Leader: Enriquez, Joshua V 09August2018

Member: Hubilla, Herbert C. BSCE V

Pino, Merwin Agustine A.

Construction Methods of Bridge, Roads, & Building

Construction Method of Bridge

Bridge construction has been improved tremendously with the advancement in science and
technology. Better and lighter materials are now available that can endure greater loads.
The construction is now much faster due to the introduction of a variety of heavy
construction equipment.
Bridge Construction Planning
Bridge construction tends to involve huge projects that encompass the utilization of skills
related to several engineering disciplines including geology, civil, electrical, mechanical, and
computer sciences. Therefore, integrating the efforts of all involved must be meticulous.
The initial plans are prepared regarding the project, including the characteristics of the
desired bridge, the site details, and the requirement of resources. The bridge design will be
determined by the type of bridge being constructed. The main types of the bridges are
beam, arch, truss, cantilever, and suspension. The beam bridge is one of the popular types.
Bridges can also be categorized by the planned use, like road and rail bridge, pedestrian
pavement, material to be used like steel or concrete, and fixed or moveable. Moveable
bridges are constructed when the ship height may be more than the bridge floor. In such
situations, the road has the capability to be lifted or pivoted, to permit marine traffic
movement under it.
Bridge Foundation
Construction of the foundations is the first step toward building a bridge. This process
involves detailed geotechnical investigations of the bridge site. The type of bridge
foundation has to be selected, such as the well foundation, pile foundation, and the opened
foundation. Each foundation is suitable for specific soil strata, and the desired bridge
characteristics. The soil characteristics will determine the load bearing capacity, and other
important parameters. The superstructure is basically designed in accordance with the
technical requirements, aesthetic reasons, and the construction methodology. Excavation
required for the foundations may need to be executed to sizeable depths, involving hard
ground, before the solid rocks are reached. Engineering feats will be involved to avoid
water, and prevent collapse of the diggings. Tunnels specifically may be subjected to sudden
failures.

Bridge Construction Equipment

Heavy equipment will be used extensively during the bridge construction including
bulldozers, excavators, asphalt mixers, formworks, and fabrication equipment. The
construction and other equipment needs to be identified thoroughly, according to their
capability and other desired functions. The foundation and the superstructure design will
need to be considered. This expensive equipment should not remain idle, and must be used
cautiously to obtain optimum advantage.

Bridge Loads
Several loads act on a bridge, and the bridge is designed accordingly. Dynamic loads are
particularly of prime significance. A bridge is designed to endure the normal vehicle loads,
and other forces created due to winds and earthquakes. Several bridges have collapsed due
to high speed winds. Even if the wind speeds are reasonably low, the dynamic forces can
become excessive for the bridge to resist. Initially, the bridge may vibrate violently, causing
the bridge structure to fail at a few weak elements, or even damage the major components.
Investigations conducted after bridge failures have revealed that the real forces on bridges
that collapsed were significantly less compared to the loads for which the bridge was
designed. However, the oscillations created due to the winds were enough to cause the
failure. Therefore, special reinforcement may be necessary for prevention against high
speed winds and earthquakes. Thus, lighter materials are used that are arranged in suitable
geometric structures, and it is ensured that the configuration is aerodynamically stable.

Testing of Bridges
Since bridge construction is an expensive project, it is essential that all necessary tests may
be conducted prior to the actual construction. These tests and investigations can reveal the
bridge behavior under different dynamic loads. Computer aided design and testing are
powerful tools that must be used to assist in the bridge design. Bridge design has benefited
considerably due to the growth of computer programs. Such computer programs reveal
immense information concerning the effect of different forces being applied on a bridge.
Wind tunnels are being used extensively for the analysis of aircraft designs. Now these
techniques are also being applied for bridge design examination. A wind tunnel is basically a
space that is enclosed. Air at a fast speed is moved through the bridge model. Likely design
and structural defects can be discovered by photography and study of the air movement
pattern over the model.

Construction Methods of Roads

The first step in building a road is planning. Many people, including engineers
and construction experts, must be involved in figuring out what type of road should be
made and what it should be made from depending upon the amount and type of traffic it
will likely see.

Even simple roads can take months of planning before construction can
begin. Complex roads that involve different structural elements, such as bridges or
overpasses, can take years to plan. Other factors that planners must consider
include environmental impact of the road, cost, availability of materials, and safety.

Toward the end of the planning phase, surveyors and construction experts will develop solid
plans for the road to be built. If part of the land to be used for the road is owned by private
parties, lawyers and government officials will need to negotiate the purchase of pieces of
property to be used for the road.

Public meetings will also often be held, so that any citizens with concerns about
the road construction project can voice their opinions. The local, state, or federal
governmental entities building the road will also solicit construction bids from a variety of
contractors to make sure that the road can be built as economically as possible.

Once bids are compared and a contractor is selected, construction can finally begin!
Depending upon the size of the road project, construction can take from a few weeks to
several years.

The first part of construction is one of the most important: earthwork. Huge earth-moving
machines must be used to create a solid foundation for the road to be built. Without a
solid foundation, any road that is built will fail long before its expected lifespan.

Bulldozers and graders move around dirt delivered by dump trucks to create a level surface
that will support a road for many years to come. Gravel is added in layers and machines roll
over the surface to compact and flatten it further. Drains and storm sewers are also
installed at this early stage, so that rain will drain away from the road surface and make it
easier for vehicles to travel in storms.

Once the foundation is finished and has been inspected, it's time to pave the way! The most
common materials used for paving roads are asphalt and concrete. Factors such as cost and
type and amount of traffic will determine which material will be used.

Asphalt uses an oil-based substance called bitumen to make sand and crushed rock stick
together like glue. After the asphalt is heated to about 300° F, it is transported to
the construction site, where construction crews spread and compact it onto
the foundation already in place.

Concrete also uses sand and crushed rock, but it's held together with cement. Workers must
pour liquid concrete into special steel molds called forms. As it dries, a special finishing
machine vibrates it to make it settle evenly and then trims it to the correct height.

To prevent cracks, workers make cuts called joints between concrete slabs. These joints
allow the concrete slabs to expand and contract with changes in temperature without
breaking.

Construction Methods of Building

Prepare site and pour foundation

Often, site preparation and foundation work are performed by the same crew, but this may
not be the case with a wooded lot. Using a backhoe and a bulldozer, the crew clears the site
of rocks, debris and trees for the house and, if applicable, the septic system. The crew levels
the site, puts up wooden forms to serve as a template for the foundation and digs the holes
and trenches. Footings (structures where the house interfaces with the earth that supports
it) are installed. If your home is going to have a well, it will be dug at this point.
If the home has a full basement, the hole is dug, the footings are formed and poured, and
the foundation walls are formed and poured. If it’s slab-on-grade, the footings are dug,
formed and poured; the area between them is leveled and fitted with utility runs (e.g.
plumbing drains and electrical chases); and the slab is poured.
Once concrete is poured into the holes and trenches, it will need time to cure. During this
period, there will be no activity on the construction site.
After the concrete is cured, the crew applies a waterproofing membrane to the foundation
walls; installs drains, sewer and water taps and any plumbing that needs to go into the first-
floor slab or basement floor; and backfills excavated dirt into the hole around the
foundation wall.

Inspections: When the curing process is complete, a city inspector visits the site to make
sure foundation components are up to code and installed properly. This inspection may be
repeated depending on the type of foundation (slab, crawl space or basement). Your
builder will then remove the forms and begin coordinating step 2, the framing phase.

Complete rough framing

The floor systems, walls and roof systems are completed (collectively known as the shell or
skeleton of the house). Plywood or oriented strand board (OSB) sheathing is applied to the
exterior walls and roof and windows and exterior doors are installed. The sheathing is then
covered with a protective barrier known as a house wrap; it prevents liquid water from
infiltrating the structure, while allowing water vapor to escape. This reduces the likelihood
of mold and wood rot.

Complete rough plumbing, electrical and HVAC

Once the shell is finished, siding and roofing can be installed. At the same time, the
electrical and plumbing contractors start running pipes and wires through the interior walls,
ceilings and floors. Sewer lines and vents, as well as water supply lines for each fixture, are
installed. Bathtubs and one-piece shower/tub units are put in place at this point because
there’s more room to maneuver large, heavy objects.
Ductwork is installed for the heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system, and
possibly the furnace. HVAC vent pipes are installed through the roof and insulation is
installed in the floors, walls and ceilings.
After the roofing goes on, the house is considered “dried in.” An electrician then installs
receptacles for outlets, lights and switches and runs wires from the breaker panel to each
receptacle. Wiring for telephones, cable TV and music systems is included in this work.
Note that HVAC ducts and plumbing are usually installed before wiring, because it’s easier
to run wires around pipes and ducts than vice versa.

Inspections: Rough framing, plumbing and electrical and mechanical systems are inspected
for compliance with building codes. Most likely these will be three different inspections. At
the very least, the framing inspection will be conducted separately from the
electrical/mechanical inspections.
At this stage, drywall (also known as plasterboard, wallboard or gypsum board) is delivered
to the building site.

Install insulation
Insulation plays a key role in creating a more comfortable, consistent indoor climate while
significantly improving a home’s energy efficiency. One of the most important qualities of
insulation is its thermal performance or R-value, which indicates how well the material
resists heat transfer. Most homes are insulated in all exterior walls, as well as the attic and
any floors that are located above unfinished basements or crawl spaces.
The most common types of insulation used in new homes are fiberglass, cellulose and foam.
Depending on the region and climate, your builder may also use mineral wool (otherwise
known as rock wool or slag wool); concrete blocks; foam board or rigid foam; insulating
concrete forms (ICFs); sprayed foam; and structural insulated panels (SIPs).
Blanket insulation, which comes in batts or rolls, is typical in new-home construction. So is
loose-fill and blown-in insulation, which is made of fiberglass, cellulose or mineral-wool
particles. Another insulation option, liquid foam, can be sprayed, foamed-in-place, injected
or poured. While it costs more than traditional batt insulation, liquid foam has twice the R-
value per inch and can fill the smallest cavities, creating an effective air barrier.
Fiberglass and mineral-wool batts and rolls are usually installed in side walls, attics, floors,
crawl spaces, cathedral ceilings and basements. Manufacturers often attach a facing such as
kraft paper or foil-kraft paper to act as a vapor barrier and/or air barrier. In areas where the
insulation will be left exposed, such as basement walls, the batts sometimes have a special
flame-resistant facing.

Complete drywall and interior textures; start exterior finishes

Drywall is hung and taped so the seams between the boards aren’t visible, and drywall
texturing (if applicable) is completed. The primer coat of paint is also applied after taping is
complete. Contractors begin installing exterior finishes such as brick, stucco, stone and
siding.

Finish interior trim; install exterior driveways and walkways

Interior doors, baseboards, door casings, window sills, moldings, stair balusters and other
decorative trim are installed, along with cabinets, vanities and fireplace mantels and
surrounds. Walls get a finish coat of paint and are wallpapered where applicable.
Generally, exterior driveways, walkways and patios are formed at this stage. Many builders
prefer to wait until the end of the project before pouring the driveway because heavy
equipment (such as a drywall delivery truck) can damage concrete. But some builders pour
the driveway as soon as the foundation is completed so that when homeowners visit the
construction site, they won’t get their shoes muddy.

Install hard-surface flooring and countertops; complete exterior grading

Ceramic tile, vinyl and wood flooring are installed as well as countertops. Exterior finish
grading is completed to ensure proper drainage away from the home and prepare the yard
for landscaping.
Finish mechanical trims; install bathroom fixtures
Light fixtures, outlets and switches are installed and the electrical panel is completed. HVAC
equipment is installed and registers completed. Sinks, toilets and faucets are put in place.

Install mirrors, shower doors and finish flooring; finish exterior landscaping
Mirrors, shower doors and carpeting are installed and final clean up takes place. Trees,
shrubs and grass are planted and other exterior landscaping completed.

Inspections: A building-code official completes a final inspection and issues a certificate of

occupancy. If any defects are found during this inspection, a follow-up inspection may be
scheduled to ensure that they’ve been corrected.

Final walkthrough
Your builder will walk you through your new home to acquaint you with its features and the
operation of various systems and components and explain your responsibilities for
maintenance and upkeep, as well as warranty coverage and procedures. This is often
referred to as a pre-settlement walkthrough. It’s also an opportunity to spot items that need
to be corrected or adjusted, so be attentive and observant. Examine the surfaces of
countertops, fixtures, floors and walls for possible damage. Sometimes disputes arise
because the homeowner discovers a gouge in a countertop after move-in and there’s no
way to prove whether it was caused by the builder’s crew or the homeowner’s movers.