Glossary of entomology terms

“Accessory gland” redirects here. For the accessory sound pheromones become more dilute the further
glands of the human male reproductive system, see they radiate out from their source.
Human male reproductive system § Accessory glands.
This glossary describes terms used in the formal study aculeate (Hymenoptera) Any member of a group of
families that include the familiar stinging ants, bees,
and social and hunting wasp.
acuminate Tapering to a long point.
Antennae
Forewing
acylurea A class of insect growth regulators.

Tail
adeagus The part of the male genitalia which is inserted
Compound eye Hindwing into the female during copulation and which carries
Palps
the sperm into the female. Its shape is often impor-
Proboscis
tant in separating closely related species.
Hindleg
Foreleg Femur adecticous Of pupa: the state in which the pupa does
Tarsi Midleg

Tibia not possess movable mandibles, the opposite being

decticous.
Head
Thorax adipocytes A major cell type of insects that stores fat
Abdomen
body and reserves nutrients.
admarginal (adjective): Along the margin.
Parts of an adult butterfly
aedeagus The sclerotized terminal portion of the male
of insect species by entomologists. genital tract that is inserted into the female during
insemination.

1 A–C aestivation Summer dormancy, entered into when con-

ditions are unfavourable for active life i.e. it is too
hot or too dry.
abdomen Body of the insect, toward the posterior of the
thorax. age polyethism The regular changing of roles of colony
acaricide A chemical employed to kill and control mites members as they get older.
and ticks. air sac A dilated portion of a trachea.
acariphagous feeding on mites (also refers to para- alar squama The middle of three flap-like outgrowths
sitoids of mites). at the base of the wing in various flies.
accessory gland Any secondary gland of the glandular alary muscles muscles along the dorsal diaphragm that
system. may perform circulation.
accessory pulsatile organs (APOs) Small muscular alata the parthenogenetic winged morph of vividae, spe-
pumps and the veins that accompany them that cialized for migration.
pump hemolymph into the wings.
alate Winged; having wings.
acetyl choline Alternative spelling of "acetylcholine".
aldrin (common name). A synthetic insecticide;
acrostichal bristles The two rows of hairs or bristles ly-
a chlorinated hydrocarbon of not less than 95
ing one on either side of the mid-line of the thorax
per cent 1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-1,4,4a,5,8,8a-
of a true fly.
hexahydro-1,4:5,8-dimethanonaphthalene; moder-
active space The space within which the concentration ately toxic to mammals, acute oral LD,, for rats 44
of a pheromone or other behaviorally active sub- mg/kg; phytotoxicity: none when properly formu-
stance is concentrated enough to generate the re- lated, but some crops are sensitive to solvents in cer-
quired response, remembering that like light and tain formulations.

1
2 1 A–C

algophagy feeding on algae. androconia (singula = Androconium) In male butter-

flies, specialised wing scales (often called scent
aliphatic A term applied to the “open chain” or fatty se- scales) possessing special glands which produce a
ries of hydrocarbons. chemical attractive to females.
alitrunk Name given to the thorax and propodeum of anemic Deficient in blood quantity or quality.
'wasp-waisted' hymenopterans.
androconium or androconia (plural) Specialised mi-
alloparental When individuals other than the parent as- croscopic scales on the wings of male butterflies, be-
sist in the caring for that parents offspring. lieved to be scent scales for attracting the female.
allopatric Two or more forms of a species having essen- annulate Formed in ring-like segments or with ring-like
tially separate distributions. markings.
alternating generations When two generations are pro-
duced within a life cycle each producing individuals
of only one sex, either male first and then female or
vice versa.
altruistic Self-destructive. or potentially self-
destructive behavior performed for the benefit
of others.
alula a broad lobe at the proximal posterior margin of
the wing stalk of Diptera.Also termed the axillary
lobe. Butterfly antennae shapes

ambrosia The fungus cultivated by wood-boring beetles

of the family Scolytidae. antennae The long feelers situated on the head and close
to the eyes. They are however not tactile but used for
ametabola The insects which develop without metamor- detecting airborne scents and currents.
phosis, namely the Protura, Thysanura, and Collem-
bola. • In Papilionoidea the antennae end in bulging
tips called clubs.
amide Compound derived from carboxylic acids by re-
• In Hesperioidea they have hooked tips and the
placing the hydroxyl of the -COOH by the amino
club is found just before the tip.
group, -NH2 −.
• In some Lycaenidae like the genus Liphyra the
amine An organic compound containing nitrogen, de- antenna tapers gradually.
rived from ammonia, NH3 , by replacing one or more
hydrogen atoms by as many hydrocarbon radicals. antennation Touching with the antenna.

amino acid Organic compounds that contain the amino antenniferous Bearing antennae, as in "antenniferous
(NH2 ) group and the carboxyl (COOH) group. tubercle".
Amino acids are the “building stones” of proteins. antennomere A segment of an antenna. The term an-
tennomere is used in particular when the segments
ammonia A colorless alkaline gas, NH3 , soluble in wa-
are fairly uniform, as in filiform antennae, but it also
ter.
may be used in referring to segments of odd sizes,
anal Pertaining to last abdominal segment which bears shapes and functions, such as the scape and pedicel.
the anus. More specific terms may be used where there are
distinct antennal regions; for example flagellomeres
anal angle The posterior corner of the wing (same as are the antennomeres comprising the flagellum.
tornus).
anterior in front of or after the aforementioned struc-
anal fold A fold in the inner margin of the hindwing. ture.
anal valves Exposed claspers at the end of the abdomen. antenodal veins Small cross-veins at the front of the
dragonfly or damselfly wing, between the wing base
anaplasmosis Infection with Anaplasma, a genus of
and the nodus.
Sporozoa that infests red blood cells.
anthophagy feeding on flowers.
anasa wilt A wilt disease of cucurbits caused solely by
the feeding of the squash bug, no parasitic microor- antibiosis An association between two or more organ-
ganism involved. isms that is detrimental to one or more of them.
 3

anticoagulin A substance antagonistic to the coagula- club of a clavate antenna generally is a more or less
tion of blood. tapered thickening, sometimes hardly distinct from
the shaft.
anus The posterior opening of the digestive tract.
capitulum The head of a capitate structure, such as a
apex / apical area The anterior corner of the wing. capitate antenna, or of a capitate haltere
apical cell The first posterior cell in the wing of carpophagy feeding on fruits and seeds.
Diptera.It is the space between the third and fourth
longitudinal vein beyond the anterior crossvein catenulate Markings consisting of rings connected to-
(R5). gether like a chain.

aphidophagy feeding on aphids (and parasitoids of •

aphids). catenulated antennae Antennae with ringed appearance.
apitherapy Medicinal use of the honey bee or its prod- cell The central area surrounded by veins. It can be
ucts. closed by veins or open.

arculus A crossvein between the radius and cubitus near • The vein forming the boundary of the cell
the base of the wing in certain insects. along the costal margin is known as the sub-
costal vein q.v.
areola A small ring of color
• The vein forming the lower boundary towards
arolium A pad-like median lobe between the tarsal the dorsum is called the median vein.
claws. • In the case of butterflies, the cell is closed by
a vein connecting the origins of veins 6 to 4
base / basal area of wing Region close to the point of
along the top of the cell which is known as
attachment to the thorax.
discocellular vein.
brand Raised area on the wing surface, circular, ovate, cell cup Taxonomically important term used in Diptera
or elongated, which is covered with special scent identification keys. Part of the schema of wing ve-
scales or androconia, found in males of some nation. Also called the posterior cubital cell and of-
species. Also called sex mark. ten called the anal cell. see File:Phytomyzinae wing
bryophagy feeding on moss. veins-1.svg
ceratophagy (Also spelled keratophagy) feeding on
cornified tissues and hair of animals.
cervix (Anatomical feature) the structure defining the
neck of the insect.
chaeta See Seta.
chalaza An external spine that has a single point. Et-
ymology: Greek chalasa, a tubercle. cf. scolus,
which has multiple points.
cheta See Seta.
cilia Fine hairs along the edges of the wing.
clasper or clasp A structure in male insects that is used
Distinction between clavate and capitate anatomy of insect an- to hold the female during copulation.
tennae
clava Same as clavus.
capitate Mainly referring to antennae, but occasionally clavate Mainly referring to antennae, but occasionally to
to other anatomical features such as palps: having a other anatomical features such as palps: having a
clubbed shape with a relatively long, slender stem, clubbed shape with a relatively long, slender stem,
but with an abruptly bulkier, thicker, possibly glob- but with a bulkier, thicker distal end, the clava. The
ular distal head, the capitulum. The term capitate is term clavate is not strictly distinguished from cap-
not strictly distinguished from clavate, but where a itate, but in general, where a distinction is desired,
distinction is desired, it is that the club of a capitate the club of a capitate antenna is abruptly distinct,
antenna is abruptly distinct from the shaft, and the even globular, whereas the club of a clavate anten-
head tends to be short and more or less globular. The nae is generally a more or less tapered thickening
4 2 D–F

l
Interspaces

na
rgi
Apex 10 11 12 Costa

Ma
7 Costal
6
5 Cell Ap
ica

Termen
4 Su l
ba
3 Base pic
al

l
sa
2

al
cal
Dorsum

as

cal
Ba
Tornus 1 (upperside) Tornal

stb

Dis

tdis
Brands

Po

Pos
Costa
8
7 Base
Apex 6
Cell

4
1a
Termen 3
2 1
Tornus
Lunule Ocellus Cilia
Clavate antenna of a beetle in the family Erotylidae. In this spec-
imen the clavus comprises three segments
Terms associated with the wings

claviform stigma specifically, in Noctuidae (moths)- an

elongate spot or mark extending from the anterior copromycetophagy inhabiting feces and consuming
transverse anterior line through the submedian inter- mycetes growing inside or cultivating them for feed-
space, toward and sometimes to the posterior trans- ing.
verse line.
coprophagy feeding on the excrements of animals.
clavola Same as clavus or club costa / costal area The leading edge of the wing.
clavus 1. The thicker distal end of a clavate anatomical costal break Taxonomically important term used in
structure such as an antenna. Usually comprising Diptera identification keys. Part of the schema of
more than one joint. Also called clava, clavola, or wing venation. weakenings of the costa (one to three
club in number). They are flexing points for the wings
during flight
2. The posterior of the portion of the remigium found
on insect wings. coronal suture (Anatomical feature) an anterior suture
line of the head between the compound eyes, below
3. The oblong sclerite at the base of the inferior margin the median ocellus.
of the hemelytron in Heteroptera.
coxa first leg segment, between body and trochanter.
4. The knob at the end of the stigmal or radial veins in
the wings of certain Hymenoptera. cremaster most butterfly pupae are attached to a surface
by a silken pad spun by the caterpillar and a set of
club The popular (possibly to be preferred) name for the hooks (cremaster) at the tip of the pupal abdomen.
clavus of a clavate antenna.
crenulate Adjective = scalloped. Describes the outer
clypeus (Anatomical feature) a sclerite structure below edge of a wing that is convex at the end of each vein
the frons, circumposed by the mandibles and above and concave in between.
the labrum.
cuneus Noun = wedge. Particularly in mirid bugs, a
coccidophagy feeding on scale insects (and parasitoids wedge-shaped section of the hemelytra (forewings),
of scale insects). located at the apex of the thick, leathery part of the
wings.
compound eye An eye consisting of a large number of
individual photoreceptor units or ommatidia (om-
matidium, singular).Figure 2 d below 2 D–F
connexivum or connexiva (plural) (largely in Het-
decticous Functional mandibles present in pupal state.
eroptera and similarly dorsoventrally flattened
insects) the edge of the abdomen, containing the dendrophagy feeding on trees.
connection between the tergite and sternite. May
be visible from above in species such as many of dentate As for crenulate but with the projections at the
the Reduviidae. end of each wing being toothlike.
 5

detritophagy feeding on ground remains of plants and frons (Anatomical feature) The frontal area of an in-
animals. sect’s head. It covers the upper part of the face above
the clypeus and below and between the antennae. It
disc / discal area The central band passing through the supports the pharyngeal dilator muscles and usually
cell. bears an ocellus.
discoidal cell In damselflies (Zygoptera) a basal quad- frontal sutures (Anatomical feature) suture lines that
rangular cell in the wing venation, which is delimited meet with the coroanl sutures to form an inverted
by veins MA (anterior side), MP (posterior side), Y.
MAb (distal side) and the arculus (basal side).
dorsum / dorsal area The trailing edge or hind-margin
of the wing, extending from the base to the tornus. 3 G–L
Dorsal alternately, also refers to the back, i.e. the
upper part of the body, from above.
ectognathous (Anatomical feature) having exterior
mouthparts, or exposed. A defining feature of
insects.
empodium (Anatomical feature) either a bristle-like
or pad-like structure between the tarsal claws of
Diptera.
encapsulation the immuno response by plasmatocytes
to the presence of parasitoid egg or larvae which re-
sults in the formation of a multilayered capsule that
causes the parasitoid to sufficate or starve.
entomonecrophagy feeding on dead arthropods.
entomophagy feeding on other insects.
epicranius (Anatomical feature) the top of the anterior
structure of the head, or forehead.
erect The palpi when vertical, i.e. the axis of the palpi
is at right angles to the axis of the body.
exarate Pupae with their legs and other appendages free
and extended.
eyespots or ocelli Spots resembling mammalian eyes.
Can also refer to simple eyes. Diagram of an insect leg
face the area between the base of antennae, oral margin,
eyes and cheeks (gena). See figure 3. gena (Anatomical feature) the area below the compound
eyes, the insect equivalent to human cheeks.
fascia (plural fasciae) A color pattern with a broad
band. girdle a strand of silk used to prop up the pupa. Found
especially in the Papilionidae.
femur third leg segment, between trochanter and tibia.
glabrous smooth, without hairs or scales.
flagellomere an antennomere comprising part of the
flagellum. helminthophagy feeding on worms classified with
helminths (including parasitoids of helminths).
flagellum the part of the antenna distal to the pedicel
composed of one or more segments, called flagel- hemocoel the interior of the insects anatomy, including
lomeres. all organs and hemocyte.
foramen magnum (Anatomical feature) the posterior hemocyte or haemolymph a fluid in the circulatory
opening of the head capsule, covered by the cervix. system of insects containing nutrients, fat, water,
etc.
forewing (Anatomical feature) the pair of wings of a
four-winged insect closest to the head. hemophagy feeding on blood.
6 5 P–R

hindwing (Anatomical feature) the pair of wings of a metalmarks small metallic-looking spots commonly
four-winged insect farthest from the head. found on the wings of Riodinidae.

hyaline transparent, like glass. metathorax The third and last segment of the thorax af-
ter the mesothorax.
hygropetric mode of life: living in the thin film of water
on wet rocks. micropterous Having short elytra, shorter than the
abdomen.
hypognathous having mouthparts that are ventrad of a
vertically oriented head, or having an “under bit”. mixomycetophagy feeding on myxomycetes fungus.

hypopharynx Mouthpart. A tonguelike lobe on the myiasis Infestation of fly larvae on or in a vertebrate

floor of the mouth. host.

idiobiont a form of parasitism where the parasitoid par- mycetophagy feeding on fungus.
alyzes or leaves the host unable to continue develop-
ment at oviposition. necrophagy consuming of dead animals and their re-
mains.
interspace The region between adjacent veins.
nervure Older term for vein. adnervural refers to in-
irrorated or irroration Old term used usually to indi- stance lines running adjacent and alongside the
cate a sprinkling of scales interspersed among scales veins.
typically of a different color.
nodus (of Odonata ) A prominent cross-vein near the
keratophagy (Also spelt ceratophagy) feeding on center of the leading edge of a wing.
cornified tissues and hair of animals.
obtect Appendages fused or glued to the body.
koinobiont A form of parasitism where the parasitoid
occipital suture (Anatomical feature) the structure that
lives inside the host while allowing it to live after
defines the occiput. See Figure 1 (below).
oviposition.
occiput (insect) (Anatomical feature) the region poste-
labium Mouthpart forming the lower lip. Bears the
rior to the vertex on the head. See Figure 2 (below).
labial palps.
ocular structure (Anatomical feature) the structure of
labrum (Anatomical feature) the anterior structure be-
the head containing the ocelli.
low the clypeus covering some of the mouthparts,
sometimes called the “upper lip”. onisciform A woodlouse shaped, flattened platyform
appearance of a larva.[2]
lichenophagy feeding on lichens.
oophagy feeding on eggs.
lines of weakness (Anatomical feature) the suture lines
where the integument will split to allow for molting. opisthognathous with receding mouthparts, or having
mouthparts that slope backward or face backward.
lunule A body area or marking roughly in the shape of
a crescent. orbicular stigma a marking placed between the reni-
form stigma and the thorax, usually circular in
shape.
4 M–O osmeterium fleshy structure on some larvae, often dis-
charging odorous chemicals.
macrochaete large bristles and scales.[1]
oviposition the act of laying eggs.
macropterous Having long or large elytra, as long, or
longer than the abdomen.

malacophagy feeding on mollusks (and parasitoids of 5 P–R

mollusks).
palynophagy feeding on pollen.
maxilla Mouthpart. The maxillae are paired and ar-
ranged behind the mandibles. May bear palps. See parasitoid In parasitism, the participant that benefits,
Figures 1 and 3. rather than the one that is being parasitized.

mesothorax the middle segment of the thorax, between pedicel the second segment ( antennomere) of the an-
the prothorax and the metathorax. tenna. See figure 3.
 7

pedipalp (or labial palpi or palpi) Comparatively repugnatorial (generally in combination as in: “repug-
large processes that originate from below the natorial glands”): defensive, in particular as applied
head and curve forward in front of the face that to glands that release irritant, poisonous, alarming
sometimes appear like a beak. lp on the figure right. or disgusting fluids or gases when an organism is
under threat. Examples of repugnatorial glands in-
phloeophagy feeding on bark.[3][4][5] clude the osmeterium of larvae of the Papilionidae,
the stink glands of most Heteroptera, the ozopores
phyllophagy feeding on leaves.
of Opiliones, the odoriferous glands of Diplopoda,
phytophagy feeding on plants. among many others.

pleurite A sclerotised region on the lateral part of an in- rhizophagy feeding on rhizomes.
sect segment, bearing the spiracle, and separating
and connecting the tergite and the sternite (compare:
pulmonarium). 6 S–Z
pollinophagy feeding on pollen.
saltatorial adapted for leaping or jumping.
porrect The palpi when horizontally projecting in front
sarconecrophagy feeding on dead bodies of vertebrates.
of the face. In this case, the axis of the palpi is par-
allel to the axis of the body. sapromycetophagy inhabiting decaying matter and con-
suming mycetes growing inside or cultivating them
posterior in a position behind or below the aforemen-
for feeding.
tioned.
saprophagy feeding on decaying organic matter.
postoccipital suture (Anatomical feature) the structure
posterior to the occipital suture, surrounding fora- scape the proximal segment ( antennomere) of the an-
men magnum or occipital magnum. tenna. See Figure 3.
proboscis tubular feeding and sucking organ. schisophagy feeding on ground remains of plants and
animals.
proclinate Directed or leaning forward, such as in bris-
tles in particular locations of insects’ heads. scolus An external spine having multiple points. Ety-
mology: Greek skolos, a prickle. cf. chalaza. plural:
prognathous having mouth parts dorsad of a dorsally
scoli
oriented head, or “over bite”.
sensu Latin term meaning “in the sense of”.
proleg fleshy leg like structures arising from the abdomi-
nal segments of caterpillars. These prolegs have cro- sequestering The process of animals accumulating poi-
chets or curved hooks. sonous compounds from the food they are eating
in order to become poisonous themselves for their
prothorax The first segment on the thorax anterior to
predators. Pyrrolizidine alkaloid sequestration refers
the mesothorax.
to the sequestration of one such class of poisonous
pterostigma (plural pterostigmata) The prominent compounds.
cell, usually opaque and coloured, near the tip of
seta A stiff chitinous or sclerotised hair or bristle. Also
each wing of the Odonata, on the anterior margin;
chaeta, cheta
also, more loosely, called stigma.
setaceous • being like or having the nature of a seta
pterothorax The meso- and metathorax of winged in-
or of setae
sects, that carries the two pairs of wings.
• setose
pulmonarium (plural pulmonaria) A membranous
instead of a sclerotised connection or pleurite setose bearing, or covered in setae.
between the abdominal tergites and sternites of
setula Diminutive of seta. A small chitinous hair or bris-
certain groups of insects; in such species the
tle.
pulmonaria bear the spiracles. The term also refers
to an abdomen in which the connection between setulose bearing, or covered in setulae.
the tergal and sternal sclerites takes the form of a
pulmonarial membrane. (Compare: pleurite) spiracle Respiratory openings on the thorax and ab-
domen that allow air to enter the trachea.
reniform stigma an oval or kidney-shaped mark on the
forewing at the disc (Lepidoptera) sporophagy feeding on mycet spores.
8 8 SEE ALSO

stigma (plural stigmata) Prominent cells on the unguis (plural ungues) pretarsus the claws at the tip of
forewings of some moths. Their size, shape and most insect pretarsi.
colour can be useful in identifying some species.
Also the prominent cell, usually opaque and urite a segment or part of the abdomen in insects.
coloured, near the tip of each wing of the Odonata, valve One of several appendages that combine to form
on the anterior margin; also called pterostigma. the ovipositor of a typical female insect.
strigae Patterns with thin lines. valvifer In female Heteroptera valvifers comprise four
blades, one pair on each of abdominal segments 8
subcosta Taxonomically important term used in Diptera
and 9. They articulate with the paratergites and bear
identification keys. Part of the schema of wing ve-
their corresponding valvulae.
nation.The second longitudinal wing vein, posterior
to the costa. It may reach the costa, fade before the valvula One of four blades in a female Hemipteran with
costa or join R1 before it reaches the costa. see (= a laciniate type of ovipositor, that combine to form
auxiliary vein of many authors) the ovipositing mechanism.
subgenal suture (Anatomical feature) suture lines be- vein Hollow structures formed from the coupling of the
low the gena. upper and lower walls of the wing. They provide
both rigidity and flexibility to the wing. (See also
symplesiomorphy a shared ancestral (“primitive”) char-
Comstock-Needham system.)
acter state that cannot be used to demonstrate the
monophyly of a group. vertex (Anatomical feature) The apex of the head, usu-
ally containing ocelli.
synapomorphy a shared homologous and derived char-
acter state (evolutionary novelty) that demonstrates villose covered with numerous thick-set, slender projec-
the monophyly of a group (clade). tions resembling short hairs.

synovigenic a form of reproduction in which the female xylomycetophagy inhabiting wood and consuming
continues to produce and to mature eggs throughout mycetes growing in wood or cultivating them for
its life cycle. feeding.

tarsus (plural tarsi) fifth (last) leg segment, the part xylophagy feeding on wood.
that touches the walking surface.
zoomycetophagy feeding on fungus found on other ani-
termen The edge of the wing most distant from the mals.
body.
zoophagy feeding on animals, and/or animal matter.
terminal and marginal Along the margin.

thorax The part of the body that lies between the head 7 Figures
and the abdomen. It has three parts - prothorax,
mesothorax and metathorax.
• Figure 1 Head.Posterior view.
tibia fourth leg segment, between femur and tarsus.
• Figure 2 Head Side view.
tomentum a pubescence consisting of soft, entangled • Figure 3 Head morphology
hairs pressed close to the surface of the integument.

tornus / tornal area The posterior corner of the wing • Wing venation Charaxes
(same as tornus).
• Wing venation Charaxes
trochanter second leg segment, between coxa and fe-
• Wing venation Acraea
mur.

trophi The mouthparts of Arthropoda such as insects;

typically labrum, mandible, maxilla, labium. 8 See also
trophus The singular form of trophi (rarely used).
• Anatomical terms of location
uncate hook-like, as in the mouthparts of many fly lar- • Butterfly
vae. (also uncinate)
• Caterpillar
uncinate hook-like, as in the mouthparts of many fly lar-
vae. (also uncate) • Comstock–Needham system
 9

• External morphology of Lepidoptera • 1

• Glossary of arachnology terms • 2

• Glossary of scientific names • 3

• Insect wing

• Pupa 10 External links

• Dictionary of Insect Morphology
9 References • Dragonfly terms
[1] Simpson, P; Marcellini, S (2006). “The origin and evolu- • Entomologists’ Glossary
tion of stereotyped patterns of macrochaetes on the nota
of cyclorraphous Diptera”. Heredity 97 (3): 148–156. • Dictionary of Insect Morphology
doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800874. Retrieved 8 March 2011.

[2] Glossary - Integrated Pest Management Resource Centre

.

[3] Atkinson, Thomas H. and Equihua, Armando. “Biology

of the Scolytidae and Platypodidae”. Florida Entomologist
Vol. 69, No. 2 (June 1986)

[4] Byers, J.A. 1995. “Host tree chemistry affecting coloniza-

tion in bark beetles”, in R.T. Cardé and W.J. Bell (eds.).
Chemical Ecology of Insects 2. Chapman and Hall, New
York, pp. 154–213

[5] Hill, Dennis S. Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and

Their Control. Springer 2008. ISBN 9781402067372

• Evans, W.H. (1932) The Identification of Indian

Butterflies. (2nd Ed), Bombay Natural History So-
ciety, Mumbai, India.

• Thysse, Adrian (2 February 2011). “Ento. 101 –

External Structure II: The Head”. IPM. p. 1. Re-
trieved March 5, 2011.

• Gordh G. and D.H. Headrick. A Dictionary of En-

tomology. Cabi 2001.

• Romoser, William S. The Science of Entomology,

pp. 26–49. Collier-MacMillan 1973.

• McAlpine, David K., 1958 A key to the Australian

families of Acalptrate Diptera (Insecta) Records of
the Australian Museum 24 (12) 183-190 pdf full text
and figures

• McAlpine, J.F. 1981 Morphology and terminology

In: McAlpine, J.P. et al. (eds.): Manual of Nearc-
tic Diptera vol. 1 Ottawa: Research Branch, Agri-
culture Canada, Monograph 27. ISBN 0660107317
pdf download manual

• Resh, Vincent H. and R. T. Cardé, Eds. Encyclope-

dia of Insects, pp. 15–19, 750–755. Elsevier 2003.

• Wallace, Robert L. et al. Beck and Braithwaite’s In-

vertebrate Zoology, 4th Ed., pp. 248–250. MacMil-
lan 1989.
10 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text
• Glossary of entomology terms Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20entomology%20terms?oldid=634745004 Con-
tributors: Shyamal, Alan Liefting, Keith Edkins, Bender235, RJHall, Richard Barlow, VirenVaz, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Quiddity, Bgwhite,
Wavelength, Anomalocaris, Dysmorodrepanis, Aeusoes1, Rwalker, Morcheeba, SMcCandlish, SmackBot, Notafly, Gilliam, Unint, AshLin,
Pro bug catcher, Cydebot, Kpitts, Barticus88, Kilva, Sobreira, Ozzieboy, Lasius, Magioladitis, CopyToWiktionaryBot, CommonsDelinker,
Grmanners, Nwbeeson, Cmichael, TheMindsEye, WereSpielChequers, Mild Bill Hiccup, SchreiberBike, Qwfp, ZooFari, Addbot, Jncra-
ton, Jarble, Dr. Günter Bechly, Bugboy52.40, Brutaldeluxe, Samwb123, FrescoBot, Gracefoo, Animalparty, Dinamik-bot, RjwilmsiBot,
Dewritech, RenamedUser01302013, Staszek Lem, Ego White Tray, JonRichfield, ClueBot NG, Massimiliano Panu, HMSSolent, BG19bot,
Gorthian, Dwergenpaartje, Luckyizme6, ZorkyMr77 and Anonymous: 13

11.2 Images
• File:Antenna_clavate.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Antenna_clavate.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-2.5
Contributors: from Image:Pharaxonotha floridana, head.jpg Original artist: Ramiro Chaves (modified by gian_d)
• File:Antennae_ctb.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Antennae_ctb.png License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Fauna of British India - Butterflies (Vol. 1) Original artist: C.T. Bingham
• File:Butterfly_parts.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Butterfly_parts.svg License: CC-BY-2.5 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: L. Shyamal
• File:Butterfly_wing_terms.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Butterfly_wing_terms.svg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Self published Original artist: L. Shyamal
• File:Distinction_between_clavate_and_capitate_anatomy_of_insect_antennae.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/3/32/Distinction_between_clavate_and_capitate_anatomy_of_insect_antennae.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Adapted from drawings in “A familiar introduction to the history of insects” by Edward Newman, downloaded from [1] mid 19th cen-
tury (about 1842) Original artist: Edward Newman
• File:InsectLeg.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/InsectLeg.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Nwbeeson

11.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0