1 An Introduction To Textile Technology: 1.1 The Evolution of Textiles

1
An introduction to textile technology
1.1 The evolution of textiles

Although man’s first articles of clothing and furnishing were probably animal skin
wraps, sometimes stitched together using bone needles and animal sinews, he soon
attempted to manipulate fibrous materials into textile fabrics, encouraged by experi-
ence gained from interlacing branches, leaves and grasses in the production of
primitive shelters.
The word ‘textile’ originates from the Latin verb texere – to weave – but, as the
Textile Institute’s Terms and Definitions Glossary explains, it is now ‘a general term
applied to any manufacture from fibres, filaments or yarns characterised by flexi-
bility, fineness and high ratio of length to thickness’.
1.2 Textile fabrics

Textile fabrics can be produced directly from webs of fibres by bonding, fusing or
interlocking to make non-woven fabrics and felts, but their physical properties tend
to restrict their potential end-usage.The mechanical manipulation of yarn into fabric
is the most versatile method of manufacturing textile fabrics for a wide range of
end-uses.
There are three principal methods of mechanically manipulating yarn into textile
fabrics: interweaving, intertwining and interlooping. All three methods have evolved
from hand-manipulated techniques through their application on primitive frames
into sophisticated manufacturing operations on automated machinery.
1 Interweaving (Fig. 1.1) is the intersection of two sets of straight threads, warp
and weft, which cross and interweave at right angles to each other. Weaving is
by far the oldest and most common method of producing continuous lengths of
straight-edged fabric.
2 Intertwining and twisting (Fig. 1.2) includes a number of techniques, such as
braiding and knotting, where threads are caused to intertwine with each other
2 Knitting technology
Fig. 1.1 Interweaving.
Fig. 1.2 Intertwining and twisting.
at right angles or some other angle. These techniques tend to produce special
constructions whose uses are limited to very specific purposes.
3 Interlooping (Fig. 1.3) consists of forming yarn(s) into loops, each of which is
typically only released after a succeeding loop has been formed and intermeshed
with it so that a secure ground loop structure is achieved. The loops are also held
together by the yarn passing from one to the next. (In the simplified illustration
this effect is not illustrated.)
Knitting is the most common method of interlooping and is second only to weaving
as a method of manufacturing textile products. It is estimated that over 7 million
An introduction to textile technology 3
Fig. 1.3 Interlooping.
tons of knitted goods are produced annually throughout the world. Although the
unique capability of knitting to manufacture shaped and form-fitting articles has
been utilised for centuries, modern technology has enabled knitted constructions in
shaped and unshaped fabric form to expand into a wide range of apparel, domes-
tic and industrial end-uses.
1.3 Textile yarns and fibres

Yarns are the raw materials manipulated during knitting. A yarn is defined as
‘an assembly, of substantial length and relatively small cross-section, of fibres or
filaments, with or without twist’. The term ‘thread’ is loosely used in place of yarn
and does not imply that it is as smooth, highly twisted and compact as a sewing
thread.
Textile fibres are the raw materials of the yarns into which they are spun. There
are two configurations of fibres: staple fibres and filament fibres.
• Staple fibres are of comparatively short length – for example, cotton and wool
fibres, which require spinning and twisting together in order to produce a satis-
factory length of yarn of suitable strength.
• A filament is a fibre of indefinite length – for example silk, which requires com-
bining with other filaments, usually with some twist, in order to produce a yarn
of sufficient bulk.
Originally, all textile fibres occurred naturally – for example, animal fibres such as
wool and silk, and vegetable fibres such as cotton and flax. The first artificially-
produced fibres were the rayons, developed by the regeneration of long-chain
cellulose polymers that occur naturally in wood pulp and cotton linters. Derivatives
such as cellulose acetate and triacetate were later produced by the acetylation of
cellulose polymers. Nylon, the first truly synthetic fibre, was invented by
Wallace H. Carothers in 1938. It is based on a synthetically-built, long-chain

polyamide polymer that previously did not occur naturally. A wide range of syn-
thetic fibre polymers, including polyesters and polyacrylics, has since been devel-
oped. Many of the synthetic polymers may be converted into yarns in continuous
filament form (in which state they were extruded during manufacturing). The fila-
ments may also be cut or broken into staple fibre form, to be later spun on systems
originally developed for natural fibres such as wool or cotton.
The properties of more than one type of fibre may be incorporated into a fabric
as the result of blending the fibres during spinning, or by knitting two or more types
of yarn.
Knitting requires a relatively fine, smooth, strong yarn with good elastic recovery
properties. The worsted system has proved particularly suitable for spinning yarns
used for knitwear, outerwear and socks, and the combed cotton system for under-
wear, sportswear and socks.
The introduction of synthetic fibres, which can be heat set in a permanent con-
figuration, has led to the development of texturing processes that directly convert
these filaments into bulked yarns, thus bypassing the staple fibre spinning process.
During texturing, the filaments are disturbed from their parallel formation and are
permanently set in configurations such as crimps or coils that help to entrap pockets
of air and confer properties such as bulkiness, soft handle, porosity, drape, cover,
opacity and (if necessary) elasticity to the resultant yarn. Examples of yarns of this
type include false twist nylon and Crimplene, the latter being a registered trade name
for a technique whereby the properties of the textured polyester yarn are modified
during a second heat-setting operation so that the stitch clarity, handle and stabil-
ity of the fabric are improved.
The development of synthetic fibres and of their texturing processes has proved
particularly beneficial to the knitting industry and has resulted in a close associa-
tion between the two industries. The most recent development is the widespread
use of the elastane fibre Lycra to support the elastic properties of knitted garments.
The period from the mid-1960s to 1973 is often regarded by knitters as a ‘golden
age’ because fashionable demand for textiles composed of synthetic fibres reached
a peak during that period [1,2].
1.4 Yarn count numbering systems

A yarn count number indicates the linear density (yarn diameter or fineness) to
which that particular yarn has been spun. An important consideration in choosing
a yarn count is the machine gauge which defines the spacing of the needles in the
needle bed (usually as needles per inch).
Obviously, the finer the machine gauge, the finer the required yarn count. Choice
of yarn count is also restricted by the type of knitting machine employed and the
knitting construction.
The count, in turn, influences the cost, weight, opacity, handle and drapability
of the resultant structure. In general, staple spun yarns tend to be comparatively
more expensive the finer their count because finer fibres and a more exacting spin-
ning process are necessary in order to prevent the yarn from showing an irregular
appearance.
Unfortunately, a number of differently based count numbering systems are still
currently in use. Historically, most systems are associated with particular yarn-
An introduction to textile technology 5
spinning systems. Thus, a yarn spun on the worsted system from acrylic fibres may
be given a worsted count number.
The worsted count system is of the indirect type based on length per fixed unit
mass, i.e. the higher the count number, the finer the yarn. The weight is fixed (1 lb)
and the length unit (number of 560-yard hanks) varies. A 1/24’s worsted yarn
(24 ¥ 560-yard hanks weighing 1 lb) will be twice the cross-sectional area of a 1/48’s
worsted yarn (48 ¥ 560-yard hanks weighing 1 lb).
The designation 2/24’s worsted indicates that the yarn contains two ends of 1/24’s
so that the resultant count is twice the cross-sectional area (24/2 = 12’s).
The denier system is used in continuous filament silk spinning, and when the silk
throwsters began to process textured synthetic continuous filament yarns, these
nylon and polyester yarns were given denier count numbers.
The denier system is of the direct type based on mass per fixed unit length, i.e. the
lower the number, the finer the yarn. The length unit is fixed (9000 metres) and the
weight unit (in grams) is variable. A 70 denier yarn (9000 metres weigh 70 g) will be
twice as fine as a 140 denier yarn (9000 metres weigh 140 g). A 2/70 denier yarn will
give a resultant count of 140 denier.
The tex system was introduced as a universal system to replace all the existing
systems. As tex sometimes produces a count number having a decimal point, it has
been found more satisfactory to multiply the count number by 10 to give a deci-tex
number. The tex system has not been universally accepted, particularly for spun
yarns, and on the continent of Europe the metric system is used for these yarns.
In this book, common commercial practice has been followed, with decitex being
used for filament yarn counts and the metric system for spun staple yarn counts.
The main count systems, with their continental abbreviations, are as follows:
Indirect Systems
Bradford Worsted System (NeK) – the number of 560-yard hanks that weigh 1 lb
(453.6 g).
English Woollen System (NeW) (Yorkshire Skeins) – the number of 256-yard hanks
that weigh 1 lb.
English Cotton System (NeB) – the number of 840-yard hanks that weigh 1 lb.
Continental Metric System (Nm) (Cotton System) – the number of 1000-metre
hanks that weigh 1000 g (1 kg).
Direct Systems
Denier System (Td) – the weight in grams of 9000 metres.
Tex System (Tt) – the weight in grams of a 1000 metres.
Decitex System (dtex) – the weight in grams of 10 000 metres.
1.5 Conversion formulae

Tex counts may be obtained from count numbers in other systems by using one of
the following formulae:
886 1938 591 1000 Td

NeK NeW NeB Nm 9
(To obtain the decitex count, multiply the tex result by ten.)
Example: An interlock underwear fabric is weft knitted from 1/40’s NeB at a weight
of 5 ounces per square yard. Convert the yarn count to decitex and the fabric weight
to grams per square metre.
(a) The conversion for Tex is 591/NeB so it is necessary to also multiply by 10 to
obtain decitex.
The decitex count therefore = (591 40) ¥ 10 = 148 dtex
(b) 1 oz = 28.35 g and 1 yd2 = 0.836 m2.
Therefore 5 oz/yd2 = (5 ¥ 28.35) = 142 g ¥ 1/0.836 = 170 g/m2.
References
1. gibbon, j. e., Crimplene: profile of a yarn’s problems and successes, Hos. Trade J., (1965), Sept., 110–12.
2. law, i. m., Crimplene: a fibre legend, Knit. Int., (1981), June, 78–81.
Further information
collier, a. m., A Handbook of Textiles, (1974), Pergamon Press.
joseph, m. l., Introductory Textile Science, (1966), Rinehart and Winston.
greenwood, k., Weaving: Control of Fabric Structure, Merrow, UK.
lord, p. r. and mohamed, m. h., Weaving: Conversion of Yarn to Fabric, (1976), Merrow.
cooke, j. g., Handbook of Textile Fibres, (1968), Merrow, UK, I, II.
morton, w. e. and hearle, j. w. s., Physical Properties of Textile Fibres, (1975), Textile Inst., Manchester,
UK, and Heinemann, London, UK.
harrison, p. w., Bulk, Stretch and Texture, (1966), Textile Institute, Manchester, UK.
ray, g. r., Modern Yarn Production from Manmade Fibres, (1962), Columbine Press.
wilkinson, g. d. a., Knitter’s guide to texturising processes, Knit. Outwr Times, (1970), 22nd June, 57–65.
charnock, i. l. a., Yarn quality for knitting. Text. Inst. and Ind., (1977), 15, (5), 175–7.
hall, j. d., The contribution of synthetic fibres and plastics to the textile industry, Text. Inst. and Ind.,
(1965), 3, (10), 265–7.

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1

An introduction to textile technology

1.1 The evolution of textiles

1.2 Textile fabrics

Fig. 1.1 Interweaving.

Fig. 1.2 Intertwining and twisting.

Fig. 1.3 Interlooping.

1.3 Textile yarns and ﬁbres

Wallace H. Carothers in 1938. It is based on a synthetically-built, long-chain

1.4 Yarn count numbering systems

1.5 Conversion formulae

886 1938 591 1000 Td

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