USE AND TECHNIQUES OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

Reporter: Andales, Meldgyrie Mae M. B6

Accordingly, having undergraduate or postgraduate and doctorate have to

undergone research – a research that would determine that they have apply theories
and disciplines that they have been studying for many years. It has been said that this
thing becomes “an annual ritual” for students and as part of the research and at the
same time an important element in researching is the review of literature – some
authors would use review of related literature. According to the Sage Publication, that
reviewing the literature is not just about review as far as the meaning is concerned
however, it is a about understanding, knowing, and analyzing “other people’s ideas” on
the knowledge that they convey in their researches which in a way related with your
point of interest.

“Initially we can say that a review of the literature is important because without it
you will not acquire an understanding of your topic, of what has already been
done on it, how it has been researched, and what the key issues are.” (The
Literature Review in Research, Sage Publication)

Thus, these literatures that a researcher need will give the researcher ample of
knowledge to grasp into in relation to the researchers’ point of interest of topic. With this
element, and by reading all the researchers’ literature it will help him to understand,
know, scrutinize, imitated and in some manner be sophisticated in that certain field,
after all the very purpose of reading and having those literature is to be more
knowledgeable with the topic which will be part and as well contribute to your academic
development.

In the perspective of Zulueta and Perez (2010), reviewing literature involves a

systematic process that requires careful and perceptive reading and attention to details
for with such it is all about how the author of the research – from which the researcher
use for review of related literature – conducts the research which reflects on how the
researcher understand and analyze the results of research.
PURPOSES OF THE LITERATURE

Since it is important to cite into why this thing should be done, and how it can be
used in the research but it is more important to first cite into why this – review of
literature – needs to be done. In the book of Creswell (1994), there are 3 purposes of
the literature and these are:

1. It shares with the reader the result of other studies that are closely related to the
study being reported (Fraenkel & Warren, 1990)
2. It relates a study to the larger, outgoing dialogue in the literature about the topic,
filling in the gaps and extending prior studies (Marshall & Rossman, 1989)
3. It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a
benchmarkfor comparing the results of a study with other findings.
However, in the book of Zulueta & Perez (2010), there are four purposes of the
literature and these are:
1. It delimits the research problem.
2. It selects new lines of investigation.
3. It avoids fruitless approaches.
4. It gains methodological insights.

Even with this paper, it explicitly shows that having a review of literature and by reading
different studies – essay, research or articles – about this topic will give us better
understanding and knowledge into the very purpose of conducting or doing a review of
literature, we tend to see different rays of understanding and as well different
perspective of its purposes depending on the how the author saw the topic and style of
conveying knowledge about the topic.

STEPS IN WRITING A RELATED LITERATURE

According to Zulueta & Perez (2010), after the researcher identifies the problem
statement, the researcher is now ready to make literature review and accordingly it has
4 steps.
 1. Search preliminary sources – identify books, articles, professional journals and
other publications which are relevant and significant to your study
2. Use secondary sources – these can be found in other researches by other
researchers that have written reviews of literature that may be relevant to your
study
3. Read primary sources – primary sources can be found in masteral thesis,
dissertation or journal article written by other researchers.
4. Synthesis of the literature – after reading and searching for sources, the
researcher will synthesize the relevance and importance of the literature in your
study and the results of the past study should be compared and contrast.
STEPS IN CONDUCTING A LITERATURE REVIEW
Since literature review means locating and summarizing studies about your topic,
Creswell (2003), like other scholars would do, follow a systematic fashion to capture,
evaluate and summarize the literature and the following are the steps:

Step1: By identifying key words useful in locating material in an academic library

at a college or university, these key words may emerge in identifying a topic, or
they may result from preliminary readings in the library.

Step 2: with these key words in mind, next go to the library and begin searching
the library catalog for holdings (i.e. journals and books). Most major libraries
have computerized data bases of their holdings; Creswell (2002) suggest
focusing initially on journals and books related to the topic. He, also suggest
beginning to search the computerized databases typically reviewed by social
science researcher, such as ERIC, PsycINPO, sociofile and the social science
Citation index (later, these will be reviewed in some detail). These databases are
available online using the library’s Web site, or they may be available on CD-
ROM in a library.

Step 3: Set a priority on the search for journal article and books because they
are easy to locate and obtain. Determine whether these articles and books are
held in your academic library or whether you need to send for them by interlibrary
loan or purchase them through a bookstore.
 Step 4: Using this initial group of articles, look at the articles and photocopy
those that are central to your topic. In the selection process, look over the
abstract and skim the article or chapter. Throughout this process, try simply to
obtain a sense of whether the article or chapter will make a useful contribution to
your understanding of the literature.

Step 5: Identify useful literature and begin designing literature map, a visual
picture of the research literature on your topic. Several possibilities exist for
drawing this map. This picture provides a useful organizing device for positioning
the study within the larger body of the literature on a topic.

Step 6: At the same time, organizing the literature into the literature map and
begin to draft summaries of the most relevant articles. These summaries are
combined into the final literature review that you will write in your proposal or
research study. In addition, include precise references to the literature using an
appropriate style, such as that contained in the American Psychological
Association style manual (American Psychological Association, 2001), So that
you have a complete reference to use at the end of my proposal or study.

Step 7: After summarizing the literature, assemble the literature review, in which
you structure the literature thematically or organize it by important concepts
addressed in the study. End your literature review with a summary of the major
themes found in the literature and suggest that we need further research on the
topic along the lines of my proposed study.

TECHNIQUES IN WRITING A RELATED LITERATURE

There are creative ways in writing related literature. According to Creswell
(1994), whether your study is in quantitative or qualitative, there are approaches and
techniques in identifying, planning, locating and writing a review of literature. In his
book, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative & Mixed Methods, he categorizes the
techniques in writing and these two were: material to include in a review and priority for
reviewing the literature.
 In the aspect of the first category, Creswell (1994) instruct to include only that
essential information that can help and elaborate your research study or essay.
Researcher has to consider what material that needs to be extracted from a research
study and then summarized in the review of literature section. Though it is difficult for a
researcher to analyze and extract information from researches that relates to its study
because there are times, the researcher will be overwhelm by the materials that he/she
has that the researcher has the difficulty and dilemma on what material is best to
support its study. According to the Sage Publication, it needs a great skill to extract and
analyze information that will be helpful in understanding your research study.

However, such issue becomes important since you have reviewed hundreds of
studies thus, Creswell (1994) provided us some points on how to analyze and extract
information from your literature and these are the following:
1. Mention the problem being addressed
2. State the central purpose or focus of the study
3. Briefly state information about the sample, population, or subject
4. Review key results that relate to the study
5. Depending on whether or not the review of is a methodological review, point out
technical or methodological flaws in the study
The above mentioned were used for journal articles whilst essays, opinions, typologies,
and syntheses of the past research, these should be done:
1. Mention the problem being addressed by the article or book
2. Identify the central theme of the study
3. Identify the major conclusions related to this theme
4. If the review type is methodological, mention flaws in reasoning, logic, force of
argument, and so forth.

In the second category, Creswell (1994) recommends that one should establish a
priority of one’s research. What types of literature should be reviewed and on how they
should appear in the paper, is what Creswell (1994) convey in this category and he
recommends researchers to follow or consider this order:
 1. Begin with a journal articles
2. Review books related to the topic
3. Read recent conference paper on a topic
4. Look at the abstract of dissertations (it a researcher is in dissertation proposal
stage)

LITERATURE MAP

In organizing ones literature, one need to use the literature map for it will enables
the researchers to understand how their study of the topic adds, extends, or replicates
research already completed. Literature map, according to Creswell (2003), is a visual
summary of other research similar with your study.

There are different ways on how to make a literature map, but the central idea is
that the researcher begins to build a visual picture of existing research about a topic.
Since map can be created in different ways, one can start doing it by stating the topic to
be researched, in qualitative studies this idea will be the key dependent variable in the
study and in quantitative the idea will be the central focus or phenomenon being
explored.

In the first image, it is a quantitative project about the outdoor science education
program in Nebraska (Locke, 1991). The author chose to track his progress through the
literature by beginning with studies about a definition of outdoor education” whilst in the
second image, is a preliminary analysis of studies about mixed method study, Creswell
(2003) choose to identify topic areas in the literature about mixed-method designs,
indicate key studies, and place my own study within the existing literature.
QUALITATIVE, QUANTITATIVE AND MIXED METHOD THEORIES

Before deliberating the application of qualitative, quantitative and mixed method

theories, let us first describe, understand and know qualitative, quantitative and mixed
method theories. Basically, qualitative research is primarily exploratory research.
According to Wyse (2011), qualitative research is used to gain an understanding of
underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. In Zulueta & Perez (2010), qualitative
research, data were verbal and not numerical. According to them, this research has
roots in the research of the social sciences such as anthropology and sociology.

“It is noted that the qualitative researchers is concerned with the process of
activities or events, they analyze data through inductive reasoning rather than by
statistical procedures” (Zuluesta & Perez, 2010)

This research also used to reveal trends in thoughts and opinions, dive deeper into the
problem and since this research is exploratory, collecting of data will be in the form of
interviews, focus group or group discussions and participation or observations. The
sample size is typically small and the respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota.

In quantitative research, Wyse (2011) said that it is used to quantify problems by

way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into useable
statistics.

“Quantitative research is premised on the assumption that variables be

mathematically measured and researchers who adhere to this approach stress that the
data should be verified. Generally, the quantitative research approach is considered to
be objective; that is, “the scientific method” (Zulueta & Perez, 2010).

This research is used to quantify attitudes, opinions and behaviors and other defined
variables that later on will be the basis of the generalization of the results from the larger
population. This research uses measurable data compared to qualitative research which
formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. The means of data collection of this
research are surveys – online survey, paper survey, mobile survey and kiosk survey,
interviews – face-to-face and telephone, longitudinal studies, website interceptors,
online polls, and systematic observation.

However, in mixed method theory since it is mixing the qualitative and

quantitative, it is methodology for conducting research that involves collecting, analyzing
and integrating the quantitative and qualitative means of data collection. Accordingly, it
is advantageous to use the mixed method of research for the researcher can use
several means in data collection to examine phenomenon which have the possibility of
triangulation. Triangulation, according to FoodRisC (2015), allows one to identify
aspects of phenomenon more accurately by approaching it from different vantage points
using different methods and techniques. Moreover, by mixing both quantitative and
qualitative research and data, the researcher gains in breadth and depth of
understanding and corroboration, while offsetting the weaknesses inherent to using
each approach by itself (FoodRisC, 2015).

THE USE OF QUALITATIVE, QUANTITATIVE AND MIXED METHOD THEORIES IN

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Qualitative Research

As what Creswell (2003), have said that one of the chief reason into why
researchers’ used qualitative research is that the study is exploratory thus, there are not
that much written about a certain topic or the population that is being studied and the
researcher seeks to listen to participants and build an understanding based on their
ideas. Accordingly, there are 2 fundamental ideas in using qualitative research in review
of literature, first is that: it should be used inductively and the latter is: there is a
variation in use of the literature by design type hence, the question into where one
should plan to use the literature in qualitative study is raised. Creswell (2003), offer
placement locations, and literature use in any or all of the offered locations and these
placement locations are:

1. One can discuss the related literature in the introduction of the study.
 If the researcher would use this, it can give a useful backdrop about the problem
– who has written about it, who has studied about it, who has indicated the
importance of studying the issue.
2. Separate section.
Accordingly, this is a model which is typically used by quantitative researches.
This approach is frequently used when the audience consists of individuals or
journals with a positivist orientation.
3. Incorporate related literature in final section.
Most of researchers’ who have used this will compare and contrast with the
results (or themes or categories) of the study to emerge from the study.

Quantitative Research
In another sense, quantitative research includes a substantial amount of
literature at the beginning of a study to provide direction for the research questions or
hypotheses (Creswell, 2003). In planning a quantitative study, the review of literature is
in a separate section which is the common and popular way of reviewing the literature.
Mostly, in quantitative study, the review of literature is in the beginning of a study to
introduce a problem or to describe in detail the existing literature in a section entitled
“related literature” or “review of literature” or something similar. Moreover, there are
times when researchers’ also include review of literature in the end of the study to
compare the results of the study to the existing findings in the literature.
Similar with qualitative, presenting review of literature vary and it was mentioned
by Creswell (2003) that Copper (1984) suggested 3 ways in presenting review of
literature in quantitative study.
1. Integrative – simply summaries of past research. It is commonly used in
dissertation proposal and dissertation.
2. Theoretical Review – which the researcher focuses on extant theory that relates
to the problem that is being studied. This form, accordingly, best demonstrated in
journal articles in which the author integrates the theory into the introduction to
the story.
 3. Methodological Review – the researcher focuses on the methods and definitions.
This review provides an actual critique of strength and weaknesses pf the
method sections.

Mixed Methods Study

As mentioned earlier, the researcher uses both qualitative and quantitative study
however in terms of review of literature, the researcher will either chose quantitative or
qualitative depending on the type of mixed method design being used. “In sequential
design, the literature is presented in each phase in a way consistent with the type of
design being used in that phase” (Creswell, 2003).
“If the study begins with qualitative phase, then the literature is less qualitative
and the researcher may incorporate it more into the end of the study – an inductive
approach to literature study. If the study begins with quantitative phase, then the
investigator is likely to include a substantial literature review that helps to establish a
rational for research questions or hypotheses” (Creswell, 2003). Thus, the approach to
literature used in mixed method study will depend on the type of strategy and the
relative weight given to the qualitative or quantitative research in a study.
Moreover, Creswell (2003), suggested ways in planning to use literature in
qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods study and the following are his suggestions:
 In a qualitative study, use the literature sparingly in the beginning of the plan in
order to convey an inductive design, unless the qualitative strategy-type requires
a substantial literature orientation at the outset.
 Consider the most appropriate place for the literature in a qualitative study and
base the decision on the audience for the project. Keep in mind placing it at the
beginning to “frame” the problem, placing it in a separate section, and using it at
the end of a study to compare and contrast with the findings of the current study.
 Use the literature in a quantitative study deductively as a basis for advancing
research questions or hypotheses.
 Use the literature to introduce the study, describe related literature in a separate
section, or compare extant literature with findings in a quantitative study plan.
  If a separate “review of the literature” is use, consider whether the review will
consist of integrative summaries, theoretical reviews, or methodological reviews.
A typical practice in dissertation writing is to advance an integrative review.
 In a mixed methods study, use the literature in a way that is consistent with the
major type of strategy and the approach qualitative or quantitative-that is most
prevalent in the design

APA CITATION

APA or American Psychological Association is a style commonly used to cite sources

within social science.

Reference Citations in Text

In APA style, in-text citations are placed within sentences and paragraphs so that it is
clear what information is being quoted or paraphrased and whose information is being
cited.

Examples:

Works by a single author

The last name of the author and the year of publication are inserted in the text at the
appropriate point.

from theory on bounded rationality (Simon, 1945)

If the name of the author or the date appear as part of the narrative, cite only missing
information in parentheses.

Simon (1945) posited that

Works by multiple authors

When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs
in the text. In parenthetical material join the names with an ampersand (&).

as has been shown (Leiter & Maslach, 1998)

In the narrative text, join the names with the word "and."

as Leiter and Maslach (1998) demonstrated

When a work has three, four, or five authors, cite all authors the first time the reference
occurs.

Kahneman, Knetsch, and Thaler (1991) found

In all subsequent citations per paragraph, include only the surname of the first author
followed by "et al." (Latin for "and others") and the year of publication.

Kahneman et al. (1991) found

Works by associations, corporations, government agencies, etc.

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(National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2007)

When appropriate, the names of some corporate authors are spelled out in the first
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in this manner is to supply enough information in the text citation for a reader to locate
its source in the Reference List without difficulty.

(NIMH, 2007)
Works with no author

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quotation marks if it refers to an article, chapter of a book, or Web page. Italicize the title
if it refers to a book, periodical, brochure, or report.

on climate change ("Climate and Weather," 1997)

Guide to Agricultural Meteorological Practices (1981)

 Anonymous authors should be listed as such followed by a comma and the date.

on climate change (Anonymous, 2008)

Specific parts of a source

To cite a specific part of a source (always necessary for quotations), include the page,
chapter, etc. (with appropriate abbreviations) in the in-text citation.

(Stigter & Das, 1981, p. 96)

De Waal (1996) overstated the case when he asserted that "we seem to be reaching ... from

the hands of philosophers" (p. 218).

If page numbers are not included in electronic sources (such as Web-based journals),
provide the paragraph number preceded by the abbreviation "para." or the heading and
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Examples:

Articles in journals, magazines, and newspapers

References to periodical articles must include the following elements: author(s), date of
publication, article title, journal title, volume number, issue number (if applicable), and
page numbers.

Journal article, one author, accessed online

Ku, G. (2008). Learning to de-escalate: The effects of regret in escalation of

commitment. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 105(2), 221-

232. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.08.002

Journal article, two authors, accessed online

Sanchez, D., & King-Toler, E. (2007). Addressing disparities consultation and outreach

strategies for university settings. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and

Research, 59(4), 286-295. doi:10.1037/1065- 9293.59.4.286

Journal article, more than two authors, accessed online

Van Vugt, M., Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R. B. (2008). Leadership, followership, and evolution:

Some lessons from the past. American Psychologist, 63(3), 182-196. doi:10.1037/0003-

066X.63.3.182

Article from an Internet-only journal

Hirtle, P. B. (2008, July-August). Copyright renewal, copyright restoration, and the difficulty

of determining copyright status. D-Lib Magazine, 14(7/8). doi:10.1045/july2008-hirtle

Journal article from a subscription database (no DOI)

Colvin, G. (2008, July 21). Information worth billions. Fortune, 158(2), 73-79. Retrieved from

Business Source Complete, EBSCO. Retrieved fromhttp://search.ebscohost.com

Magazine article, in print

Kluger, J. (2008, January 28). Why we love. Time, 171(4), 54-60.

Newspaper article, no author, in print

As prices surge, Thailand pitches OPEC-style rice cartel. (2008, May 5). The Wall Street

Journal, p. A9.

Newspaper article, multiple authors, discontinuous pages, in print

Delaney, K. J., Karnitschnig, M., & Guth, R. A. (2008, May 5). Microsoft ends pursuit of

Yahoo, reassesses its online options. The Wall Street Journal, pp. A1, A12.

Books

References to an entire book must include the following elements: author(s) or editor(s),
date of publication, title, place of publication, and the name of the publisher.

No Author or editor, in print

Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (11th ed.). (2003). Springfield, MA: Merriam-

Webster.

One author, in print

Kidder, T. (1981). The soul of a new machine. Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Company.

Two authors, in print

Frank, R. H., & Bernanke, B. (2007). Principles of macro-economics (3rd ed.). Boston, MA:

McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Corporate author, author as publisher, accessed online

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2000). Tasmanian year book 2000 (No. 1301.6). Canberra,

Australian Capital Territory: Author. Retrieved

fromhttp://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/CA2568710006989...$Fil

e/13016_2000.pdf

Edited book

Gibbs, J. T., & Huang, L. N. (Eds.). (2001). Children of color: Psychological interventions

with culturally diverse youth. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Dissertations

References for dissertations should include the following elements: author, date of
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end of the citation.

Dissertation, accessed online

Young, R. F. (2007). Crossing boundaries in urban ecology: Pathways to sustainable

cities (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses database.

(UMI No. 327681)

Essays or chapters in edited books

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Labajo, J. (2003). Body and voice: The construction of gender in flamenco. In T. Magrini

(Ed.), Music and gender: perspectives from the Mediterranean (pp. 67-86). Chicago, IL:

University of Chicago Press.

Two editors

Hammond, K. R., & Adelman, L. (1986). Science, values, and human judgment. In H. R.

Arkes & K. R. Hammond (Eds.), Judgement and decision making: An interdisciplinary

reader (pp. 127-143). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Encyclopedias or dictionaries and entries in an encyclopedia

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For sources accessed online, include the retrieval date as the entry may be edited over
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Sadie, S., & Tyrrell, J. (Eds.). (2002). The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians (2nd

ed., Vols. 1-29). New York, NY: Grove.

Article from an online encyclopedia

Containerization. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 6, 2008,

fromhttp://search.eb.com

Encyclopedia article

Kinni, T. B. (2004). Disney, Walt (1901-1966): Founder of the Walt Disney Company.

In Encyclopedia of Leadership (Vol. 1, pp. 345-349). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications.

Research reports and papers

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report, give that number in parentheses immediately after the title. If it was accessed
online, include the URL.

Government report, accessed online

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2005). Medicaid drug price comparisons:

Average manufacturer price to published prices (OIG publication No. OEI-05-05-

00240). Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved fromhttp://www.oig.hhs.gov/oei/reports/oei-

05-05-00240.pdf

Government reports, GPO publisher, accessed online

Congressional Budget Office. (2008). Effects of gasoline prices on driving behavior and

vehicle markets: A CBO study (CBO Publication No. 2883). Washington, DC: U.S.
 Government Printing Office. Retrieved

fromhttp://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/88xx/doc8893/01-14-GasolinePrices.pdf

Technical and/or research reports, accessed online

Deming, D., & Dynarski, S. (2008). The lengthening of childhood (NBER Working Paper

14124). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved July 21,

2008, from http://www.nber.org/papers/w14124

Document available on university program or department site

Victor, N. M. (2008). Gazprom: Gas giant under strain. Retrieved from Stanford University,

Program on Energy and Sustainable Development Web

site:http://pesd.stanford.edu/publications/gazprom_gas_giant_under_strain/

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Videocassette/DVD

Achbar, M. (Director/Producer), Abbott, J. (Director), Bakan, J. (Writer), & Simpson, B.

(Producer) (2004). The corporation [DVD]. Canada: Big Picture Media Corporation.

Audio recording

Nhat Hanh, T. (Speaker). (1998). Mindful living: a collection of teachings on love,

mindfulness, and meditation [Cassette Recording]. Boulder, CO: Sounds True Audio.

Motion picture
Gilbert, B. (Producer), & Higgins, C. (Screenwriter/Director). (1980). Nine to five[Motion

Picture]. United States: Twentieth Century Fox.

 Television broadcast

Anderson, R., & Morgan, C. (Producers). (2008, June 20). 60 Minutes [Television

broadcast]. Washington, DC: CBS News.

Television show from a series

Whedon, J. (Director/Writer). (1999, December 14). Hush [Television series episode]. In

Whedon, J., Berman, G., Gallin, S., Kuzui, F., & Kuzui, K. (Executive Producers), Buffy

the Vampire Slayer. Burbank, CA: Warner Bros..

Music recording

Jackson, M. (1982). Beat it. On Thriller [CD]. New York, NY: Sony Music.

Undated Web site content, blogs, and data

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reports, keep in mind the goal of a citation is to give the reader a clear path to the
source material. For electronic and online materials, include stable URL or database
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materials, include the date the resource was accessed.

Blog entry

Arrington, M. (2008, August 5). The viral video guy gets $1 million in funding. Message

posted to http://www.techcrunch.com

Professional Web site

National Renewable Energy Laboratory. (2008). Biofuels. Retrieved May 6, 2008,

fromhttp://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_biofuels.html

Data set from a database

Bloomberg L.P. (2008). Return on capital for Hewitt Packard 12/31/90 to 09/30/08. Retrieved

Dec. 3, 2008, from Bloomberg database.

Central Statistics Office of the Republic of Botswana. (2008). Gross domestic product per

capita 06/01/1994 to 06/01/2008 [statistics]. Available from CEIC Data database.

 Entire Web site
When citing an entire Web site (and not a specific document on that site), no Reference
List entry is required if the address for the site is cited in the text of your paper.

Witchcraft In Europe and America is a site that presents the full text of many essential works

in the literature of witchcraft and demonology (http://www.witchcraft.psmedia.com/).

APSA CITATION

APSA style generally follows Chicago Manual of Style’s author-date citation practice. It
requires parenthetical references within the text of the paper and a list of references at
the end. See the end of this guide for examples of “reference citations in text.” APSA
relies on an author-date system, and provides a pragmatic and simple way to reference
publications in a variety of formats. It concentrates on formats important to political
science, with special attention given to documents produced within the United States
government

Books:

One Author

Hertsgaard, Mark. 1988. On Bended Knee: The Press and the Reagan Presidency.

New York: Schocken Books.

Two Authors

Decker, Scott H., and Barrick Van Winkle. 1996. Life in the Gang: Family, Friends, and

Violence. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Chapter from book:

Wilson, Graham K. 1996. “The Clinton Administration and Interest Groups.” In The

Clinton Presidency: First Appraisals, ed. Colin Campbell and Bert A. Rockman.
Chatham, NJ: Chatham House Publishers.
Journal article, two authors (print, microfilm, PDF):

Herrmann, Richard K, and Jonathan W. Keller. 2004. “Beliefs, Values, and Strategic
Choice: U.S. Leaders’ Decisions to Engage, Contain, and Use Force in an Era of
Globalization.” Journal of Politics 66 (May): 557-80.

Merlo, Alida V., and Peter J. Benekos. 2003. “Defining Juvenile Justice in the 21st
Century.” Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 1 (July): 276-88.

Journal article, one author (from a library subscription database):

Brzoska, Michael. 2003. “From Dumb to Smart? Recent Reforms of U.N. Sanctions.”
Global Governance 9 (October-December): 519-535. Academic Search Premier
(September 27,2005).

Britton, Ann Hartwell. 2006. “Bones of Contention: Custody of Family Pets.” Journal of
the American Academy of Matrimonial Lawyers 20: 1-37. LexisNexis Academic
(January 29,2007).

Newspaper article, one author (print, microfilm, PDF):

Talev, Margaret. 2004. “No Budget Accord in Cards This Week.” Sacramento Bee, 9
July.

Newspaper article, no known author (print, microfilm, PDF):

Sacramento Bee. 2004. “Eyes on Sudan: Victims of Racist Repression Need Help
Now.” 9 July.

Newspaper article, one author (online version):

Frates, Chris. 2003. “High School Junior Suspended after Posting Anti-war Fliers.”
Denver Post, February 28.
http://www.ccmep.org/2003_articles/Iraq/022803_high_school_junior_suspended
_after.htm (September 27, 2005).
Balz, Dan. 2007. ”Mixed Reviews for Clinton in Iowa.” Washington Post, January 29.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2007/01/28/AR200701280
1321.html (January 29, 2007).

Report from a private organization available on organization Web site:

Burtless, Gary. 2004. “The Labor Force Status of Mothers Who Are Most Likely to
Receive Welfare: Changes Following Reform.” The Brookings Institution.
http://www.brookings.edu/ views/oped/burtless/20040330.htm (April 10, 2005).

Death Penalty Information Center. 2005. “Crimes Punishable by the Death Penalty.”
http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?did=144&scid=10 (January 29,
2007).

Executive Agency Government Documents (online versions):

California Department of Education. Professional Development and Curriculum Support

Division. 2004. NCLB Teacher Requirements Resource Guide.
http://www.cde.ca.gov/nclb/sr/tq/documents/nclbresourceguide.pdf (November
15, 2006).

U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. 2004. Crime
and Safety in America’s Public Schools: Selected Findings from the School
Survey on Crime and Safety. http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2004/2004370.pdf (July 23,
2005).

U.S. Department of Justice. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

1997. Juvenile Justice Reform Initiatives in the States 1994-1996.
http://ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/pubs/reform/contents.html (November 15, 2006).

Bills (online versions):

California Legislature. Assembly. 2004. Homeowner’s Insurance: Dog Breeds. 2003-

2004 sess., A.B. 2399. http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/03-04//bill/asm/ab_2351-
2400/ab_2399_bill_20040219_introduced.html (November 15, 2006).
U.S. Congress. House. 2005. Clean, Learn, Educate, Abolish, Neutralize, and
Undermine Production (CLEAN-UP) of Methamphetamines Act. 109th Cong., 1st
sess., H.R. 13. LexisNexis Congressional (November 15, 2006).

U.S. Congress. Senate. 2005. Northern California Coastal Wild Heritage Wilderness
Act. 109th Cong., 1st sess., S. 128. http://thomas.loc.gov/cgibin/
query/D?c109:1:./temp/~c109a6k5ze:: (November 15, 2006).

Laws and Codes (online versions):

Children’s Health Act of 2000. 2000. United States Public Laws. 106th Cong., 2nd
sess., P.L. 106-310. LexisNexis Congressional (November 14, 2006).

Children’s Health Act of 2000. 2000. Statutes at Large. Vol. 114, p. 1101. LexisNexis

Congressional (November 13, 2006).

Legislative Reports (online versions):

California Legislature. Assembly. Committee on Insurance. 2004. Homeowner’s

Insurance: Dog Breeds. 2003-2004 Sess., 5 May.
http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/03-04//bill/asm/ab_2351-
2400/ab_2399_cfa_20040503_124551_asm_comm.html (November 15, 2006).

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Judiciary. 2005. Private Property Rights

Protection Act of 2005. 109th Cong., 1st sess., H. Rept. 262. LexisNexis
Congressional (November 13, 2006).

Legislative Hearings -- Entire hearing document cited (online version):

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Energy and Commerce. 2005. Protecting

Property Rights After Kelo. 109th Cong., 1st sess., 19 October. LexisNexis
Congressional (November 13,2006).

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Reform. 2004. Balancing Act: The
Health Advantages of Naturally-Occurring Hormones in Hormone Replacement
Therapy. 108th Cong., 2nd Sess., 22 July.
http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/useftp.cgi?IPaddress=162.140.64.120&fil
ename=97963.wais&directory=/diskb/wais/data/108_house_hearings (November
15, 2006).

Legislative Hearings -- Only one piece of testimony cited (online versions):

Anderson, Steven D. 2005. “Review of Kelo v. New London Court Case on Eminent
Domain.” In Protecting Property Rights After Kelo, U.S. Congress. House.
Committee on Energy and Commerce. 109th Cong., 1st sess., 19 October.
LexisNexis Congressional (November 13,2006)

Presidential and Gubernatorial Documents (online versions):

Bush, George W. 2004. “Remarks to the American Conservative Union 40th

Anniversary Gala.” The American Presidency Project. May 13.
http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=62738 (November 14, 2006).

Case Citations – Court Opinions:

Online

Marbury v. Madison. 1803. 5 U.S. 137; 2 L. Ed. 60. LexisNexis Academic (November
15, 2006). Texas Beef Group v. Winfrey. 1998. 11 F.Supp. 2d 858. LexisNexis
Academic (November 15,2006).

Print, PDF:

Marbury v. Madison. 1803. 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137; 2 L. Ed. 60.

In text citation:

Author’s Name in Text (no page number):

Walker (2000) compared reaction times...

Author’s Name in Reference (no page number):

In a recent study of reaction times (Walker 2000)...

Author’s Name in Text (page number):

According to Jones (1998), “Students often had difficulty using APSA style” (199)

Author’s Name in Reference (page number):

She stated, “Students often had difficulty using APSA style.” (Jones 1998, 199)

Legal Citations (no page number):

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that foreigners currently held in U.S. custody at
Guantanamo Bay are entitled to habeas corpus rights. (Rasul v. Bush 2004)

Government Report (page number):

Although many schools report incidents of violence, far fewer experience “serious
violent incidents.” (U.S. Department of Education 2004, 2)
REFERENCE:

Creswell, John W. (1994) Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approach.

California, USA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Creswell, John W. (2003) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Method
Approach. 2nd Ed. California, USA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Zulueta, Franciso M. & Perez, Jose R. (2010) Methods of Research: Thesis Writing and
Applied Statistics. Mandaluyong City: National Bookstore

No Author (No date). The Literature Review in Research. SAGE Publications

Wyse, Susan E. (2011, September 16). What is the Difference between Quantitative
research and Qualitative Research? Retrieved from
http://www.snapsurveys.com/blog/what-is-the-difference-between-qualitative-
research-and-quantitative-research/

Cornell University Library. (2002). APA Citation Style. Retrieved April 2011, from
https://www.library.cornell.edu/research/citation/apa