile (200 m per km) are common. Heat and humidity
are also a factor on Lantau, so be prepared with water and appropriate clothing.
203
Winning the 2015 Western States 100-Mile
Run brings a big smile to Rob Krar’s face.
Chapter 12
Trail Racing
If you have come all this way with trail running, you might find yourself
interested in participating in a trail race. Racing may help you search for
your own top speed, measure yourself against others, or become a part of
the wider trail running community. Whatever your proclivity, this chapter
explains how to choose and what you can expect from a trail race.
205
Choosing a Race
Trail races come in many shapes and sizes. Races of any distance exist, from
a few miles to 100 miles (160 km) or more. Many trail events host races of
several distances as well, such as a 5 km (3.1 miles), half marathon, and
marathon, all offered from the same starting line. You will also find that
trail races take place on a variety of surfaces, from the grass of a local high-
school cross-country course to up, down, and around some of the world’s
most imposing mountains.
You’ll also have to choose the size of race you wish to participate in, from
a small one with 40 or 60 participants to those with thousands of runners.
Although you’ll find very big races in Europe, the latter is still quite uncom-
mon in North America, at least for now. That said, trail running is growing
quickly in popularity, and an evolving race scene is surely part of that.
A trail race in proximity to your home or at an inspiring destination may
also factor into your decision. Because of other life commitments, some trail
runners desire races that are close to home. Others like to use a trail race
as a getaway or a reason to go on vacation. A trail race can make a lovely
excuse to explore new places both near and far.
Some communities frequently host trail races,
as often as every weekend, whereas other areas
If you want to run a race,
with less developed trail running communities
check its registration
might have trail races only a couple times per
procedure. As trail running
increases in popularity, year. Thus, the actual existence of trail races
some races require partici- might help you make the decision about which
pation in lotteries and sign- race you will run. If you live in a place that
ups months in advance. becomes snowbound in the winter, you will
notice that the trail racing scene tapers off when
the snow flies.
To find trail races, check out your local running store, ask other runners,
search one of the many online trail race calendars, or search online for
trail races in a particular geographic area. After you discover your desired
race, note the registration procedure. Some small trail races allow you to
sign up on the day of the race, but the most popular races may require you
to qualify, sign up far in advance, or enter a lottery that determines who
can race.
Prerace Preparations
Trail racing can be one of the most enjoyable expressions of our sport. Most
people find it at least as pleasurable as trail running in general, and others
enjoy it even more for the added competitive challenge and community
immersion. Adequate preparation can seriously boost the fun factor, so get
ready to race!
Trail Racing 207
Course Familiarization
The course—the ups, downs, curves, climbs, rocks, and views—is perhaps
the best part about a trail race. Knowledge is power in just about everything
in life, and the same is true in trail racing. If you know what’s ahead on the
course, you’re likely to find it
a little easier to manage.
A l most a l l t ra i l races
have websites on which you
can learn about the course,
including the actual route,
climbs and descents, aid sta-
tions (places where you can
restock on water and food),
as well as crucial intersec-
tions. For longer races with
too much crucial information
to remember, you can make
and laminate a cheat sheet
Review course maps and elevation profiles on a
to carry with you as a refer-
race website to help plan your race.
ence tool.
Climate and Weather

Knowing the climate—the typical weather in terms of temperature,
humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, visibility, and wind—for the region
where you’re racing will help you plan all your needs such as water and
fuel intake, gear, clothing choices, racing strategy, and more. For example,
knowing when and how hot the weather will get on race day will inform
when and how hard you decide to push during the race.
Fueling Plan
Whatever your racing goals, your water and nutrition intake is important. For
a primer on general trail running hydration and fueling, check out chapter 6.
The first thing you should do is decide how much water and fuel you will
need for your trail race using the estimated time it will take you to complete
the course, your effort level, and the likely weather. Some races are short
enough that you won’t need water or fuel during the event, whereas races
that last several hours require careful planning to ensure that you have
the water and fuel you need. Apply the knowledge you’ve gained during
training to develop your fuel plan.
A trail race longer than a couple miles will generally have at least one
aid station where you can get water, at a minimum. Some aid stations,
especially those at longer races, offer additional drinks and food. Generally,
The 2014 UTMB® begins in a torrent of rain.
aid stations are spaced 45 to 90 minutes apart. Occasionally, aid stations

are spaced farther apart.
For races in the 10 km (6.2 miles) to half-marathon range, you might
get your appropriate fuel and fluid intake by carrying one or two gels in
a shorts pocket and drinking water or sports drink from the aid stations
along the way. At longer races, if the weather or terrain is extreme or if the
aid stations are far apart, you will need to carry and consume water and
nutrition between aid stations. In this case, use your trail running gear to
carry what you need—a handheld water bottle or a hydration pack. Most
people use the same gear for racing that they use in their regular trail run-
ning, but a few use lighter-weight versions of their usual gear. If you are
looking to race at the top end of your capacity, lighter gear will allow you
to run a tiny bit faster.
Shoe Choice
If you are the type of runner who has one pair of general-purpose trail
shoes that you wear in all conditions, you need not worry about race-day
shoe choice. If you have multiple pairs of shoes, however, choose the one
that best meets your personal needs and the trail conditions. Running your
fastest might inform wearing your lightest pair of shoes. Rocky terrain might
mean that you need shoes with a good rock plate to protect the bottom of
your feet. Mud or snow indicates wearing shoes with aggressive lugs for
increased traction. Chapter 5 discusses trail running shoes in detail, so
make sure to look back as you decide what shoes to wear for your trail race.
208
Trail Racing 209
Other Gear
For some races, you will have to carry additional gear such as a mandatory
kit or extra clothing. Mandatory kits are a type of safety gear that a race
requires you to carry in case an emergency occurs on the course. Examples
of mandatory gear include a whistle, emergency blanket, headlamp, knife,
and waterproof jacket.
The weather may necessitate that you carry extra layers of clothing to
help you keep warm and dry, such as a wind jacket to guard against a
breeze, a rain jacket to stay dry, or a hat and gloves for warmth. As you
decide what gear you need for race day, be sure to check back on chapter
5 for a full discussion of trail running gear.
Some races are run, in part, under the cover of darkness. In this case,
you’ll need a light or two to lead the way. Refer back to chapter 5 for a
detailed discussion of lighting choices.
Finally, a recent movement in trail racing is to make races more environ-
mentally friendly. Among many aspects, these races often aim to produce
less garbage at aid stations. Some do this by being “cupless,” by offering their
provisions—which you’ll read about in detail later in this chapter—without
cups, so you will need to bring your own, ideally something that is small,
collapsible, and reusable.
Race Strategy
Even if you aren’t planning to race your hardest or even if your race plan is
to have no plan, you can still benefit from at least briefly considering your
race strategy. Race strategy is, very simply, a plan of how you would like
your race to unfold from start to finish. Let’s call it an exercise in visual-
ization and implementation.
If, for instance, you want no plan other than to adapt to whatever the
event throws at you, spend a few minutes reminding yourself of your intent
to run with flexibility and adaptability, and imagine what that will look
like. If you would like a more developed race strategy, think it through
ahead of your race, remind yourself of the particular skills you will need,
and visualize yourself enacting that strategy. Among the many strategies
for trail racing, here are a few to consider:
● Start slow, speed up midway, and push hard at the end of the race.
● Negatively split the race by running the second half faster than the first.
● Run and walk in alternating, even intervals, particularly on flatter
courses.
● On hillier courses, run the flats and downhills and powerhike the
uphills.
● Keep the pace conversational from start to finish.
● Run at a certain heart rate for the whole race.
. . . and they’re off at the 2015 U.S. Mountain Running Championships
outside Bend, Oregon.
Crew Plan
Longer trail races, like a marathon or ultramarathon, sometimes allow you
to have a crew made up of family and friends who travel to designated aid
stations to deliver you drink, food, and gear. If you’re running a race that
allows a crew, make a plan for where and how you will use them, such as
at which aid stations they’ll assist you and what materials they’ll provide
you at each location. Make sure to give them directions to aid stations and a
complete list of duties ahead of time. Planning your crew’s tasks will make
their experience easier and more fun.
Starting Lines
By its nature, trail running takes us to remote places off the beaten path.
Accordingly, you might need to follow a convoluted and confusing route
to the starting line of a trail race. Just getting to it may feel like a twisty,
winding trip on singletrack. Most race websites provide good instructions
for getting to the start with maps and written directions. If you navigate to
the starting line with a GPS device, use it to confirm your location relative
to the instructions provided. Don’t rely entirely on your GPS unit because
GPS devices aren’t always able to route you correctly through remote areas.
Make sure to leave plenty of extra time for the meandering and mistaken
turns that might be part of this journey.
210
Trail Racing 211
Parking for all but the largest trail races, which we discuss later, is typi-
cally straightforward, if occasionally messy. Usually, race volunteers point
you toward an empty parking spot, but be prepared for this parking spot
to be off road, maybe in a grassy or muddy field. Depending on the layout
of the starting line and the parking area, you might have to walk a fair
distance from your car to the line. Budget time for this.
Those who are familiar with road racing will have a similar image come
to mind when we mention starting-line restrooms: a long row of porta-
potties with a longer line of waiting runners. The restroom situation at
the starting line of a trail race might be similar to this or quite different.
Sometimes you will encounter that same line of portapotties, whereas other
times you will have access to a restroom at a trailhead or visitor center. You
will likely have to wait your turn, so build some restroom time into your
prestart plan. You may or may not have a way to clean your hands after
using the bathroom, depending on how simple the facilities are. Consider
bringing hand sanitizer or baby wipes just in case. To prevent an unnatural
and unnecessary concentration of human waste in one spot, please don’t
Big Races Versus Small Races
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, trail racing is growing by the minute, and
with it comes a changing racing scene. For the most part, trail races are still small
endeavors, but there are maybe a dozen or two very large trail races around
the country, and even more outside the United States. Those of you who are
looking to test your mettle against the other fast people in our sport will natu-
rally be drawn to the increased competition of these races. Others might find
themselves at the big races out of simple interest in the terrain or the desire to
be part of something that represents a larger part of our trail running community.
Larger trail events often have events that occur before and after the headline
race itself, like a prerace question-and-answer session where you can meet the
top participating runners, kids’ races, shorter-distance races, a festival with
booths and shops, and more.
Sometimes the larger trail races have an elite starting corral. Predetermined
access to the corral is granted to the projected fastest runners.
Larger trail races are timed with timing chips rather than being manually
recorded by volunteers. You’ll be given a timing chip to wear on your shoe or
race number that registers as you cross timing mats along the course.
You might notice the presence of photographers and media at the starting
and finish lines of larger races and sometimes on the courses themselves.
The biggest difference you’ll probably notice in running a larger trail race is
simply the larger number of people. You’ll encounter more runners on the trail,
you might have to park farther from the start and take a shuttle to the starting
line, and the finish-line festivities are likely to be amplified. The race website
generally explains all these unique details.
use the natural area around the starting line for defecating. Even if you
bury your waste and carry out your toilet paper, too much human waste in
one location can contaminate the soil and ground water. Use the provided
honey bucket if you have honey to deposit prerace.
At a trail race start, you will need to check in as well as pick up your bib
number and maybe some swag like a shirt or a hat. Sometimes races offer
check-in the night before at a local running store or hotel, but others offer
check-in only at the starting line. Even if you’ve checked in before race
morning, you may need to check in again on race day so that the race has
an accurate list of who is on the course. Make sure to note all this from the
race website. Again, check-in can take time, so arrive with enough time
to accomplish it.
For the most part, North American trail race starting lines are casual
setups that have no corrals to hold runners of differing speeds. Because trail
races often funnel straight onto singletrack with little room for passing, you
need to seed yourself among your peers. Should you seed yourself too far
ahead in the pack, you’ll likely be stuck running in a train of runners who
are too fast, which could make the second half of your race a painful, slow
slog. If you seed yourself too far back, you’re apt to waste time waiting for
those ahead of you to negotiate the terrain. To seed yourself appropriately,
estimate the size of the crowd and place yourself in it according to your
previous race results. For example, if you often finish around the top 30
percent, place yourself behind roughly one-third of the runners. If you
don’t have any racing experience, exercise courtesy by not starting on the
front line unless you’ve been training successfully alongside others who
are up there.
When you find yourself needing to negotiate a pass or to allow other
runners to pass you, err on the side of caution and respect for others. If you
would like to pass another runner, politely ask the person ahead of you
for permission. When the trail allows, the person should step aside to let
you go by. If another runner wants to pass you, offer the same little step
off the trail as soon as it’s safe to do so. A little kindness goes a long way,
in life and on the trail.
Staying on Course
The thing that varies the most from trail race to trail race is how courses
are marked. Although you won’t find consistency from race to race, the
website or the prerace briefing are perfect places to find out exactly how
a course will be marked. Most courses are marked at least in part with
inch-wide (2.5 cm wide) colored ribbon known as flagging. Flagging is
hung from trees, shrubs, grass, and permanent trail markers. Most often,
flagging is hung to delineate the path you are to travel. Flagging comes in
many colors, but pink, orange, and yellow are frequently used at trail races.
Generally, race directors use the same-color flagging from start to finish to
Trail Racing 213
delineate the course. Some events hold races of multiple distances, so race
directors often use flagging of different colors for the different races. Make
sure you know the flagging color you are to follow. Occasionally, races use
small flags or reflective markers hanging from flagging or attached to thin
metal stakes in the ground.
A race director might supplement flagging with additional markers, such
as flour arrows or plastic plates with arrows directing where you should go,
particularly at intersections. Sometimes, wrong-way signs, differently colored
ribbons, or branch barricades are placed on the trails you shouldn’t take.
In an ideal marking situation, a race director marks the course at regular
intervals with what we call confidence markers, say every quarter or half
mile (every half or full kilometer). These markers provide affirmation that
you are going the right direction over expected and regular periods. In
such cases, if you don’t recall seeing a marker for a while, you can begin
actively looking for one. If you then don’t see one in slightly longer than
the intervals you have previously, you may want to turn around if no other
runners around you can confidently say that you’re still on course.
Above all, pay attention. If you keep your eyes peeled, you are unlikely
to have issues navigating.
Aid-Station Expectations
Aid stations are beacons of hope that offer water, food, and friendly faces
in remote locations. Although aid-station layouts vary from race to race
and even from station to station within a single race, you’ll find certain
mainstays among them all.
Most likely, volunteers will record your passage manually or by chip and
timing mat, so that the race can track each runner’s location. This usually
happens as you enter or leave an aid station. Do what you can to facilitate
this process.
A simple aid station is ready for trail racers.

Next, address your hydration needs. You’ll generally find that drinks are
available from already poured cups and from large jugs. Water, sports drinks,
and soda are common hydration offerings at aid stations. At a short race, you
may just want to stay a moment and sip on a glass of water or sports drink.
For longer races, you want to do the same while also refilling a handheld
water bottle or hydration pack from a jug. Swigging a bit of soda can add a
jolt of energy for the coming section, although many runners save this for
late in a race. Sometimes, aid stations offer ice for longer or hotter races. If
so, add it to your bottle or hydration pack. Note that if you’re participating
in a “cupless” race, you’ll need to provide your own drinking and water-
storage containers and you won’t find drinks awaiting you in cups.
You’ll likely find a table full of easy-to-eat snacks, usually including salty
foods like salted potatoes, chips, and pretzels, and sweet foods like gels,
gummy bears, cookies, and hard candies. At longer trail races, like a trail
marathon, you might find more substantive food like soup, grilled cheese,
bacon, and pancakes.
Aid stations supply garbage bags or cans. Use them. Don’t drop your
garbage on the ground. If recycling or composting containers are provided,
use them appropriately. Keep the natural places through which you’re
running trash free.
Some aid stations will have a restroom, whether it’s an outhouse, porta-
potty, or backcountry setup. Also, many aid stations are staffed with medical
personnel. Ideally, you won’t need their services, but knowing such help is
available provides peace of mind.
Finally, be kind to the volunteers who help you at aid stations. Even
better, volunteer to work at an aid station of another race to give back to
those people who have helped you.
Finish Areas
Most trail runners love finish-line areas. You are done with the challenges
of running. You can hang out with your compatriots, compare notes on
the day, have a picnic with your family and friends, and enjoy food and
beverages offered by the race. Sometimes races have live music and other
activities that enhance the experience. Many people find themselves having
so much fun at the finish of a trail race that they
Trail races are incredibly stay there longer than the time it took them to
social places. Racing them run the race itself. Be sure to pack supplies that
is a great way get to know will allow you to hang out after the race if you
your local trail community. wish, be it clean and warm clothes to change
into, a blanket or camp chairs to sit on, some of
your own food and drink, and extra sunscreen.
François D’haene crosses the finish to win the 2014 UTMB®.
At most trail races, all finishers get some sort of prize, which is given out
when you cross the finish line. A low-key award ceremony for the fastest
runners will take place as part of the finish-line festivities. The number
and kinds of awards vary from significant prize money for the top men and
women to small gifts that extend through top age-group finishers.
Wherever the trail takes you—whether it’s to a race every weekend, on

your hometown trail network, or to an adventure on the other side of the
world—we hope you enjoy learning and growing, gaining confidence and
endurance, and generally having a blast!
215
BRIDGER RIDGE RUN, MONTANA, UNITED STATES
The Bridger Ridge Run, which takes place north of Bozeman, Montana, is
perhaps the best unknown mountain race. The 20-mile (32 km) course with
6,800 feet (2,100 m) of ascent and 9,500 feet (2,900 m) of descent traces the
spine of the Bridger Mountains from north to south.
When we say that it follows the range’s spine, we mean this literally. The
race begins by climbing Sacagawea Peak, a mountain in the northern part of
the range. Next, the course either follows the crest of the range or contours
just below it. From the spine, the views are grand and far-reaching, unless
the range is shrouded in fog and clouds as it occasionally is; the view can
then be something along the lines of fairy-tale spooky. The trail is mostly
rocky and technical, and the exposure factor is moderate to extreme. After
you make it to the south end of the range at the summit of Baldy Mountain,
you drop straight off the range, at times in sane, switchbacking fashion and
at other times more precariously. It’s truly a riotous race.
Within its region, the Bridger Ridge Run is no secret. Almost every trail
runner within a 500-mile (800 km) radius wants to run this iconic race. The only
way to get one of the 250 bib numbers allotted each year is through a lottery.
But if you don’t get in, you can enjoy the course outside the racing envi-
ronment. Doing it point to point, north to south, just as the race does, is the
way to enjoy this route. Don’t expect to pop off a 20-mile (32 km) run on the
Bridger Ridge with any speed. This route will take you anywhere from 4.5 to 8
hours at a recreational effort. Also, given the high, remote reaches of the route
and the tendency for summer thunderstorms to ravage the range, you’ll want
to start early and finish before the skies erupt. The route is bucket-list worthy,
but you need to know that it’s intermediate- to advanced-level trail running.
216
Resources
Beyond this book is a wealth of additional information on trail running.
We share some of our favorites here.
General Online News and Information

iRunFar.com
Website with global trail running news, reviews, and additional resources founded
and operated by the authors.
TrailRunnerMag.com
The online extension of North America’s trail running magazine.
Magazines
Trail Runner (US) (trailrunnermag.com)
Ultrarunning (US) (ultrarunning.com)
Trail Running (UK) (www.trailrunningmag.co.uk)
Fellrunner Magazine (UK) (fellrunner.org.uk)
Trail Run (Australia) (trailrunmag.com)
Trail (South Africa) (trailmag.co.za)
Asia Trail (Pan-Asian) (asiatrailmag.com)
Kiwi Trail Runner (New Zealand) (www.kiwitrailrunner.co.nz)
Revista Trail Run (Spain) (www.trailrun.es)
Trails Endurance (France) (www.trails-endurance.com)
Trail (Germany) (www.trail-magazin.de)
Trail Running Books

The Ultimate Guide to Trail Running by Adam W. Chase and Nancy Hobbs
A basic introduction to trail running.
Trailhead: The Dirt on All Things Trail Running by Lisa Jhung
A trail running book with a lighthearted, conversational voice.
Relentless Forward Progress: A Guide to Running Ultramarathons by Bryon Powell
An ultrarunning how-to, which includes principles applicable to trail running.
Training and Physiology

Lore of Running by Timothy Noakes
An exhaustive treatment of many running principles, many of which can be
applied to trail running.
McMillanRunning.com
Training resources, many of which can be applied directly to trail running.
Daniels’ Running Formula by Jack Daniels
Renowned training book on endurance running, the principles of which can be
applied to trail running.
217
218 Resources
Racing Weight: How to Get Lean for Peak Performance by Matt Fitzgerald
Nutrition for endurance running.
Waterlogged: The Serious Problem of Overhydration in Endurance Sports by Timothy
Noakes
A deep look at the science of hydration and endurance running.
Metabolic Efficiency Training: Teaching the Body to Burn More Fat by Bob Seebohar
Principles of metabolic efficiency training.
Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments, Volumes 1 and 2
The U.S. Army Medical Department’s guide to harsh environments. Volume 1
focuses on extreme heat and cold, while volume 2 examines high-altitude
environments.
Volume 1: www.cs.amedd.army.mil/borden/Portlet.aspx?ID=eebb9338-2027-
46d5-a5f2-f245e2019b6c
Volume 2: www.cs.amedd.army.mil/borden/Portlet.aspx?ID=7c0ebab2-6720-
4e15-883b-dbfaafa960f9
AltitudeMedicine.org
Resources about physical exertion at altitude.
Fixing Your Feet: Prevention and Treatments for Athletes by John Vonhof
Foot treatment before, during, and after running and other endurance sports.
Barefoot Running: How to Run Light and Free by Getting in Touch With the Earth by
Michael Sandler and Jessica Lee
A good resource for barefoot and minimalist running.
Outdoor Ethics
LNT.org
The Leave No Trace organization’s website, which includes much information on
ethical outdoor play.
TrailRunner.com/trail-news/trail-running-rules-run
The American Trail Running Association’s “Trail Running Rules on the Run.”
Online Race Calendars

TrailRunnerMag.com/races/race-calendar
The magazine’s website has an extensive calendar.
TrailRunner.com/race-calendar
The American Trail Running Association has an online calendar.
I-TRA.org/page/290/Agenda.html
The International Trail Running Association website has a calendar with many
international race listings.
UltraSignup.com
Race registration and results website with a focus on ultramarathons.
Index
Note: Page numbers followed by italicized f and t indicate information contained in figures and
tables, respectively.
A awareness and alertness “brown ice” 45

accessibility, trails xi, 5, 79 nature appreciation 2, 13, bruising 198, 199
acclimation 65, 113, 116, 157, 181 Buffs 76-77, 111
elevation 118, 201 running readiness and use
temperature 92, 108 of senses 12-14, 23-24, C
acute mountain sickness 62 cadence. See stride rate
(AMS) 117-118, 201 cairns 176, 186
acute muscle soreness 135 B calorie intake and expendi-
aerobic cross-training 141 backcountry skills 158-166 ture 94-95, 95-97, 99
aerobic endurance zone 122 backpacks 7f, 77, 78, 78f, 193 Canyonlands National Park
age-handicapped races 155 balance, life 145, 147, 152-154 (Utah) 9, 10, 162f
aid stations 213-214, 213f balance, physical. See also falls carbohydrates 93, 94, 95-96,
air, oxygen levels 117-119, body positioning 21-22, 97, 99
144, 201 133 cardiac drift 125
allergies 169-170, 201 cornering and turning 49 cell phones
Alpine running 82, 85-86 descending 56, 57, 135-136 emergency communication
altitude-related health issues barefoot running 70 165, 179
117-119, 201 base-building, training 147, navigation uses 81, 117
amino acid supplementation 149-150, 151t chafing and protection 192-
97 batteries 81 194, 197
anaerobic intervals 131, 133, bears 170, 187 circulation, feet 108-109
150 biking and bikers 23-24, 141, cliffs 40, 174
anaphylaxis 170, 201 177, 178, 187 climbing 50, 80f. See also
animals. See dogs; pack and black bears 170 descending
herd animals; wildlife blind turns 49 grade considerations 53
ankles blood glucose 93, 94, 96 hill workouts 131-133,
injuries 199-200 body fat 93-94, 95, 98 132f, 142f
strength and sensitivity 57 body positioning. See form; longer uphills 52-54
anterior pelvic tilt 19, 19f specific body parts short uphills 50-52, 51f
Appalachian Trail 25, 25f body weight, and hydration stride rates 16, 50, 51, 52
apparel 71-77 88, 90, 92-93 terrain challenges and
chafing protection 192-194 bones, broken 199 safety 174, 175
cold protection 73-77, 108- Bosio, Rory 3-4, 3f, 116 trekking pole use 82-83,
109, 110-111, 112, 113 bottoms and tops (apparel) 82f
heat protection 73, 106, 71-72, 74-76 clothing. See apparel
107 boulders 61. See also rocky cold protection
arms trails apparel 73-77, 108-109,
arm swing drill 140, 140f Boulet, Magda 89, 90, 97, 110-111, 112, 113
fall injuries 198 129, 131 natural insulation 164, 165
positioning and balance Bowman, Dylan 51, 58, 68, run timing 110
22, 23f 69, 72, 77 staying dry 110-112, 113,
use, climbing and hiking brain-body coordination 135- 165
50, 51 136, 137 cold rain 111-112
use, descending 56, 133 braking cold-related health issues 109
arm sleeves 76 descending 55, 56-57, 59 cold-weather clothing 73-77,
artifacts and fossils 184, 186, loose surfaces 31 108-109, 110-111, 112,
186f branched chain amino acids 113
aural and visual awareness. (BCAAs) 97 communication, safety 104,
See visual and aural bras 73, 193 165, 179, 202
awareness Bridger Ridge Run, Montana compasses 6-7, 81, 81f, 160-
avalanche danger 114 216 161, 160f, 164
219
220 Index
conditions. See weather con- training tracking 149 muddy trail running 36,
ditions ultrarunning 5 38, 112
confidence, descending 55, dogs 167, 177-178, 178-179, trail running and care 181-
56, 57-58 180-181, 187, 188, 201 186, 187-188
core strength and positioning domestic herd animals 180- exposure 174, 216
arm swings drill 140 181 extreme heat 104-108
high knees drill 138-139, downed trees 59-61, 60f eye protection 72-73, 115
138f downhill repeats 133-136,
muscles 20, 20f 142f F
pelvis position 17-18, downhill running. See face coverings 77, 111
19-20 descending; downhill falls
running “ready position” repeats injuries 198-199, 200
17-18, 20 drills 136, 142f prevention, descending
cornering techniques 48-49, arm swings 140, 140f 57, 58
55, 56 fast feet 137-138, 138f prevention, mid-slide 32
courses, races 207, 207f, high knees 138-139, 138f prevention, snow and ice
212-213 hot feet 16-17, 16f 42, 44-45
coyotes 171 pick-up game 15, 15f running risks 4, 23, 28,
cramping 100-101 push backs 139, 139f 198
Crater Lake (Colorado) viiif, strides 137, 137f safety/minimizing damage
ix, xi drying agents 196-197 57, 64, 198
crew, races 210 water 62, 64
crossover training (metabolic E fans 46
efficiency) 98 easy runs 122-124, 149, 150, fartleks 127-128, 132
cross-training 140-142 151t fast feet drill 137-138, 138f
adding trail running 2 electrolytes 88, 89, 91, 92, fat 93-94, 95, 98
balance-based sports 57 99-101 fatigue
cheat sheet 142f electrolyte supplements 92, altitude sickness 118
scheduling 149, 151t 100, 101 food and energy 93, 97, 99
cryptobiotic soil 183 elevation heat exhaustion 105
“cupless” races 209, 214 air and oxygen 117-119, muscles and cramping
cuts and scrapes 198 144, 201 100-101, 125
lightning 172 troubleshooting problems
D map-reading 159, 207f 99
dangerous humans 179 terrain challenges and feet. See also foot placement
deer 167, 168 safety 174 and action; foot-strike
dehydration 89, 91, 92-93 UV radiation 115 patterns
delayed-onset muscle soreness elk 167, 168, 168f fast feet drill 137-138
(DOMS) 134, 135 emergency medical services insulation and circulation
descending 54-55. See also 202 108-109
climbing energy conservation physical protection 68-69
coordination improvement hiking/walking vs. run- fell races 189-190
135-136 ning ix, 52, 53 finish areas, races 214-215,
hill workouts 132, 133- obstacles 61 215f
136, 134f, 142f prolonged descents 58-59 Fiordland National Park, New
obstacles/footing chal- running economy 126-127 Zealand 120
lenges 56-58, 61 stride rate 15-16 firewood 164, 165
prolonged 58-59 energy conversion and use first aid supplies 84, 164
shoes and fit 195 93-94, 94-97, 98, 99 Fitzgerald, Matt 98
steep descents 55-56, 56f England 189-190 flagging 212-213
stride rates 16, 55, 56, 57 environmental issues flash floods 173
desert environments 173f, 183 mud running 36, 38, 112 flashlights 79, 80
soil and surfaces 33-34, 173 race trends 209, 214 flexibility training 141
sun 115 trail care 181-186 floods 173
water 162, 162f waste and trash 84, 177, flow patterns 64
D’haene, Francois 215f 183-184, 185f, 209, 211- food and fuel. See also hydra-
Dipsea Race (California) 155 212, 214 tion
dirt trails equipment. See gear and carrying/storage 6, 77, 95,
hard 28, 28f, 32 equipment; shoes 96f, 110, 183-184, 187
soft 29, 29f Erholtz, Brandy 53, 56-57 emergency rationing 164
disappearing trail 4, 114, 175f, erosion 183 physiology 93-94, 95-96,
176. See also navigation ethics 97, 98
distances consideration for animals racing 207-208, 210
training, long runs 125- and humans 186-188, recovery 97-98
126 212 run duration 87, 94, 95
Index 221
study 88 navigation 6-7, 81, 81f, high obstacles 36

timing and amounts 158-162, 164 hiking
94-97, 98, 99-100 racing 209 footwear 69
troubleshooting problems safety items 79, 84, 209 snow and ice 44, 113
99-101 scenario-specific 82-84 uphill terrain ix, 50, 52,
types 96-97 trail running 6, 7f, 63f, 53
foot care 194-197 67-78, 78f, 209 hill workouts
foot placement and action getting lost 163-166. See also training schedules 147,
climbing 51 navigation 148, 149, 150, 151t
descending 57 gloves 76, 111, 112 types and descriptions 131-
lifting the feet 14-15, 31, glucose 93, 94, 95-96 136, 132f, 134f
34 glycogen 93, 94, 95, 97, 99 Himalaya Mountains 118f,
loose surfaces 30, 31-32, goats 171-172, 171f, 180 119
32f, 33-34, 37, 53 GPS devices 6-7, 81, 210 hip flexor muscles
proprioception 135, 136 Grand Teton National Park high knees drill 138-139
rocky surfaces 32f, 53, 57 (Wyoming) 65, 65f running motion and func-
running motions and func- grizzly bears 170 tion 18
tions 21, 23f group running Hong Kong 203, 203f
snow and ice 42, 43-44 environmental impacts “hot feet” drill 16-17, 16f
trail/obstacle adaptations 182 hot rain 112
14-15, 21, 23, 34-35, safety and navigation 164, Howard, Liza 160, 163, 164,
40-41 165, 166 166, 184, 186
water crossings 63 trail running organization Howe, Stephanie 58f, 93,
foot-strike patterns 21 7-8, 206 99-100, 145f
loose surfaces 31-32, 32f, human-related trail issues
33-34, 37, 42, 43-44 H 177-188
rocky surfaces 39, 53 hand covers 76, 111, 112 hunting 178-179
uphill climbs 51 handicapping systems, races hydration 88-89. See also food
forest trails 29f 155 and fuel
downed trees 59-61, 60f hard-packed dirt trails 28, carrying/storage 6, 7f, 77,
surfaces and running tech- 28f, 32 78, 78f, 87f, 92f, 107,
niques 29 hard-packed snow trails 42 110
wind protection 110 hats 72-73, 76, 106, 110-111, high altitudes 118
form 115 icicles 110
core positioning 17-18, head, positioning 22, 23f physiology 90-91
19-20, 138-139 headlamps 8f, 79, 80, 80f racing 78, 207-208, 210,
drills 137-140 headphones 13, 188 213-214
examples, good form 18f, healthy lifestyles 145, 152- run duration 87
21-22 154 studies 88, 90, 93
ready position 17, 21, 138, heart rate 123 timing and amounts 89,
140 easy runs 122 90-91, 92, 99-100, 101
running amidst obstacles long runs 125-126 troubleshooting problems
35, 56, 57 maximum 123 99-101, 162
running economy 126-127 heat exhaustion/heatstroke hyponatremia (sodium defi-
terrain-specific techniques 104-105, 108 ciency) 91
50-51, 51f, 52, 55, 56, heat protection hypothermia 109, 110
57 apparel 73, 106, 107
Forsberg, Emelie 51, 57-58, 61 avoidance 106-107, 115, I
fossils and artifacts 184, 186, 165 ice bridges 62
186f hydration 89, 91, 92f, 107, icicles 110
Four Pass Loop (Colorado) 162 icy surfaces 42, 44-45, 175
viii-xi, xf run timing 104f, 106 injuries 191
Frost, Anna 49, 55, 71, 72, heat-related health issues 105 emergencies 202
115f heat tolerance 108 group safety 164, 166
frostbite 109 herd animals 180-181 muscle weakness/imbal-
fructose 95-96 Hicks, Meghan viii-xiv, xf, ance 18
fueling the body. See food and xiiif on-trail 169-170, 197-202
fuel hidden obstacles 40-41, 40f, prevention, apparel and
42-44 gear 72, 192-197
G high-altitude cerebral edema prevention, cross-training
gaiters 82 (HACE) 119, 201 140-141
garbage. See waste and trash high-altitude pulmonary weather-related 172
gear and equipment. See also edema (HAPE) 118, wildlife-related 169-170,
apparel; shoes 201 200-201
lighting 7, 8f, 79-80, 80f high knees drill 138-139, 138f insects 169-170, 201
222 Index
insulation, natural 164, 165 loose surfaces. See also specific mountains
intervals 129-131, 133, 134- surfaces altitude and oxygen 117-
135 descending 57-58 119, 144, 201
physics and movement 30 avalanche danger 114
J running and safety tech- gear use 82-83
jackets 75-76, 111, 112, 113 niques 30-34, 32f, photographs 27f, 58f, 65f,
joint injuries 199-200 36-37, 42-44, 51-52, 85f, 102f, 109f, 118f,
Jornet, Kilian 50, 55, 57, 59 57-58 120f, 143f, 157f, 175f,
jumping, descents 57 turning 48 189f, 203f, 216f
low-lying obstacles 34-35 prolonged descents 58-59
K lubricant 192, 193, 194, 196- races 46, 82, 85, 102, 143-
Kahtoola MICROspikes 83 197 144, 206, 210f, 216
Kepler Track, South Island, trail aspects and details 4,
New Zealand 120 M 65, 85, 86, 102, 120,
King, Max 121f, 122, 130, macronutrients 93 143, 174-176, 189-190,
131, 146-147 magnetic north 160 203, 216
knee injuries 200 maltodextrin 95-96 muddy trails 36, 36f, 112
knee-lifting drills 138-139, mandatory kits 209 ethics 36, 38, 112
138f maps paths and erosion 183
Koerner, Hal 145f features and navigation mules 179, 180f
Krar, Rob 205f 158-159, 159f, 161, 162, muscle pain
Kremer, Stevie 50, 51 164 cramping 100-101
Krupicka, Anton 31, 61, 113, race courses 207f soreness 134, 135
114f trail running and use 5, strain injuries 200
6-7, 81, 81f, 190 muscle work and balance,
L marathons 206 cross-training 140-141
lacing techniques 195-196 Moab, Utah 9 music, use while running 13,
lactate threshold 126, 128, Pikes Peak 143 56, 188
129 Zegama-Aizkorri Mara-
Lake District, England 189- thon, Spain 46 N
190 maximum heart rate natural line 48, 48f
land stewardship 181-187 formula 123 nature appreciation
Lantau Island, Hong Kong long runs 125-126 national parks 65
203, 203f speed work types 128, 129, night running 116
layering 76, 108 130, 131 trail care 181-186
Leave No Trace Center for McMillan, Greg 128, 129 trail running 2, 13, 113,
Outdoor Ethics 181, mental mindsets 116, 157, 181, 195f
182, 183, 184, 186, 188 dealing with fear 163 wildlife 65, 157, 166-167,
leaves 40, 40f night running 116 167f, 186
LED lights 80 perseverance 53 nausea 101, 105, 118, 201
leg placement and action readiness and alertness navigation
fast feet drill 137-138, 138f 12-14, 23-24, 62 basic skills 158-161, 162,
high knees drill 138-139, stress effects 152-153 164, 176
138f metabolic efficiency 98 getting lost 163-166
lifting the feet 14-15, 31, mind-body connection 3-4, night running 117
34 27, 116 races 210, 212-213
loose surfaces 31 minimalism snow running 114
push backs drill 139, 139f carrying items 77, 79 trail vs. road running 4-5
running motions and func- shoes 70 navigation equipment
tions 18, 20-21 trail running aspects 84 locating trails 5, 158-159,
life balance 145, 147, 152-154 mittens 76, 111, 112 161
lighting, night running Moab, Utah 9f, 103f personal and use 6-7, 81,
natural/ambient night light momentum 81f, 158-162, 164
117 descending 55, 56-57 nervous system 135
tools 7, 8f, 79-80, 80f, 117 uphill climbing 50-51 neutral pelvis. See pelvis
lightning 172, 173f Mont Blanc region (Europe) New Zealand 120
line of running. See trail 85-86 night running 7, 116-117
placement moose 168-169 heat protection 104f, 106
locating trails 5 motor coordination lighting 79-80, 80f, 117
lockdown, shoes 70 downhill training 135-136 navigation 117
logs 59-60, 60f drills 136-140 racing 7, 80f, 116, 116f,
long runs 125-126, 149, 150, motorized vehicles 178, 187 209
151t mountaineering 175 nipples, chafing 193
long-sleeve shirts 75, 112 mountain goats 171-172, 171f Noakes, Timothy 90
loose sand 32-34, 33f mountain lions 170-171 nutrition 93-94, 97-98
Index 223
O posterior pelvic tilt 19, 19f rest

obstacles postholing, avoiding 43 rest days 124, 146, 149-150,
avoidance techniques: feet Powell, Bryon xii-xiv, xiiif 153
14-15, 15f pre-dehydration 92-93 sleep 152-153
climbing 51 prehydration 89 restrooms 211-212, 214
descending 56-57, 56f preparation 14 rights-of-way 177, 178, 179,
hidden 40-41, 40f, 42-44 prerace preparations 206-212 187
large 59-64, 60f, 63f pretaping 197 rivers and streams
overhead 36, 60, 61-62 prizes, races 215 drinkable water 162, 163
running on or over 34-35, progressive long runs 125- traversing 62-64, 63f, 82-83,
42-43, 59-60, 61 126 176
stride rates and 16, 17, 23 prolonged climbs 52-54 rock cairns 176, 186
surfaces and running tech- prolonged descents 58-59 Rocky Mountains 143-144,
niques 29, 34-36, 35f proprioception 135, 136 171f
visual awareness 12, 13f, proteins 93, 97 rocky trails 32f, 39-40, 39f
35, 36, 40 psychological rewards of big rocks 61
water 62-64, 63f, 82-83, running 2, 50, 52f, 113, climbing 51-52, 53
176 116, 153, 157 descending 56f, 57, 58, 61
outerwear 6 push back drill 139, 139f hiking 52
overhydration 90, 91, 99-100, push-through protection, water and stepping stones 63
101 shoes 68-69 Roes, Geoff 108-109, 110-111
overstriding 55 roots (obstacles) 29, 34, 40
overtraining 145, 153 Q running economy
Owens, Tom 57 quadriceps muscles improvement, strides 137
oxygen and altitude 117-119, downhills, muscle work speed work and goals 126-
144, 201 and soreness 134, 135 127, 131
prolonged descents 58-59
P S
paces R safety. See also falls; food
easy runs 123, 124 racing. See also marathons; and fuel; hydration;
long runs 125 ultrarunning injuries; navigation;
racing 209 courses 207, 207f obstacles; weather
steady-state runs 128 food and hydration 78, conditions
trail vs. road running 4 207-208, 210, 213-214 animals 65, 166-172, 177-
pack and herd animals 179- night 7, 80f, 116, 116f, 209 178, 179-181, 187, 201
181, 180f places and races 9, 25, 46, awareness and alertness
packs. See backpacks; storage 85, 102, 143-144, 155, 12-14, 23-24, 62
tools 189-190, 203, 210f, gear and equipment 79,
Palmer, George Herbert 119 215f, 216 84, 164, 209
pants and shorts 71-72, 74, prerace preparations 206- other humans 177, 178-
112, 194 212 179
parks prizes 215 plans and communication
administration and opera- sizes 208, 211 103-104, 164, 165-166,
tion 25, 182, 187-188 strategy 207, 209 179, 202
local trails 5 trail running 2, 8, 205-215 running alone 166
national 9-10, 25, 65, 102, training, paces 128, 129 techniques, descending
120, 182, 189 training, planning 147- 55, 57, 58
Patagonia region (Chile) 102 148, 150, 153 techniques, falling 57
peaking phase, training 147, rainy conditions 111-113, 172- techniques, hidden obsta-
150, 151t 173, 173f, 208f cles 40-41
pelvis rationing 164 techniques, loose surfaces
neutral positioning, and rattlesnakes 169, 169f 30-34, 36-37, 49
core 17-18, 19-20 “ready position” 17, 21, 138, techniques, rocks 39-40
structure 19, 19f 140 techniques, snow and ice
periodization 146-148, 149-150 recovery 42-45, 175-176
peripheral vision 13, 36 food and fueling 97-98 techniques, turning 49
“pick-up game” 15, 15f runs, and rest days 124, trail running 4, 103-104,
Pikes Peak Ascent and Mara- 146, 149-150, 153 157-181
thon 143-144, 143f sleep 152-153 water crossings 62-64, 63f,
planning training periodization 176
racing 147-148 146-147, 148, 150 Salt River Range (Wyoming)
running and land steward- relaxation, in descending 1f
ship 181, 182 55-56, 58 sandals 70
safety 103-104 rescue assistance 164, 165- sandy trails/surfaces 32-34,
training 145-154 166, 199, 200 33f
224 Index
San Juan Mountains (Colo- descending 54-55, 56-57, surfaces. See also foot place-
rado) 27f, 157f 58, 59 ment and action; spe-
satellite communications 165, paces considered 123 cific surfaces
179 safety, icy surfaces 44 impacts and degradation
screwed shoes 83-84, 84f safety, loose surfaces 31 38, 182-183
search and rescue assistance safety, obstacles 40-41 recovery runs 124
164, 165-166, 199, 200 turning techniques and road running 4, 21
Seebohar, Bob 98 safety 48, 49 shoe considerations 6
shade 105f, 106, 115 speed work 126f speedwork 127-128, 130,
sharpening phase, training training schedules 147, 131, 132
147-148, 150, 151t 148, 149, 150, 151t trail running and safety 2,
sheep 180-181 types and descriptions 4, 27-37, 39-45
shirts 72, 73, 75, 106, 107 126-131, 132, 133, 142f walking 22
shoes sports bras 73, 193 “sweat-rate test” 89, 90
general running 6, 68, 70 sports gels 96, 96f, 99 swelling, electrolyte defi-
insulation 108-109 stability, shoes 70 ciency 100
mud running 36, 37, 112 starting lines 210-212 switchback turns 53-54, 54f,
protection 68-69, 82 steady-state runs 128-129, 183, 183f
sizing and lacing 194-196 133
snowshoes 44 stepping stones (water) 63 T
traction devices 83-84, stewardship tangents 48, 48f
84f, 176 muddy trail considerations taping 197
trail running 6, 68-71, 69f, 36, 38, 112 teamwork 164
208 trail running 181-186 technical terrain
waterproof 71 stomach issues 96-97, 99-100, challenges and safety
shortcuts 164 101 issues 174-176, 216
shorts and pants 71-72, 74, storage tools 7f, 77-78, 78f. descending 55, 56f, 57, 58,
112, 194 See also food and fuel; 136
skiing 141 hydration speed work details 127,
skin chafing and protection skin chafing 193 128-129, 133
192-194 waterproof 113 techniques. See also prepara-
sleep 152-153 storms 172-173, 173f tion; surfaces
slippery surfaces. See icy strategy, racing 209 effective body 14-24, 133,
surfaces; loose surfaces; streams. See rivers and streams 135-136
rocky trails; snow strength training 141 effective running mindsets
running stress 145, 152, 153 12-14
smartphones stretching overviews 11
emergency communication flexibility training 141 terrain-matched 47-64, 51f,
165, 179 muscle cramps 101 113
navigation uses 81, 117 stride length temperate rain 112
Smith, Pam 106, 108 long uphill climbing 52 temperature control
snakes and snakebites 169, running over obstacles apparel 73-77, 106, 107,
169f, 200-201 34-35 108-109, 110-111, 112,
snow bridges 62, 176 stride rate 113
snowfields 174-176 climbing 16, 50, 51, 52 use of nature 105f, 106-
snow running 41-44, 41f descending 16, 55, 56, 57 107, 107f, 115, 165
apparel and protection 113 “hot feet” drill 16-17, 16f tempo. See speed; stride rate
gear 82, 83-84 icy surfaces 44 tempo runs 129, 133
navigation 114 loose surfaces 31, 37, 42 tendon strains 200
trails and technique quickening 15-16 10 percent rule (training)
42-44, 64, 113, 114f, rocky surfaces 39 149
175-176 strides terrain challenges 174-176
UV rays 115 increasing, for trail run- Teton Mountains (Wyoming)
snowshoes 44 ning 15-16 65, 65f
socks 72, 73, 108, 109, 196 practice and training 137, thirst 89, 90-91, 92, 100. See
soda 99, 214 137f also hydration
sodium 91 warmups and speed work thunderstorms 172-173, 173f
soft dirt trails 29, 29f 130 tights 74, 76, 112, 192
soreness, muscles 134, 135 striking area (foot) 21 time spent running
sounds. See visual and aural substrate impacts 182-183 overtraining 153
awareness sunglasses 72-73, 115 training tracking 149
South Island, New Zealand sun protection 114-115 toilet paper 84, 184, 212
120 apparel 72-73, 106, 115, topographic lines and maps
speed. See also paces; speed 192 159, 159f, 161, 190, 207f
work shade 105f, 106, 115 tops and bottoms (apparel)
climbing 50-51, 52-53 sunblock/sunscreen 106- 71-72, 74-76, 111-112
107, 115, 192
Index 225
Torres del Paine National Park trekking poles 63f, 82-83, waste and trash 84, 177, 181,
(Chile) 102 82f, 174 183-184, 185f, 211-212,
tracking, training 149 triangulation, location 161, 214
tracking, visual 12, 22 164 water. See also hydration
track speedwork 127, 130, 131 t-shirts 72, 73, 106, 107 backcountry, finding/treat-
traction turning ing 162-163, 162f
maximizing, loose surfaces loose surfaces 31, 61-62 obstacles 62-64, 63f,
30, 31-32 paths on the trail 48, 48f, 82-83, 176
muddy trails 36, 37, 112 53-54, 54f, 55 use, beating the heat 106,
rocks 39 techniques and terrain 107f, 108, 112
shoe devices 83-84, 84f, 48-49, 53-54, 55 waterproof clothing 76f, 112,
176 turnover. See stride rate 113
snow and ice 42-43, 176 comfort/warmth 110-112,
trail running shoes 68-69, 70 U 113
turning 48 Uhan, Joe 12, 15-16, 16 hand covers 76, 112
trail damage, mud running ultrarunning 5 jackets 75-76, 111, 112, 113
36, 38, 112 hydration packs 78 shoes 71
trail markers 158, 176 places and races 3f, 9, 25, water weight 90, 92-93
trail networks 5, 158-159 85, 203, 205f, 206, 208f weather conditions. See
trail placement underwear 72, 73 also cold protection;
descent paths 56, 57 uphill running. See climbing heat protection; sun
finding a line 64 UTMB (race) 85 protection; waterproof
obstacles and established photographs 3f, 208f, 215f clothing
trails 61 winners 3, 215f general safety 165, 172-
paths and erosion 183 UV exposure 106-107, 115, 173
race course running 212- 163, 192 race day 46, 207, 208f
213 rain 111-113, 172-173
tangent vs. natural line V snow 113-114
48, 48f vehicles 178, 187 weaving between obstacles 35
turn paths 48f, 53-54, 54f, venomous snakes 169, 169f, wet conditions. See muddy
55 200-201 trails; rainy conditions;
Trail Runner (periodical) 8 visors 72-73, 106, 115 snow running
trail running. See also racing; visual and aural awareness wet sand 34
safety; surfaces 12-13, 13f whistles 166
defining 2, 4 being lost/getting found wildlife
differences from road 4-5, 163-164, 165-166 consideration and ethics
21 blind turns 49 186-187, 188
reasons for 1-2, 3-4, 27, descending technical ter- injuries 169-170, 200-201
181 rain 55, 56f, 58 nature of trail running 65,
techniques 11-24 night running 79-80 157, 166-167, 167f, 186
training 121-142, 145-154 obstacles 12, 13f, 35, 36, safety 65, 166-172, 177,
walking 22-24 40, 61 178, 187
trail running drills. See drills safety and courtesy issues wind protection
training 23-24, 178, 188 forest trails 110
cross training 140-142, snow running 113, 114 personal climate control
142f volcanic pumice 30f 165
drills 136-140, 137f, 138f, volunteers 211, 213-214 winter clothing 73-77, 108-
139f, 140f, 142f VO2 max 129 109
life balance 152-154 intervals 129-131, 133 winter trail running 41-45,
metabolic efficiency 98 metabolic efficiency and 41f, 64, 82, 83-84, 109f,
planning 145-154, 151t crossover training 98 113-114, 114f
schedules 146-148, 149- speed work 126 “worm-burner” stride method
150, 151t vomiting 101 40-41, 43-44
tracking 149
trail running 121-140, W Y
126f, 132f, 134f, 141, waist belts 77 Yaktrax 83
142f, 146, 150 walking Yellowstone National Park
transversus abdominis 20, 20f cliffs 174 168f, 182
trash. See waste and trash climbs 50, 53 yielding 24, 177
treeline 172 heat 108
trees hidden obstacles 41 Z
map-reading 161, 162 ice 44-45 Zegama-Aizkorri Marathon
as obstacles 36, 59-61, 60f, loose surfaces 31 (Spain) 46
61-62 trail running 22-24 Zosel, Kristin viii-xi, xf
About the Authors
In 2006 through a set of fortuitous encoun-
ters with trail runners, Meghan M. Hicks
learned about the sport of trail running. In
doing so, she realized that she could combine
her formerly dueling loves of road running
and exploring wild places on foot within
one activity.
Meghan was the 2013 winner of the
Marathon des Sables in Morocco, the world’s
largest, oldest, and most competitive expedi-
tion-style trail running race. She has many
other wins and podium finishes at trail races
around the world.
Meghan loves the people, places, and races
that compose the trail running community, and she’s passionate about tell-
ing the stories that define it. She is the senior editor of iRunFar.com, the
world’s premier trail running website, and a contributing editor for Trail
Runner magazine.
Hailing from Moab, Utah, Meghan is still most enthusiastic about using the
sport as a means for fast-moving explorations of the earth’s wildest places.
Bryon Powell started running trails behind
his parents’ house in central New Jersey
more than 20 years ago, and he hasn’t
stopped since. He’s twice finished in the top
10 at the Leadville Trail 100-Mile Run, twice
won the under-30 age group at the West-
ern States 100-Mile Run, and finished the
Hardrock 100-Mile Run. He still gets a thrill
toeing the line at shorter trail races, too.
In 2009, his love for the trails and writ-
ing about them led Bryon to stray from the
well-traveled path of a Washington, D.C.
attorney and begin working full-time on
iRunFar.com. He’s previously written Relent-
less Forward Progress: A Guide to Running Ultramarathons in addition to many
magazine articles on trail running. He’s a contributing editor at Trail Runner
magazine and an advisory board member at the American Trail Running
Association.
He calls the trails above Moab, Utah, home. They make him feel like a
kid again.
226

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Where The Road Ends

A Guide to Trail Running

1 Stepping Off Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Trail Running Techniques . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 Techniques to Match Terrain . . . . . . . 47

5 Trail Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

6 Hydration and Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

7 Conquering the Conditions . . . . . . . 103

8 Training for the Trail . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

9 Creating a Training Plan . . . . . . . . . 145

10 Trail Safety and Stewardship . . . . . . 157

11 Health and Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

12 Trail Racing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Colorado’s Crater Lake wakes up.

Meghan and Kristin run together on the Four Pass Loop.

About This Book

navigation, obtaining and purifying water in the backcountry, and more.

Stepping Off Road

Why Trail Running?

feeling enmeshed in the natural world as opposed to just being an observer

Do I Need Special Shoes for Trail Running?

Your local running store will also be a font of community information,

Trail Running Techniques

Pick ’Em Up!

Now, if you catch yourself prancing like a

Pick Up the Tempo

conservation: “A quick stride rate allows for instantaneous energy transfer

It takes intention and practice to achieve good running form.

“Getting Technical: Powerful Pelvis”.) Next, to activate the muscles on the

(a) Posterior pelvic tilt and (b) anterior pelvic tilt.

Getting Technical: Powerful Pelvis (continued)

How exactly do you engage the

larly, not with your breath, you Transversus

Walk the Walk

A moment later a mountain bike whips around a turn 15 yards in front of

Terra Firma: Hard-Packed Dirt Trails

Holy Grails: Soft Dirt Trails

Slip Slidin’ Away: Loose Surfaces

Minimize Sudden Moves

Travel at a Safe Speed

Brake With Caution

Land Whole Footed

Life’s a Beach: Sandy Trails

Running on Loose Sand

of extremely soft sand, you’ll again want to adapt to a more up-and-down,

Running on Wet Sand

Sticks and Stones: Obstacle-Strewn Trails

Weaving Between Obstacles

Getting Dirty: Muddy Trails

After a good, soaking rain, your trails might be covered in garden-variety

Rockin’ It: Rocky Trails

Fallen leaves can mean tricky running.

Winter Wonderland: Wintry Trails

Staying on Top: How to Avoid Postholing

Techniques to Match Terrain

Taking a Turn for the Best

Tangents Versus Wide Cornering

the mountains may be familiar with switchbacks, an alternating series of

Descending With Obstacles or Poor Footing