OVERVIEW OF THE GEOLOGIC SETTING

AND PORPHYRY Cu-Mo DEPOSITS OF SOUTHERN PERU

Xth International Congress of Prospectors and Explorers

Lima Peru
May 10 - 14, 2017

Richard M. Tosdal*, Adam T. Simmons**, Alan H. Clark***

* PicachoEx LLC, Folly Beach, SC 29439, U.S.A. rtosdal@gmail.com

** AngloAmerican, London, U.K.
***. Queens University, Kingtson, Ontario K7L3N6, Canada

INTRODUCTORY COMMENTS setting. An extensive reference list is provided

Ranging from Cerro Verde-Santa Rosa in for those interested in further information.
the northwest to the giant Toquepala deposit
in the southeast, the Paleocene to early
Eocene porphyry Cu belt in southern Perú
represents one of the world's most poorly
appreciated major concentrations of porphyry
Cu deposits in the Andes of South America
(Fig. 1). They constitute the northern extent
of a belt of similar age porphyry Cu deposits
that extends from southern Peru into northern
Chile (Camus, 2003; Sillitoe and Perelló,
2005), and lies slightly inboard of the older
Cretaceous belt, which includes in southern
Perú the Zafranal prospect (Fig. 2). Like their
late Eocene to Oligocene brethren in northern
Chile (Camus, 2003), the southern Peruvian
porphyry Cu-Mo deposits are spatially
associated with a major trench-linked fault
system in the Precordillera physiographic
province of the Andean cordillera. As with
most Andean porphyry Cu deposits, the
southern Peruvian deposits are related to
porphyry stocks intruded relatively late in the
magmatic cycle. However, unlike the Eocene
Chilean porphyries, much fundamental
knowledge about the Peruvian porphyry Cu-
Mo deposits is not known because of the lack
of geologic studies undertaken therein.
This guide outlines the geologic
framework of southern Peru as well as the
general geology of the deposits to be visited Figure 1. Porphyry copper belts of the central
during a field trip associated with the Andes showing the relationship of the
International Congress of Prospectors and Paleocene and Eocene porphyry Cu deposits
Explorers (ProExplo). It updates the initial in southern Peru to similar age deposits in
field guide prepared for the 3rd ProExplo northern Chile and to the younger late Eocene
conference held in 2003. The field guide is and Oligocene porphyry Cu deposits in
not intended to be a comprehensive northern Chile and southern Peru. Modified
discussion of the deposits and their geologic from Sillitoe (1988) and Sillitoe and Perelló
setting. Instead it is constructed from publicly (2005).
available information or from our observations
and unpublished data. The field guide serves The trip begins with the Cerro Verde-
to provide a broad overview of the deposits to Santa Rosa deposits near Arequipa, which is
be visited on this trip and their geologic operated by Sociedad Minera Cerro Verde
(subsidiary of Freeport McMoRan). The trip along the coast in southern Perú and in
proceeds south to the cluster of three uplifted fault blocks in northern Chile (Fig. 2).
deposits near Moquegua. These deposits They represent the northern extension of the
include the giant Cuajone and Toquepala Famatimian arc that is well developed in
mines operated by Southern Peru Copper western Argentina (Ramos, 2008). They
Corporation, and the Quellaveco prospect furthermore are of similar age to granitoids
being developed by AngloAmerican. present in the eastern cordillera farther north
and to the east in central and northern Perú
GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK where they intruded the Proterozoic Maraňón
Basement to the Mesozoic and early Complex (Chew et al., 2007, 2016), which is
Cenozoic Andean arcs part of the Amazon craton underlying Brazil to
A complex Proterozoic and Paleozoic the east. In central Perú, these rocks are
basement underlies the Andean Jurassic to bordered by remnants of ophiolitic rocks
Eocene magmatic arcs and the Paleocene to (Tassinari et al., 2011), which represent the
early Eocene porphyry Cu belt (Fig. 2). The suture between an allochthonous crystalline
oldest rocks are the Arequipa Massif, a Paracas terrane and the Amazon craton
complex Proterozoic terrane containing rocks (Ramos, 2011; Chew et al., 2016).
with ages between 1.8 and 1.0 Ga Metamorphism of the early Paleozoic
(Wasteneys et al., 1995; Tosdal, 1996; sedimentary rocks in the Ordovician
Wörner et al., 2000; Lowey et al, 2003; accompanied closure of the back-arc basin
Casquet et al., 2010) that underwent high and essentially the second collision of the
grade metamorphism at least in southern parautochthonous Arequipa Massif with the
Perú and perhaps into northern Bolivia during Amazon craton (Ramos, 2011 and references
the late Mesoproterozoic around 1.0 Ga therein).
(Martignole and Martelate, 2003; Casquet et Overlying the early Paleozoic and older
al., 2010). These rocks are currently rocks are Carboniferous to Permian rocks
considered to be an allochthonous terrane known in southern Perú (Fig. 2) by various
derived from Laurentia, having collided with names, but by the marine sedimentary rocks
the Amazon craton during the Sunsas / Carboniferous Ambo Formation and rift-
Grenville orogeny (Loewy et al. 2003; Ramos, related subaerial volcanic and sedimentary
2008, 2011). The complex history of these rocks Permian to Triassic Mitu Group in the
rocks has imparted distinct radiogenic isotopic vicinity of the porphyry Cu prospects. These
compositions to rocks that have interacted sedimentary rocks were deposited in basins
with them since their emplacement, (Barreiro currently bounded by westerly striking faults
and Clark, 1984; Boiley et al., 1990; Tosdal, that in the field appear to be inverted growth
1996; Loewy et al 2003; Mamani et al., 2008, faults. The Mitu Group rocks are considered
2010) which permits their distribution in the related to the onset of early Mesozoic Andean
subsurface of the Andes to be mapped and arc rifting related to the breakup of
defined. Gondwana, with the major axis of extension
Sedimentary basins are considered to principally concentrated along the Proterozoic
have formed in the late Neoproterozoic to suture zone in the eastern Cordillera of Perú
early Cambrian and in the late Cambrian and and Bolivia and along the early Paleozoic
Ordovician. These rocks mainly are present to basins formed between the Arequipa Massif
the east in the area of the modern Altiplano, and the Amazon craton (Jaillard et al., 2000;
and represent rift-drift cycles that are best Sempere et al., 2002; Ramos, 2011).
understood in Chile and Argentina within the
Punoviscana basin and in the fold-and-thrust Continental-margin rifting in the mid-
belt of Bolivia (Ramos, 2008 and references Mesozoic
therein). These basins represent the effect of Rifting of the continental margin along the
rifting that detached the main mass of western margin of Gondwana in the middle
Laurentia from Amazonia, leaving behind the Mesozoic marked the onset of the Andean
orphan Arequipa Massif, and the southern orogen (Coira et al., 1982; Davidson and
extension in Chile and Argentina known as Mpodozis, 1990; Benavides-Cáceres, 1999;
the Antofalla craton (Ramos, 2011). Sempere et al., 2002). Along most of the
Ordovician calcalkaline granitic rocks of leading edge of Gondwana, intra-arc and
the San Nicolás Batholith intruded the back-arc rifts formed in a suprasubduction
metamorphic basement rocks (Mukasa and zone environment as result of the steep
Henry, 1990; Loewy et al., 2004), and outcrop subduction of a cold oceanic plate and the
2
Figure 2. Simplified geologic map of southern Perú showing distribution of porphyry Cu mines and
prospects in the region. Modified from 1:1,000,000 scale geology map available from INGEMMET.
Note that multiple units have been combined in some of the map units on the figure; internal
contacts between those units are preserved on the simplified map.
oceanward retreat of the trench. Significant ranging from ~170 to 162 Ma. The marine
volumes of mafic, mantle-derived volcanic supracrustal rocks and associated plutonic
and plutonic material was erupted and complexes were erupted and or intruded
emplaced in the rift basins (Jones, through the crystalline basement terrane of
1981Atherton et al., 1983, 1985), and detritus the Arequipa Massif and unconformably
shed from the rift margins filled the marine overlying upper Paleozoic sedimentary rocks.
basins (Benavides, 1956; Wilson, 1983, The largely medium-K calcalkaline basaltic to
2000). Active rifting and continental-margin andesitic volcanic rocks, known as the
basin formation continued into the early Late Chocolate Volcanics, are intercalated with
Cretaceous until the onset of extension and volcaniclastic rocks derived therefrom and
opening of the southern Atlantic Ocean. locally with limestone. The volcanic rocks are
The Jurassic to Cretaceous intra-arc rift overlain and interfinger in their upper parts
basin along most of Perú is the Huarmey- with shallow marine sedimentary rock
Canete basin (Benavides-Cáceres, 1999); the sequences that grade upward and laterally
basin in southern Perú is not well defined as into Jurassic rocks of the Socosani Formation
the margins have been extensively intruded and Yura Group which filled a back-arc
by Jurassic and Cretaceous granitic rocks and extensional basin (Sempere et al., 2002).
also largely covered by Tertiary continental These rocks are common around Arequipa
sedimentary rocks (Fig. 2). However, gravity and the Cerro Verde – Santa Rosa porphyry
modeling indicates that the rift continues Cu deposits (Fig. 3; Jenks, 1948). A short-
through the region (Jones, 1981). The lived shortening event in the earliest Late
continental or northeast boundary of the rift Cretaceous deformed the sedimentary
basin is diffuse, but broadly corresponds to sequence (Vicente et al., 1989; Benavides-
the Incaic Megafault in central Perú, the Cáceres, 1999; Sempere et al., 2002).
Cincha - Luta and Incapucio faults in southern Whereas the stratigraphy and temporal
Perú (Fig. 2), and the Domeyko fault system constraints on the volcanic sequences are
including the West Fissure in Chile. Within the generally poorly understood, considerable
basin, the Mesozoic rocks are largely of work has been devoted to the plutonic
marine origin (Benavides-Cáceres, 1999; complexes that formed during the Jurassic
Jaillard et al., 2000). Paleozoic and and early Cretaceous (Clark et al., 1990a;
Precambrian rocks cropping out along the Mamani et al., 2010; Boekhout et al., 2012;
coast in southern Perú represent the Demouy et al. 2012). The oldest known
southwestern rift shoulder (Fig. 2). A variety plutonic rocks are gabbroic to dioritic in
of ore deposits formed during the rifting composition that crop out around Arequipa
include volcanic-hosted massive sulfides in and have Early and Middle Jurassic U-Pb
central and northern Perú, iron-oxide-copper- ages between ~200 and 180 Ma (Mukasa,
gold deposits in southern Perú as well as 1986; Demouy et al., 2012); these rocks may
porphyry Cu deposits (Clark et al., 1990a; represent subplutonic complexes broadly
Injoque et al., 1997; Injoque-Espinoza, 2002; associated with the Chocolate Volcanics. A
Winter et al., 2004; Sillitoe and Perelló, 2005; second episode of plutonism with U-Pb ages
Carlotto et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2010). between ~175 to 152 Ma is more widespread
These deposits furthermore are related in the Cordillera de la Costa, and was
metallogenically to the similar ones in characterized by more felsic compositions
northern Chile such as Romeral, Punta del ranging from diorite to granodiorite (Clark et
Cobre district, and Mantos Blancos al. 1990a; Boekhout et al., 2012; Demouy et
(Bookstrom, 1977; Vila et al., 1996; Marschik al., 2012). The medium-K calcalkaline plutonic
and Fontbote, 2002). complexes are the oldest members of the
In southern Perú (Fig. 2), a magmatic arc Toquepala segment of the Coastal Batholith
formed along the coast potentially as early as of Perú (Pitcher et al., 1985; Beckinsale et al.,
the late Permian, certainly by the Triassic but 1985). Radiogenic isotopic compositions of
primarily during the Jurassic in what is now the Jurassic volcanic and plutonic rocks
the Cordillera de la Costa (Jenks, 1948; indicate varying interaction with the old
Narváez, 1964; Clark et al., 1990a; Martínez crystalline basement rocks underlying
and Cervantes, 2003; Mamani et al., 2010). southern Peru, with magma derived from
Boekhout et al. (2012) report Middle Jurassic mafic lithospheric sources (James, 1982;
U-Pb ages (~172 to 166 Ma) for andesitic lava Boiley et al., 1990; Mamani et al., 200, 2010;
and detrital zircons in volcaniclastic Boekhout et al., 2012; Demouy et al., 2012).
sandstones that have mean U-Pb ages
Figure 3. Simplified geologic map of the Cerro Verde-Santa Rosa porphyry Cu
deposits. Modified from Jenks (1948; Phelps
Dodge, 2002).
Arequipa east of the Cincha – Luta fault (Fig.
Continental-margin shortening and 2). Volcanism began at ~90 Ma with the
magmatism leading to porphyry Cu onset of poorly dated, on a regional basis,
formation intermediate composition volcanism forming
Beginning in the earliest Late Cretaceous and part of the Huracanne formation at the base of
coinciding with the opening of the south the Toquepala Group (Bellido, 1979; Demouy
Atlantic, a fundamental tectonic and magmatic et al., 2012; Simmons, 2013), which is most
shift characterized the Andes. The arcs extensive in the vicinity of Moquegua (Figs. 2
shifted northeastward with time. In central and 4), but has been largely eroded near
Perú, magmatism, recorded largely by the Arequipa (Figs. 2 and 3). The Toquepala
Lima segment of the huge Coastal Batholith Group in the vicinity of Moquegua is
(Pitcher et al., 1985), was continuous subdivided into a series of formations that
throughout the Cretaceous and into the early generally has more intermediate composition
Tertiary (Mukasa, 1986). In contrast, rocks at the base but become more felsic in
available age constraints indicate a significant composition near the top of the volcanic
gap in magmatism in the Arequipa and sequence. Ignimbrite dominates the upper
Toquepala segments of southern Perú that, Late Cretaceous Toquepala Group. These
based on available data lasted for 50 to 60 formations have various names, including the
million years, with arc magmatism resuming in Huaracanne, Inogoya, Parlalque, Matalaque,
the earliest Late Cretaceous (~90 Ma) and and Quellaveco formations (Bellido et al.,
continuing into the early Eocene (Mukasa, 1979; Martínez and Cervantes, 2003;
1986; Beckinsale et al., 1985; Martínez and Cervantes et al., 2005). Near Cuajone (Fig.
Cervantes, 2003; Demouy et al., 2012; 4) in excess of 3000m of volcanic and
Simmons, 2013). The eruptive products and sedimentary rocks composing the upper parts
the upper crustal batholiths have largely of the Toquepala Group (Fig. 5) were erupted
buried or obliterated the in-land margin of the over a 6 million year time frame between 74
older rift basin and the Cretaceous fold and and 68 Ma (Martínez and Cervantes, 2003;
thrust belt, except to the northwest of Simmons, 2013).
Figure 4. Regional geologic map of the Cuajone – Quellaveco – Toquepala porphyry Cu deposits.
Modified from Bellido (1979). Coordinates in Peruvian Coordinate System (PSAD56); zone 19S.
Large plutons with principally medium-K mineralized rock is associated with the Late
calcalkaline granodioritic to granitic Cretaceous magmatic rocks, although they
compositions form the roots of the arc. Near form a significant host rock at all of the
Arequipa where the level of exhumation is porphyry Cu deposits.
deeper (Fig. 3), plutonic rocks forming the Radiogenic isotopic compositions of the
Tiabaya, Linga, and Yarabamba units have U- Cretaceous volcanic and plutonic rocks
Pb ages that range from 90 to 62 Ma indicate varying interaction with the old
(Mukasa, 1986; Demouy et al., 2012), crystalline basement rocks underlying
essentially spanning the time frame of the southern Perú, with magma derived from
volcanic rocks sequences of the Toquepala mafic lithospheric sources (James, 1982;
Group near Moguegua. In the vicinity of Boiley et al., 1990; Mamani et al., 2008, 2010;
Cuajone and Toquepala, U-Pb ages of the Boekhout et al., 2012; Demouy et al., 2012).
plutons are considerably fewer, and where Near Arequipa however the degree of crustal
present are largely younger than their host interaction between the Cretaceous magma
volcanic rocks; U-Pb ages around between 60 and the ancient crystalline basement rocks is
and 65 Ma are reported (Simmons, 2013, considerably less than is recorded in the
Simmons et al., 2013) with K-Ar and Ar-Ar Jurassic intrusive rocks (Demouy et al.,
ages on the batholithic rocks extending to 2012). Inherited cores in zircons as well as
slightly younger ages (Clark et al., 1990a; xenocrystic zircons from the Late Cretaceous
Martínez and Cervantes, 2003). Little Toquepala Group with Proterozoic and
Figure 5. Simplified
stratigraphic column
through the Toquepala
Group. Section is
measured from near
Moquegua toward the
northeast and lies to the
northeast of Cuajone.
Simplified from
unpublished mapping by
A.T. Simmons.
Archean ages demonstrate that ancient obliterated by the northwesterly elongate Late
crystalline crust also is present at depth in the Cretaceous plutonic rocks (Fig. 2).
Moquegua area (Simmons, 2013). Kinematics of individual faults and the overall
system is complex, with normal, strike-slip as
Paleocene to early Eocene porphyry well as contractional strains being
intrusions accommodated at various time since the
Porphyry Cu-Mo deposits are associated Mesozoic (Sébrier et al., 1985; Jacay et al.,
with Paleocene and early Eocene granodiorite 2002; Semperé et al., 2005; Carlotto et al.,
and granite porphyry stocks. They constitute 2005, 2009). Nonetheless, post-Eocene
the youngest intrusions in region. At Cerro deformation related to shortening in southern
Verde – Santa Rosa, the porphyry intrusions Peru regional and post-Oligocene counter-
are dated at about 61 Ma (Mukasa, 1986). At clockwise rotation has not significantly
Quellaveco, mineralized and hydrothermally modified any of the porphyry Cu centers.
altered porphyry intrusions intruded
episodically at ~58 Ma, 56 Ma, and 54 Ma Post-porphyry Cu
(Sillitoe and Mortensen, 2010; Simmons, Magmatism largely shifted northeastward
2013; Simmons et al., 2013). At Cuajone and soon after formation of the porphyry Cu
Toquepala, porphyry intrusions have ages of deposits to be established in the Andahuaylas
~56 and 54 Ma, but contain 58 Ma xenocrystic - Yauri region in the Eocene and Oligocene
zircons, which suggest there was likely 58 Ma (Noble et al., 1984; Perello et al., 2003;
intrusions as well (Simmons et al., 2013). Carlotto et al., 2009). The northward shift is
Previously published K-Ar and Ar-Ar ages for attributed to the flattening of the subduction
these deposits extend to younger ages, and zone (Sandeman et al., 1995; James and
record the cooling of the hydrothermal Sacks, 1999). In southern Perú, the
systems (Clark et al., 1990a; Quang et al., Oligocene Tacaza Group is present near the
2003). border with Chile (Fig. 2). These rocks
Valdivia et al. (2015) summarized represent the westernmost extent of the arc of
changes trace element variations in the that age and locally host hydrothermal
Cretaceous to early Eocene intrusions, and deposits of which the recently described latest
note a change in composition from normal Oligocene to early Miocene (24-22.5 Ma)
arc-type Sr/Y composition in the older rocks to Chipispaya porphyry Cu deposit (Valdivia et
elevated Sr/Y compositions >20 that indicate al., 2014) is the most notable (Fig. 2).
hydrous magmas that on a worldwide basis In southern Perú, continental clastic
commonly associated with mineralized sedimentary rocks, the Moquegua formation,
porphyry Cu systems (Kay and Mpodozis, now referred to as the Moquegua Group
2001; Richards and Kerrich, 2007; Richards (Decou et al., 2011), record the erosion and
et al., 2014). Chiaradia (2015) argues that degradation of the Cretaceous to early
thickening crust is crucial to forming elevated Eocene magmatic arc (Fig. 2). The detritus
Sr/Y values, a feature that is common began filling a fore-arc basin lying west of the
elsewhere in the Andes (Kay and Mpodozis, porphyry Cu deposits by ~50 Ma, and
2003; Bissig and Tosdal, 2009). There is continued intermittently to ~19 Ma (Tosdal
furthermore a change in rare earth element 1981; Quang et al., 2003, 2005; Roperch et
patterns in the southern Peruvian porphyry al., 2006; Decou et al., 2011). Angular
intrusions to the characteristic spoon shape unconformities separate units within the
(Valdivia et al., 2015) that is also associated Group. The youngest and upper parts of the
with mineralized porphyry intrusions (e.g. new Moquegua Group deposited after ~19 Ma
Hollings et al., 2005). represent pediment deposits cut into the lower
A major trench-parallel fault system units of the Moquegua Groups; these
consisting of discontinuous and subparallel pediment surfaces formed as the region was
faults and splays cuts the western part of the uplifted and the exoeric rivers draining the
present outcrop of the Late Cretaceous and Cordillera cut across the forearc toward the
Paleogene arc, and is coincident with the Pacific Ocean (Tosdal et al., 1981, 1984;
edge of the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous Quang et al., 2005; Decou et al., 2011).
back-arc rift basin (Fig. 2). This fault system Deposition of the upper post-19 Ma parts of
is known as the Incapucio Fault in the the Group record the renewed volcanism in
Toquepala-Cuajone area. The equivalent the Cordillera and coincided with the oldest
fault near Arequipa is the Cincha – Luta record of supergene enrichment in the
systems whose trace in the vicinity is largely porphyry Cu deposits (Clark et al., 1990b;
Quang et al., 2005). Parts of the Moquegua largely completed by about 10 Ma, although
Group interfinger and are laterally equivalent local evidence for minor supergene activity
to late Oligocene and Miocene marine persisted into the Pliocene (Clark et al.,
deposits of the Camaná Group present along 1990b; Quang et al., 2005; Sillitoe, 2005). By
the coast (Decou et al., 2011; Alván et al., the late Miocene, the climate was hyper-arid,
2015). as the mountain range became a sufficiently
Explosive volcanism resumed in the elevated orographic feature to create a rain
region at about 25 Ma, with a major pulse of shadow on the western flank (Tosdal et al.,
explosive volcanic activity between 25 and 19 1984). The hyper-arid climate that now
Ma forming the extensive ignimbrites of the dominates the southwestern slopes effectively
Huaylillas Formation (Tosdal et al., 1981; precluded significant additional supergene
Quang et al., 2003). Prior to about 19 Ma, modification, and only in-situ oxidation and
ignimbrites are interbedded with the upper limited supergene weathering of the deposits
Moquegua Group in the forearc basin but in occurred.
the Precordillera form prominent plateaus
burying a regional scale planar erosional THE SOUTHERN PERUVIAN CU BELT
landscape, the Altos de Camilaca surface. Ranging from Zafranal on the northwest to
Post-19 Ma ignimbrite filling valleys cut into the Chipispaya prospect on the southeast
the pediment gravels forming the upper units (Fig. 2), the western Cordillera in southern
of the Moquegua Group of Decou et al. (2011) Perú contains a significant number of
and fill valleys cut into the Huaylillas porphyry Cu-Mo-Au prospects of which three
Formation and older rocks in the (Cerro Verde-Santa Rosa, Cuajone, and
Precordillera. These rocks are known in Toquepala) have been in production for
southern Perú as the Chuntacala Formation, decades whereas a fourth (Quellaveco) is
which was erupted between 14.8 and 13 Ma currently under construction. Other prospects
and the Asana Formation erupted around 10 including Zafranal, La Calara, Chapi, and
Ma (Manrique and Plazolles, 1975; Tosdal et Chipispaya have been explored with
al., 1981; Quang et al., 2005). Tosdal et al resources announced, whereas exploration
(1984) argued that the region by the early on many others prospects has not reached a
Miocene was characterized by low-relief stage of resource definition. The four
topography with an erosional highland in the operating and soon-to-be operating mines on
Precordillera and an aggradational plain porphyry Cu deposits are the focus of the field
formed by the Moquegua Formation that trip and this section briefly outlines their
extended to the Pacific Coast. The history and general geology.
widespread presence of late Oligocene and
early Miocene zircons in the marine Cerro Verde – Santa Rosa
sedimentary rocks of the lower parts but not The Cerro Verde – Santa Rosa porphyry
the upper parts of the Camaná Formation is Cu deposit near Arequipa was put into
consistent with this topography (Alván et al., production in 1977 by Minero Perú with
2015). reserves of 62 million tonnes of 1% Cu in
Rapid broad-scale uplift of the southwest leachable ore and a resource of 1,2oo Mt at
flank of the Andes initiated in the early 0.6% Cu of sulfide ore. Reserves announced
Miocene and coincided with shortening, in 2012 by Freeport McMoRan are 3,920 Mt
orogen-scale uplift, 37° counterclockwise milled ore averaging 0.38% Cu and
rotation, and accentuation of the major 0.015%Mo, 108 Mt of crushed leach ore
oroclinal bend in the Andes (Isacks, 1988; grading 0.46% Cu, and 94Mt of run-of-mine
Roperch et al., 2006; Arriagada et al., 2008; leach ore grading 0.20% Cu (Stegen, 2014).
Eichelberger and McQuarrie, 2015). Eruption The description of these deposits, the first
of small-volume ash-flows of the Chuntacala stop of the field trip, is adapted from LeBel
and Asana Formations accompanied uplift in (1985 and references therein), Quang et al.
the immediate area of the porphyry Cu (2005), and from Phelps Dodge Mining
deposits whereas pediment formation and Company (2002) and Sociedad Minera Cerro
deposition of the upper units of the Moguegua Verde (2007).
Group represent the time-equivalent rocks in
the forearc basin. Supergene enrichment of Geologic framework and mineralization
the porphyry Cu deposits began by 38 Ma, sequence
contemporaneous with deposition of the The Cerro Verde – Santa Rosa deposits
Moquegua Group to the southwest and was consist of two separate porphyry systems
2
separated by about 1 km (Figs. 3 and 6). The up to 300 m thick and extended up to 465 m
deposits are associated with granodioritic below the summit of Cerro Verde (~2903
porphyries emplaced at about 61 Ma. m.a.s.l.). At Santa Rosa, the supergene
Plagioclase, biotite, and quartz phenocrysts, sulfide enriched zone is thinner, being about
typical of many Andean porphyries, dominate 30 to 50 m thick, and only shallowly buried
the phenocrysts in the porphyry stocks. The about 50 m below the surface. The great
stocks are arrayed in a northwesterly zone, depth of enrichment at Cerro Verde with
and a similar elongation is found within the respect to Santa Rosa likely reflects the much
deposits. The Cerro Verde deposit contains more permeable breccia host to the deposits.
hydrothermal breccias, which are localized An area of supergene enrichment lies
along the contact between the porphyry stock between the two porphyry centers (Fig. 6).
and the host Late Cretaceous (~68 Ma) Quang et al. (2003) demonstrated
Yarabamba granodiorite (Figs. 3 and 6). polyphase supergene enrichment in the two
Alteration assemblages typical of porphyry deposits, with the oldest evidence of
Cu deposits characterize both deposits (Fig. significant enrichment having occurred by 36-
6). There is a central deep zone of potassic 38 Ma, followed by a younger event between
alteration assemblage (K feldspar – biotite – 24 and 28 Ma. These two physically distinct
magnetite – anhydrite – chalcopyrite – bornite enrichment events at Cerro Verde were
with local chlorite) overlain at shallower controlled by major erosional surfaces, the La
depths by phyllic (quartz – sericite - pyrite ± Caldera and Santa Rosa surfaces
chlorite) alteration assemblages and an outer respectively (Fig. 6), that progressively
zone of propylitic alteration assemblage developed during protracted exhumation in
(chlorite – epidote – calcite – pyrite ± minor this part of the Andes. Supergene enrichment
chalcopyrite). There is a notable zone of at Santa Rosa apparently had a simpler
enrichment in hydrothermal quartz forming history with only a single blanket forming at
greater than 70% of the rock within the phyllic ~26 Ma; the presence of a single blanket
alteration assemblage. The alteration opens the question of whether, or not, an
assemblages in Cerro Verde at shallow depth older early Oligocene enrichment event
were zoned about the two porphyry stocks happened at this center and has since been
with a 1% Cu shell hosted in the country rock removed by erosion. Supergene enrichment
lying between the two stocks (Fig. 7); the process at these deposits appears to have
stocks coalesced at depth (Fig. 6). The diminished in intensity with decreasing age,
location of the high-grade Cu between two but with minor supergene enrichment and
porphyry intrusions suggests multiple alteration happening within the Miocene (~12
episodes of intrusion and porphyry Cu Ma) and late Miocene and Pliocene (4.9 - 6.7
mineralization. In contrast in the Santa Rosa Ma). Oxidation of the deposit and formation
deposit, the 0.5% Cu zone forms a of jarosite occurred in the Pleistocene.
subhorizontal tabular cap cutting through the
host porphyry (Fig. 6). Cuajone
Chalcopyrite is the dominant copper Cuajone was recognized as a potential
sulfide, and at Santa Rosa the pyrite to porphyry Cu deposits in the 1930’s (Lacy,
chalcopyrite ratio varies from 0.5 to 3. 1991). It was first drilled in 1942. The 157 Mt
Accessory galena, sphalerite, molybdenite at 1.27% Cu prospect at that time was not
and tennantite are also present. At Santa considered economic (Lacy, 1991).
Rosa, the molybdenite and tennantite overlap Subsequent drilling in 1952 expanded the
the margins of the 0.5% Cu shell and are resource to 417 Mt at 1.05% Cu.
concentrated in the wall rocks. Late galena Development on the Cuajone property ceased
and sphalerite occur with chalcopyrite within once Toquepala began production (see
the porphyry stock. The sulfides were below). However, under the pressure from
deposited from boiling magmatic-derived the Peruvian government, Cuajone project
fluids at about 400°C. began to be developed, with the first
production being in mid-1976. Concha and
Supergene modification Valle (1999) reported reserves of 1,400 Mt at
Post-mineral modification of the two porphyry 0.64% Cu and 0.033% Mo at a cut-off of
Cu deposits is significant. Cerro Verde 0.40% Cu. Total resources and reserves in
displayed an extensive bronchantite- 2006 are reported to be 2,236 Mt at 0.56% Cu
dominated upper oxide copper zone that (Southern Peru Copper Corporation, 2007).
overlay a zone of sulfide enrichment that was
3
Figure 6. Cross sections of the Cerro Verde – Santa Rosa porphyry Cu deposit showing the
distribution of rock types in upper panel and hydrothermal alteration assemblages (center panel0
and supergene zone in lower panel. Modified from Phelps Dodge (2002) and Quang et al. (2003).
Geologic framework deposit, and this giant deposit largely remains
Lacy (1958) published the first geologic poorly documented and largely unknown
description of the property (Fig. 7). Since except for brief summaries by Manrique and
then, there have been only a few subsequent Plazolles (1975), Satchwell (1983), and
studies of the hypogene geology of the Concha and Valle (1999).

Figure 7. Geologic map of the Cuajone porphyry Cu deposit. Coordinates in Peruvian Coordinate
System (PSAD56); zone 19S. Modified from Manrique and Plazolles (1975), Concha and Valle
(1999), Southern Peru Copper Corporation (2007a) and Simmons et al. (2013).

The Toquepala Group including basalt, Group rhyolitic and andesitic host rocks (Figs.
andesite and quartz porphyry, is present in 7 and 8). The porphyries are spatially and
the Rio Torata, which crosses the temporally related to the porphyry Cu deposit
northwestern part of the deposit (Fig. 7 and (Manrique and Plazolles, 1975). The oldest,
8). Late Cretaceous diorite (66.7 ± 1.7 Ma; mapped in the mine as intrusive andesite (Fig.
Park in Concha and Valle, 1999) and 7) is pervasively altered to a potassic
granodiorite (64-65 Ma in Simmons et al., assemblage of biotite ± K feldspar that is
2013) intruded the Toquepala Group volcanic largely barren. An extensively altered and
rocks. These plutons form part of the mineralized early quartz-phyric porphyry,
Yarabamba batholith (Simmons et al., 2013) mapped as LP1 porphyry, intruded the
that is widespread in the in the region (Fig. 4). intrusive andesite unit, and is temporally
Unlike the other two deposits to the south associated with the bulk of the Cu-sulfide
(see below), the batholithic rocks are not a deposition (Concha and Valle, 1999). It lies
major host to ore. Most of the ore is hosted in beneath the Quebrada Chuntacala (Fig. 7),
the temporally related porphyry stocks and which bisects the main part of the deposit. A
immediate volcanic wall rocks (Manrique and second but less altered quartz phyric
Plazolles, 1975). porphyry, mapped as BLP porphyry, forms an
At least four intermediate composition inter- to late mineral intrusive suite. It
porphyry stocks intruded the Toquepala underlies unconformably post-mineral
Figure 8. Cross sections of the Cuajone mine showing the distribution of rock units, hydrothermal
alteration assemblages, and supergene enrichment, oxide Cu and leached-oxide zone. Modified
from Clark et al. (1990b) and Southern Peru Copper Corporation (2007a).
ignimbrites and sedimentary rocks in the about between 14.8 and 14.2 Ma (Quang et
interfluve between Quebrada Chuntacala and al., 2005), and effectively prohibited further
Rio Torata (Fig. 7). Marginal breccias to the enrichment of the deposit.
inter- to late mineral BLP porphyry are
variably mineralized due to the presence of Mineralization sequence
clasts of older well-mineralized porphyry; the Hydrothermal alteration assemblages at
breccias are intimately associated with the Cuajone are typical for most porphyry Cu
margins of these stocks (Concha and Valle, deposits. An early biotite ± K feldspar
1999). Highly altered andesite dikes within preserved in the intrusive andesite represents
the deposit, which are volumetrically minor, the oldest hydrothermal event mapped in the
clearly must represent small early to mine (Manrique and Plazolles, 1975; Concha
intermineral intrusions related to the larger and Valle, 1999). Phyllic alteration
porphyry units. Simmons et al. (2013) report assemblages (Fig. 8) of quartz – sericite
essentially identical U-Pb ages 55.6 ±0.6 and dominate the porphyry units in the upper
56.2 ±0.7 Ma for these three intrusive units levels of the deposits (Concha and Valle,
that are intimately associated with Cu 1999). Quartz veins contain chalcopyrite –
deposition in the porphyry deposit. pyrite ± bornite and minor enargite. The
Collectively the U-Pb ages indicate intrusion, oldest veins carry bornite and the younger are
hydrothermal alteration, and Cu precipitation more pyritic. The assemblage of bornite –
over a short duration of time, as it becoming pyrite ± enargite seen in some veins at high
evident in most porphyry Cu deposits on a levels suggest local transition to high
global basis. The youngest porphyry sulfidation type assemblages commonly found
intrusions, mapped as LP3 porphyry (Fig. 7), in porphyry Cu deposits where pervasive
cut the northern part of the porphyry ore body sericitic alteration has destroyed the buffering
and outcrop on the margins of the Rio Torata. capacity of the host rocks. A transitional
These weakly altered rocks are latest mineral assemblage of sericite - chlorite lies between
to post-mineral (Concha and Valle, 1999), and the pervasively biotite altered rocks and the
were emplaced almost 2 million years after phyllic alteration assemblages and between
the main Cu event at 53.5 ± 0.4 Ma (Simmons the phyllic and propyllitic alteration
et al., 2013). Clark et al. (1990a) report an assemblages. Typical potassic alteration
Eocene age of 52.4±1.9 Ma for sericite from a assemblages of biotite – magnetite – quartz –
quartz-chalcopyrite-pyrite veined rock in the K feldspar – anhydrite – Cu-Fe sulfide lie at
Rio Torata, which records the finally cooling of depth. Late molybdenite - quartz veins cut the
the hydrothermal system. Cu-bearing veins. Within areas of less intense
Late Oligocene and Miocene sedimentary hydrothermal alteration, late stage mixed
and volcanic rocks unconformably overlie the argillic – phyllic assemblages (intermediate
Eocene igneous rocks. The oldest rocks form argillic assemblage) composed of smectite
the Huaylillas Formation. The basal clays – chlorite – sericite (illite) overprint the
ignimbrites of the formation filled a higher temperature assemblages but did not
paleovalley to the southeast of the deposit at remove Cu (Satchwell, 1983). Clearly the
about 22.8 ± 0.8 Ma (Tosdal et al., 1981; evidence for two intrusive events each
Quang et al., 2005). The top of the formation carrying an associated hydrothermal fluid has
consists of regionally extensive ignimbrites complicated the simple hydrothermal picture
that form the planar benches on either side of of the deposit.
the Cuajone deposit. These ignimbrites were Manrique and Plazolles (1975) note that
erupted about 19 Ma, and buried the highest the distribution of sulfides and Cu grade is
of the supergene very regular both laterally and vertically,
enriched zones and leached and oxidized except where the younger and less
rocks that overlay it. Subsequently, a valley mineralized intrusions diluted the Cu ore
was cut down across the northwest trending grade. Pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite,
axis of the deposit, and filled with a sequence molybdenite and lesser amounts of sphalerite,
of ignimbrites and sedimentary rocks known galena, and enargite constitute the hypogene
as the Chuntacala Formation (Manrique and sulfide mineral assemblage. Molybdenite is
Plazolles, 1975; Tosdal et al., 1981; present in quartz veins or is disseminated in
Satchwell, 1983). These rocks were the rock (Concha and Valle, 1999).
deposited across leached and oxidized rocks
as well as secondary enriched rocks (Clark et
al., 1990b). The paleovalley began to fill at
Supergene modification 1970 before being nationalized and explored
The secondary enrichment blanket at further by Minero Perú in 1972 (Candiotti de
Cuajone was only about 20 m thick, the los Rios, 1995). Announced reserves at that
thinnest of all the deposits (Fig. 8). It appears time were 405 Mt at 0.8% Cu (Estrada, 1975).
to be a single blanket-like horizon that dipped Subsequent exploration by Anglo American
gently to the west. Immediately above the Exploration Perú S.A has defined a geological
sulfide-bearing enriched zone was a 40-m resource of 1,670 Mt at 0.56 % Cu (cut-off at
thick oxide Cu zone overlies the secondary 0.3 % Cu) with reserves of 979 Mt at 0.63 %
sulfides, derived from the weathering of Cu, 0.021 % Mo and 2.19 g/t Ag, including
secondary Cu sulfides (Clark et al., 1990b). 213 Mt @ 0.95 % Cu. The details of the
On the southern side of the deposit, the deposit are summarized from Estrada (1975),
enriched zone tapers to a wedge about 150 m Toropoca (1979), Guerrero and Candiotti
below the unconformity at the base of the (1979), Kihien (1975, 1995), Candiotti de los
22.8 Ma ignimbrite that forms the lower Rios (1995), Sillitoe and Mortensen, (2010)
Huaylillas Formation. A distinct hematitic and Simmons (2013).
horizon beneath the unconformity suggests
the past presence of supergene sulfides that Geologic framework
have now been leached and transported to The Quellaveco deposit is bisected by the Rio
lower elevations. Tosdal et al. (1984) Asana, and hypogene and supergene sulfides
concluded that this unconformity represented outcrop on the floor and flanks of the modern
an early stage of the formation of the early river valley (Figs. 9 and 10). The deposit is
Miocene Altos de Camilaca surface, a hosted by a sequence of andesite overlain by
regionally extensive pediplane that influenced the felsic ignimbrites of the Toquepala Group
supergene enrichment in each of the that were intruded by a large ~60 Ma
deposits. granodiorite batholith. The calcalkaline
On the northwest side of the deposit, the volcanic rocks of the Toquepala Group
14.8 Ma Chuntacala Formation include two members (Kihien, 1995). Quartz-
unconformably overlies the secondary sulfide feldspar phyric rhyolites of the Quellaveco
and oxide Cu zones (Fig. 8), effectively dating Rhyolite form the base of the sequence.
the end of supergene enrichment. Sillitoe Andesite and basaltic-andesite flows and
(2005 on figure 18) reported an age for breccias of the Samanape Andesite
supergene enrichment at Cuajone to pre-date discordantly overlie the older volcanic rocks.
the Huaylillas Formation, and to be Tonalite, granodiorite, and quartz monzonite
contemporaneous with deposition of the intrude the volcanic rocks. A series of
upper Moquegua Formation. Clark et al porphyritic granodiorite stocks intrude the
(1990b) concluded that supergene enrichment volcanic and plutonic rocks. These rocks are
clearly began prior to the Oligocene, and was most closely associated in time and space
probably largely complete by about 22.8 Ma with the porphyry Cu deposit. Late quartz
with the final formation of the Altos de latite dikes cut the complex. Available
Camilaca surface. Further enrichment likely chronologic data suggest three distinct ages
occurred during the down cutting of the valley of porphyry intrusion (Sillitoe and Mortensen,
that was subsequently filled by the 2010; Simmons, 2013). The oldest but
Chuntacala Formation, however, this was volumetrically smallest porphyry unit
likely minimal (Clark et al., 1990b). The containing with highest Cu grade was
limited enrichment at Cuajone in comparison emplaced at ~58 Ma. The volumetrically most
with Quellaveco and Toquepala derives abundant and mineralized porphyry units
directly from the fact that the deposit was carry most of the contained Cu were
largely covered by ignimbrites, which emplaced between 56 and 57 Ma. A weakly
disrupted the paleohydrology, thereby limiting mineralized set of porphyry intrusions was
the efficacy of the supergene enrichment emplaced at ~54 Ma.
process. On the north bank of the Rio Asana, the
deposit is unconformably overlain by
Quellaveco unwelded ignimbrites of the Miocene (ca. 13
Quellaveco was recognized as potential Ma) Chuntacala Formation (Tosdal et al.,
porphyry Cu deposits in the 1930’s (Lacy, 1981) and 10-Ma tuff forming the Rio Asana
1991). It was explored by Northern Peru Formation (Figs. 9 and 10). These rocks filled
Mining and Smelting Co. between 1947 and a paleovalley that paralleled the current Rio
1952, Southern Peru Copper Corporation in Asana on the north. On the south bank, the
2
Figure 9. Geologic map of the Quellaveco porphyry Cu deposit. Coordinates in Peruvian
Coordinate System (PSAD56); zone 19S. Modified from Simmons (2013).
oldest members (~13 Ma) of the Chuntacala
Formation are preserved in small depressions Mineralization sequence.
in the exhumed early Miocene Altos de Porphyry Cu-style veins and alteration is
Camilaca surface at elevations of about 4000 elongated northwest to southeast (Figs. 9 and
m. Ignimbrites of the Chuntacala Formation 11). The hypogene alteration at Quellaveco
throughout the Precordillera fill paleovalleys is complex, as the rocks have been exposed
cut into the regional Altos de Camilaca to several generations of hydrothermal fluids.
surface and overlying Huaylillas Formation. Thus, distinguishing the timing of the wall rock
The ash flows of the Chuntacala Formation alteration relative to the rock types and their
preserved the secondary sulfide horizon that related vein paragenesis is exceptionally
developed during the Miocene. difficult. Nonetheless patterns of alteration
Seven main hypogene alteration mineral intense alteration quartz – sericite.
assemblages are identified: a) biotite - K- The majority of alteration assemblages
Feldspar; b) chlorite over biotite – K feldspar; dominated by K-feldspar and biotite are
c) chlorite over biotite - K-feldspar with located within and around early porphyry units
overprinted quartz-sericite; d) biotite – K and adjacent into the older regional
feldspar with overprinted quartz - sericite; e) granodiorite. This alteration assemblage
epidote - chlorite; f) epidote - chlorite with typically does not extend far into the host
overprinted quartz - sericite; and d) quartz - granodiorite with a minimum penetration of
sericite (Fig. 11). Felsic mineral sites are approximately 300m from the nearest early
altered to hydrothermal K feldspar, quartz - porphyry intrusion. Minor K-feldspar - biotite
sericite and minor epidote, whereas the mafic assemblages are spatially associated with
silicate sites are commonly altered to biotite, some of the intermineral dike complexes.
chlorite, epidote and in cases of extreme

Figure 10. Cross sections of the Quellaveco deposit showing the distribution of rocks and
supergene enrichment, oxide Cu and leached-oxide zone Modified from Clark et al. (1990b) and
Simmons (2013).

2
Figure 11. Geologic map of hydrothermal mineral assemblages at Quellaveco. Geologic contacts
from figure 9 are shown in dashed lines. Coordinates in Peruvian Coordinate System (PSAD56);
zone 19S. Modified from Simmons (2013).

Chlorite or quartz - sericite overprinted K- deposit. Epidote and chlorite dominated

feldspar - biotite mineral assemblages are mineral assemblages are, for the most part,
mainly restricted to the periphery of the early restricted to the granodiorite within the lateral
porphyry units where these rocks intruded the extents of the deposit and to the late porphyry
granodiorite unit. Quartz and sericite units that intruded older porphyry units. Fluid
dominated hypogene alteration assemblages inclusion thermometry indicates the K-silicate
are mainly restricted to the area around the alteration and Cu-Mo sulfides were deposited
intermineral dike complex at shallow levels in from high-temperature saline, magmatic-
the deposit, and can be mapped on the valley derive hydrothermal fluids (Kihien, 1975,
walls at higher elevations above the current 1995). Fluids responsible for some of the
quartz-sericite alteration were of intermediate
temperature (>300°C). Toquepala
Some general points can be inferred from Toquepala was recognized in the 1930’s
the hypogene alteration distribution. Firstly, K- as a porphyry Cu prospect by Carl
feldspar and biotite mineral assemblages are Schmedeman (Lacy, 1991) based upon the
in general temporally associated with older surface outcrops of leached and limonite filled
porphyry phases (i.e. Early and Earliest veinlets that locally contained copper oxides
Porphyries) and dominate at depth within the and carbonate minerals. The Cerro de Pasco
system. Quartz-sericite dominated company drilled the property through 1942
assemblages are temporally associated with and outlined a resource of 9 Mt of 4.21% Cu
intermineral porphyry units and dominate the at a cut-off grade of 3%. In 1949, the
upper levels within the overall system; information and property became part of
presumably these assemblages are underlain Northern Peru Mining and Smelting Co. and
at depth by potassic mineral assemblages. an exploration program outlined a 363 Mt at
Epidote and chlorite dominated mineral 1.05% Cu ore body. Mattos and Valle (1999)
assemblages are spatially associated with the report reserves of 300 Mt at 0.83% Cu and
distal parts of the Quellaveco resource and 0.07% Mo in sulfide ore and 700 Mt at 0.2 Cu
temporally associated with the very youngest in leachable ore. The current reserve figures
porphyry units. do not take into account past production
reported to be 558 Mt of 1.03% Cu (Mattos
Supergene alteration and Valle, 1999).
An irregular secondary enrichment zone
about 50 to 60 m thick developed on the Geologic framework
hypogene sulfide ore body (Estrada, 1975; Richard and Courtright (1958) first
Clark et al., 1990b). It consists of two zones: described the geology of the deposit (Fig. 11).
an upper zone of moderate to strong Subsequent study of the deposit has been
enrichment overlying a lower Cu grade zone sporadic, and includes description of Zweng
that presumably represents a downward and Clark (1995; see also Clark et al., 1990a),
transition into the hypogene ore (Fig. 10). On Mattos and Valle (1999), and Southern Peru
the north slopes of the Rio Asana (Fig. 10), a Copper Corporation (2007b). The porphyry
10.1 ± 0.3 Ma ignimbrite of the Rio Asana Cu-Mo deposit is associated with a complex
Formation, and a 13.0 ± 0.4 Ma ignimbrite of intrusive center dominated by several dacite
the Chuntacala Formation and an underlying stocks, a dacitic diatreme complex, and
conglomerate, which locally contains exotic extensive hydrothermal breccias. These
oxide Cu, unconformably overlie leached and rocks were emplaced into Paleocene quartz
oxidized rocks and subjacent secondary monzodiorite pluton (U-Pb age of 61.4 Ma;
enriched zone (Clark et al., 1990b; Quang et Simmons et al., 2013; 40Ar-39Ar age of about
al., 2005). The relationships indicate that the 55.5 Ma; Clark et al., 1990; Laughlin et al.,
last stage of secondary enrichment occurred 1968) and still older rhyolitic and intermediate
in the Miocene. Based on the complex volcanic rocks. The volcanic rocks are known
geometry of the secondary enrichment zone as the Serie Alta, Toquepala Series, and
and the reconstructed paleogeomorphology Quellaveco quartz porphyry, which are
(Tosdal et al., 1984; Quang et al. 2003), the subdivisions of the Quellaveco Formation of
enrichment blanket is thought to be the the Toquepala Group (Richard and Courtright,
product of two or more superposed 1958; Bellido, 1979). The deposit lies about 1
enrichment phases (Clark et al., 1990b). The to 2 km northeast of the Micalaco Fault, which
presence of perched horizons of chalcocite is a subsidiary strand of the Incapucio Fault
and hematitic rich leached zones provide system that lies still farther to the southwest.
support for the polyphase enrichment history. The deposit consists of a sequence of
The enrichment occurred at least in Miocene alteration and mineralization events that are
during the down cutting of broad valleys into spatially and genetically related to the
the deposit but likely began prior to the final multiphase dacitic intrusions. Southern Peru
formation of the Altos de Camilaca surface. Copper Corporation (2007b) refers to these
Supergene ages reported in Sillitoe (2005 on as dacite porphyry with an U-Pb age of 56.8 ±
figure 18) indicate enrichment in the early 0.6 Ma and dacite agglomerate with an U-Pb
Miocene but also local supergene activity age of 56.2 ± 0.8 Ma (Simmons et al., 2013).
contemporaneous with the Pliocene and Complex hydrothermal events occurred
younger Barroso Group. between the two intrusions, with extensive
2
Figure 12. Geologic map of the Toquepala Mine. Coordinates in Peruvian Coordinate System
(PSAD56); zone 19S. Modified from Richard and Courtright (1958), Zweng and Clark (1995) and
Simmons et al., (2013).

brecciation and chalcopyrite and molybdenite copper was deposited at this time. Late
introduction. A large pebble breccia followed dacite porphyry dikes intrude the tourmaline
intrusion of the dacite agglomerate unit. The breccia within the pit (Zweng and Clark,
early Cu-rich veinlets are most abundant in 1995).
the oldest porphyry, but these veins cut all the Late to post-mineral latite porphyry (U-Pb
porphyry intrusions. The dacite porphyry unit age of 54.3 ± 0.6 Ma; Simmons et al., 2013)
is the largest intrusion and dominates the pit. intruded all older igneous and hydrothermal
Barren tourmaline breccia cuts the porphyry units at. The effect of the late activity is to
stocks and early Cu-rich veins. Tourmaline dilute the Cu endowment of the deposit
breccias are common also in the hills (Zweng and Clark, 1995).
surrounding the open pit, and are a
widespread phenomenon in the deposit area. Mineralization sequence
Some quartz – sericite - pyrite alteration Early Cu-rich veins accompanied
accompanied breccia formation, but little widespread potassic alteration of the
porphyries, with the intensity of alteration presence and the dominance of chalcopyrite -
decreasing with age, as is common in pyrite in the shallow portions of the deposit.
porphyry Cu deposits (Gustafson and Hunt, Main stage sulfides were deposited from
1975; Zweng and Clark, 1995). The veins fluids with an average temperature of about
contain biotite, K- and Na-feldspar as well as 335°to 360° C and about 35 wt. % equivalent
chalcopyrite - bornite or are barren quartz with NaCl.
accessory anhydrite. They were deposited Late-stage alteration consisting of quartz –
from high temperature >400°C fluids with at sericite - pyrite veins and texturally destructive
least 35% wt. percent NaCl equivalent albite - sericite, quartz – sericite - pyrite ±
(Zweng and Clark, 1995). The veins are andalusite alteration selvages is similar to that
furthermore well developed deep in the found in most porphyry Cu deposits. High-
deposit at elevations below approximately sulfur and arsenic-rich minerals (bornite and
2,550 m.a.s.l. Their sinuous character makes tennantite-pyrite) and throughgoing vein
them analogous to the early “A-veins” at El fabrics are characteristic. Fluids associated
Salvador (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). Zweng with this stage are of lower temperature,
and Clark (1975) suggest that only a limited being about 300° C, and salinity in the range
amount of Cu in the Toquepala system was of 7 to 8 wt. % NaCl.
deposited in association with the early veins. A 300 m in diameter and >500 m in depth
Tourmaline veins and breccias cross cut pebble breccia and numerous pebble dikes
the early Cu-rich veins. These veins and represent one of the latest events in the
breccias lack appreciable sulfide, and were deposit. For the most part, these are post-
accompanied by quartz - sericite and mineral and dilute the overall Cu grades.
tourmaline - quartz alteration of the wall rock. Chalcopyrite has been seen in the matrix of at
Fluid temperatures are interpreted to have least 1 pebble dike, thereby implying that
been lower, and about 390°C and only pebble dikes probably developed at episodic
saturated in NaCl (Zweng and Clark, 1995). times over the course of the deposit
The net result of this stage of alteration is a formation.
large upward-flaring tourmaline breccia that
localizes the vertical axis of the Toquepala Supergene enrichment
deposit. Zweng and Clark (1995) suggest Toquepala had the thickest and most
that the tourmaline breccia stage at extensive record of supergene enrichment of
Toquepala may correlate, on a much grander the three southern porphyry Cu deposits
scale, with similar veins that make up the (Richard and Courtright, 1958), but virtually all
transitional stage at El Salvador (Gustafson of the zones have been removed by mining.
and Hunt, 1975). The root of the pipe is The oldest record of supergene sulfide
suggested to be at an elevation of about 2000 enrichment was preserved between 3525 and
m.a.s.l. above the apex of a deeper porphyry 3100 m.a.s.l., and lay within 40 to 75 m below
(Zweng and Clark, 1995). Emplacement of a regional early Miocene erosional surface,
the central tourmaline breccia furthermore the Altos de Camilaca surface (Tosdal et al.,
provided a vertical permeability framework to 1985; Clark et al., 1990b). A supergene age
the deposit that enhanced the upward rise in Sillitoe (2005 on figure 18) is consistent
and sulfide deposition during the main stage. with this interpretation. The most extensive
Main stage alteration and mineralization zone had a broadly planar but very irregular
consist of chalcopyrite - molybdenite veins upper surface that slopes gently from north to
responsible for the vast bulk of the metal south across the hypogene sulfide deposit
endowment at Toquepala. Quartz- between elevations of 3,350 and 3,250
molybdenite-chalcopyrite and chalcopyrite- m.a.s.l. The zone had deep roots that were in
pyrite are the dominant veins. Molybdenite is excess of 150 m deep. Clark et al. (1990b)
also present as the matrix to irregular concluded that the extensive and thick
vertically oriented breccia and as a coating on enrichment zone formed in the Miocene after
fracture. Sparse magnetite veins deep in the 19 Ma and before 11 Ma. Formation of the
system post-date molybdenite deposition. enriched zone accompanied uplift of the
Zweng and Clark (1995) suggest an upward western slope of the Cordillera. Richard and
enrichment of copper relative to molybdenum Courtright (1958) and Anderson (1982)
deposited during this stage. This enrichment reached a similar conclusion.
is reflected in the abundance of quartz –
molybdenite - chalcopyrite veins in the deeper REFERENCES
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2
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