Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements For The Award of
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements For The Award of
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements For The Award of
SRMUNI
Affiliated to
U.P TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY LUCKNOW
Table of Contents
1 Objective: ...........................................................................................3
2 Introduction: .......................................................................................3
2.1 How is steel made: ........................................................................4
2.2 How many types of steel are there? .............................................5
2.2.1 Contemporary steel: .............................................................5
Carbon steels .................................................................................5
Alloy steels ....................................................................................6
2.3 Standards.......................................................................................7
2.4 How much steel is produced in a year? ........................................7
2.5 What is smart manufacturing? ......................................................7
2.6 Is steel environmentally friendly and sustainable? ......................8
2.7 Can steel be recycled? ..................................................................8
2.8 Why does steel rust? .....................................................................9
2.9 Uses ...............................................................................................9
3 Literature Review .............................................................................10
2.11 Material properties ......................................................................12
Heat treatment ............................................................................16
4 Understanding the Cost of Materials in the Steel Industry ..............17
5 Various methods to reduce the cost of steel fabrication ..................18
6 The Main Objectives and Strategies of Manufacturing ...................21
7. Advantages of Steel .........................................................................23
8. Disadvantages of Steel ....................................................................24
9. Future Scope ....................................................................................25
1 Objective:
Companies are always looking for ways to increase profits and decrease
spending. But it is extremely important to save money where you can
without compromising the quality or integrity of the product.
Structural steel prices can vary widely. And it can drastically vary from
just one day to another. Major construction projects take much more
time than just a few days to complete, so steel prices can throw your
budget and your entire project into a tailspin. However, there are steps
you can take to reduce your budget without putting your entire project
at risk in this paper.
2 Introduction:
A British inventor, Henry Bessemer, is generally credited with the
invention of the first technique to mass produce steel in the mid-1850s.
Steel is still produced using technology based on the Bessemer Process
of blowing air through molten pig iron to oxidize the material and
separate impurities.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less than 2% carbon and
1% manganese and small amounts of silicon, phosphorus, Sulphur and
oxygen. Steel is the world's most important engineering and
construction material. It is used in every aspect of our lives; in cars and
construction products, refrigerators and washing machines, cargo ships
and surgical scalpels.
2.1 How is steel made: Steel is produced via two main routes: the blast
furnace-basic oxygen furnace (BF-BOF) route and electric arc furnace
(EAF) route. Variations and combinations of production routes also
exist.
The key difference between the routes is the type of raw materials they
consume. For the BF-BOF route these are predominantly iron ore, coal,
and recycled steel, while the EAF route produces steel using mainly
recycled steel and electricity. Depending on the plant configuration and
availability of recycled steel, other sources of metallic iron such as
direct-reduced iron (DRI) or hot metal can also be used in the EAF
route.
About 75% of steel is produced using the BF-BOF route. First, iron
ores are reduced to iron, also called hot metal or pig iron. Then the iron
is converted to steel in the BOF. After casting and rolling, the steel is
delivered as coil, plate, sections or bars.
Steel made in an EAF uses electricity to melt recycled steel. Additives,
such as alloys, are used to adjust to the desired chemical composition.
Electrical energy can be supplemented with oxygen injected into the
EAF. Downstream process stages, such as casting, reheating and
rolling, are similar to those found in the BF-BOF route. About 25% of
steel is produced via the EAF route.
Another steelmaking technology, the open hearth furnace (OHF),
makes up about 0.4% of global steel production. The OHF process is
very energy intensive and is in decline owing to its environmental and
economic disadvantages.
Most steel products remain in use for decades before they can be
recycled. Therefore, there is not enough recycled steel to meet growing
demand using the EAF steelmaking method alone. Demand is met
through a combined use of the BF-BOF and EAF production methods.
All of these production methods can use recycled steel scrap as an
input. Most new steel contains recycled steel.
2.2 How many types of steel are there?
Steel is not a single product. There are more than 3,500 different grades
of steel with many different physical, chemical, and environmental
properties.
Approximately 75% of modern steels have been developed in the past
20 years. If the Eiffel Tower were to be rebuilt today, the engineers
would only need one-third of the steel that was originally used.
Modern cars are built with new steels that are stronger but up to 35%
lighter than in the past.
2.2.1 Contemporary steel:
Carbon steels
Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to
fulfill many purposes. Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and
carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production. Low alloy steel is alloyed
with other elements, usually molybdenum, manganese, chromium, or
nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability
of thick sections. High strength low alloy steel has small additions
(usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese,
to provide additional strength for a modest price increase.[61]
Recent Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations have
given rise to a new variety of steel known as Advanced High Strength
Steel (AHSS). This material is both strong and ductile so that vehicle
structures can maintain their current safety levels while using less
material. There are several commercially available grades of AHSS,
such as dual-phase steel, which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic
and martensitic microstructure to produce a formable, high strength
steel. Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special
alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of austenite at room
temperature in normally austenite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By
applying strain, the austenite undergoes a phase transition to martensite
without the addition of heat. Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel
uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work
hardening on the alloy.
Carbon Steels are often galvanized, through hot-dip or electroplating
in zinc for protection against rust.
Alloy steels
Stainless steels contain a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined
with nickel, to resist corrosion. Some stainless steels, such as
the ferritic stainless steels are magnetic, while others, such as
the austenitic, are nonmagnetic. Corrosion-resistant steels are
abbreviated as CRES.
Some more modern steels include tool steels, which are alloyed with
large amounts of tungsten and cobalt or other elements to
maximize solution hardening. This also allows the use of precipitation
hardening and improves the alloy's temperature resistance. Tool steel
is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp,
long-lasting cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys
include weathering steels such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring
a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted. Maraging
steel is alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike most steel
contains little carbon (0.01%). This creates a very strong but
still malleable steel.
Eglin steel uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in
varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost steel for use in bunker
buster weapons. Hadfield steel (after Sir Robert Hadfield) or
manganese steel contains 12–14% manganese which when abraded
strain-hardens to form an incredibly hard skin which resists wearing.
Examples include tank tracks, bulldozer blade edges and cutting blades
on the jaws of life.
2.3 Standards
Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into
various grades by standards organizations. For example, the Society of
Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining many types of
steel. The American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate
set of standards, which define alloys such as A36 steel, the most
commonly used structural steel in the United States. The JIS also
define series of steel grades that are being used extensively in Japan as
well as in third world countries.
World crude steel production reached 1,689.4 million tons (Mt) for the
year 2017. When it comes to steel production, one country is miles
ahead of the pack: China. It accounted for a whopping 49% of the 1.7
billion metric tons of steel produced globally last year, according to
industry group World steel.
2.5 What is smart manufacturing?
2.9 Uses
Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways,
other infrastructure, appliances, and buildings. Most large modern
structures, such as stadiums and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are
supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure
employ steel for reinforcing. In addition, it sees widespread use in
major appliances and cars. Despite growth in usage of aluminium, it is
still the main material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other
construction materials, such as bolts, nails, and screws and other
household products and cooking utensils.
Other common applications include shipbuilding, pipelines, mining,
offshore construction, aerospace, white goods (e.g. washing machines),
heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel wool, tools,
and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour (better
known as rolled homogeneous armour in this role).
3 Literature Review
Long steel
A steel bridge
A steel pylon suspending overhead power lines
As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete
Railroad tracks
Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges
Wires
Input to reforging applications
Flat carbon steel
Major appliances
Magnetic cores
The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships.
Weathering steel (COR-TEN)
Intermodal containers
Outdoor sculptures
Architecture
Highliner train cars
Stainless steel
When steels with exactly 0.8% carbon (known as a eutectoid steel), are
cooled, the austenitic phase (FCC) of the mixture attempts to revert to
the ferrite phase (BCC). The carbon no longer fits within the FCC
austenite structure, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for
carbon to leave the austenite is for it to precipitate out of solution as
cementite, leaving behind a surrounding phase of BCC iron called
ferrite with a small percentage of carbon in solution. The two, ferrite
and cementite, precipitate simultaneously producing a layered structure
called pearlite, named for its resemblance to mother of pearl. In a
hypereutectoid composition (greater than 0.8% carbon), the carbon will
first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite at the austenite
grain boundaries until the percentage of carbon in the grains has
decreased to the eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which point
the pearlite structure forms. For steels that have less than 0.8% carbon
(hypoeutectoid), ferrite will first form within the grains until the
remaining composition rises to 0.8% of carbon, at which point the
pearlite structure will form. No large inclusions of cementite will form
at the boundaries in hypoeuctoid steel. The above assumes that the
cooling process is very slow, allowing enough time for the carbon to
migrate.
As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to
migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will have
increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure
within the grains; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts
to prevent slip of defects within those grains, resulting in hardening of
the steel. At the very high cooling rates produced by quenching, the
carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face-centered
austenite and forms martensite. Martensite is a highly strained and
stressed, supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly
hard but brittle. Depending on the carbon content, the martensitic phase
takes different forms. Below 0.2% carbon, it takes on a ferrite BCC
crystal form, but at higher carbon content it takes a body-centered
tetragonal (BCT) structure. There is no thermal activation energy for
the transformation from austenite to martensite. [clarification needed]
Moreover, there is no compositional change so the atoms generally
retain their same neighbors.
Martensite has a lower density (it expands during the cooling) than does
austenite, so that the transformation between them results in a change
of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this
expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of
martensite and tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of
shear on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal
stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they
cause internal work hardening and other microscopic imperfections. It
is common for quench cracks to form when steel is water quenched,
although they may not always be visible.
Iron-carbon equilibrium phase diagram, showing the conditions necessary to form different
phases
Heat treatment
There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. The
most common are annealing, quenching, and tempering. Heat treatment
is effective on compositions above the eutectoid composition
(hypereutectoid) of 0.8% carbon. Hypoeutectoid steel does not benefit
from heat treatment.
Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high
temperature to relieve local internal stresses. It does not create a general
softening of the product but only locally relieves strains and stresses
locked up within the material. Annealing goes through three phases:
recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The temperature required
to anneal a particular steel depends on the type of annealing to be
achieved and the alloying constituents.
Quenching involves heating the steel to create the austenite phase then
quenching it in water or oil. This rapid cooling results in a hard but
brittle martensitic structure. The steel is then tempered, which is just a
specialized type of annealing, to reduce brittleness. In this application
the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite
into cementite, or spheroidite and hence it reduces the internal stresses
and defects. The result is a more ductile and fracture-resistant steel.
In order to see where you can save on your next project, you need to
understand the industry process. There are four distinct components of
the structural steel supply chain:
Producers
mills which manufacture structural steel products
Service Centers
function as the warehouses and provide limited processing of
structural steel before it goes to the fabricator;
Steel Fabricators
physically prepare the steel, as well as distribution; and
Erectors
those who assemble the steel into a frame on the construction site.
These four groups of people have an enormous impact on the supply
chain, obtaining the materials from your detailed construction
documents and delivering those materials to your construction site. The
way in which they handle these materials can have a direct impact on
the cost of your project.
Sixty-five percent of all American steel is currently processed through
the service centers. There are more than 1700 steel fabricators in the
United States, and these fabricators can choose to order directly from
the production mills, but this requires a longer waiting period. Service
centers generally have two to three months of inventory in stock on the
floor and can even assist with cutting and distribution, saving that effort
from the fabricator. Ordering directly from the mills can be more cost
effective, but only if you have the time to wait and the fabricators can
assist with preparing the steel for assembly onsite.
Of your steel package costs, 70% is in labor and distribution. The price
of the material represents only 30% of your overall cost. The greatest
cost-saving efforts should be focused on reducing assembly errors or
changes, and remembering that least weight is not least cost. The price
of the material is not nearly as impactful as the way that you are
assembling the building. If you can make your builder’s job easier by
simplifying connections and creating repetitions within your structure,
you can save profoundly on labor costs.
7. Advantages of Steel
8. Disadvantages of Steel
Future of the large span steel structures lies in the passion, setting up
new goals and innovation in computerized designing procedures. The
space frame companies will continue to develop steel structures with
the extensive use of computers in both manufacturing and design
phases. Computer aided manufacturing allows the cutting and drilling
of elements with great precision, while computer aided design can help
explore unprecedented complex configurations and geometries.
Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.
Alternative Proxies: