Dana, vol. 12, pp.

7-15, 2000

Eel, Anguilla anguilla (L.), in Italy:

recruitment, fisheries and aquaculture
Eleonora Ciccotti, Sara Busilacchi & Stefano Cataudella
Laboratorio di Ecologia Sperimentale e Acquacoltura,
Biology Departinent. University ‘Tor Vergata’, via della Ricerca Scientifica sn.c., 00133 Rome, Italy
ciccotti@uniroma2.it

Abstract
An overview of the status of eel, Anguilla anguilla (L.), stocks in Italy is presented, in order to evaluate
possible conriections between recruitmeflt, exploitation by fisheries and needs of the eel aquaculture
industry.
Data on glass eel fisheries, although partial and relative only to coastal waters, demonstrate that
thts fishery is going into rapid decline due to decreasing recruitment. The contraction of coastal lagoon
fishery yields and the reduction of exterisive culture production in the Venetian valli are partly related to
the fall in recruitment. Freshwater stocks are apparently less affected by scarce recruitment because
most significant stocks (i.e. lake fisheries) are sustained by restocking.
A series of priorities for a national management strategy is outlined, based on these main features.
Keywords: eel, glass eel, Anguilla anguilla, fisheries, management.

Introduction
Eet, Anguilla anguilla (L.), exploitation in Italy has a long-standing tradition, inciud
ing fisheries for alI continental stages, Le. glass eel, yellow and migratory silver eel.
The eel has been an important commercial species in Italy since 1300, when it was
first extensively reared by means of managed fisheries in the Venetian lagoons. The
Comacchio valli reached a peak in prosperity in 1800 due to the eel fishery and pro
cessing industry.
In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the North Adriatic area was very
important and glass eel ascent, together with the juvenile migrations of other euryha
line finfish, guaranteed the natural seeding source for the valli and the coastal
lagoons. Glass eel exploitation has always been intense also along the Tyrrhenian
coast, in Tuscany and Latium. The yield was used for both seeding purposes and di
rect consumption, especially in Tuscany where glass eels were (and are today, even if
illegal) a traditional delicacy. For this reason, poaching has always been a frequent
occurrence.
In the 1960s and 70s, glass eel fisheries iflcreased in number and were better or
ganised, following the rise in demand from the aquaculture sector. Seed demand in
creased for restocking coastal lagoons, because spontaneous ascent lowered due to
changing ecological conditions of these environments. Therefore, intensive aquacul
ture began to develop. Nowadays most of the eel production comes from this sector,
Italy being the main producer in Europe, constituting nearly 40% of European pro
duction.
8 ELEONORA CICCOTTI ET AL.

Eel fisheries in inland waters are set up in lakes and some rivers. Inland fisheries
play a minor role as compared to the coastal lagoon fisheries. The latter environ
ment covers around 150 000 ha, of which approximately 61 000 ha are presently
exploited.
A series of problems, such as the reduction in adult catches in rnany ecosystems
and the wide-spread recruitment decline all over the European continent, is causing
concern for the future of the eel industry in Italy. At the same time, attention is turn
ing to wild stocks, in relation to habitat losses and environmental degradation, and
hence to the necessity of stock management on a local basis.
The present paper contains an overview of the status of eel stocks in Italy. Atten
tion has been given to the evaluation of possible connections between recruitment,
stock exploitation by fisheries and needs of the eel aquaculture industry.

Methods
The present work was carried out as a part of a research project of the Italian Min
istry of Agriculture (Ministero per le Politiche Agricole, MIPA) on the sustainability
of finfish fry fisheries in ftaly. Three different units were involved, the target species
of the present unit being the eel, Anguilla anguilla. The project sought to review al!
available data on the main biological and economic features of eel stocks in Italy, in
order to provide the Administration with the necessary background to outline a sus
tainable management strategy for eel at the national level, possibly within a conti
nental framework.
In order to build up an outline of eel yields from the different sectors, all official
data were collected, from published statistics or from appropriate authorities.
Building up a complete picture of the present situation of the glass eel fisheries
proved very difficult for many reasons. Fishing takes place in the transition area be
tween sea and inland waters under two different Administrations. The Ministry of
Agriculture controls salt and brackish waters, while inland waters are the responsi
bility of local Administrations, i.e. regions or provinces. In both departments a Ii
cence is necessary, which has to be renewed annually, in which quantities to be fished
have to be deciared. Fishermen must notify their catches and sales. The destination of
glass eels ought to be restricted to aquaculture and restocking purposes, but the black
market in some regions remains a problem. In the absence of counterchecks, collec
tion of data can be partial, and their reliability doubtful.
Despite this, data on licenses, required quantities and catch returns were collected
from the Ministry of Agriculture regarding coastal waters, while data have been re
quested from local Administrations in order to build up a picture of glass eel fisheries
in inland waters.
With regard to eel yields from fisheries and aquaculture, statistics were collected
and compared from different sources, i.e. the Istituto Italiano di Statistica, ISTAT
(1996), relative to inland waters and coastal lagoons, and FAO (1999). In order to
verify a series of features such as methods, yields, local management strategies, needs
and perspectives, interviews were carried out directly with representative of provinces
and regions, institutions, private companies and fish farms ali over Italy.
The present paper is an extract from a national report where the results of the in
vestigations are extensively reported (MIPA 1997, Ciccotti et al. 1999).
 FÆL STOCKS IN ITALY 9

Resuits
1. Glass eet [isheries and recruitment
Glass eel fishing is carried aut in estuaries, lower reaches of rivers at channel mouths
and lagoon openings. At the moment, mast of the glass eel yield comes from the Cen
tral and Southern Tyrrhenian area. The main sites of glass eel catches are the estuaries
of rivers such as the Arno and Ombrone in Tuscany, the Tiber and the Garigliano in the
Latium, and the Volturno and Sele in the Campania region. Those sites are frequented
flot only by local fishermen but occasionally also by fry fishermen from other regions,
who reach those sites with trucks equipped with oxygenated tanks to collect mullet, sea
hass, sea bream and eel fry. Local fishermen are usually single ar co-operative fisher
men, equipped with boats and structures to store the product alive. Fishing instruments
vary depending an the characteristics of the site. Dip nets are used aften in Tuscany, but
usually glass eel fishing is carried aut with fyke nets of varying dimensions, which are
aften provided with wings.
Despite the fact that direct consumption is forbidden, and that the destination of
glass eels ought to be seeding for aquaculture ar restocking, a certain amount of glass
eels for consumption reaches the traditional markets of Pisa, Livorno, Viareggio and
Lucca. This black market exists for three reasons namely: glass eels for consumption
provide greater prafit to the fishermen; wild glass eels have lower survival rates as seed
than weaned elvers ar fingerlings from France and Denmark; and even where glass eels
are requested for seeding, due to scarce recruitment it is difficult for individual groups
of fishermen to obtain sufficient quantities to satisfy the demand.
The number of licenses issued by the Ministry for coastal waters from 1989 to 1999
(Figure 1) demonstrates a decrease in fishing effort, probably due to a progressive drop
in yields.

Number of licences

Figure 1. Number of licenses

issued for glass eel fishing in
coastal waters from 1989 to
1999.
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year

The number of fishing sites for which there has been application has drastically re
duced: in the ‘80s the applications were made for ali the Maritime Departments (four
sites an the Adriatic, two an the lonian Sea and eight an the Tyrrhenian). In 1999, ap
plications were for one site (Chioggia) in the North Adriatic and one on the Central
Tyrrhenian (Livorno).
10 ELEONORA CICCOTTI ET AL.

Glass eel, tonnes

required

Catch returns

0
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year
Figure 2. Quantities for which authorisation is required and catch returns, from 1982 to 1999.

Data of fishable quantities (Figure 2) can be considered indicative of the market de

mand, while catch return data are only roughly indicative of real catches. On the
whole, it can be inferred from those data that the glass eel fishery is no longer profitable
despite the increase in demand and in prices. However, it must be said that these data
relate to coastal waters. Cumulative data from inland water glass eel fisheries are flot
available at present, but a similar evolutionary pattern has probably occurred. Without
doubt, the larger share of glass eel yield comes from fresh waters (Latium, Tuscany and
Campania rivers). Here it is particularly difficult to carry out evaluations because of
high rates of poaching, i.e., single persons fishing without licence and selling glass eels
on a personal basis (Franzoi & Rossi 1997).
Ingle (1988) estimated a ratio of 1:6:3.5 respectively for coastal fisheries, inland
fisheries and imported seed. The same proportion is probably still applicable today,
even if imported seed (wild glass eels, weaned elvers and small eels) is becoming more
important on the Italian market.

2. Inland waters fisheries

Inland fisheries are found in main rivers and lakes. Most of the eel catches are from the
great alpine lakes in the Northern regions, but the eel is also an important target species
for professional fisheries in some volcanic lakes of Central Italy.
Each region has its own regulations. As a rule, individual professional fishing
licences, which are valid for six years, are issued by the region, and are enlisted in reg
isters kept by the provinces. The permitted gears vary from region to region, also in
relation to local traditions, and are specified by each administration together with auth
 EET. STOCKS IN ITALY 11

orised times and places. For the nets, mesh sizes and minimum and maximum dimen
sions of gears are listed.
Official statistics consider only eel catches in lakes and artificial basins, riverine
catches being probably worthless. It must be borne in mmd that statistics consider only
professional fisheries. Catches from anglers are, however, possibly quite significant.
The inland waters eel catches from 1969 to 1996 are shown in Figure 3. The annual
yield was always between 325 and 750 tonnes until 1987, while in the last ten years aver
age yields have been less than 400 tonnes, except for years 1995 and 1996 (ISTAT, 1996).

Yield, tonnes

750

500

250

0
196970 ‘71 ‘72 ‘73 ‘74 ‘75 ‘76 ‘77 ‘78 ‘79 ‘80 ‘81 ‘82 ‘83 ‘84 ‘85 ‘86 ‘87 ‘88 ‘89 ‘90 91 ‘92 ‘93 ‘94 ‘95 ‘96
Year
Figure 3. EeI yields in inland waters from 1969 to 1996. Data refer to lakes and artificial basins (source:
Instituto Nazionale di Statistica, Annals of Hunting and Fisheries Statistics).

Decrease in habitat quality (pollution, eutrophication) and reduced habitat avail

ability due to barriers seem to have affected local stocks, mainly in rivers, but a con
traction of captures is flot so evident at national level. Despite a slight decrease in the
last decade, annual average yield is still about 400 tonnes. This is probably due to the
fact that in many catchments eel stocks are sustained by restocking. The practice of re
stocking is quite wide-spread in inland waters. Besides restocking practised to sustain
lake fisheries, maintenance restocking programmes adopted by the fishery commissions
are periodically carried out by the provincial administrations with eels bought from
dealers or from aquaculture plants. Complementary or extraordinary restockings can
also be carried out by anglers’ associations in the basins or river stretches they hold in
concession. Restocking is rarely undertaken with full consideration of factors such as
biological characteristics of the species or environmental aspects such as ecological
diagnosis or carrying capacities. Problems can anse with seed availability and quality,
particularly relating to transferable diseases and parasites, inciuding Anguillicola sp.

3. Coastal lagoons fisheries

Most of the yield of yellow and silver eel fisheries comes from coastal lagoon environ
ments, from both extensive culture and local fisheries.
12 ELEONORA CICCOTTI ET AL.

The ‘vallicoltura’ practised in the upper Adriatic lagoons is one of the most ancient
forms of aquaculture. Target species inciude, besides the eel, many euryhaline species
such as mullets, sea bass and sea bream. The main difference from coastal lagoon man
agement practised in other similar environments is that the ‘vallicoltura’ is run using ar
tificial fry stocking and active hydraulic management. Most of the fishing takes place at
the ‘lavorieri’, which are traditional fish barriers, based on the principle of V-shaped
traps, whose structure, dimension and design have evolved greatly through the een
turies. In other coastal lagoon environments, such as the Sardinian ponds, artisanal
fisheries also exist inside the lagoons, and in the past management was mostly based on
natural fry ascent and often lacked hydraulic management. This is not always possible
today because of the ecological degradation of these environments.
Fishing equipment for eel catches besides the fish barrier useful for catching silver
eel in winter, inciudes a variety of other instrurnents ranging from single fyke nets to
groups of fyke nets, long lines, traps and baskets, depending on the sites, local tradi
tions, and particular skilis of local fishermen.
Statistics on eel production in lagoon environments from 1969 to 1996 are reported
in Figure 4. Data should only refer to lagoon fisheries, while extensive culture produc
tions such as the vallicoltura yields ought to fall within the aquaculture productions (see
next section, Figure 5). It is possible, however, that overlap occurs between these data.

Yleld, tonnes
2500 r
Coastal waters

2000

1500

1000

500

0
HIh.a
196970 ‘7172737475 76’77’78’79’80’81’82’83’84’85’86’87’88’89’90’91’92’93’94’95’96
Year
Figure 4. Eet yields in coastal waters from 1969 to 1996 (source: Institute Nazionale di Statistica, An-
nats of Hunting and Fisheries Statistics).

A decreasing trend is evident, which took place during the ‘8 Os, with yields decreas
ing from an average of 1500 tonnes in the ‘7Os to about 500 tonnes in the ‘90s.
The main limiting factor in eel production in lagoons today, apart from the habitat
changes related to coastal waters eutrophication and pollution, is seed availability for
stocking. National glass eel catches are used for lagoon restocking, and the fall in re
 EEL STOCKS IN ITALY 13

cruitment and the consequent decline of glass eel fisheries cannot be compensated for
by imported seed, because of increased prices. This, together with the fact that the eel
life cycle ifl lagoons is long (average seven vears) and hence non-competitive with the
aquaculture product, means that other species are given preference when local manage
ment strategies are formulated.

4. Aquaculture
Intensive eel culture plays a major role within the national context. This started in the
1970s when yields decreased in extensive production. The need to recover former pro
duction levels induced many producers to try the intensive technology. First attempts
were based on Japanese technology, modified to suit the local realities.
Present-day technology is highly variable, but eel culture is usually carried out in
fresh water, at temperatures ranging between 20 and 28°C, in open concrete or earthen
ponds, with or without suppiementary oxygenation depending on the densities. These
are never lower than 0.5 kg!m
, and can reach 20 kg/m
2 , depending on water availabili
2
ty. In recent years, many farms have invested in recirculation systems based on Danish
technology, aimed at improving performances and reducing impacts on the environment.
The limiting factor for most industries has become seed availability and its high
costs. Seed consists mostly of small eels (5-20 g). A choice must be made between na
tionally caught or imported wild seed, which often performs poorly due to prolonged
storage or transport, and weaned seed, i.e. elvers and small eels mostly imported from
France and Denmark, which are expensive but give good returns. Wild glass eels are
seldom used, except in fish farms which are equipped with the necessary structures and
technology to wean these to feeding stages.
Production data from 1984 to 1997 are reported in Figure 5. Statistics comprise in
tensive aquaculture and extensive culture, the latter referring mostly to vallicoltura.
Extensive production has progressively decreased in the last decade. The slight increase

Production, tonnes
4500

4000

3500

3000
+ semi-intensive culture
2500

2000

1500

1000

500 Figure 5. Eel aquaculture productions

from 1984 to 1997 (soLirce: FAO 1999,
ICRAM, 1994).
198485 ‘86 ‘87 ‘88 ‘89 ‘90 ‘91929394959697
Veer
14 ELEONORA CICCOTTI ET AL.

observed in 1990-92 is due to the development of semi-intensive technology, to make

up for the problems of the extensive sector. In this rearing method, ccl are reared in
open, wide-surface basins, and at low stocking densities but with additional feeding.
The semi-intensive technology has flot proved to be completely successful, mainly
because of the environmental impact it can have on the fragile ecosystems found in
coastal lagoons and valli.
Intensive aquaculture shows a constant growth in the course of the ‘80s, followed
by a plateau in the early ‘90s. At present, capacity seems to have reached saturation. Eel
production is still the highest in Europe, covering almost half of the total European
aquaculture yield, which has been estimated at about 7600 tonnes (FAO, 1999). Most
(almost 90) of the intensive farms are found in Northern Italy, while in the South there
are about 30 eel farms, most of which have been recently built or converted from other
activities.

Discussion
The overview on the status of eel stocks in Italy highlights certain features.
Data on glass eel fisheries, although partial and relative only to the sector of coastal
waters (i.e. estuaries), demonstrate that this fishery is going into rapid decline and is at
risk of total disappearance. This is clearly due to falling recruitmeflt, also confirmed by
the trend of the time-series observed on the Tiber estuary, the only site in Italy where
constant monitoring has been carried out (Ciccotti et al. 1998a, 1998b). A strong mar
ket for glass eels remains, owing to interest from the aquaculture sector and also for re
stocking purposes.
The infrequency and lowering of yields makes them subject to sale for direct con
sumption on the black market. This in turn hampers the monitoring and the collection
of consistent time series of recruitment on a national basis.
The contraction of coastal lagoon fishery yields and the reduction of extensive cul
ture production in the Venetian valli are partly related to declining recruitment. In
many lagoon environments, nevertheless, reductiori of habitat quality due to eutrophi
cation and pollution also play a role, together with local management problems
(Cataudella & Rossi 1998, Ciccotti 1997).
Freshwater stocks are apparently less affected by scarce recruitment, but this is due
to the fact that most significant stocks (i.e. lake fisheries) are sustained by restocking.
Incomplete data suggest that local stocks have been affected by habitat reduction due to
dams, while there is some doubt as to whether stocks have been affected by the general
decrease in habitat quality.
Intensive eel aquaculture is very important because it has replaced the extensive sec-
tor in Italy. However, it is at present strongly limited by scarce seed availability and by
its high costs.
By taking into account these data, a series of priorities for a national management
strategy can be singled out at different levels. These options have been dealt with ex
tensively in a national report and in some papers (Ciccotti et al. 1998c, Ciccotti et al.
1999), and can be summarised thus:
i. Establishment of a long-term monitoring program for glass eel fisheries, all over
Italy. The Ministry of Agriculture is at present supporting a research project aimed
at the setting-up of a monitoring system for glass eel fisheries on a national basis.
 EEL STOCKS IN ITALY 15

ii. Revision of the regulations regarding glass eel fisheries, and providing incentives for
a centralised system of stocking and commercialisation of glass eels, in order to safe
guard professionals and discourage illegal markets.
iii. Restoration of the inland water stocks, by actively involving the professional fisher
men in restocking practices.
iv. Recovery of the traditional role of coastal lagoons, and their involvement in the
management of the eel stock, for example defining escapement targets of mature sil
ver eel.
v. Integration of the fisheries and aquaculture sectors in the management process, with
a view to involving them directly in the eel management.
More generally, and on a larger scale, it will be necessary to intensify research on the
features of eel biology which are useful for management, following international guide
lines as they emerge.

Acknowledgements
The Authors are grateful to the many employees of Province Administrations, the General Directorate
for Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture, ICRAM, ISTAT, fish farms and fishermen Cooperarives that
gave assistance during the present work. Special thanks go to Dr Alessandro Perolo and to Prof. Remi
glo Rossi.

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