A Handbook On Learning Disabilities (INTEGRA)

A Handbook on
Learning Disabilities
Designed by Integra® Staff
To complement our
“Walk a Mile in my Shoes” Workshop
Integra is funded by Ontario’s Ministry of Children and Youth Services

Table of Contents
Foreword................................................................................................................................. 4
Introduction to LDs.................................................................................................................. 5
What are Learning Disabilities (LDs)? ................................................................................. 5
How are LDs Identified? ...................................................................................................... 5
What Do LDs Affect?........................................................................................................... 5
How Common are LDs? ...................................................................................................... 6
What Causes LDs? ............................................................................................................. 6
What Helps?........................................................................................................................ 6
Phonological Processing Problems......................................................................................... 7
Strategies for Helping Kids With Reading Difficulties .......................................................... 8
Language Processing Problems ............................................................................................. 9
Strategies for Helping Kids with Oral Language Difficulties................................................. 9
Strategies for Helping Kids with Written Composition Difficulties ...................................... 10
Memory Difficulties................................................................................................................ 11
Verbal Memory .................................................................................................................. 11
Working Memory ............................................................................................................... 12
Visual Memory................................................................................................................... 12
Strategies for Helping Kids with Working Memory Difficulties ........................................... 13
Strategies for Helping Kids with Instructions ..................................................................... 13
Visual-Spatial Difficulties...................................................................................................... 15
Visual-perceptual processing ............................................................................................ 15
Visual-motor processing problems .................................................................................... 15
Strategies for Helping Kids with Visual-motor Processing Difficulties:............................... 16
Non Verbal Learning Disability (NLD) ................................................................................... 17
What are the differences between NLD and AS? .............................................................. 17
General Strategies for Helping Kids with NLD................................................................... 18
Strategies for Helping Kids with NLD to Participate in Physical Activity ............................ 18
Strategies for Helping Kids with NLD to Socialize ............................................................. 18
Slow Processing Speed ........................................................................................................ 19
Strategies for Helping Kids with Slow Processing ............................................................. 20
Executive Functioning........................................................................................................... 21
What are the differences between LDs with executive functioning problems and Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (AHDH)? ............................................................................. 21
Strategies for Helping with Executive Functioning Difficulties ............................................... 22
LDs and Mental Health ......................................................................................................... 23
Strategies for Helping Self Esteem.................................................................................... 23
Strategies for Helping Emotional Awareness and Control................................................. 23
Strategies for Helping Kids with Social Interactions .......................................................... 24
Strategies for Helping Communication Between Home, School and Other Settings ......... 24
Homework tips: .............................................................................................................. 25
Other Strategies to Help With Emotional Wellbeing .......................................................... 25
Understanding LDs: Putting it all Together ........................................................................... 26
Resources............................................................................................................................. 27
Books ................................................................................................................................ 27
Organizations .................................................................................................................... 29
Websites............................................................................................................................ 30
Videos ............................................................................................................................... 31
Glossary................................................................................................................................ 32
A Handbook on Learning Disabilities
®
Designed by Integra Staff to Complement our ‘Walk a Mile in My Shoes” Workshop
Foreword
Integra is an accredited Children’s Mental Health Centre leading in the treatment of vulnerable
children and youth with learning disabilities (LDs). Our agency’s mission is to improve social,
emotional and behavioral outcomes through a range of specialized, therapeutic, family-centered
services, community education and research. We provide direct clinical services to
children/youth with LDs and their families in Toronto, including individual, family and group
counseling. Eligible to Ontario residents, Integra also operates Camp Towhee, a three-week
residential summer camp for children and youth with LDs, located in Halliburton, Ontario.
The Community Consultation Program at Integra was developed to promote a community-wide
understanding of the mental health needs of children and adolescents who have learning
disabilities. Through public education, workshops, staff training series and consultation, the
program disseminates current information about learning disabilities and evidence-informed,
best practice in related mental health fields. Our aim is to dispel myths and improve societal
attitudes toward individuals with learning disabilities. It is our position that widespread
understanding of learning disabilities will contribute to healthier communities for children and
families.
This booklet is designed to complement participation in our flagship workshop, “Walk a Mile in
My Shoes”. Adapted with permission from workshop ideas of Dr. Richard Lavoie, the Integra
Walk-A-Mile workshop was originally developed by Dr. Barb Muskat. The workshop provided
participants with an opportunity to experience the emotional impact of having learning
disabilities while also gaining an understanding of the nature of the challenges. Over the years,
the workshop has been continually updated and adapted to reflect state-of-the-art research
about learning disabilities. This booklet is intended to accompany the hands-on workshop to
provide participants with additional knowledge about learning disabilities and suggestions for
strategies when working with children and youth with learning disabilities.
We welcome any questions or comments. For more information about Integra’s Community
Consultation Program including a list of upcoming workshops at 25 Imperial Street, Toronto or
to book a workshop or training series for your school or agency, please contact Integra (416 486
8055, info@integra.on.ca) or visit our website (www.integra.on.ca)
Helen Hargreaves, MSW

Community Consultation Coordinator
Melissa Rowbotham, M.Ed.

Manager of Community Consultation
Marjory Phillips, Ph.D., C.Psych.

Director of Clinical Services & Community Consultation
The Walk a Mile Work shop is funded by:
Ontario’s Ministry of
Children and Youth Services
And the generous support of individual donors
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Introduction to LDs
What are Learning Disabilities (LDs)?

LDs are a group of neurological or brain-based problems that affect one or more ways that a
person takes in, stores or uses information.
LDs come in many forms and their effects are different from person to person. They relate to:
• Getting information into the brain (Input)
• Making sense of this information (Organization)
• Storing and retrieving information (Memory)
• Getting information back out (Output)
How are LDs Identified?

By definition, people with LDs have average to above average intelligence yet they have very
specific impairments in one or more of the psychological processes related to learning. These
processes may include:
• Language processing (understanding and expressing information using words)
• Visual-spatial processing (perceiving or organizing visual information)
• Visual-motor processing (carrying out hand-eye activities)
• Phonological processing (identifying and manipulating speech sounds)
• Processing speed (speed of taking in, using or pulling out information)
• Working memory (holding information in mind while also using the information)
• Executive functions (planning and organizing)
LDs are diagnosed most commonly as an outcome of a comprehensive psychological
assessment. Using a number of standardized tests that have been given to thousands of
people, psychologists will systematically look at how people think, problem-solve, remember,
understand and express information.
What Do LDs Affect?

LDs are a life-long condition that affects people differently depending on the situation.
LDs can affect academic functioning, daily life and social life. For example, LDs can interfere
with sight reading, reading comprehension, math, and writing. They can also interfere with
organization, managing time, following multi-step instructions or interpreting graphs, charts and
maps, for example. Some people with LDs have trouble interpreting facial expressions,
understanding body language, understanding tones of voice or taking turns in conversations.
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How Common are LDs?

Learning Disabilities (LDs) are very common and affect 5 to 10 percent of Canadians. However,
LDs vary greatly in form and intensity: No two LDs are the same.
What Causes LDs?

Learning disabilities are due to genetic, other congenital and/or acquired neuro-biological
factors. They often run in families.
LDs are not caused by factors such as cultural or language differences, inadequate or
inappropriate instruction, socio-economic status or lack of motivation, although any one of these
and other factors may compound the impact of learning disabilities.
Frequently learning disabilities co-exist with other conditions, including attentional, behavioural
and emotional disorders, sensory impairments or other medical conditions.
What Helps?
Most people with LDs are resilient, and learn to manage challenges and achieve success.
There are a number of factors that help. These include:
• Understanding their LDs and what helps them learn
• Learning how to set realistic goals, to solve problems and to make good choices
• Being open to asking for and getting help
• Not giving up when things get hard
• Believing successes are due to their own efforts
• Believing they can learn from their mistakes
• Feeling respected and connected to others
• Having someone who will listen to them and understand their feelings
• Being an active member of a community or group
To see a full definition of LDs please visit the LDAO website at www.LDAO.ca
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LDs Reflecting
Phonological Processing Problems
Reading Disability (also known as Dyslexia) is the most common learning disability accounting
for at least 80% of all LDs.
Unlike speech and language, reading is not innate: It has to be taught. Reading requires the
ability to decipher a phonetic code, to make sense of the relationship between written symbols
(letters) and sounds. Dyslexia reflects a specific problem in processing individual speech
sounds (e.g., the ssss sound, the mmm sound, etc) in words (phonemes). There can also be
problems with holding sounds in sequence in short-term memory (e.g. holding the sequence of
sounds in a new word in mind long enough to recognize it). Kids with a Reading Disability may
also have difficulties with reading fluency, resulting in reading skills that are accurate but
effortful and slow.
There is strong research evidence to suggest that reading disabilities are caused by an
impairment in phonological processing (i.e., processing the sounds of speech). Individuals
with reading disabilities often have difficulty breaking words down into individual sounds
(decoding) and/or blending sounds together to read words quickly and accurately. These
decoding problems often result in reading comprehension problems.
In the Walk-A-Mile workshop, we demonstrate phonological processing problems in the sight
reading exercise with difficult sentences.
Terms used Description Application (it can be harder to…)
Phonological Ability to identify Sound out new words or blend sounds together to form
Processing and manipulate words
speech sounds
Rhyme
(phonemes)
Phoneme Learn the alphabet when very young (e.g.,
awareness kindergarten)
Learn a second language
Spell by using phonics rather than rote memory
Participate in activities that require fluent reading (e.g.,
rules of games, written instructions, ordering from a
menu)
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What can Phonological Processing Problems

Look Like?
Bill is a creative and motivated student in grade three. He is an enigma to his teachers because he is
unable to read. At first, Bill's parents thought that he was just taking a little longer learning how to learn
to read, much like he did with learning to speak. Now Bill, his parents, and his teacher are painfully
aware of his reading difficulties. Bill can decode words, but he takes a long time to sound out each
word. As a result of slow and labored decoding, Bill is unable to understand what he reads. Over the
past three months, Bill has become increasingly self-conscious about his reading difficulty. He says he
feels stupid and no longer wants to go to school.
Strategies for Helping Kids With Reading Difficulties

• Remember that some kids struggle with reading when planning an activity
• Supplement written material with pictures and repetition over time when teaching a lesson
• Supplement words with symbols or colour coding if classroom organization includes posting
schedules or lists
• Help kids preview material that needs to be read (e.g., explain new terms, highlight what is
most important)
• Don’t assume that kids understand what they have read (e.g. talk about material and use
illustrations to enhance comprehension)
• Break written material into small sections
• Keep reading material short & simple
• Trigger motivation to read by using reading material linked to prior hands-on experience,
real-life experiences or specific areas of interest (e.g. high interest books, comic books,
magazines)
• Have the kids take turns reading with an adult or read together with him/her in unison
• Be patient and provide extra time for reading
• Offer material in a different way (e.g., books on tape, podcasts)
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LDs Reflecting
Language Processing Problems
Difficulties in understanding verbal information and/or in expressing oneself are a common

feature of many learning disabilities. These language-based problems may reflect a variety of
factors, such as an underdeveloped vocabulary, a concrete style of thinking, difficulties in
remembering and keeping track of what is said, or difficulties in organizing one’s thoughts, for
example. For kids with a language-based LD, it can be hard to find the right words and phrases
or to follow a fast-paced conversation, for example. Language-based LDs also get in the way of
effective writing: It can be difficult to know how to organize ideas or to identify the main point of
a written communication.
What can Language Processing Problems Look Like?

Naomi is a friendly 12 year old girl who loves animals. She often struggles to understand
instructions and to follow conversations. In loud or chaotic setting she sometimes doesn’t notice
if some one is talking to her. Naomi is friendly but sometimes has trouble maintaining
friendships. The girls in her class spend a lot of time sharing secrets and telling stories, and
Naomi has a hard time joining in these activities. Sometimes when Naomi doesn’t understand
she acts silly because she is worried that that the other girls will think she is dumb. Naomi has a
few friends who are younger that she is: She enjoys playing active games and sports with them.
Naomi learns best in a quiet setting with an instructor who teaches using visual aids and checks
to make sure Naomi understands each concept.
Strategies for Helping Kids with Oral Language Difficulties

• Encourage kids to describe the word they are looking for
• Give kids plenty of time to speak
• Be as clear and concrete as possible when communicating with kids
• Avoid sarcastic comments (eg., 'I have all day to wait for your response')
• Check to see what kids understand and how they interpret a situation before automatically
implementing a consequence
• Provide plenty of warning and opportunity for practice before kids are required to speak in
front of the class
• Make cue cards to provide prompts for specific ideas or words
• Encourage kids to elaborate single word or simple sentence responses, or accept less
complex responses from them
• Encourage kids to talk about personal experiences and topics that are familiar or of interest
to them as these are often the subjects easiest for them to express
• Model good listening skills. It is more important for adults to listen and to allow kids to speak
• Explain new/complex vocabulary or concepts ahead of time
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• Use shorter sentences and simpler words

• Use visuals (pictures, illustrations, gestures) to supplement words
• Allow sufficient time for language to be processed
Strategies for Helping Kids with Written Composition Difficulties

• Encourage kids to complete written work in stages, offering explicit support in proof reading,
editing and revising work
• Encourage activities at home that support practicing writing: keeping a journal,
corresponding with a pen pal
• Assist kids to write about topics of interest to them
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LDs Reflecting
Memory Difficulties
Some kids with LDs have problems with memory. They are smart thinkers who may have
trouble remembering what they see or hear or may struggle to retrieve what they know from
memory. Memory impairments can be key factors underlying LDs in math, writing or in reading,
and are often problems for everyday life.
Memory is a complex but important part of learning. There are many different theoretical models
of memory. A simple but useful model differentiates between verbal memory, visual memory
and working memory.
Verbal Memory
Verbal memory refers to the ability to take in oral information and to hold it in mind. For
example, we use this type of memory to look up a phone number and then dial it, or to
remember the connection between the names of letters and their sounds. Verbal information
can be stored with a limited capacity in short-term memory and can be converted to longer-term
storage if actively rehearsed.
Kids whose LDs reflect verbal memory problems may have trouble remembering math facts
(e.g., learning times tables) or remembering the order of math operations (e.g., borrowing or
carrying), for example. Sometimes, verbal memory problems interfere with the ability to keep
track of group conversations or to follow a lecture.
In the Walk-A-Mile workshop, we demonstrate verbal memory impairments by having the
participants listen to long series of numbers and then repeat them back exactly as read.
Verbal Memory for words, numbers, Phone numbers

Memory sentences, stories
Instructions
Short-term Can be meaningful to the person
Math facts
or arbitrary
Immediate
Spellings lists
Rote
Details from stories or oral instruction
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Working Memory
Working Memory refers to the ability to hold information in mind while reorganizing or
manipulating it. This type of memory has a limited storage capacity: If overloaded, one usually
loses track of the information in mind. We use this type of memory to multi-task, or to think
about more than one thing at a time.
Kids whose LDs reflect working memory problems may have trouble carrying out multi-step
instructions (i.e., keeping in mind steps while one completes the first instruction) or completing
mental arithmetic problems. This type of memory can interfere with reading comprehension
because it can be hard to keep track of story characters and plot lines while sounding out new
words.
In the Walk-A-Mile workshop, we demonstrate working memory impairments by having the
participants listen to long series of numbers and letters and then repeat them back in a different
order (letters in alphabetical order and numbers in numerical order).
Working Holding information in mind Multi-tasking

memory while reorganizing or
Listening to a teacher, pulling out relevant
manipulating it
information, taking notes
Figuring out a tip
Limited capacity
Following multiple step instructions
Visual Memory
Visual memory refers to the ability to take in visual information and to hold it in mind. Like
verbal memory, visual information can be stored with a limited capacity in short-term memory
and can be converted to longer-term storage if actively rehearsed.
Kids whose LDs reflect visual memory problems may have trouble remembering the differences
between letters (e.g., ‘d’ and ‘b’ – both circles and sticks but one has to remember which side of
the circle the stick is on). In school, they may struggle with visual-based subjects, such as
mapping in geography, or labeling diagrams in science. Sometimes, kids with visual memory
problems have trouble remembering faces.
In the Walk-A-Mile workshop, we demonstrate visual memory impairments by having the
participants look briefly at an array of visual objects and then recall as many objects as they can
remember.
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Visual memory Memory for visual Mapping, geography

information
Remembering layout of objects
Details of images
Can be abstract
Labelling diagrams on tests
information or
meaningful Learning names of numbers or cursive
letters
What can Memory Problems Look Like?

Sally is a bright and energetic student in grade eleven. When she was younger, Sally struggled
to remember the names of the letters in the alphabet and she often mixed up b’s and d’s. In
grade five, Sally didn’t know her math facts and needed to use her fingers or a discrete counter
system to add, subtract or multiply. Her teachers and parents thought that Sally was not paying
attention because she did not follow instructions. Over time, Sally learned to ask people to
repeat instructions and she began to carry a notebook to write down verbal information. Sally
uses a calculator for math, which allows her to showcase her strengths in math problem-solving
and conceptual understanding. She works best when given instructions one step at a time.
Strategies for Helping Kids with Working Memory Difficulties

• Show kids what to do more than once
• Break tasks into individual steps
• Avoid work settings that have high demand for multi-tasking, such as office reception or
keeping track of short orders in a busy coffee shop
Strategies for Helping Kids with Instructions

• Keep rules and directions short, simple and clear
• Give instructions one at a time and repeat, if necessary
• Maintain eye contact while giving instructions
• Have the individual repeat the instructions
• Offer information in small chunks
• Strategies for Helping Kids with Memorization
• Apply mnemonic strategies such as creating acronyms
• Make information meaningful
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• Write it down
• Repetition, repetition, repetition
• Make information visual or multisensory
• Use a calculator or math fact grid during more complex calculations
• Make associations between similar irregular spellings
• Remember distinctive phonological spellings (e.g., yacht is said /yot/ but is spelled /ya/ /ch/
/t/ )
• Copy spellings repeatedly to learn by rote
• Use spell check and adaptive technology to ensure accuracy
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LDs Reflecting
Visual-Spatial Difficulties
Some kids with LDs have problems in processing or making sense of visual information.
Often, these kids have strong sight reading or decoding skills. However, they may have trouble
making sense of what they see (perception) or in organizing what they see (visual-spatial
organization skills). Impairments in visual-spatial processing can make it harder to learn
time/space concepts, such as telling time, understanding measurement, or interpreting charts
and graphs. These types of processing impairments can affect one’s ability to ‘read’ body
language and non-verbal cues, such as tone of voice, facial expressions, or personal space.
Visual-perceptual processing
Visual-perceptual processing refers to the ability to make sense of visual information. In the
Walk-A-Mile workshop, we demonstrate problems in visual-perceptual processing by means of
the “Fly” and the “Bearded Man” exercises in which participants are given insufficient perceptual
information to make sense of what they see.
Perceptual Ability to make sense of what Noticing & understanding facial

processing one sees expressions
Visual-spatial Understanding a chart or graph
Putting together visual Reading a map
information
Following a sewing pattern
Putting together an IKEA furniture set
Visual-motor processing problems

Visual-motor processing problems refer to impairments in the coordination of eye-hand
movements and/or motor planning. People whose LDs reflect visual-motor problems may have
trouble with activities such as printing or copying, or learning to tie shoelaces. They may find it
hard to write, may put more pressure on a pencil or pen in order to control the motor
movements and may experience fatigue with writing, and may take much longer to write. In
addition, people with visual-motor problems may have trouble orienting their body in space and
may need more help to learn dressing or may confuse left and right.
In the Walk-A-Mile workshop, visual-motor processing problems are demonstrated by the
mirror tracing activity.
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Visual-motor Ability to plan and Print, write (cursive), copy

execute hand
Fine motor Control size & spacing of letters on a page
movements
coordination
Line up numbers in columns
Graphomotor
Learn to tie shoelaces
Dysgraphia
Perceptual
motor
Strategies for Helping Kids with Visual-motor Processing Difficulties:

• Provide copies of notes from a classmate or the teacher or employer
• Allow kids to trace rather than draw freehand
• Provide templates for kids to fill in
• Allow kids to use a word processor
• Allow extra time for written work
• Use graph paper to keep columns orderly
• Occupational therapists can offer practical assistance in the development of motor planning
skills, coordination, handwriting and organization
• Offer a variety of writing tools (pens/pencils) to allow students to find one that feels
comfortable for them.
• Set appropriate expectations about the volume of writing required
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Non Verbal Learning Disability (NLD)
The term, “Non Verbal Learning Disability” (NLD or NVLD) was introduced in the late 1980’s by
a neuroscientist based in Windsor, Ontario (Dr. Byron Rourke) who studied a group of children
with a ‘social perception’ disability. Individuals with NLDs are intelligent yet struggle with
impairments in non-verbal aspects of daily living, such as understanding things from another’s
perspective or ‘reading’ social cues.
Kids with NLD may have “meltdowns” or detach themselves by “spacing out” because they are
overloaded by trying to work through situations that other kids learn to handle with much less
effort. For example, they may avoid or react angrily to any sort of novelty because they are not
able to quickly and accurately understand the new situation.
Kids with NLD may talk incessantly. This may be because they rely heavily on their well-
developed language skills to interact with others and to cope with confusion and anxiety.
Social problems frequently occur because kids with NLD struggle with the parts of
communication that take place without words, such as the idea of “personal space”, or the
signals that other people use to convey irritation, anxiety, etc. Often kids may not understand
the give and take of play and conversation. They may be unaware that the listener is bored.
They may make inappropriate comments and then be bewildered when others become upset
because they do not understand the social “rules.”
What are the differences between NLD and AS?

There has been controversy regarding the differentiation between NLD and Asperger Syndrome
(AS). The two disorders share common features, including a history of advanced verbal skills,
difficulties in processing nonverbal social cues and in adapting to new situations, impairments in
executive function, and problems with handwriting and organization. However, AS is
characterized by restricted repetitive and stereotypic interests (DSM-IV) which is not a hallmark
feature of NLD. More research is needed to understand how NLDs work and how to best help
the people who struggle with these types of challenges.
What Can Non Verbal Learning Disabilities Look Like?

Mark is a 16-year-old boy who is described by his parents and teachers as a "loner". Lately, Mark
has been feeling depressed and anxious and he says that this is because no one likes him. He often
appears untidy and physically awkward and his locker and knapsack are always a mess. Mark's
teachers report that he has problems interacting with others. They note that he does not seem to
understand or use appropriate social skills and feel that this is the cause of his social problems. At
school, Mark struggles with written assignments, despite having a large vocabulary and an ability to
speak with adults. His written work is disorganized and poorly structured. His most notable
academic difficulties are with math problem solving. Mark's parents and teachers are concerned
about his social and emotional well being.
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General Strategies for Helping Kids with NLD

• Provide predictable schedules as much as possible.
• Provide preparation for changes in routines and give notice that they are about to be asked
to make a transition in activities.
• Give advance planning and instruction about unfamiliar tasks and situations.
Strategies for Helping Kids with NLD to Participate in Physical
Activity
• Teach physical activities explicitly, using verbal instructions, diagrams, and modelling.
• Ask if non-competitive sports are preferable to competitive sports
• Hiking, bicycling, martial arts, weight lifting, camping, swimming and canoeing can provide
positive experiences of physical activity.
• Provide kids with opportunities to be active in non-physical extra-curricular activities like
drama, music and clubs.
• Offer positive reinforcement for any attempts by kids to carry out physical challenges
(reward effort).
• Look at potential underlying causes if kids refuse to participate
Strategies for Helping Kids with NLD to Socialize
• Create small, calm and controlled group settings that provide greater safety and increase
the chance for successful social experiences
• Surround kids with others who share interests or talents
• Give kids verbal direction and instruction. Use kids’ strengths with language to help them
learn what others can observe and learn more easily.
• Help kids to learn to observe and notice others’ facial expressions, body language, tone of
voice and other social cues.
• Teach kids such details as:
• What is expected in different social, family, and school situations;
• How others feel, how to organize and carry out tasks, etc.
• Expect to repeat direct teaching several times before kids are able to master the skill. It is
important to provide this instruction with kindness and patience.
• Model and practice the use of language that is similar to age-peers, rather than relying on
"adult" language
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LDs reflecting
Slow Processing Speed
Some kids with LDs need more time to process information. They are smart and have good
ideas but may take longer than most to make sense of what is being said or to organize their
thoughts. Sometimes, kids with slow processing speed are quick to think but need more time to
write than most others. Problems with processing speed can make it hard to finish tests on time,
to copy information from the board before it is erased, or to volunteer an answer in class, for
example.
In the Walk-A-Mile workshop, processing speed is demonstrated by the “Story of N” exercise.
Processing Speed at which information Think on one’s feet

Speed is identified, understood and
Come up with an answer immediately
responded to
Make a quick decision
Speed & accuracy on rote
visual scanning and paper Copy work from the board
and pencil tasks Write information when time is a factor
(e.g., taking tests)
What Can Slow Processing Speed Look Like?

Noah is a nine-year-old boy who loves baseball and computer games. He has always been a
‘dawdler’ and needs constant reminders to get moving in the mornings. Noah is a quiet boy
who often lets his friends do the talking for him. He says it is easier to let others put up their
hands in class even when he knows the answer because Noah knows it takes him a long time
to get his words out. Noah worries that others will think he is not smart and he is beginning to
doubt his own intelligence. Noah hates to write because it takes forever and his printing
embarrasses him.
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Strategies for Helping Kids with Slow Processing

• Provide additional time to complete work
• Build in resource time to complete class work
• Provide notes or photocopies of lecture material, where possible
• Be specific in telling kids exactly what you want them to do
• Directly assist kids in beginning activity (e.g., point out where to start with a * on page)
• Check with kids part-way through activity to ensure they have not forgotten what to do or
have not lost the instructional set
• Avoid asking kids too many questions
• Provide additional time to complete work and modify expectations for amount completed
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LDs Reflecting Problems with

Executive Functioning
Some kids with LDs have trouble with tasks of executive functioning, or a set of higher order
skills that control and regulate other abilities and behaviors. Executive functions include the
ability to start or stop actions, to monitor and change behavior as needed, and to plan or
organize, for example. Kids who struggle with executive functioning may have trouble inhibiting
impulses or may have a hard time anticipating consequences or being flexible and adapting to
new situations. They may have difficulty applying what they have learned in one setting to new
situations (generalizability) or may not be able to pay attention to how they are doing something
(self monitoring).
In the Walk-A-Mile workshop, difficulties with executive functioning is demonstrated by the
Stroop exercises.
Executive “meta-cognitive” skills (ability Identify and carry out steps for a school
Function to think about thinking) project
Attention Ability to select, direct and Manage frustration in a classroom setting
sustain focus
Self-monitoring Monitor and adapt tone of voice or volume
Ability to put on the brakes, of speech
Planning,
to inhibit impulses
organization Stop and think before acting
Self-control
Initiation
What are the differences between LDs with executive functioning

problems and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (AHDH)?
ADHD is one of the most common childhood psychiatric disorders, occurring in 3 to 7% of the
population. It is defined as a persistent pattern of problematic symptoms that include difficulty
staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and/or hyperactivity (over-
activity). For diagnosis, ADHD has to be present from an early age and evident in at least two
settings (e.g., home and school) and it has to be causing significant functional impairments to
daily life.
ADHD is technically not a learning disability but it can interfere with learning and it co-occurs in
people with LDs up to 40% of the time. By definition, people with ADHD have problems with
executive functioning. Often, the main difference between LDs with executive functioning
problems and LDs with ADHD is really a difference in severity and intensity of inattention and/or
hyperactivity.
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What Can Difficulties with Executive Functioning Look Like?

Purnima is a ten-year-old girl who is full of fun ideas. Her teachers have complained that
Purnima never listens and cannot sit in her seat without disrupting the other kids. Purnima’s
friends think she is energetic and a lot of fun, although sometimes, Purnima doesn’t know when
to stop. At home, Purnima gets into trouble because she doesn’t stop and think of the
consequences. Her mother worries about her safety and feels that she needs to watch Purnima
more than the others in the family. Purnima’s siblings complain that she is always the first to
choose activities and to make the rules.
Strategies for Helping with Executive Functioning Difficulties

• Break tasks and routines down into steps. For example, getting ready for breakfast involves
the following steps:
o Getting out of bed
o Making bed
o Washing face, brushing teeth
o Getting dressed, combing hair
o Going to kitchen, etc.
• Outline the steps needed to complete a project or task, and help kids plan how and when to
do each step.
• Discuss a number of alternative approaches to a problem and review the pros and cons of
each approach.
• Prepare individuals ahead of time for change.
• Address the same issues and use similar approaches in all settings (eg at home and at
school) to best achieve generalization
• Provide more adult supervision of activities than might be expected for their age
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LDs and Mental Health
Having LDs puts kids at greater risk for a number of mental health concerns. As demonstrated
by the experiential exercises in the Walk-A-Mile workshop, kids who have LDs may experience
feelings of frustration, shame and perceived stigma, hopelessness, and anxiety about not
meeting expectations. 40% of people with LDs are estimated to struggle with problems such as
anxiety, depression, or low self esteem. In addition, 75% of kids with LDs are estimated to have
difficulties with social relationships. Depending on the nature of the LDs, it can be hard for kids
to ‘read’ social cues or to adapt to new social situations, or to regulate their emotions or
behaviors in order to fit in with peers. Kids with LDs are at greater risk for bullying and
victimization, social isolation and rejection, or for feelings of loneliness.
Research has identified a number of protective factors that help to foster resilience and well
being among kids with LDs. People who have personal characteristics such as persistence in
the face of adversity, flexibility to pursue alternate strategies when appropriate, and self-
awareness are at reduced risk for problems. We also know that helping kids to develop
effective skills such as achievable goal-setting and coping strategies to manage stress and
frustration is important.
Strategies for Helping Self Esteem

• Support kids to pursue activities in their area of strength or interest
• Plan activities that will give kids the greatest chance of success
• Experiencing success may give kids the motivation to try activities that are more of a
challenge for them
• Be supportive of any signs of progress, even when progress is slow
• Kids need to learn that practice can help develop skills and that success is within their reach
• Notice the reactions of classmates to a kid’s academic strengths/weaknesses. Sometimes
self-esteem and competence increases when students are in an academic environment with
peers who are similar to them academically
Strategies for Helping Emotional Awareness and Control

• Look at anger and frustration as possible ways of saying, “I can’t” or “It’s too hard”, which
may in fact be the case
• Offer assistance in a supportive way
• Ask what part of what they are doing is frustrating kids: Would they like to learn another way
of approaching it?
• Be patient
• Validate feelings of frustration, anger
• Label feelings and emotions in a non-judgmental way
23
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• Allow kids time to engage in solitary activities in order to give them time to think, reflect, and
calm down
• Create a safe, supportive atmosphere, which respects confidential information
• Allow kids to discuss their fears and anxieties. Show that it is ok to talk about them
• Recognize that kids with LD or ADHD may seem to overreact to what you think of as small
issues. Remember that their reaction needs to happen to let you know how they are feeling.
Try not to overreact in return.
Strategies for Helping Kids with Social Interactions

• Discuss with kids their understanding of what happens to them socially
• Assist them to gain awareness of how they behave with others
• Help them clarify their feelings and make their words consistent with their feelings
• Assist them to review cause and effect (behaviours and responses)
• Offer them meaningful feedback about their behaviour
• Allow kids the opportunity to engage in solitary activities, while taking care to ensure that
there are also sufficient opportunities for peer interaction
• Help kids to learn to recognize situations that are potentially problematic and develop
strategies to deal with them (i.e. recognizing that large groups are too stimulating, and
requesting permission to be in a smaller group)
• Use descriptive, non-judgmental explanations about inappropriate behaviors, being specific
and instructional
• Explain social situations verbally, as they happen
• Use real life rather than artificial examples
• Don't just tell the individual what they did wrong. Tell them what to do the next time, giving
specific examples
• Kids with LDs may annoy, irritate or frustrate other kids. Allow others to share their
frustration in private, out of earshot of the kids with LDs. Help them find positive ways of
giving feedback that would be helpful
Strategies for Helping Communication Between Home, School and

Other Settings
• Support all facets of the world of a kid with learning disabilities (home, school, recreational
settings, religious settings, summer camp, scouts, etc.) to understand this kid’s needs and
offer flexibility in their approach to them
• Communication with school to develop consistency between home and school, particularly
related to how behaviour is labeled, interpreted and handled
• Find out about the special education services available at your kid’s school
• Understand your kid’s legal rights in accessing support and accommodations
24
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• Know the rules so that you can take parte in your kid’s educational planning
• Get to know the people who make the decisions at the school
• Keep written records
• Gather information from other parents, from health professionals etc.
• Communicate effectively
• Share the child’s strengths and interests with the school
• Emphasize the need to find solutions to work collaboratively
• Focus on the big picture rather than on small details
Homework tips:
• Allow timed breaks but limit them to activities that are not too stimulating. Breaks may
include changing the place of study
• Set a specific time each night for homework and keep it consistent
• Create a study space that is quiet, uncluttered, organized and equipped with supplies
Other Strategies to Help With Emotional Wellbeing

• Recognize that uncooperative behavior may be the result of feeling confused, anxious and
overwhelmed
• Monitor progress with together with kids. Find out which situations are more easily
managed and which are more troublesome. Self-evaluation should be used in a manner
that strengthens self-esteem
• There are times that parents of kids with learning disabilities need to intervene directly. For
example:
o If child/adolescent is being bullied
o If the school program is not meeting his/her needs
o If the child/adolescent needs help with homework
o If the child/adolescent needs assistive devices
o If the child/adolescent needs mental health support (depression, anxiety, risk of
self-harm)
• These kids benefit from frequent check-ins to discuss problems, develop strategies to
address problems, and celebrate successes
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Understanding LDs: Putting it all Together
Learning Disabilities (LDs) refer to a variety of neurologically-based disorders that affect a

person’s ability to take in, understand, remember or express information. Learning Disabilities
are the most common form of disability for children aged 5 to 14 years and within Canada, LDs
are estimated to affect over three million Canadians (Stats Canada, 2006). A lifelong and
universal disability, LDs can have a negative impact on academic functioning, social functioning
and on tasks of everyday life. Moreover, having LDs is associated with an increased risk for
mental health problems including anxiety, depression and lower levels of self esteem.
In this booklet, we have outlined the specific cognitive processes that can be affected by LDs,
such as phonological processing, memory or speed of processing, for example. However, each
kid with LDs has his/her own profile of strengths and challenges. Often, there is an interaction
between the processes that make each person unique. For example, someone whose LDs
reflect working memory problems and slow processing speed can have trouble keeping
information in mind (working memory) long enough to make sense of it (processing speed) and
can end up feeling overloaded and overwhelmed.
One of the most effective strategies for people with LDs is knowledge: Understanding one’s
own abilities allows one to maximize areas of strength and to compensate for areas of
challenge. Over the past decade, advances in research technology have provided us with a
better understanding of how the brain works. We also learn from the experiences of kids with
LDs and their families. It is our hope that by promoting a community-wide understanding of the
mental health needs of kids with learning disabilities, we will create healthier and more
supportive communities to foster resilience and wellbeing for our kids.
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Resources
Books
Dane, Elizabeth. Painful Passages. NASW Press, 1990. Written by a social worker, this book
offers information on understanding and working with individuals with learning disabilities and
their families.
Farnham-Diggory, Sylvia. The Learning Disabled Child. Harvard University Press, 1992. This
book presents a comprehensive overview of learning disabilities.
Fisher, Gary and Cummings, Rhoda. The Survival Guide for Kids with LD. Free Spirit
Publishing, Inc., 1990. This book was written for children, to help them understand their
learning disabilities.
Garber, Stephen, Daniels Garber, Marianne, and Spizman. Beyond Ritalin. Harper Perennial,
1992. This book presents an overview of ADHD, the role of medication, and alternate strategies
to address issues related to ADHD.
Garcia-Winner, Michelle. Thinking About YOU Thinking About ME. Published by Michelle
Garcia Winner, SLP, 2002. mwinner@worldnet.att.net. This book provides an overview of
social cognitive deficits and offers strategies to develop perspective taking and communication
abilities.
Hallowell, Edward and Ratey, John. Driven to Distraction. Pantheon Books, 1994. This book
was written for laymen and professionals. It presents an overview of ADHD in children and
adults.
Lee, Christopher and Rosemary Jackson. Faking It: A Look into the Mind of a Creative Learner.
Heinemen, NH: Boynton Cook Publishers, 1992. In this book, a young adult describes his
experiences growing up with learning disabilities and the process of accepting help through
college.
Levine, Mel. All Kinds of Minds. Educators Publishing Service, Inc., 1994. This book was
written to help children 11 and under to understand different kinds of learning disabilities.
Levine, Mel. Educational Care: A System for Understanding and Helping Children with Learning
Problems at Home and in School. Educators Publishing Service, Inc., 1994. This book offers
descriptions of learning difficulties, strategies for teachers and parents, and ways to demystify
learning difficulties so that children can better understand their problems with learning.
Levine, Mel. Keeping a Head in School: A Student’s Book About Learning Abilities and
Learning Disorders. Educators Publishing Service, Inc., 1987. This book was written for
teenagers to help them understand their learning disabilities.
Mate, Gabor. Scattered Minds: A New Look at the Origins and Healing of Attention Deficit.
Vintage Canada. 2000. A new book on understanding attention deficit, written by a clinician
who has ADD.
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Mather, Nancy & Goldstein, Sam. Learning Disabilities and Challenging Behaviors: A Guide to
Intervention and Classroom Management. Paul H. Brooks Publishing Company, 2001. This
book was co-written by a psychologist and an educator, to assist teachers in understanding and
programming for students with learning disabilities.
Manassis, Katarina. Keys To Parenting Your Anxious Child. Barron's Educational Series, Inc.,
1996. This book is written to assist parents who are raising anxious children.
Osman, Betty B. Learning Disabilities: A Family Affair. Warner Books, reprinted 1989. This
book describes the impact of the child with learning disabilities on the family and offers
parenting strategies.
Rourke, B.P. (1995). Syndrome of Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: Neurodevelopmental
Manifestations. New York: Guilford Press.
Shaywitz, Sally. Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-Based Program for
Reading Problems at Any Level. Alfred A. Knopf, 2003. This book offers up to date information
on understanding and treating dyslexia.
Smith, Sally L. No Easy Answers: The Learning Disabled Child at Home and at School. Bantam
Books, 1981. This book was written to help parents and teachers unlock the mysteries of
learning disabilities. The author is a mother, teacher, school administrator and university
professor.
Stewart, Kathryn. Helping a Child With Nonverbal Learning Disorder or Asperger's Syndrome.
Harbinger Publications Inc. 2002. Practical information for those working and/or living with
children who have symptoms of Nonverbal Learning Disabilities or Asperger's Syndrome.
Swanson, H.Lee, Harris, Karen L. & Graham, Steve. Handbook of Learning Disabilities. The
Guilford Press. 2003. This is a comprehensive volume of articles on understanding and
remediating learning disabilities.
The Lab School of Washington. Color Me Successful. I can be successful, just like my role
models. The Lab School of Washington, D.C. This is a colouring book highlighting successful
individuals and how they learned to overcome their learning disabilities. 4759 Reservoir Road
Northwest, Washington, D.C. 20007, USA, (202) 965-6600.
Thompson, Sue. The Source for Nonverbal Learning Disorders. LinguiSystems, Inc., 1997.
Practical information for parents of children with nonverbal learning disabilities.
Wong, B.Y. The ABC's of Learning Disabilities. Academic Press, 1997. An excellent overview
of learning disabilities, a review of current research in the field and academic intervention.
28
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Organizations
Integra
25 Imperial Street, 4th Floor
Toronto, Ontario
M5P 1B9
www.integra.on.ca
Phone: (416) 486-8055
Fax: (416) 486-1282
Email: info@integra.on.ca
Learning Disabilities Association of Toronto District

121 Willowdale Avenue, Suite 205
Toronto, Ontario
M2N 6A3
www.ldatd.on.ca
Phone: 416-229-1680
Email: admin@ldatd.on.ca
Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario

Suite 1004, Box 39
365 Bloor St. East
Toronto, Ontario
M4W 3L4
www.ldao.ca
Phone: (416) 929-4311
Fax: (416) 929-3905
Learning Disabilities Association of Canada

323 Chapel Street Suite 200
Ottawa, Ontario
K1N 7Z2
www.ldac-taac.ca/index-e.asp
Phone: (613) 238-5721
Fax: (613) 235-5391
Email: info@ldac-taac.ca
Learning Disabilities Association of America

4156 Library Road
Pittsburgh, PA
15234 USA
www.ldanatl.org
Phone: (412) 341-1515
Fax: (412) 344-0224
Email: http://www.ldanatl.org/contact/contact.cfm
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Council For Exceptional Children (C.E.C.)

Division of Learning Disabilities
ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities
1920 Association Drive
Reston, VA 20191-1589 USA
www.cec.sped.org
Phone: 1-800-232-7733
Council for Exceptional Children Ontario

www.cecontario.ca
Websites
Learning Disabilities – General:
LD OnLine - The Interactive Guide to Learning Disabilities
http://www.ldonline.org
National Center for Learning Disabilities: The power to hope, to learn, and to succeed.
http://www.ld.org
Smart Kids with Learning Disabilities - An information site for parents of children with learning
disabilities
www.SmartKidswithLD.org
Ministry of Education
Special Education Web Site
www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/elemsec/speced/speced.html
Special Needs Opportunity Window

www.snow.utoronto.ca
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder:

Attention Research Update - a web-site administered by David Rabiner, Ph.D, Senior research
Scientist, Duke University
www.helpforadd.com/info
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NLD/Aspergers:
NLD on the Web!
www.nldontheweb.org
NLDline! - Dedicated to improving awareness among professionals and parents about

Nonverbal Learning Disabilities
www.nldline.com
Asperger's Society of Ontario

www.aspergers.ca
O.A.S.I.S.: Online Asperger Syndrome Information and Support www.udel.edu/bkirby/asperger
Videos
Learning Disabilities and Discipline: Richard Lavoie’s Guide to Improving Children’s Behaviour
Videotape and discussion guide, 1996
Learning Disabilities and Social Skills with Richard Lavoie: Last One Picked... First One Picked
On
Understanding Learning Disabilities: How Difficult Can This Be? The F.A.T. City Workshop with
Richard Lavoie
PBS Video
1320 Braddock Place, Alexandria, VA 22314 USA
(800) 344-3337
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Glossary
Please Note: Terms change over time; this is common to all fields, but especially true in newer
fields, when concepts are named and refined as our understanding deepens. You will notice if
you research a number of different sites, books or articles, that different terms describe similar
or identical disabilities, and the same term can mean different things, depending on the country
of origin.
ADHD – (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) ADHD often affects people who have LDs,
and is beginning to be seen as a type of LD itself. It is also a term that changes very frequently,
mostly because there are two distinct subcategories: one sort of ADHD includes hyperactivity,
and the other does not. ADHD generally interferes with attention span, impulse control, and
(sometimes) hyperactivity.
Auditory Processing – the way we understand information we hear. LDs affecting this process
can affect the accuracy of what’s heard, memory of what’s heard, organization of what’s heard,
or figure-ground discrimination of sounds.
Cognitive – another way of talking about intelligence. Cognition means thinking.
Dysgraphia – learning disabilities that affect written expression.
Dyscalculia – learning disabilities that affect mathematics
Dyslexia – learning disabilities that affect language. Commonly misunderstood to be a condition

that causes letters to appear backwards and upside down, but in reality much more
complicated. The bottom line of dyslexia is now thought to be a problem with the sounds in
words (phonological awareness).
Executive functions – the skills need to plan, manage, and evaluate things in everyday life as
well as school and work.
Expressive / Receptive – refer to transmitting or receiving information.
Fine-motor/Gross-motor control – the ability to accurately use either fine-motor or gross-

motor muscle control. Fine-motor muscle control refers to small muscles doing small things –
threading a needle, holding a pen. Gross-motor muscle control are large – like dancing or
jumping.
Figure-Ground Discrimination – this can refer to visual or auditory information, and describes
the ability to distinguish important details from surrounding information. An example of visual
figure-ground discrimination would be being able to see the words on a page and ignore a
background design. Auditorily, it would be being able to pay attention to a lecture and ignore the
sounds of rustling paper and people whispering.
Impulsivity – people with poor impulse control do not always think before they act, or consider
the consequences of actions.
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Memory (Long-Term) – memory that stores information for later use. For example, the phone
number of your best friend or a family member that you have memorized is stored in your long-
term memory.
Memory (Short-Term) – memory that holds information briefly while you use it. For example,
when you read a phone number and then dial it, the number is held in your short-term memory.
Memory (Working) – memory that holds an idea while you are using it - for example, your
working memory holds a formula when you are working on a math problem.
Multisensory Teaching - using many senses (visual/auditory, kinesthetic-tactile) and pathways

in the brain simultaneously in order to enhance memory and learning.
Nonverbal LDs – learning disabilities that affect all learning not related to language, including
social skills and physical coordination. Also called NLDs or NVLDs.
Organizational Problems – can include problems with managing time, organizing tasks, and
organizing space.
Processing Speed – how quickly or slowly a person is able to use, take in, or bring out
information. It is not related to cognitive ability – just to speed and fluency.
Phonemic Awareness/Phonological Awareness – the ability to recognize the distinct sounds

in words, which is required for further language development.
Social perception – the ability to interpret social situations, for example by ‘reading’ facial
expressions, tone of voice, body language and other verbal and nonverbal cues. Individuals
who have trouble using social perceptions to guide their behaviour may have social skills
difficulties.
Social Skills – the skills we use in society to get along socially. For example, we learn when it
is appropriate to interrupt a conversation, and how close to stand to people when we’re chatting.
Some LDs interfere with learning these rules, which causes social struggles – loneliness,
conflict, awkwardness, etc.
Visual-Motor Integration – the coordination of visual information with motor processes.
Visual Processing – the way we understand information from our eyes. LDs affecting this can
affect the accuracy of what’s seen, memory of what’s seen, understand what’s seen, or figure-
ground discrimination. Visual Tracking – the way we follow a line of text on a page - can also be
affected .
33

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A Handbook on

Designed by Integra® Staff

Integra is funded by Ontario’s Ministry of Children and Youth Services

Helen Hargreaves, MSW

Melissa Rowbotham, M.Ed.

Marjory Phillips, Ph.D., C.Psych.

The Walk a Mile Work shop is funded by:

And the generous support of individual donors

What are Learning Disabilities (LDs)?

How are LDs Identified?

What Do LDs Affect?

How Common are LDs?

What Causes LDs?

Terms used Description Application (it can be harder to…)

What can Phonological Processing Problems

Strategies for Helping Kids With Reading Difficulties

Difficulties in understanding verbal information and/or in expressing oneself are a common

What can Language Processing Problems Look Like?

Strategies for Helping Kids with Oral Language Difficulties

• Use shorter sentences and simpler words

Strategies for Helping Kids with Written Composition Difficulties

Terms used Description Application (it can be harder to…)

Verbal Memory for words, numbers, Phone numbers

Terms used Description Application (it can be harder to…)

Working Holding information in mind Multi-tasking

Terms used Description Application (it can be harder to…)

Visual memory Memory for visual Mapping, geography

What can Memory Problems Look Like?

Strategies for Helping Kids with Working Memory Difficulties

Strategies for Helping Kids with Instructions

Perceptual Ability to make sense of what Noticing & understanding facial

Visual-motor processing problems

Terms used Description Application (it can be harder to…)

Visual-motor Ability to plan and Print, write (cursive), copy

Strategies for Helping Kids with Visual-motor Processing Difficulties:

Non Verbal Learning Disability (NLD)

What are the differences between NLD and AS?

What Can Non Verbal Learning Disabilities Look Like?

General Strategies for Helping Kids with NLD

Terms used Description Application (it can be harder to…)

Processing Speed at which information Think on one’s feet

What Can Slow Processing Speed Look Like?

Strategies for Helping Kids with Slow Processing

LDs Reflecting Problems with

Terms used Description Application (it can be harder to…)

What are the differences between LDs with executive functioning

What Can Difficulties with Executive Functioning Look Like?

Strategies for Helping with Executive Functioning Difficulties

LDs and Mental Health

Strategies for Helping Self Esteem

Strategies for Helping Emotional Awareness and Control

Strategies for Helping Kids with Social Interactions

Strategies for Helping Communication Between Home, School and

Other Strategies to Help With Emotional Wellbeing

Understanding LDs: Putting it all Together

Learning Disabilities (LDs) refer to a variety of neurologically-based disorders that affect a

Learning Disabilities Association of Toronto District

Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario

Learning Disabilities Association of Canada

Learning Disabilities Association of America

Council For Exceptional Children (C.E.C.)

Council for Exceptional Children Ontario

Special Needs Opportunity Window