INTRODUCTION

In the present day world ‘marketing’ is all pervasive. We are exposed to marketing of products,
services and ideas almost every day. The study of marketing is very interesting in the sense that
every body of us has performed marketing activities in one form or other. For example, during
college days, working part time at a fast food restaurant to help fund one’s own education or
persuading parents to buy a new music system. When a sales person engaged in selling a T.V., a
doctor treats a patient or the district administration asks its people to get their vehicles checked
for pollution, everybody is marketing something to the target audience. Marketing is essentially
about marshalling all the resources of an organization to meet the needs of the consumers on
whom the entire organization depends. Although each of these examples are different, they all
have something in common; they consist a variety of marketing activities. Many definitions have
emerged to describe marketing activities.

DEFINITIONS AND MEANINGS

According to American Marketing Association “Marketing is the process of planning and

executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services
to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives”.

Ramaswamy and Namakumari defines marketing “It is the total system of interacting business
activities designed to plan, promote and distribute need satisfying products and services to
existing and potential consumers”.

Philip Kotler defines marketing “It is a social and managerial process by which individuals and
groups obtain what they need and want through creating, offering and exchanging products of
value with others”. This definition of marketing is the most widely accepted by marketing
educators and practitioners. It highlights the core concepts like needs, wants, demands, products,
value, cost, and satisfaction.

So, we can conclude that marketing is the process of identifying the needs of the target audience
and provide the products accordingly in exchange of some value. This process mainly consists of
two parties. On the one side, marketers are there who go to resource markets (raw material
markets, labour markets, money market, and so on) to buy these resources and shape them into
goods and services for their target consumers. On the other hand, consumers are there who
provide vital information to the marketers besides money for using various products and
services.

The Production Concept

It is one of the oldest philosophies in business. This concept views that consumers will prefer
those products that are widely available and cheaper in cost. The organizations are
production-oriented in nature and try to achieve high production efficiency and emphasize on
wider supply of goods and services. This concept began in 1600s with the colonization of
America and continued till the later part of 19th century. In those days, primary motive of the
organizations was to make the product available to consumers and to kept the price low.
In those days, the demand of products used to exceeds the supply. In this particular situation
consumers were more interested in obtaining the products rather than its quality and features.
The producers used to enjoy the huge economies of scale and it was very difficult for the new
entrant to enter into the market as the existent marketers used to enjoy a kind of monopoly
situation. Henry Ford was the pioneer in the 1900s to expand the automobile market on the basis
of production concept by providing his consumers only a single version of car i.e. T-model in
black colour. But the marketers, after a certain period of time, could not get the best of consumer
patronage. The reason was that the consumers were motivated to seek varieties while purchasing.
As a result, the production concept fails to serve as the right marketing philosophy for the
enterprises.

The Product Concept

The product concept assumes that consumers will buy the product that offers them the
highest quality, the best performance, and the most features. A product orientation leads a
company to try constantly to improve the quality of its product. Under this concept, it is believed
by the managers that consumers prefer well-made products and can appreciate better quality and
performance. Organizations that are devoted to the product concept of marketing, believe that
consumers would automatically favor for products of high quality. The managers of these
organizations spend considerable energy, time and money on research and development to
introduce quality and variations in products. However, some of the managers are caught up in a
love affair with their product and do not even realize that the product is not required in the
market. This particular situation is described as ‘marketing myopia’ by the great philosopher of
marketing Professor Theodore Levitt. Marketing myopia means a wrong and crooked perception
of marketing and a short-sightedness about business. It is in form of excessive attention to the
quality of the product thereby leaving other aspects without any due care. General Motors
designed a beautiful small-sized car with each and every attribute in it but that was a total failure
because at that time, that was not required by the consumers. The marketers can add any kind of
attribute to their products but if the consumers are not aware of regarding the availability, how
can they go for purchasing that particular product. This phenomenon gave birth to another
concept i.e. selling concept.

The selling concept/sales concept

The selling concept is based on the assumption that consumers are unlikely to buy a
product unless and until they are actively and aggressively convinced to do so. The idea was
evolved through the views of may academicians and practioners that unless you make your
consumers aware about the product or if he/she is not persuaded, the consumers may develop a
tendency to ignore your products. This philosophy maintains the view that an organization
cannot expect its products to get picked up automatically by the customers. The organization has
to put certain amount of efforts consciously to push its products. In this concept, the firm makes
the product first and then spells out how to sell it and make profit. Aggressive advertising,
personal selling, large-scale promotional instruments like discounts and free gifts etc. are
normally employed by the organizations to rely on this concept. The problem with the selling
orientation is that it does not take consumer satisfaction into account. In this situation, when
consumers are compelled to buy products that they don’t need and consequently unhappiness is
likely to be communicated through negative word-of-mouth that may dissuade other potential
consumers from making a similar purchase. Furthermore, when the product or service is not in a
position to fulfil the consumers’ needs, there is a remote possibility of the repeat purchase.

The marketing concept

In the 1950s, some marketers started realizing that they could sell more products with more ease
and comfort, if they produced only those products which already had a place in the minds of the
consumers. Instead of trying to sell them the products that had already produced, marketing-
oriented firms strived to produce only those products which have been produced according to the
needs of the consumers. The marketing concept emphasis that an organization should strive
to satisfy the needs of the consumers by identifying them and then produce the products
accordingly through a co-ordinated set of activities. Satisfying the customer should be the
major focus of all the organizational activities. Here instead of focusing on quality or sale,
consumer’s need and desired satisfaction become the premise which is a must delivered
phenomenon to be successful in the era of competition. To identify unsatisfied consumer needs,
organization’s had to go for extensive marketing research. While doing so, it was discovered that
consumers were highly complex individuals, possessing a wide variety of innate and acquired
needs. Hence, the study of consumer needs has become the basis of another discipline also i.e.
consumer behavior.

The societal marketing concept

As our society moves through the 1990s, the marketing concept continues to take on new
meanings. The old and traditional concept of marketing has emphasized and focused on the
satisfaction of consumers’ needs and wants to meet the objectives and goals of the organizations.
But the ever changing scenario in the field of marketing brought in a third consideration and that
is the welfare of society. In this philosophy, emphasis is being placed on how certain
marketing activities and efforts affect society as a whole in the era of limited resources,
environmental degradation and global competition. This philosophy puts a question mark
whether satisfying consumers’ need serve the long term intervals of the society or not. Hence,
the new concept emerged as the societal marketing concept where it is emphasized that besides
satisfying consumer needs, long run societal welfare has to be considered by the marketers. The
marketers have to adopt social and ethical considerations into their marketing practices. They
must make a balance between the different criteria of organization’s profits, consumer’s
satisfaction and public interest as a whole.

SCOPE OF MARKETING

Marketing management has become the subject of growing interest for everybody in today’s
scenario. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to discuss the scope of marketing. It can be
understood in terms of functions that a marketing manager performs. Let’s discuss some of the
issues that are undertaken by a marketing manager so as to elaborate the scope of marketing.

(a) Marketing Research: While sitting in a company’s office, no one can identify the needs and
wants of the consumers. For that purpose, research has to be carried out in analyzing the
consumer’s needs, their tastes and preferences, brand image of the product and effectiveness of
certain advertisements etc. These are the major areas of research where a marketing manager
requires information to be successful in market because by knowing this information, he takes
timely, accurate and better decision. The marketing research not only gathers information
regarding certain problem but also suggests corrective and action oriented steps.

(b) Product Planning and Development: A product is a bundle of utility offered to consumers
to satisfy their needs. Through marketing research, a marketer is able to know the needs of the
consumers but what kind of storage and transportation is required, it depends upon the nature of
the product. Product must be according to the requirement and must also be according to the
paying capacity of the consumers. There are number of decisions involved in this process like
supplier of raw material, packaging, storage and distribution etc.

(c) Pricing: One of the important functions of a marketing manager is to determine the price of a
product. Price is always influenced by the cost, services attached to it, government policy,
competitor’s prices and marketer’s requirement of profit margin. A good pricing policy is a
significant factor to attract the consumers because price is the only ‘p’ of marketing mix which
generates revenue for the organizations.

(d) Financing: Financing of consumer purchasing has become an important part of modern
marketing. The marketing manager plays an important role in the finance department in this
regard and consequences thereto. In the era of global competition when there is fierce
competition and so many alternatives are available to a customer, certain finance schemes have
become an important device to increase the volume of sales. Since the interest rates have come
down significantly, financing facilities have taken the shape of lubricants that facilitates the
operation of the marketing machine. In the era when the world economy is passing through a
great recession, these facilities help generating revenue for the respective organizations and
consequently are helping the economy to revive back and for the consumers those who can
afford to realize their dreams of having a color TV or small car, can fulfill their dreams through
these instruments of marketing.

(e) Insurance: When goods and services are exchanged from one hand to another, from one
place to another place, a large number of risk factors are involved. Marketing has now spread its
arms to cover these risks through insurance activities. National calamities like flood and
earthquake or damage of goods and services due to fire, theft or accident, may cause big losses
and can hamper the entire business. The various insurance companies provide the protection
against these risks by getting a nominal amount of premium in return.

(f) Advertising: In this era of competitive world, advertising has become an important
instrument in the hands of marketers. It makes the consumer aware about the product, makes him
curious about the product and then forces him for action and thus promotes the sale. According
to American Marketing Association “Advertising is a paid form of non-personal presentation by
an identified sponsor”. It is a non-personnel link between a marketer and the consumer. Through
advertising marketers are able to position their products in the minds of the consumer through
various media like newspapers, magazines, television, radio, hoardings, window display and
internet etc.
Apart from the above areas there are many more business areas where marketing activities have
these vast scope but besides business areas, marketing has its scope in the non-business or non-
profit sector also. A student who tries to occupy the front seat is also engrossed in doing
marketing. Churches, hospitals, colleges and universities are the other non-profit sector where
marketing activities are seriously performed.

Needs: It refers to the state of felt deprivation. How individuals go about satisfying a particular
need is conditioned by the cultural values of that society which he/she belongs to.
Wants: Wants are the specific satisfiers to satisfy a particular need. For example, transportation
is a need and a car is a satisfier.

Demands are wants for specific products that are backed up by an ability and willingness to buy them.
For example, many people want to buy a luxury car but they lack in purchasing power.
Value: Value is represented by the ratio of perceived benefits to the price paid. Value can be
added by better specifying a product offer in accordance with consumer’s expectations.

Market: Market consists of potential buyers and sellers where they interact for an exchange
process. Earlier people used to describe it as a place only.
Marketing myopia: It means a wrong perception about marketing where excessive attention is
given to the quality without taking care of the actual needs of the consumers.

Customer value: Customer value is the ratio of perceived benefits and costs that the customer
has to incur in acquiring that product or service. The emphasis here is on customers’ perceptions
and not the accurate, objective evaluation of value and costs, as customers often do not judge
values and costs accurately. Value indicates that a certain product or service is perceived as
having the kinds and amounts of benefits (economic, functional, and emotional) that customers
expect from that product or service at a certain cost (monetary costs, time costs, psychic, and
energy costs). Thus, value is primarily determined by a combination of quality, service, and cost.

Consumer Markets: Companies selling mass consumer goods and services such as bread, soft
drinks, shoes and cosmetics facing the everyday consumer in order to satisfy needs.

Business Markets: Companies selling business goods and services usually facing well trained and
well informed buyers who are skilled in evaluating competitive offerings.

Global markets: Companies selling goods and services in a global marketplace are faced with
well-informed buyers with the added dimension of differences in communication, culture,
negotiation and language.

MARKETING MIX
In the words of Philip Kotler, “Marketing Mix is the set of controllable variables and their levels
that the firm uses to influence the target market.” Marketing mix is a combination of various
elements, namely, Product, Price, Place (replaced by Physical Distribution) and Promotion.
The various important elements of marketing mix are briefly discussed as follows;

PRODUCT: It is the thing possessing utility. It is the bundle of value the marketer offers to
potential customers. Today manufacturers are realizing that customer expects more than just the
basic product. Therefore, the product must satisfy the consumers needs. The manufacturer first
understands the consumer needs and then decides the type, shape, design, brand, package etc. of
the goods to be produced. The product is a marketer’s primary vehicle for delivering customer
satisfaction.
PRICE: it is the amount of money asked in exchange for product. It must be reasonable so as to
enable the consumer to pay for the product. While fixing the price of a product, the management
considers certain factors such as cost, ability of the consumers, competition, discount,
allowances, margin of profit etc.

PLACE (PHYSICAL DISTRIBUTION): It is the delivery of products at the right time and at the right
place. It is the combination of decision regarding channel of distribution (wholesalers, retailers
etc.), transportation, warehousing and inventory control.

PROMOTION: It consist of all activities aimed at inducing and motivating customers to buy the
product. The selection of alternatives determines the success of marketing efforts. Some firms
use advertising, some others personal selling or sales promotion. Thus promotion includes
advertising public relations, personal selling and sales promotion.

People: It is an essential ingredient to any service provision is the use of appropriate staff and people.
Recruiting the right staff and training them appropriately in the delivery of their service is essential if the
organization wants to obtain a form of competitive advantage. Consumers make judgments and
deliver perceptions of the service based on the employees they interact with. Staff should have the
appropriate interpersonal skills, aptitude, and service knowledge to provide the service that consumers are
paying for.
Process: It refers to the systems used to assist the organisation in delivering the service. Imagine
you walk into Burger King and you order a Whopper Meal and you get it delivered within 2
minutes. What was the process that allowed you to obtain an efficient service delivery? Banks
that send out Credit Cards automatically when their customers old one has expired again require
an efficient process to identify expiry dates and renewal. An efficient service that replaces old
credit cards will foster consumer loyalty and confidence in the company.

Physical Evidence: Where is the service being delivered? Physical Evidence is the element of
the service mix which allows the consumer again to make judgments on the organisation. If you
walk into a restaurant your expectations are of a clean, friendly environment. On an aircraft if
you travel first class you expect enough room to be able to lay down! Physical evidence is an
essential ingredient of the service mix, consumers will make perceptions based on their sight of
the service provision which will have an impact on the organisations perceptual plan of the
service.

.
THE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT

It refers to all external forces which have a bearing on the functioning of the business. According
to Barry M. Richman and Melvgn Copen “Environment consists of factors that are largely if not
totally, external and beyond the control of individual industrial enterprise and their
managements. These are essentially the ‘givers’ within which firms and their management must
operate in a specific country and they vary, often greatly, from country to country”.
William F. Glucck defines marketing environment “as the process by which strategists monitor
the economic, governmental, market, supplier, technological, geographic, and social settings to
determine opportunities and threats to their firms”.
According to Skinner “Marketing environment consists of all the forces outside an
organization that directly or indirectly influence its marketing activities, includes
competition, regulation, politics, society, economic conditions, and technology”.

CONSTITUENTS OF MARKETING ENVIRONMENT

Internal Environment

There are number of factors which influence various strategies and decisions within the
organization’s boundaries. These factors are known as internal factors and are given below:

(a) Human Resources: It involves planning, acquisition, and development of human resources
necessary for organizational success. It points out that people are valuable resources requiring
careful attention and nurturing. Progressive and successful organization’s treat all employees as
valuable human resources. The organization’s strengths and weaknesses are also determined by
the skill, quality, morale, commitment and attitudes of the employees. Organizations face
difficulties while carrying out modernization or restructuring process in form of resistance of the
employees. So, the issues related to morale and attitudes should seriously be considered by the
management. Moreover, global competitive pressures have made the skilful management of
human resources more important than ever. The support from different levels of employees helps
the management in making decisions and implementing them.

(b) Company Image: One company may issue shares and debentures to the public to raise
money and its instruments are oversubscribed while the other company make seek the help of
different intermediaries like underwriters to generate finance from the public. This difference
underlines the distinction between the images of the two companies. The image of the company
also matters in certain other decisions as well like forming joint ventures, entering contracts with
the other company or launching new products etc. Therefore, building company image should
also be a major consideration for the managers.

(c) Management Structure: Gone are the days when business was carried out by the single
entrepreneur or in the shape of partnerships. Now it has reshaped itself into the formation of
company where it is run and controlled by the board of directors who influence almost every
decision. Therefore, the composition of board of directors and nominees of different financial
institutions could be very decisive in several critical decisions. The extent of professionalization
is also a crucial factor while taking business decisions.

(d) Physical Assets: To enjoy economies of scale, smooth supply of produced materials, and
efficient production capacity are some of the important factors of business which in turn depends
upon the physical assets of an organization. These factors should always be kept in mind by the
managers because these play a vital role in determining the competitive status of a firm or an
organization.

(e) R & D and Technological Capabilities: Technology is the application of organized

knowledge to help solve problems in our society. The organization’s which are using appropriate
technologies enjoy a competitive advantage over their competitors. The organization’s which do
not possess strong Research and Development departments always lag behind in innovations
which seem to be a prerequisite for success in today’s business. Therefore, R & D and
technological capabilities of an organization determine a firm’s ability to innovate and compete.
(f) Marketing Resources: The organization’s which possess a strong base of marketing
resources like talented marketing men, strong brand image, smart sales persons, identifiable
products, wider and smooth distribution network and high quality of product support and
marketing support services make effortless inroads in the target market. The companies which
are strong on above-mentioned counts can also enjoy the fruits of brand extension, form
extension and new product introduction etc. in the market.

(g) Financial Factors: The performance of the organization is also affected by the certain
financial factors like capital structure, financial position etc. Certain strategies and decisions are
determined on the basis of such factors. The ultimate survival of organization’s in both the public
and private sectors is dictated largely by how proficiently available funds are managed.
So, these are some of factors related to the internal environment of an organization. These factors
are generally regarded as controllable factors because the organization commands a fair amount
of control over these factors and can modify or alter as per the requirement of the organization.

External Environment
Companies operate in the external environment as well that forces and shape opportunities as
well as threats. These forces represent “uncontrollable”, which the company must monitor and
respond to. SWOT (Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis is very much
essential for the business policy formulation which one could do only after examination of
external environment. The external business environment consists of macro environment and
micro environment.

A) Micro Environment
It is the company’s immediate environment where routine activities are affected by the certain
actors. Suppliers, marketing intermediaries, competitors, customers and the publics operate
within this environment. It is not necessary that the micro factors affect all the firms. Some of the
factors may affect a particular firm and do not disturb the other ones. So, it depends on what type
of industry a firm belongs to. Now let’s discuss in brief some of the micro environmental factors.
(a) Suppliers: The supplier to a firm can alter its competitive position and marketing capabilities.
These can be raw material suppliers, energy suppliers, suppliers of labour and capital. The
relationship between suppliers and the firm epitomizes a power equation between them. This
equation is based on the industry conditions and the extent to which each of them is dependent
on the other. For the smooth functioning of business, reliable source of supply is a prerequisite.
If any kind of uncertainties prevail regarding the supply of the raw materials, it often compels a
firm to maintain a high inventory which ultimately leads to the higher cost of production.
Therefore, dependence on a single supplier is a risky proposition. Because of the sensitivity of
the issue, firm should develop relations with different suppliers otherwise it could lead to a
chaotic situation. Simultaneously firms should reduce the stock so as to reduce the costs.

(b) Customers: According to Peter F. Drucker “the motive of the business is to create
customers”, because a business survives only due to its customers. Successful companies
recognize and respond to the unmet needs of the consumers profitably and in continuous manner.
Because unmet needs always exist, companies could make a fortune if they meet those needs.
For example it is the era when we could witness the increasing participation of women in the
different jobs which has already given birth to the child care business, increased consumption of
different household utilities like microwave ovens, washing machines and food processors etc. A
firm should also target the different segments on the basis of their tastes and preferences because
depending upon a single customer is often risky. So, monitoring the customer sensitivity is a pre
condition for the success of business.

(c) Competitors: A firm’s products/services are also affected by the nature and intensity of
competition in an industry. A firm should extend its competitive analysis to include substitutes
also besides scanning direct competitors. The objective of such an analysis is to assess and
predict each competitor’s response to changes in the firm’s strategy and industry conditions. This
kind of analysis not only ensures the firm’s competitive position in the market but also enables it
to identify its major rival in the industry. Besides the existing competitors, it is also necessary to
have an eye on the potential competitors who may enter the industry although forecasting of such
competitors is a difficult task. Thus an analysis of competition is critical for not only evolving
competitive strategy but also for strengthening a firm’s capabilities.

(d) Marketing Intermediaries: Marketing intermediaries provide a vital link between the
organization and the consumers. These people include middlemen such as agents or brokers who
help the firm to reach out to its customers. Physical distribution entities such as stockists or
warehouse providers or transporters ensure the smooth supply of the goods from their origin to
the final destination. There are certain marketing research agencies which assist the organization
in finding out the consumers so that they can target and promote their products to the right
consumers. Financial middlemen are also there who finance the marketing activities such as
transportation and advertising etc. A firm should ensure that the link between organization and
intermediaries is appropriate and smooth because a wrong choice of the link may cost the
organization heavily. Therefore, a continuous vigil of all the intermediaries is a must.

(e) Publics: an organization has an interface with many publics during its life time. According to
Cherrunilam “A public is any group that has an actual or potential interest in or impact on an
organization’s ability to achieve its interests”. The public includes local publics, media and
action groups etc. The organizations are affected by certain acts of these publics depending upon
the circumstances. For example, if a business unit is establishment in a particular locality then it
has to provide employment to the localities at least to the unskilled labour otherwise local group
may harm that very business or they may interrupt the functioning of the business. The media
has also to be taken into confidence because in turned hostile they may tarnish the image of the
organization unnecessarily. Simultaneously media may disseminate vital information to the
target audiences. Action groups can also create hindrances in the name of exploitation of
consumers or on the issue of environmental pollution. The business suffers due to their activities.

Therefore, their concerns should also be kept in mind. Albeit, it is wrong to think that all publics
are threats to the business yet their concerns should be considered up to a certain level.

(B) Macro Environment

With the rapidly changing scenario, the firm must monitor the major forces like demographic,
economic, technological, political/legal and social/cultural forces. The business must pay
attention to their casual interactions since these factors set the stage for certain opportunities as
well as threats. These macro factors are, generally, more uncontrollable than the micro factors. A
brief discussion on the important macro environmental factors is given below:
(a) Demographic Environment: The first macro environmental factor that businessmen monitor
is population because business is people and they create markets. Business people are keenly
interested in the size and growth rate of population across the different regions, age distribution,
educational levels, household patterns, mixture of different racial groups and regional
characteristics. For ensuring the success of the business incessant watching of these demographic
factors is a prerequisite. To enter into a particular segment, a marketer needs to understand
composition of that segment with respect to different demographic factors in that very segment
so as to decide the optimal marketing mix and also take certain strategic decisions related to it.
For example, if the youth form a large proportion of the population, it is but natural for firms to
develop their products according to the requirement of this group. Besides the age, it is also
necessary to break up population according to sex-wise and also the role of women. Today we
can observe that more and more women have taken to work and professions and hence it can be
seen that many time saving appliances are available in the market. Each gender group has
different range of product and service needs and media and retail preferences, which help
marketers to fine-tune their market offers.

There is yet another dimension of population changes which a businessman needs to address. For
example, occupation and literacy profile of the targeted segment. The higher literacy level will
imply a more demanding consumer as he is in the touch of the various media which acquaint him
with information, and on the other hand low literacy make the marketers look for other method
of communication. The occupation of the population also affects the choice of the products and
media habits. Any significant irrigation of the population from one area to another, rural to
urban, is another important environmental factor which calls for the marketer’s attention. For
example, the movement from north-India to South-India will reduce the demand for warm
clothing and home heating equipment on the one hand and will increase the demand for air
conditioning on the other hand. So, the companies that carefully analyze their markets can find
major opportunities.

(b) Economic Environment: Besides people, markets require purchasing power and that depends
upon current income, savings, prices, debt and credit facilities etc. The economic environment
affects the demand structure of any industry or product. The following factors should always be
kept in mind by the business people to determine the success of the business. (i) Per capita
income
(ii) Gross national product
(iii) Fiscal and monitory policies
(iv) Ratio of interest changed by different financial institutions
(v) Industry life cycle and current phase
(vi) Trends of inflation or deflation

Each of the above factors can pose an opportunity as well as threat to a firm. For example, in an
under-developed economy, the low demand for the product is due to the low income level of the
people. In such a situation a firm or company cannot generate the purchasing power of the
people so as to generate the demand of the products. But it can develop a low priced product to
suit the low income market otherwise it will be slipped out from the market. Similarly, an
industry gets a number of incentives and support from the government if it comes under the
purview of priority sector whereas some industries face tough task if they are regarded as
belonging to non-essential or low priority sectors.

In the industry life cycle, timing is everything when it comes to making good cycle-sensitive
decisions. The managers need to make appropriate cutbacks prior to the onslaught of recession
because at that time sales are bound to decline which leads to increasing inventories and idle
resources and that is costly. On the other hand, business people cannot afford to get caught short
during a period of rapid expansion. This is where accurate economic forecasts are a necessity and
therefore, a manager must pay careful attention to the major economic changes.

(c) Technological Environment: Technology is a term that ignites passionate debates in many
circles these days. According to some people technology have been instrumental in
environmental destruction and cultural fragmentation whereas some others view that it has
effected economic and social progress. But no doubt, it has released wonders to the world such
as penicillin, open-heart surgery, family planning devices and some other blessings like
automobile, cellular phones and internet services etc. It has also been responsible for hydrogen
bomb and nerve gas. But the businesses that ignored technological developments, had to go from
the world map. For example, in India, cars like Ambassador and Premier had to go from the
scene because of obsolete technology. Likewise, containerized movement of goods, deep
freezers, trawlers fitted with freezers etc. have affected the operations of all firms including those
involved in seafood industry. Now it has been ensured that perishable goods can be transported
in a safer manner. Explosion in information technology has made the position of some firms
vulnerable. The life cycles of the products have reduced and expectations of the consumers are
becoming higher and higher due to all these technological changes. To cope up with this kind of
scenario, a continuous vigil of the happenings and adequate investment in R & D needs to be
earmarked by the marketer. Marketers must also be aware of certain government regulations
while developing and launching new products with latest technological innovations.

(d) Political/Legal Environment: Business decisions are strongly affected by developments in

the political and legal environment. This environment consists of laws, regulations and policies
that influence and limit various organizations. Sometimes these laws create opportunities for the
business but these may also pose certain threats. For example, if the government specifies that
certain products need mandatory packaging then it will boost the cardboard and packaging
companies but it will add to the cost of the product. Regulations in advertising, like a ban on
advertisement of certain products like liquor, cigarettes and pan masalas and hoarding of food
products, gas and kerosene are the reality of today’s business. Business legislations ensure
specific purposes to protect business itself as well as the society from unfair competitions; to
protect consumers from unfair business practices and to protect the interest of the society from
unbridled business behavior. In India business is regulated through certain laws like Monopolies
and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 (MRTP Act), Foreign Exchange and Regulation Act,
1973 (FERA), Partnership Act 1932, Consumer Protection Act, 1986 (CPA), and Companies
Act, 1956 etc. A businessman needs to understand various policies and political ideologies
because these have a profound impact on the functioning and success of the business.

(e) Social-cultural Environment: Society shapes the beliefs, values, norms, attitudes, education
and ethics of the people in which they grow up and these factors exercise a great influence on the
businesses which by far are beyond the company’s control. All these factors are classified as
social-cultural factors of the business. The buying and consumption pattern of the people are
very much determined by these factors and cost of ignoring the customs, tastes and preferences
etc. of the people could be very high for a business. Consumers depend on cultural prescriptions
to guide their behavior, and they assume that others will behave in ways that are consistent with
their culture. Culture unites a group of people in a unique way and support the group’s unity. As
consumers, people expect that businessman will deliver according to the values, customs and
rituals of the existing culture. As the business is going global day by day and the world is at the
verge of ‘global village’ the need for developing understanding of cultural differences has
become essential to survive.
Therefore, the marketers who wish to be the part of the ongoing process need to understand the
process of acculturation so that they can develop ways to handle the consumers of different
cultures. People’s attitudes toward business is also determined by the culture. ‘What is right and
what is wrong’ are basic to all businesses and for doing or not doing a particular work is judged
on the basis of prevalent culture and also determines ethical code of conduct. Despite the
pervasive nature of culture, not all people within a society think, feel, and act the same way.
Every society has subcultures- group of people who share certain values but exhibit them in
different ways. Within a society such as the India, there are the different tastes and preferences of
the different strata. Like a Punjabi has altogether different preferences then that of a South Indian
in the name of certain products like food and clothing, and the shrewd marketers have always
capitalized on this kind of opportunities. Hence, a thorough understanding of social-cultural
environment is imperative in order to be successful.

Why Analyze the Marketing Environment?

1. Knowledge of Marketing Environment is Central to Marketing Management

Marketing management rests squarely on the knowledge of the marketing environment.

Environment plays a crucial role in marketing and that securing the right fit between the
environment and the firm, using the marketing mix as the tool, is the crux of marketing. The firm
has to know where the environment is heading, what trends are emerging therein and what
should be its response to the environmental changes. Only by analyzing the environment, can the
firm grapple with these issues.

2. Strategic Response to Environment is Possible only with Proper Environment

Analysis

Facilitating the corporation’s strategic response to the changes taking place in environmental
factors is the ultimate purpose of environment analysis. The firm has to come up with alternative
programmes and strategies in line with environmental realities. This is possible only with proper
environment analysis. It helps strategic response by highlighting opportunities, the pursuit of
which will help the firm attain its objectives. It helps assess the attractiveness and profitability
position of these opportunities, and helps prepare a shortlist of those which are relevant to the
firm and which can be pursued by it.

Purpose of Marketing Environment Analysis.

1.To know where the environment is heading; to observe and size up the relevant events and

trends in the environment.

2. To discern which events and trends are favorable from the standpoint of the firm, and which
are unfavorable to figure out the opportunities and threats hidden in the environmental events
and trends.

3. To project how the environment - each factor of the environment will be at a future point
of time.
4.To assess the scope of various opportunities and shortlist those that can favourably impact

the business.

5. To help secure the right fit between the environment and the business unit, which is the
crux of marketing; to help the business unit respond with matching product market strategies; to
facilitate formulation of a marketing strategy in the right way in line with the trends in the
environment and the opportunities emerging therein?

Segmentation
INTRODUCTION

Marketers cannot be all things to all consumers. A firm cannot satisfy every consumer with the
same product, no matter how effectively it designs the product and its marketing mix. It happens
because customers are too numerous and diverse in their buying requirements. For example, if
you ask ten people about their favorite level of music or perfume, you might get ten different
answers. In such a case it would be difficult for one company to meet the needs of each and
every consumer. At the same there, most of the companies cannot often a customized product for
every consumer in a market at a cost that all consumers could afford. In order to develop a
successful marketing strategy, marketers must group consumers into segments that each can be
satisfied by a specific product. When a firm decides to design a new product, it makes decisions
that it knows it will appeal to some consumers and not to others. Marketers such as P&G and
HLL offer many products in the same category, each of which is designed to appeal to a specific
consumer segment, so that the company can profit from sales to many diverse segments. Such
multiple product marketers must understand the consumer segments and which appeals to each
of man so not they can design their products accordingly
A market segment consists of a group of customers who share a similar set of needs and
wants (Kotler and Keller, 2009:248)

As per S.J. Skinner: Market segmentation is the process of dividing a total market into
groups of consumers who have relatively similar product needs.

Rajan Saxena defines segmentation as the process of dividing a heterogeneous market into
homogenous sub units.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF MARKET

SEGMENTATION
1. Facilitates Proper Choice of Target Market

In the first place, segmentation helps the marketer to distinguish one customer group from
another within a given market and thereby enables him to decide which segment should form his
target market.

2. Facilitates Tapping of the Market, Adapting the Offer to the Target

Segmentation also enables the marketer to crystallize the needs of the target buyers. It also helps
him to generate an accurate prediction of the likely responses from each segment of the target
buyers. Moreover, when buyers are handled after careful segmentation, the responses from each
segment will be homogeneous. This, in turn, will help the marketer develop marketing
offers/programmes that are most suited to each group. He can achieve the specialization that is
required in product, distribution, promotion and pricing for matching the particular customer
group, and develop marketing offers and appeals that match the requirements of that particular
group.

Example - Ford modifies its models for India

• Ford modified its models for the Indian target segment as shown below:

• Higher ground clearance to make the car more compatible to the rougher road surface in
India.

• Stiffer rear springs to enable negotiating the ubiquitous potholes on Indian roads.

• Changes in cooling requirement, with greater airflow to the rear.

• Higher resistance to dust.

• Compatibility of engine with the quality of fuel available in India.

• Location of horn buttons on the steering wheel.

• As the Indian motorist uses the horn far more frequently, for cars sold in India, the horn
buttons are kept on the steering wheel and not on a lever on the side as in the models sold in
Europe.

3. Helps Divide the Markets and Conquer Them.

Through segmentation, the marketer can look at the differences among the customer groups and
decide on appropriate strategic offers for each group. This is precisely why some marketing
experts have described segmentation as a strategy of dividing the markets for conquering them.

4. Makes the Marketing Effort More Efficient and Economic

Segmentation also makes the marketing effort more efficient and economic. It ensures that the
marketing effort is concentrated on well defined and carefully chosen segments. After all, the
resources of any firm are limited and no firm can normally afford to attack and tap the entire
market without any delimitation whatsoever. It would benefit the firm if the efforts were
concentrated on segments that are the most productive and profitable ones.

5. Helps Identify Less Satisfied Segments and Concentrate on Them

Segmentation also helps the marketer assess as to what extent existing offers from competitors
match the needs of different customer segments. The marketer can thus identify the relatively
less satisfied segments and succeed by satisfying such segments.

6. Benefits the Customer as well

Segmentation brings benefits not only to the marketer, but to the customer as well. When
segmentation attains higher levels of sophistication and perfection, customers and companies can
conveniently settle down with each other, as at such a stage, they can safely rely on each other’s
discrimination. The firm can anticipate the wants of the customers and the customers can
anticipate the capabilities of the firm.

Summary of Benefits of Need and Importance of Market Segmentation

A. ADVANTAGES TO FIRMS

 Increases sale volume.

 Helps to win competition.

 Enables to take decisions.

  Helps to prepare effective marketing plan.

 Helps to understand the needs of consumers.

 Makes best use of resources.

 Expands markets.

 Creates innovations.

 Higher markets share.

 Specialized marketing.

 Achieves marketing goals.

B. ADVANTAGES TO CONSUMERS

 Customer oriented.
  Quality product at reasonable price.

 Other benefits such as discounts, prize etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OR CRITERIAS OF
EFFECTIVE SEGMENTATION
The main criteria’s of effective segmentation are

 Measurability
 Substantiality
 Accessibility
 Differentiability
 Auctionable
 Nature of Demand
 General considerations

measurable -The main purpose of market segmentation is to measure the changing behavior
patterns of consumers. The size, profile, and other relevant characteristics of the segment must
be measurable and obtainable in terms of data. Therefore, segments should be capable of giving
accurate measurements.

Substantiality refers to the size of the segmented market. Segments must be large enough to be
profitable. For small segment, it may not be possible for the marketer to develop separate
marketing mix for such non profitable segments.
The segment must be accessible, which means marketers must be able to reach the market
segments at lower costs. Segments must be reachable by company’s sales persons, distributors
advertising media etc.

Differentiability-The segment should be large enough to be considered as a separate market.

Such segments must have individuality of their own so that it leads to different segments.

The segments which the company wishes to pursue must be auctionable in the sense that there
should be sufficient finance, personnel and capability to take them all. Hence, depending upon
the reach of the company, the segments should be selected.

TYPES OF SEGMENTATION

Geographic Segmentation

This is the simplest form of segmenting the market. Here, the marketer divides the target market into
different geographical units such as nations, states and regions. He may decide to operate in one or more
than one geographical areas. Identifying the geographical location of the customers i.e. their place of
residence helps in defining the segments. For example, a particular brand may be popular only in North
India, then the North Indian market can be divided on the bases of zones, villages, cities,
climate, etc. A classic example of geographic segmentation is Amul, which was initially marketed only in
Gujarat and then by strengthening distribution network, the company went for a national launch. A retail
brand like MTR initially targeted the South Indian market for its products and then moved into the other
territories. This method of segmentation is helpful in case the company plans for a regional roll out of the
products and decides to enter into the market by establishing itself in different territories sequentially.

Demographic Segmentation

While it is easy to find and group people living in one geographic location, there may be a large variation
in their demographic characteristics. Demographic variables include factors like age, gender, family size,
family life cycle, income, occupation, education, marital status, religion, race, generation, nationality,
language and social class. Since consumer needs, wants and demand patters are directly linked with
demographical variables, this method of segmentation is popular among marketers. These variables are
easier to measure and one needs the help of demographic statistics to estimate the size of the market
which serves as a key indicator for distinctive market segments. Marketers of personal care products like
cosmetics, shampoos, and beauty products segment the market on the basis of age and gender. Food
marketers segment the marketer on the basis of age and life cycle stage to market various food
items.

Segmenting the market on the basis of gender helps the marketer to categorize products specifically
targeted for males and females. Marketers use gender differences for marketing garments, personal care
products, bikes, cosmetics and magazines. Lakme is a popular Indian brand, which sells beauty care
products to women only. Though VLCC is a personal grooming brand targeted for women, it has now
ventured into the male segment. Bikes like TVS Scooty, Kinetic Honda are targeted towards women only.
In the famous book ‘Men are from Mars and Women are from Venus’ the author has identified a
significant difference in the behavioural and attitudinal pattern of males and females.

Psychographic Segmentation

Other than the demographic methods of market segmentation, segmentation on the basis of psychography
is another popular method among marketers. Psychographics is the study of lifestyle of individuals. It
involves developing sub-group identification on the basis of psychographical characteristics. Lifestyle is a
person’s entire way of living. It reflects the person’s living as a combination of his actions, interests and
opinions. Marketing researchers have tried to measure consumer psychography by undertaking various
studies and developing dimensions for mapping the individual lifestyle patterns and using them
subsequently for the purpose of segmentation. One of the popular methods of psychographic study is AIO
Framework, which explains the individual’s lifestyle pattern as a combination of his activities, interests
and opinions with demographic explanations.

Stanford Research Institute (SRI) developed a popular approach to psychographics segmentation called
VALS (Values and Lifestyles). This approach segmented consumers according to their values and
lifestyles in USA. Researchers faced some problems with this method and SRI developed the VALS 2
programme in 1978 and significantly revised it in 1989. VALS2 puts less emphasis on activities and
interests and more on psychological drivers to consumer behaviour. To measure this, respondents are
given statements with which they are required to state a degree of agreement or disagreement.

Behavioural Segmentation

In the case of behavioural segmentation, the market is divided on the basis of purchase decision and
product or brand usage made by consumers. For example, Criticare (Medical Instrument Manufacturing
Company) has divided its Delhi market in six buyer groups, which are as follows:

1. Most Modern Hospitals: Escorts Heart and Research Center, Batra Hospital and Research Center,
Apollo Hospital, etc. These hospitals are constantly on the look out for new instruments to become more
efficient. As the Purchase Manager of Escorts Heart and Research Center said, “We always want to be the
first ones to buy new technologies.”

2. Autonomous Hospitals: For example, the All India Institute of Medical Sciences. Here, the most
important influence on purchase decision is of the specialist doctors and the heads of the respective
departments. Even if they go in for tenders, technical specifications, rather than price alone, influence the
purchase decision.

3. Government Hospitals: Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, GB Pant Hospital, LNJPN Hospital, etc. Here
the Medical Superintendent and the Financial Controller influence the purchase decision. They generally
decide in favor of the lowest quote.

4. Medium-size Private Hospitals: Maharaja Agrasen Hospital, Shanti MukundHospital, etc. They use a
blend of quality and price considerations. Generally the choice of Medical Director is final.

5. Nursing Homes: Kukreja Nursing Home, Giriraj Hospital, etc. Generally they have one operation
room in which they use pulse oximeter. To get their nursing homes recognized by the Ministry of Health,
it is essential for them to have pulse ox meters. They also go for quality, low price and after-sale service.
6. Freelancing Anesthetist: Doctor-Anesthetist who are attached with different nursing homes have their
own pulse ox meter so that they can use where this facility is not available in the nursing homes.

Benefit Segmentation

Geo-demographic Segmentation

There are several commercial geo-demographic segmentation schemes available, that combine
demographics and geography as a segmentation basis. This approach aims to identify groups of
small geographic areas that have similar demographic profiles. These tend to suffer from the
fallacy of averages. Some areas may be genuinely relatively homogenous but many are not and
this can be very misleading.

Bases for market segmentation of consumer goods &

Industrial goods
 TARGET MARKETING
Target marketing is the process of assessing the relative worth of different market segments and
selecting one or more segments in which to compete. These become the target segments. Titan is
using the target marketing strategy very effectively. German car manufacturer Mercedes target
high status consumers with experience and prestigious motor cars.
According to David Cravens and others “Target market is a group of existing or potential
customers within a particular product market towards which an organization directs its marketing
efforts”.

TARGET MARKETING STRATEGIES

Total market approach: A company develops a single marketing mix and directs it at the entire
market for a particular product. This approach is used when an organization defines the total
market for a particular product as its target market.

Concentration approach: An organization directs its marketing efforts toward a single market
segment through a single marketing mix. The total market may consist of several segments, but
the organization selects only one of the segments as its target market.

Multi-segment approach: An organization directs its marketing efforts at two or more segments
by developing a marketing mix for each segment.
 STEPS IN TARGET MARKETING
It involves the following four major steps:

1) Market segmentation: Markets are segmented on the basis of certain characteristic such as
sex, education, income, age etc.

2) Market targeting: It refers to evaluating each market’s segments attractiveness and selecting
one or more of the segments to enter. Thus target marketing and market targeting are not one and
the same. Market targeting is only a step in target marketing.

3) Designing the marketing mix: After selecting the segment, the next step is to design a
suitable product and other marketing mix elements for each segment selected.

4) Product Positioning: Market segmentation strategy and market positioning strategy are like
two sides of a coin. Target marketing begins with segmentation and ends with positioning.

POSITIONING
The act of creating an image about a product or brand in the consumers mind is known as
positioning. In the words of Kotler, “Positioning is the act of designing the company’s offer and
image so that it occupies a distinct and valued place in the target consumer’s minds.” In short,
the process of creating an image for a product in the minds of targeted customers is known as
product positioning. Close-up tooth paste is looked upon by the consumers more as a mouth
wash than a teeth cleaner, while ‘pepsodent’ has created an impression of germ killer in the
consumers’ minds.

STEPS IN PRODUCT POSITIONING

1) Identifying potential competitive advantages: Consumers generally choose products and
services which give them greatest value. The key to winning and keeping customers is to
understand their needs and buying processes far better than the competitors do and deliver more
values.

2) Identifying the competitor’s position: When the firm understands how its customers view its
brand relative to competitors, it must study how those same competitors position themselves.

3) Choosing the right competitive advantages: It refers to an advantage over competitors

gained by offering consumers greater value either through lower price or by providing more
benefits.

4) Communicating the competitive advantage: The Company should take specific steps to
advertise the competitive advantage it has chosen so that it can impress upon the minds of
consumers about the superiority claimed in respect of the product over its competing brands.

5) Monitoring the positioning strategy: Markets are not stagnant. They keep on changing.
Consumer tastes shift and competitors react to those shifts. After a desired position is developed,
the marketer should continue to monitor its position through brand tracking and monitoring.

ELEMENTS OF POSITIONING

It is concerned with the following four elements.

1) The Product: Design, special feature, attributes, quality, package etc. of product create its
own image in the minds of the consumers. Material ingredient of a product is also important in
the process of product positioning.

2) The Company: The goodwill of a company lends an aura to its brand. For example, Tata,
Godrej, Bajaj etc have very good reputation in the market

3) The Competitors: Product image is build in consumer’s mind in relation to the competing
product. Thus a careful study of competition is required.

4) The Consumer: Ultimate aim of positioning policy is to create a place for the product in
consumers’ minds. Therefore, it becomes necessary to study the consumer behavior towards the
product.

TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCT POSITIONING

Following technique are used in positioning a product in the market:

 Positioning by Corporate Identity: The companies that have become a tried and trusted
household name. For example, Tata, Sony etc.

 Positioning by Brand Endorsement: Marketers use the names of company’s powerful

brands for line extensions or while entering another product category. Lux, Surf, Dettol
etc.
  Positioning by Product Attributes and Benefits: It emphasizes the special attributes and
benefits of the product. Close-up is positioned on fresh breath and cosmetics benefits.

 Positioning by use, Occasion and Time: It is to find an occasion or time of use and sit on
it. For example, Vicks vaporub is to be used for child’s cold at night.

 Positioning by Price and Quality: Company position its brand by emphasizing its price
and quality. Eg. Nirma detergent powder.

 Positioning by Product Category: Brand is perceived to be another product category. Eg.

Maruti positioned its van as omni , family car.

 Positioning by Product User: Positioning the product as an exclusive product for a

particular class of customers. Eg. Scooty as a two wheeler for teenagers.

 Positioning by Competitor: An offensive positioning strategy and is often seen in cases of

comparative advertising. Eg. Tide and Rin

 Positioning by Symbols: Some companies use some symbols for positioning their
products. Eg.vodafone symbol.

Concept of differentiation & Positioning

Concept of value proposition & USP

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF

CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR
The most crucial issue for the marketers is to identify the needs of the consumers. Only the
identification of needs is of no value unless and until this is transformed in to a meaningful and
appropriate satisfiers. For this whole process of converting needs into actual satisfaction one
needs to understand the complete make up of consumer’s mind, and this process is known as
consumer behavior. Let’s also discuss some of the definitions of consumer behavior. According
to Schiff man and Kanuk “Consumer behavior encompasses all of the behaviors’ that
consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of
products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs”.

Wells and Prensky defines that Consumer behavior is the study of consumers as they exchange
something of value for a product or service that satisfies their needs. Hawkins, Best and Coney
describes “The field of consumer behavior is the study of individuals, groups, or organizations
and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences,
or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society”.
On the basis of above definitions, it can be concluded that consumer behavior is the study of
consumers regarding what they buy, When do they buy, from where they buy, how frequently
they buy, and how they use certain products. But the study does not stop here as it also goes
further to study the post purchase and evaluations of the consumers. So, it addresses all the issues
related from pre-purchase to post purchase behavior of the consumers. The study regarding
consumer behavior can be divided into two parts i.e. consumer buying dynamics and dynamics
of business buyers.

NEED OR IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF

CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR
The modern marketing management tries to solve the basic problems of consumers in the area of
consumption. To survive in the market, a firm has to be constantly innovating and understand the
latest consumer needs and tastes. It will be extremely useful in exploiting marketing
opportunities and in meeting the challenges that the Indian market offers. It is important for the
marketers to understand the buyer behavior due to the following reasons.

 The study of consumer behavior for any product is of vital importance to marketers in
shaping the fortunes of their organizations.

 It is significant for regulating consumption of goods and thereby maintaining economic

stability.

 It is useful in developing ways for the more efficient utilization of resources of

marketing. It also helps in solving marketing management problems in more effective
manner.

 Today consumers give more importance on environment friendly products. They are
concerned about health, hygiene and fitness. They prefer natural products. Hence detailed
study on upcoming groups of consumers is essential for any firm.
  The growth of consumer protection movement has created an urgent need to understand
how consumers make their consumption and buying decision.

 Consumer’s tastes and preferences are ever changing. Study of consumer behavior gives
information regarding color, design, size etc. which consumers want. In short, consumer
behavior helps in formulating of production policy.

 For effective market segmentation and target marketing, it is essential to have an

understanding of consumers and their behavior

CONSUMER BUYING PROCESS (CONSUMER

DECISION MAKING PROCESS)
Buying is a mental process. A decision to buy a product is taken after passing through different
stages. According to Robinson, Faris and Wind (1967) the buying decision process involve the
following five stages.

1. RECOGNITION OF AN UNSATISFIED NEED:

All buying decisions start with need recognition. When a need is not satisfied it creates tension.
This tension drives people to satisfy that need. Then need becomes motive. Thus motives arise
from needs and wants. The force that converts needs into motives is called motivation.

2. IDENTIFICATION OF ALTERNATIVES:

After recognizing a need or want consumers search for information about the various alternatives
available to satisfy it. If the need is usual, such as hunger, thirst etc. the consumer may rely on
past experience of what satisfies this need. If needs are unusual or unfamiliar, consumer may
seek additional information from friends, family, media, sales people etc. it is only through this
information search that we can identify the means of satisfying our need.

3. EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES:

By collecting information during the second stage, an individual comes to know about the brands
and their features. Now he compares the alternative products or brands in terms of their attributes
such as price, quality, durability etc. during the evaluation stage he may consider the opinion of
others such as wife, relatives and friends. Then he selects the brand that will give him the
maximum utility (or that he thinks the best).

4. PURCHASE DECISION:

Finally the consumer arrives at a purchase decision. Purchase decision can be one of the three,
Namely- no buying, buying later and buying now. If he has decided to buy now, he will decide
the shop (dealer) to buy it from, when to buy it, how much money to spend etc. After deciding
these, he will go to the shop chosen and buy the product of the brand chosen.

5. POST PURCHASE BEHAVIOUR:

It refers to the behavior of a consumer after purchasing a product. After the consumer has
actually purchased the product/brand he will be satisfied or dissatisfied with it. If he is satisfied
with the product he would regularly buy the brand and develop a loyalty. He recommends the
brand to his friends and relatives. The negative feeling which arises after purchase causing inner
tension is known as Cognitive Dissonance (or Post Purchase Dissonance). The post purchase
dissonance is also called Buyer’s Remorse.

Buying Roles

a) Initiator: The person who identifies a need and first suggests the idea of buying a particular
product or service.
b) Influencer: The person(s) who influences the buyer in making his final choice of the product.

c) Decider: The person who decides on the final choice: what is to be bought, when,
from where and how.
d) Buyer: The person who enters into the final transaction and exchange process or is involved in
the physical activity of making a purchase.
e) User: The person(s) who actually consumes the product or service offering.

(a) Users: These are those individuals who actually use the product in the organization. They
frequently initiate the purchase process, establish the criteria or specifications for the purchase,
and evaluate the performance of the product in comparison to established criteria.

(b) Influencers: These are highly technical people such as engineers, who help develop the
specifications and evaluate alternative products of the competitors.

(c) Buyers: These people are also called as purchasing agents who help in selecting suppliers
and negotiating the terms and conditions of purchase.

(d) Deciders: These are the individuals who actually choose the products and suppliers. For
routine items, deciders and buyers may be the same but if the price of a product exceeds a certain
limit then higher management personnel generally make the purchase decisions.

(e) Gate keepers: These people consist of secretaries and technical personnel who control the
flow of information to and among the persons in the buying centre.

Comparison between Organizational Buying Behavior

The business market consists of all the organizations that acquire goods and services which are
used for further production so that these are sold or supplied to others and also involve many
activities like banking, finance, insurance, distribution and services etc. In comparison to
consumer market huge investment is also involved. On the contrary, in the consumer market,
products and services are ultimately delivered to final consumers and lesser amount of money is
involved. Let’s discuss some of the differentiating points between the two markets.
(a) Fewer buyers: In case of business market, buyers are fewer in number as compared to
consumer market. For example, a book publisher looks towards universities for the
recommendations of its books, but after recommendations sell the same to the students who are
thousands in numbers.

(b) Close supplier-customer relationship: There is a smaller customer base but having
important power, we can observe that there is a close relationship between the two parties
because customer is heavily dependent upon supplier. It is expected of a supplier that he would
offer customized service and will pay regular visits to the customer. If it is the case of a technical
product, he would make special efforts to impart the technical know-how to the customer.

(c) Geographically concentrated buyers: Most of the business concerns that produce the same
nature of products are generally found concentrated in a particular geographic area. This kind of
concentration helps producers to reduce certain amount of selling costs. Availability of raw
material and transportation help them reducing costs. For example more than half of the textile
industries in India are concentrated in two states only i.e. Gujarat and Maharashtra. Most
agricultural inputs are produced in the states like Punjab and Haryana.

(d) Derived Demand: The demand for organizational product is called derived demand because
organizations purchase products to be used directly or indirectly in the production of goods and
services to satisfy consumers’ demand. Consequently, the demand for organizational products is
derived from the demand for consumer products. For example, as long as consumers continue to
purchase pencils, there will be an organizational demand for graphite and wood to manufacture
pencils. If there were no consumer demand for pencils, there would be no demand for wood and
graphite to make pencils. As a result, organizations like wood manufacturers often target
marketing efforts at the ultimate consumers, even though the firms don’t sell to them directly.

(e) Inelastic Demand: The demand for many organizational products is inelastic. It means that
fluctuations in price of a product will not significantly affect demand for the product. Elastic
demand, by contrast, means that a change in price will cause an opposite change in demand.
However a sizeable price increase for a particular component that represent a large proportion of
a product’s cost may cause demand to become more elastic if the price increase of the
component part causes the price of the consumer product to rise sharply. For example, if the
price of wood rises sharply, paper manufacturers are likely to pass this increase on to consumers,
who may in turn cut back on their paper consumption because of such increase.

(f) Professional Purchasing: The business products are generally purchased by highly trained
and professional people. They invite biddings, proposals and quotations for their purchase
contracts which are not found in case of consumer buying.

(g) Direct purchasing: When it comes to consumer buying, many intermediaries are involved
but in case of business buying, buyers generally buy directly from the manufacturers. It is truer if
it is a case of technical product which is complex as well as expensive. So, there are some of the
examples of differentiation between a business purchase and a consumer purchase.

PRODUCT
(i) A product is anything that can be offered to a market to satisfy a want or need.

(ii) A product is “a set of tangible and intangible attributes, including packaging, color, price,
manufacturer’s prestige, retailer’s prestige, manufacturer’s and retailer’s services, which the
buyer may accept as offering satisfaction of wants or needs.

It may be emphasized, as brought out in these definitions, that customers buy a product not only
for “what it is” but also for “what it means” to them. A person buys a refrigerator not only for
what it will do for him in terms of providing him physical need satisfaction but also for the social
prestige and ego satisfaction that he derives from its possession. People buy things which agree
with their self-image and self-concept. If a person perceives himself as a upper class
professional, he will buy a product which will reinforce this self-concept. Products that are
marketed include physical goods, services, experiences, events, persons, places, properties,
organizations, information, and ideas.

Product Leve1s
In planning its market offering, the marketer needs to think through five levels of the product.
Each level adds more customer value, and the five levels constitute a customer value hierarchy.

The most fundamental level is the core benefit: the fundamental service or benefit that the
customer is really buying. A hotel guest is buying “rest and sleep”. The purchaser of a drill is
buying “holes”. Marketers must see themselves as benefit providers.

At the second level, the marketer has to turn the core benefit into a basic product. Thus a hotel
room includes a bed, bathroom, towels, desk, etc.

At the third level, the marketer prepares an expected product, a set of attributes and conditions
buyers normally expect when they purchase this product. Hotel guests expect a clean bed, fresh
towels, working lamps, and a relative degree of quiet. Because most hotels can meet this
minimum expectation, the traveller normally will settle for whichever hotel is the most
convenient or least expensive.

At the fourth level, the marketer prepares an augmented product that exceeds customer
expectations. A hotel can include a remote-control television set, fresh flowers, rapid check-in,
express checkout, and fine dining and room service.

Today’s competition essentially takes place at the product augmentation level. Some important
points should be noted about product augmentation strategy. First, each augmentation adds cost.
The marketer has to ask whether customers will pay enough to cover the extra cost. Second,
augmented benefits soon become expected benefits. Today’s hotel guests expect a remote-
control television set and other amenities. This means that competitors will have to search for
still other features and benefits. Third, as companies raise the price of their augmented product,
some competitors can offer a “stripped-down” version at a much lower price.

At the fifth level stands the potential product, which encompasses all the possible
augmentations and transformations the product might undergo in the future. Here is where
companies search for new ways to satisfy customers and distinguish their offer. All-suite hotels
where the guest occupies a set of rooms represent an innovative transformation of the traditional
hotel product. Successful companies add benefits to their offering that not only satisfy customers
but also surprise and delight them. Delighting is a matter of exceeding expectations.

PRODUCT CLASSIFICATION
We are aware that a product has many intangible as well as tangible attributes. With this broad
perspective in mind, it is now appropriate to consider products in identifiable groups. This can be
done formally using a classification system which aids market planning.

1. Convenience Goods: These are usually relatively inexpensive items whose purchase requires
very little effort on the part of the consumer. The weekly shopping list, for the most part, is
composed of convenience goods. The decision process is complicated by the existence of brands
which force the consumer to make comparison and choices. One of the principal tasks of
advertising is to try to predetermine the purchase decision for convenience goods so that the
consumer always buys, or mentally lists, a certain brand rather than first thinking of the generic
product and then making a brand-choice decision.

Convenience goods can be further classified into (i) staple and (ii) impulse items.

(i) Staple convenience goods: Staple convenience goods are those consumed by most people
every day (e.g. milk, bread and potatoes). Product differentiation for staple items tends to be
minimal. If a sudden need arises for a product, or it has been overlooked during a major
shopping outing, then even less thought is put into the purchase decision.

(ii) Impulse convenience goods: As the name implies, there is no pre-planning involved with
the purchase of impulse convenience goods. The decision to make an impulse purchase is made
on the spot.

2. Shopping Goods: This classification includes major durable or semi-durable items. Because
shopping goods are generally more expensive than convenience goods and the purchases are less
frequent, shopping goods purchase are characterized by pre-planning, information search and
price comparisons. The purchase of a car, for example, will involve extensive consideration of
the relative merits of the products on offer. In addition to product features the consumer will
consider price, place of purchase, purchase (credit) terms, delivery arrangements, after-sales
service and guarantees. The quality of sales staff in stores is critical to the success of the
marketing of shopping goods.

Shopping goods can be further classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous items.

Homogeneous goods: White goods such as washing machines, refrigerators etc. are
homogeneous in nature. These are goods which are virtual necessities, and in market terms, they
are not particularly far apart from each other in terms of price, prestige or image.

Heterogeneous goods: Heterogeneous shopping goods are stylized and non-standard. Here,
price is of secondary importance to the consumer after image. Behavioral factors play an
important role in the purchase decision.

3. Specialty Goods: The purchase of specialty goods is characterized by extensive search and
extreme reluctance to accept substitutes once the purchase choice has been made. The market for
such goods is small but prices and profits are high. Consumers of specialty goods pay for
prestige as well as the product itself. Companies who market these goods must be particularly
skilful at creating and preserving the correct image. If the marketing is successful, the customer’s
search period can be reduced or almost eliminated in some cases. For instance, some consumers
will decide on a particular designer label for clothes or jewellery long before the actual purchase
is considered.

4. Unsought Goods: Promoting and selling ‘unsought’ goods makes up the area of marketing
which is most susceptible to criticism. By definition, the customers have not considered their
purchase before being made aware of them, and could often do without them.

The consumer may be at a disadvantage when confronted with unsought goods because they
probably will have been no opportunity for evaluation and comparison. The consumer may also
be suspicious of any ‘offer’. Unsought goods must therefore be marketed in a sensitive manner.
The methods of marketing usually employed are direct mail, telephone campaigns, door-to-door
canvassing and the dubious practice of ‘sagging’ (selling under the guise of market research).
The marketing implication of this system of classification is that it accurately reflects buying
behavior for large groups of consumers. Naturally, a company is likely to segment its market
within a given product class, but the classification system allows for a basic understanding of
buyer behavior as a function of the product.

Industrial Goods

The classification of industrial goods gives an insight into the uses to which the goods are put,
and the reasons for their purchase, allowing a better understanding of the market, and therefore
better strategy design. However, the company could not function without a whole range of other
items which, while not being integral to the manufacturing process, are nevertheless essential to
the overall running of the company. For example, any company needs office furniture and
equipment, stationery and cleaning materials which are all ancillary to the manufacturing
process.

1. Installations: These are the most expensive and critical purchases a company has to make.
They are the major items of plant and machinery which are required for the production of a
company’s product. If a company makes a mistake in its choice of office equipment or building
maintenance services this can be costly, but it is unlikely to seriously threaten the company’s
future. However, if a range of machinery is purchased which is subsequently found to be
unsuitable; this could jeopardize the complete production base. The purchase of installations is,
therefore, the result of a very extensive search process. Although price is very important in such
a decision, it is almost never the single deciding factor. Much emphasis is placed on the quality
of sales support and advice and subsequent technical support & after-sales service.

2. Accessories: Like installations, these are considered as capital items, but they are usually less
expensive and are depreciated over fewer years. Their purchase is important for the company,
but not as critical as installation purchase. Accessories include ancillary plant and machinery,
office equipment and office furniture. In the case, of say, a haulage company, forklift trucks,
warehousing equipment and smaller vehicles would be classified as accessories.

3. Raw Materials: The purchase of raw materials probably accounts for most of the time and
work-load of a typical purchasing department. There is a direct relationship between raw
material quality and the quality of the company’s own finished product. Therefore it is vital that
quality, consistency of supply, service and price are optimized. Price is particularly important
because these goods are purchased throughout the year and have a direct and continuous effect
on costs.

4. Component Parts and Materials: The supply considerations for these items are similar to
those for raw materials. Component parts and materials include replacement and maintenance
items for manufacturing machinery. In this sense they should not be confused with ‘accessories’.
This category also includes those products which facilitate or are essential in the manufacturing
process but which do not form part of the finished product, e.g. oils, chemicals, adhesives and
packaging materials.

5. Supplies: These can be likened to the ‘convenience goods’ of industrial supply. They are
probably taken for granted by most company employees and include such goods as office
stationery, cleaning materials and goods required for general maintenance and repairs. The
purchasing process is often routine and undertaken by less senior employees. Most supplies are
relatively homogeneous in nature and thus price is likely to be a major factor in the purchasing
decision.

The industrial product classification system can be linked closely to industrial buying behavior.
It is a common misconception to regard all industrial purchasing as being rigid routinely in its
logic. It is true that the industrial buyer is dealing with someone else’s money and the amounts
are usually large in comparison to individual consumer purchases. This means that the
consequences of error are far graver. Industrial decision-making is therefore generally more
considered than individual consumer behavior. Industrial buyers are, nevertheless, human beings,
and they base decisions upon a variety of criteria in addition to those of price, quality and
delivery.

THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE

The idea of a product life cycle (PLC) is central to product strategy. It is based on the premise
that a new product enters a ‘life cycle’ once it is launched in the market. The product has a
‘birth’ and a ‘death’- its introduction and decline. The intervening period is characterized by
growth and maturity. By considering a product’s course through the market in this way, it is
possible to design marketing strategies appropriate to the relevant stage in the product’s life. In
addition to the stages outlined, an additional stage is often discussed- that of saturation, a
leveling off in sales once maturity is reached and prior to decline.

Because the marketing environment is essentially dynamic, even basically similar products are
likely to react differently during their life span.

The PLC is influenced by the following factors:

1. The intrinsic nature of the product itself

2. Changes in the macro-environment

3. Changes in consumer preferences, which are affected by the macro-and

microenvironment

4. Competitive action

In strategic terms, the task of marketing management is to:

1. Estimate the likely shape of the total curve

2. Design an appropriate strategy for each stage

3. Identify the product’s movement from one stage to another

The last task is perhaps the most difficult, because the designation of each stage is somewhat
arbitrary. The value of the concept is that once the stage has been identified, markets can be seen
to display certain characteristics which suggest specific strategic reactions.

Life Cycle Stages and their Associated Strategies

1. Introductory Stage: This is the period relating to a new product launch and its duration
depends- on the product’s rate of penetration through the market segment concerned. The period
ends when awareness of the product is high enough to attract wider user groups so that sales are
correspondingly increased. The typical conditions associated with the introduction stage are:
• A high product failure rate

• Relatively few competitors

• Limited distribution (often exclusive or selective distribution)

• Frequent product modifications

Company losses, because development costs have not yet been recouped, promotional
expenditure is relatively high in relation to sales and economies of scale are not yet possible.

The prime goal at this stage is to create awareness. This usually involves a disproportionate level
of marketing expenditure relative to sales revenue. Clearly, this must be regarded as an
investment in the product’s future.

The introductory pricing strategy will depend on the type of product in terms of its degree of
distinctiveness. The company may wish to achieve high sales levels in a short span of time or
slowly establish a profitable niche in the market place.

The firm has two basic strategic options open to it.

1. A skimming pricing strategy involves the application of a high price to a small target group
of consumers, the innovators and early adopters. While the product remains distinctive, growth
can be encouraged by a planned series of progressive price reductions.

2. A penetration pricing strategy is employed to attract the largest possible number of new
buyers early in the product’s life. It involves pricing the product at a low level and is appropriate
where demand is elastic and where there is a high level of competitive activity.

In both cases, the role of pricing at this stage of the life cycle is to establish the product in such a
way as to permit further strategy to be implemented in the subsequent stages. A skimming
approach, for example, should ‘set the scene’ for product distinctiveness to be retained for as
long as possible. While profits are not necessarily forthcoming during introduction, the
introductory pricing strategy should prepare for profitability in the future. Distribution decisions
will be determined by expected penetration or skimming. In all cases, it is of paramount
importance that the product is available to the intended market. Ineffective distribution has
invalidated the costly efforts of the other marketing functions of many companies. Out-of-stock
situations provide competitors with opportunities to take market share and it can be costly to win
it back.

2. Growth Stage: During growth stage the product is still vulnerable to failure (although most
failures occur early in the product’s life). Competitive products, perhaps launched by more
powerful firms, can enter the market at this stage. These may pose a threat sufficient to cause
some firms to withdraw from the market. In general, the characteristics of growth are:

• More competitors and less product distinctiveness

• More profitable returns

• Rising sales

• Company or product acquisition by larger competitors

Promotional expenditure should still feature highly in the marketing budget at this stage because
this is the best time to acquire market share. It should, however, be at a level which does not
drain profits, although it is not unusual for very high levels of expenditure to continue throughout
growth in order to achieve profitable market dominance during the maturity stage.

Distribution retains its importance during growth. In consumer markets, in particular success will
depend on finding shelf space in retail outlets, which now tends to be controlled by a small
number of powerful mu1tiple operators. Once a ‘hierarchy’ of brand leaders has been
established, powerful buyers in retail multiples will attempt to rationalize their list of suppliers.
Distribution will be a key factor in such decisions, because retailers will wish to keep their stock
levels to a minimum. In other markets, distribution is equally important because during growth,
suppliers will be in competition with each other to acquire dealership and distributive outlets.

A company must attempt to optimize the product’s price during growth and it is likely that
towards the end of this period, there is the opportunity to maximize profits. Paradoxically, the
end of growth is sometimes characterized by reduced prices (even though profits may be still
high). This is because the full effect of economies of scale is often passed on to customers. As
the growth period tends towards maturity, market shares will tend to stabilize and a hierarchy of
brand or market leaders will probably have emerged.

3. Maturity Stage: Due to the time-scales of PLCs, at any one time, the majority of products are
in the maturity stage of the life cycle. Much marketing activity is devoted to this stage. The
major characteristics of the maturity stage are:

• Sales continuing to grow, but at a very much decreased rate

• Attempts to differentiate and re-differentiate the product

• Prices beginning to fall in battles to retain market share. Profits begin to fall correspondingly

• Increasing brand and inventory rationalization amongst retailers and distributors

• Marginal manufacturers retiring from the market when faced with severe com-petition and
reduced margins

It should be emphasized that market growth has ceased by this stage. Any growth can only be
achieved at the expense of competitors. There is, therefore, a need for sustained promotional
activity, even if only to retain existing customers. Deciding the level of promotional expenditure
can be a problem in view of contracting profit margins.

In line with the aims of promotion, distribution strategy should be designed to retain outlets. A
retail outlet or distributorship which is lost during maturity is unlikely to be easily regained at a
later stage. To this end, the major thrust of promotional effort may move from the consumer to
the distributor.

Price war should be avoided where possible, because the usual result of initiating price cuts is to
reduce revenue for all market participants. The aim of price cutting should be to increase
purchases sufficiently to offset any revenue loss.

4. Decline Stage: While the shape of the PLC curve is theoretical and should never be regarded
as inevitable, persistently falling sales signify the decline stage of the product. Market
intelligence should be able to identify the cause of this phenomenon. Consumer preferences may
have changed or innovative product may have displaced the existing product.

• Sales falling continually for the total period

• Intensification of price cutting

• Producers deciding to abandon the market

As stated earlier, the decision to abandon a product poses problems for the firm and is often not
made early enough. On the other hand, it may be worth extending the product’s life well into
decline while the number of competitors is falling.

While continuing in the market place” management’s attention is likely to move from active
marketing to very strict cost control. Cost control and cost reduction is, of course, always an
important element of management activity, but during decline this may be the only method of
maintaining profitability.

NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

To compete effectively and achieve their goals, organizations must be able to adjust their product
mixes in response to changes in customers and customers’ needs. A firm often has to introduce
new products, modify existing products, or eliminate products that were successful perhaps only
a few years ago. To provide products that satisfy target markets and achieve the organization’s
objective, a marketer must develop, alter, and maintain an effect product mix. An organization’s
product mix may need several types of adjustments. Because customers’ attitude and product
preferences changes over time, their desire for certain products may wane. In some cases a
company needs to alter its product mix for competitive reasons. A marketer may have to delete a
product from the mix because a competitor dominates the market for that product. Similarly, a
firm may have to introduce a new product or modify an existing one, to compete more
effectively. A marketer may expand a firm’s product mix to take advantage of excess marketing
and production capacity.

CLASSIFICATION OF NEW PRODUCTS

Before we proceed with the subject of new product development it is essential to understand
properly the term- new product. New Products can be broadly classified into two groups: (i) new
products arising out of technological innovations, and (ii) new products arising out of marketing
oriented modifications. The first group involves Innovations leading to intrinsically new products
with a new functional utility behind them. The second group involves mere marketing oriented
innovations in existing products; it gives rise to new versions of the existing products; the
newness may be due to a change in the color of the product, its design, the addition of a new
feature, a change of package or a change of brand name. The newness may also be due to a
repositioning of the existing product or finding a new use for the existing product or offering the
existing product with new sales appeal to a new market segment. This subject has been already
dealt with in the preceding section on improving existing product. In this chapter, we shall
confine our discussions to the intrinsically new product.

STAGES IN NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

Let us now consider the various stages a firm has to pass through for launching a new product in
the market.

New product development in respect of altogether: New products, goes through several
important stages as shown below:

1. Generating New Product Ideas

2. Idea Screening
3. Concept development and Testing
4. Marketing strategy development
5. Business Analysis
6. Product Development
7. Test Marketing or Market Testing
8. Commercialization

1.Idea Generation
Businesses and other organizations seek product ideas that will help them achieve their
objectives. This activity is idea generation. The fact- only few ideas are good enough to be
commercially successful, underscores the difficulty of the task. Although some organizations get
their ideas almost by chance, firms that are trying to manage their product mixes effectively
usually develop systematic approaches for generating new product ideas. At the heart of
innovation is a purposeful, focused effort to identify new ways to serve a market. Unexpected
occurrence, incongruities, new needs, industry and market changes, and demographic changes all
may indicate new opportunities.

New product ideas can come from several sources. They may come from internal sources-
marketing managers, researchers, sales personnel, engineers, or other organizational
personnel. Brainstorming and incentives or rewards for good ideas are typical intra firm devices
for stimulating the development of ideas. For example, the idea for 3 M Post-it adhesive-backed
notes came from an employee. As a church choir member, he used slips of paper for marking
songs in his hymnal. Because the pieces of paper fell out, he suggested developing an adhesive-
backed note. New product ideas may also arise from sources outside the firm- customers,
competitors, advertising agencies, management consultants, and private research organizations.
Asking customers that they want from products and organizations has helped many firms to
become successful and to remain competitive.

Direct observation of competitors’ products, customers’ evaluations of their product features,

and the grapevine of suppliers and others who serve competitors often contributes ideas. Ethical
and legal issues can arise from clandestine activities, yet such activities sometimes occur.
Disassembly and intensive analysis of competitors’ product is common.

Hiring away competitors’ employee is another strategy, sometimes challenged in the courts.

Inventors and other “creators” represent a key source of technological innovation and product
ideas from outside the company. Major companies are constantly approached with new product
ideas that can be acquired or licensed for production or distribution. To make sure that ideas
received in this way are appropriately screened, not just quickly rejected or lost, it is essential
that those in the company most likely to be contacted by creators be identified and trained.
Employees: All employees must understand how to make their ideas known and be encouraged
to do so. One way to accomplish this is to offer employees rewards for ideas that are later
deemed marketable. Employees often have an understanding and interest in company products
that make them astute judges of ways to improve them.

Another approach is to use brainstorming sessions in which small groups of customers (and
others) toss out new product ideas. Such sessions may last one or two hours and are largely
unstructured and freewheeling. Leadership keeps the interchange moving and the discussion on
the desired track. A brainstorming session may generate as many as 75 to 100 new ideas. Since
the objective is to have the participants advance as many ideas as possible, no criticism or
evaluation of the ideas presented is allowed. The ideas advanced are screened later.

Focus group interviewing is a technique similar to brainstorming. The sessions are freewheeling,
but they often go beyond idea generation to include evaluation and discussion of related issues.

2.Idea Screening

In the process of screening, the ideas with the greatest potential are selected for further review.
During screening, product ideas are analyzed to determine whether they match the organization’s
objectives and resources. If a product idea results in a product that is similar to the firm’s
existing products, marketers must assess the degree to which the new product could cannibalize
the sales of current products. The company’s overall abilities to produce and market the product
are also analyzed. Other aspects of an idea that should be weighed are the nature and wants of
buyers and possible environmental changes. At times a checklist of new-product requirements is
used when making screening decisions. It encourages evaluators to be systematic and so reduces
the chances of their overlooking some pertinent fact. Compared with other phases, the largest
number of new-product ideas is rejected during the screening phase.

3.Concept development and Testing

To evaluate ideas properly, it may be necessary to test product concepts. Concept testing is a
phase in which a small sample of potential buyers is presented with a product idea through a
written or oral description (and perhaps a few drawings) to determine their attitudes and initial
buying intentions regarding the product. For a single product idea, an organization can test one
or several concepts of the same product. Concept testing is a low cost procedure that lets an
organization determine customers’ initial reactions to a product idea before it invests
considerable resources in research and development. The results of concept testing can be used
by product development personnel to better understand which product attributes and benefits are
most important to potential customers:

Notice that the concept is briefly described; then a series of questions is presented. The questions
asked vary considerably depending on the type of product being tested. The typical questions are
these: In general, do you find this proposed product attractive? Which benefits are especially
attractive to you? Which features are of little or no interest to you? Do you feel that this proposed
product would work better for you than the product that you currently use? Compared with your
current product, what are the primary advantages of the proposed product? If this product were
available at an appropriate price, would you buy it? How often would you buy this product? How
could this proposed product be improved?

4.Marketing strategy development

Marketing Strategy Development Strategy statements describe: – The target market, product
positioning, and sales, share, and profit goals for the first few years. – Product price, distribution,
and marketing budget for the first year. – Long-run sales and profit goals and the marketing mix
strategy. This stage is crucial in the total process of new product development because several
vital decisions regarding the project are taken based on the analysis done at this· stage. This
stage will decide whether from the financial and marketing point of view, the project is worth
proceeding with.
• Seasonal patterns in consumption, if any.
• Competition.
• Major competitors, their market shares, the dominant market segments held by them.
• Special market features affecting demand.
• Price elasticity of demand.
• Volume-cost profit analysis at different feasible levels. The nature of channel required the
nature of channels available, comparative costs/advantages of alternative channel types.
• The marketing organization required for marketing the product- whether the existing marketing
organization can take care of the product or whether a new organization set-up is required. If so,
what would it cost?

Only when information on the above aspects is complete, meaningful estimates of overall
profitability of the project can be made. And it is based on the overall profitability picture that
the corporation decides further.

5. Business Analysis

Investment and profitability analyses of the project under different assumptions are made at this
stage. The project’s overall impacts on the corporation’s financial position with and without the
new product are estimated and compared. The financial estimates would be reliable only if they
are based on a fairly accurate demand forecast and related market factors. Investment and
profitability analyses of the project under different assumptions are made at this stage. The
project’s overall impacts on the corporation’s financial position with and without the new
product are estimated and compared. The financial estimates would be reliable only if they are
based on a fairly accurate demand forecast and related market factors.

6.Product Development

The product ideas that pass the screening and business analysis stages are not usually “concrete”
enough for extensive testing of customer acceptance. An idea must be developed into a
functioning product. Product development is often a scientific and engineering task, leading to
the design and building of prototype working models. Once a prototype exists, functional testing
may take place. For technical products such as sound speakers or robots, this may be a complex
and lengthy task. Government testing and approvals may also be required for such products as
new cancer drugs or birth control devices. Alternative designs may vary the product’s safety and
its cost. Relatively simple products, as well as many services, may be developed and tested
quickly and inexpensively. Others take years to develop and test. But in any case, marketing
plays a valuable role. To determine which design is best, information on customer preferences is
often needed in addition to comparative costs. Customer preferences can be obtained informally
through personal contact, as when a product is developed for a few industrial customers. Or
marketing research may sample customers’ preferences when the target markets comprise many,
widely dispersed customers.

7.Test Marketing

During this stage, the product is actually tried out in selected market segments. Only based on
the results of test marketing will a marketer and manufacturer usually launch large scale
manufacture of the new product. Test marketing is a form of risk control and ensures avoidance
of costly business errors. It is a controlled marketing experiment with minimum possible cost
and risk to decide on the soundness and feasibility of full-fledged marketing of the product. If
totally new products are introduced into the market on a commercial scale without resorting to
test marketing, it may so come to light that the product was not the right one for the chosen
market. This may be too costly a mistake for the firm. Test marketing in such a case may indicate
that the sales prospect for the product is bound to be poor; and the firm may opt to drop the new
product idea and save the investment. On the contrary, if the results received from the test
marketing are positive and encouraging, the firm may go ahead with the commercial production
and marketing of the new product.

Test marketing is an experiment that has to be carefully conducted. Care is required in selecting
the ‘test markets’ and ‘control markets’, in monitoring the test and in analyzing and interpreting
the test results. In many cases, test marketing is also a time consuming process; it has to be
carried out for long duration in order to obtain reliable and meaningful indications. And if
competitors get information regarding the test, it is possible for them to ‘manipulate the test
process and thereby make the test results unreliable.

Test Marketing Technique Takes Roots in India

In India, test marketing as a marketing technique is becoming popular in recent times. In the
past, only big corporations like Hindustan Lever and Tatas used to go in for test marketing. Now,
more and more firms with the help of advertising and marketing research agencies are going in
for test marketing before a new product is commercially launched. For instance, TTK group test
marketed Yammies, a snack food and Vazir Sultan test marketed Charms cigarettes before
launching full scale marketing. Mc-Dowells test marketed Sprint in Bombay before going
national. Metropolitan test marketed their brand of shirts for a period of six months in Bangalore
before going in for full scale production and marketing.

A decision must finally be made on whether or not deciding on to introduce the new product into
target markets. In commercialization of a product, all evaluations are brought to bear as
management assesses the degree to which the product and the supporting strategy can be
expected to succeed. If the decision is to go ahead, resources are committed to implementing the
new product strategy. Raw material and component contracts must be made with suppliers;
channels of distribution must be selected; manufacturing facilities, equipment, and processes
must be set into operation; salespeople may need to be hired and trained; and so forth. Typically,
very large commitments of money and personnel are involved. Because of the tremendous
resource commitment required by new product launching, a crucial decision concerns the time
frame over which the introduction will take place.

8.Commercialization

A crash introduction is the full-scale commercialization of a new product as quickly as possible.

The resources needed to move into target markets are immediately committed. In this way,
competitors are given little time to prepare their responses to the product. A crash program is
most often selected when competitors can counter quickly and maximum lead time is needed to
establish market position. A crash introduction tends to maximize other risks because substantial
resources are committed quickly.

BRAND
What is brand? It is nothing but a way of creating an identity for a product, somewhat like quick
example comes to mind is that of Amitabh Bachhan whose name evokes a certain identity. When
you think of his personality, you automatically identify him through certain characteristics and
qualities which make him uniquely distinguishable from many other stars. Similarly, when we
want to sell or buy a product we don’t think in terms of product in general but we are required to
identify the particular brand within entire product range which we like e.g. when we go to
purchase shaving cream we do not ask for any shaving cream, we ask for specific brand, i.e. old
spice, Denim etc.

Is it simple as that? Of course, not. It takes lot of time to become the Big B. A brand is sum total
of the particular satisfaction that it delivers to the consumers who buys that specific brand. We
relate to brands in many ways. As consumers, we can remember some brands with which we are
familiar and therefore, we expect certain standard of quality from these brands e.g. when we
want to buy a washing powder, we specifically ask for Surf, Ariel or some such brand. The
American Marketing Association defines a brand as:

“A brand is a name, term, sign, symbol, design, or a combination of these, intended to

identify the goods and services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them
from those of competitors”.

A brand is different from other assets such as patents and copy write which have expiry dates.
Consumer view a brand as an important part of a product and branding can add a value to a
product. Consumer’s perception of a product is very much dependent upon the brand. When a
consumer becomes loyal to any brand he or she start saying that I want Godrej, I want Bajaj etc.
The best brands convey a warranty of quality. Thus, we can say that brand gives identity to the
product. It tells about quality of product. Brand loyal as know very well the features and benefits
of the product each time they buy.

From the seller’s point of views also, the brand name gives the whole summary about the
product. It provides legal protection for unique product feature. Marketer should develop a deep
set of positive associations for the brand. Marketers must know at which level to anchor the
brand identity. It would be a big mistake to promote only attributes. Firstly, because the buyers
are not as mature and interested in the attributes of the product as the benefits. Second,
competitors can easily copy attributes. Third, current attributes may become less desirable
tomorrow.

BRAND EQUITY
Brand Equity encompasses a set of assets linked to a brand’s name and symbol that adds to
the value provided by a product or service to the consumers. There is always underlying
expectation that the brand will deliver the satisfaction it has promised. A consumer expects a
certain standard of quality and satisfaction which the manufacturer has to make sure and that the
product lines up to that expectations, otherwise the consumer will stop buying that product.
Simply speaking that brand identities primarily exist in the minds of its customers. A brand is his
or her evaluation of performance of that brand. And if his evaluation is positive the customer is
willing to pay more for a particular brand over another similar product. This is the strength of
Brand Equity. “The brand equity refers to the value inherent in a well known brand name. From
a consumers’ perspective, brand equity is the added value bestowed on the product. Brand equity
facilitates the acceptance of new products and the allocation of preferred space, and enhances
perceived value, perceived quality and premium pricing option. Because of the escalation of new
product costs and high rate of new product failures, many companies prefer to leverage their
brand equity through brand extensions rather than risk launching a new brand.

Brand equity enables companies to charge a price premium e.g. researchers have estimated that
because of colgate brand equity, the colgate pamolive company is able to price colgate
toothpaste about 37 cents higher than competitive store brands with objectively identical
attributes.

A brand with strong brand equity is very valuable asset. According to one estimate, the brand
equity of Malboro is $ 45b; Coca Cola– $ 43b, IBM– $ 18b, Disney– $ 15b & Kodak– $ 13b.
The worlds’ top brands include Coca-cola, Campbell, Disney, Kodak, Sony, Mercedes-Benz,
McDonalds.

A relatively new strategy among some marketers is co-branding. The basis of co-branding is in
which two brand names are featured on a single product. For example, Hero-Honda, Maruti-
Suzuki to use another product’s brand equity to enhance the primary brands equity.

Brand equity ensures a high level of consumer brand awareness and loyalty. Because of high
brand extension e.g. Coca-Cola-Diet coke, it allows more leverage in bargaining with
distributors and retailers. Customers are ready to pay a premium because of perceived reliability,
trust worthiness, as well as the positive image of superior quality that the brand commands. The
major assets of brand equity are:

(i) Brand awareness: This refers to the strength of a brands presence in the mind of the
consumer. Awareness is measured according to the recognition and the recall of brand.

(ii) Perceived Quality: Perceived quality means level of expected quality that product holds in
the mind of consumer, are buying; and in that sense, it is the ultimate measure of the impact on
the mind of consumer.

(ii) Brand Loyalty: A brand’s value to the company is a measure of customers’ loyalty towards
a brand. Since a company consider loyalty as a major assets which encourages and justifies
loyalty buildings program, which, in turn, helps create and enhance Brand Equity.

Brand Personality: In totality brands holds more meaning and .importance than tangible or
perceivable product seems to offer.

This is a highly promised concept, both in theory and practical relevance, when it comes to
positioning brands with non functional values, in form of feeling it arouse in consumer:
Raymond- a complete man, Cadbury’s– a gift of love. Many brand strategy statements nowadays
refer to the personality of the brand. However, brand managers using these statements often tend
to define character for several brands in the company’s line in more or less identical terms e.g.
for many OTC (over the counter) remedies, the Brand character is monotonously described as
caring and efficient. So, the key lines in building different and distinct brand personality.

The purpose of positioning by brand personality is lost if we are unable to define a desired
personality for our brand which is clearly distinct from the personalities of competing brands and
sister brands in our own product line.

Now the question arises: what is Brand image? Brand personality?

David Ogilvy, writing, on the image and the brand, regards ‘image’ and ‘personality’ as
synonymous. “The manufacturer who dedicates his advertising to building the most favorable
image, the most sharply defined personality, is the one who will get the largest market share at
the highest profit in the long run”.
Christine Restall of Meann- Erickson draws a distinction.

“Brand image refers to rational measurements like quality, strength, and flavor. Brand
personality explains why people like some brands more than others even then when there is
no physical difference between them”.

It would seem that Restall considers brand personality as being made up of the emotional
association of brands and brand image, of its physical features and benefits.

The brand image represents the essence of all the impressions or imprints about the brand that
have been made on the consumers mind. It includes impression about the physical features and
performance; impression about functional benefits from using it; imagery and symbolic meaning
it evokes in the consumer’s mind. Brand image indeed is the ‘totality’ of brand in the perception
of the consumer.

Brand personality is that aspect of the brands totality which bring up in the mind of the
consumers its emotional overtones and it symbolisms its characterizations, if you will. The great
operational utility of brand personality is that when the consumer cannot distinguish brands by
their physical features or functional benefits, he is invited to look at their so-called human
characteristics. It makes his task simpler in judging whether it is his kind of product or not.

So, brand image represents the totality of impressions about the brand as selected and adopted by
the consumer’s perception. It embraces the brands physical and functional aspects and also it
symbolic meanings. The brand personality, on the other hand, dwells mainly in these symbolic
aspects. It must match the target prospect’s self concept “I see the brand in myself’

PACKAGING
Even after the development of product and branding that product, needs arise to fulfill the other
aspects of the marketing mix. Most physical products have to be packaged and labeled. One such
product feature, and a critical one for some products, is packaging which consists of all the
activities of designing and producing the container or wrapper for a product.

“Packaging includes the activities of designing and producing the container for a product”.
The above definition shows that package is the actual container or wrapper. Thus, packaging is a
one of the important function of the business as it is the package, where first get the attention of
the customers. It has become a potent marketing tool. Well designed packages can create
convenience and promotional value. Packaging is the part of product planning where a firm
researches, designs, and produces package(s). A package is a container used to protect, promote,
transport, and/or identify a product. It may consist of a product’s physical container, an outer
label, and/ or inserts. The physical container may be a cardboard, metal, plastic, or wooden box;a
cellophane, wax paper, or cloth wrapper; a glass, aluminum, or plastic jar or can; a paper bag;
Styrofoam; some other material; or a combination of these. Products may have more than one
container: Cereal is individually packaged in small boxes, with inner wax paper wrapping, and
shipped in large corrugated boxes; watches are usually covered with cloth linings and shipped in
plastic boxes. The label indicates a product’s brand name, the company logo, ingredients,
promotional messages, inventory codes, and/or instructions for use. Inserts are (1) instructions
and safety information placed in drug, toy, and other packages or (2) coupons, prizes, or recipe
booklets. They are used as appropriate.

The basic packaging functions are containment and protection, usage, communication,
segmentation, channel cooperation, and new-product planning:

Packaging functions range from containment and protection to product planning.

 Containment and protection. Packaging enables liquid, granular and other divisible
products to be contained in a given quantity and form. It protects a product while it is
shipped, stored, and handled.
 Usage. Packaging lets a product be easily used and re-stored. It may even be reusable
after a product is depleted. Packaging must also be safe for all, from a young child to a
senior.

 Communication. Packaging communicates a brand image, provides ingredients and

directions, and displays the product. It is a major promotion tool.
  Segmentation. Packaging can be tailor-made for a specific market group. If a firm offers
two or more package shapes, sizes, colors, or designs, it may employ differentiated
marketing.

 Channel cooperation. Packaging can address wholesaler and retailer needs with regard
to shipping, storing, promotion and so on.

New-product planning. New packaging can be a key innovation for a firm and stimulate sales.

Package Materials

Changing trends from wood to paper and plastics: Over the years great deals of changes have
taken place in the materials used for packaging. In the earlier days, wood was the main material
used. It has slowly given place to paper and paperboard, especially on account of the shortage in
wood supplies. Paperboard cartons, paper bags and corrugated boards have become popular
forms of packaging for a variety of products, from groceries to garments. Metal containers are
also popular. Metal containers are an excellent packaging medium for processed foods, fruit,
vegetables, meat products, oil, paint, etc. However, the acute shortage of tin in India makes metal
packaging rather costly.

Plastics, the new packing medium: With the growth of the petrochemical industry; a new range
of packaging materials have entered the marketing scene. Films of low density and high-density
polyethylene (LDPE and HDPE), metalized polyester film, metalized polyester laminates and
polypropylene have become the preferred packaging medium for several products.

More innovations in packaging:

Tetrapacks or aseptic packaging is the new development in food packaging. Here, the package as
well as the contents are sterilized and human handling dispensed with. The package consists of
several thin layers of polyethylene foil and paper. Several manufacturers of fruit juices and fruit
drinks are now using tetrapacks. Tetrapacks have an edge over cans since their contents have a
shelf life of three months without the addition of preservatives. Parle.s Frooti and Godrej.s Jump
in were the early ones to go in for aseptic tetrapacks. Fruit juice brands like Onjus and Tropicana
have joined them and now many other brands are opting for tetrapacks.

Package Size and Convenience

Pond’s cold cream and Brylcream in tubes: Earlier, Ponds cold cream was coming in a bottle
container. And, it was intended and used as a dressing table item. Subsequently, Ponds
introduced the cream in a handy plastic tube.

Application convenience of Harpic: Harpic liquid toilet cleaner is another product that has
successfully exploited the concept of customer convenience in packaging.

The beer can: The beer can serves as one of the best examples of packaging convenience.
Opening the can is so simple an action and requires no instructions whatsoever.

Fractional packaging: Providing .fractional package. or small unit package is also a method of
going with customer preference and convenience. Toothpastes are now available in 200 gm
packing as well as in 50 gms packing.

Economy pack: The economy or family package makes available the product in larger size.
Households with several members can buy the economy packs and avoid the inconvenience of
repeat purchases, making a saving in the bargain.
Sachets: More recently, the tiny pack, sachet, is becoming popular. Many consumer products
like soups, beverages, candy, cough syrup, toothpaste, digestive salts, hair oil and shampoo are
now being popularized through sachets. The use of sachets gained popularity with the arrival of
pan masala in the 1980s.

Reusable containers: Providing reusable containers is another way of enhancing product appeal.
Nescafe at a point of time came in a glass jar, which could be later used as a glass.

Refill packs: Refill packaging is also related to customer convenience and economy. Several
product categories like health drinks, coffee and tea and cooking oils are now coming in refill
packs. Brands like Nescafe, Bru, Bournvita, Maltova, etc., are examples. The refill packs are sold
at a slightly lesser price than the regular package and that itself serves as a sales promotion
support.

Packaging is also one of the way through which marketer can differentiate his product from the
competitive brand. Moreover, customers are ready to pay a little more for convenience,
appearance, dependability and the prestige of better packages. Packages also contribute to the
instant recognition of the company or brand. Thus, innovative packaging can bring large benefits
to the customers and profit to producers. If other marketing mix is comparable, retailers are
likely to purchase and display products having attractive functional packaging.

Despite of having various benefits of the packaging, there are certain limitations; which are as
follows:

1. Packaging depletes natural resources

2. Packaging is too expensive

3. Some forms of plastic packaging are health hazards.

4. Packaging is deceptive

The biggest challenges facing packagers is how to dispose of used container

 Labeling
Sellers must label products. The label may be a simple tag attached to the product or an
elaborately designed graphic that is part of the package. The label might carry only the brand
name or a great deal of information. Even if the seller prefers a simple label, the law may require
additional information. Labels perform several functions. First, the label identifies the product or
brand for instance, the name Sunkist stamped on oranges. The label might also grade the
product; canned peaches are grade labeled A, B and C. The label might describe the product:
who made it, where it was made, when it was made, what it contains, how it is to be used, and
how to use it safely. Finally, the label promotes the product through its attractive graphics.
Labels eventually become outmoded and need freshening up. The label on Ivory soap has been
redone 18 times since the 1890s, with gradual changes in the size and design of the letters. The
label on Orange Crush soft drink was substantially changed when competitors. Labels began to
picture fresh fruits, thereby pulling in more sales. In response, Orange Crush developed a label
with new symbols to suggest freshness and with much stronger and deeper colors. Labeling,
which is closely related to the packaging, is another feature that requires managerial attention. A
label is a part of the product that carries information about the product and the seller. A label
may be part of a package or it may be a tag attached to a product. The seller must label products.
The label might carry only the brand name or a great deal of information. Labels are of three
types:

1. Brand label: Brand label is simply the brand alone applied to the product or package. Some
clothes carry the brand label like Mc wear.

2. Descriptive label: It gives the information about the product use, care, performance, and other
features. On a descriptive label for a Maggi Noodles, there are statements concerning the weight,
ingredients, tastes, price etc.

3. A Grade Label: It identifies the product judged quality with a letter, number, or word. Corn
and wheat are grade-labelled 1 and 2

LABELLING.TELLING ABOUT THE PRODUCT

Label: The paper or plastic sticker attached to a container to carry product information.
As packaging technology improves, labels become incorporated into the protective aspects
of the package rather than simply being affixed to the package. The paper or plastic sticker
attached to a can of peas or a mustard jar is technically called a label. But as packaging
technology improves and cans and bottles become less prominent, labels become incorporated
into the protective aspects of the package. In the case of a box of frozen broccoli, for example, a
good portion of the vegetables. protection comes from the label, which is more properly called,
in this case, the wrapper.

Universal Product Code (UPC). The array of black bars, readable by optical scanners, found on
many products. The UPC permits computerization of tasks such as checkout and compilation of
sales volume information. Most consumer packaged goods are labeled with an appropriate
Universal Product Code (UPC), and array of black bars readable by optical scanners. The
advantages of the UPC. which allow computerized checkout and compiling of computer-
generated sales volume information have become clear to distributors, retailers and consumers in
recent years.

Pricing

“Price is the amount of money or goods for which a thing is bought or sold”.

The price of a product may be seen as a financial expression of the value of that product. For a
consumer, price is the monetary expression of the value to be enjoyed/benefits of purchasing a
product, as compared with other available items. The concept of value can therefore be expressed
as:

(perceived) VALUE = (perceived) BENEFITS – (perceived) COSTS

A customer’s motivation to purchase a product comes firstly from a need and a want:e.g.
• Need: "I need to eat

• Want: I would like to go out for a meal tonight")

The second motivation comes from a perception of the value of a product in satisfying that

need/want (e.g. "I really fancy a McDonalds").

The perception of the value of a product varies from customer to customer, because perceptions
of benefits and costs vary.

Perceived benefits are often largely dependent on personal taste (e.g. spicy versus sweet, or
green versus blue). In order to obtain the maximum possible value from the available market,
businesses try to ‘segment’ the market – that is to divide up the market into groups of consumers
whose preferences are broadly similar – and to adapt their products to attract these customers.

In general, a products perceived value may be increased in one of two ways – either by:

(1) Increasing the benefits that the product will deliver, or,

(2) Reducing the cost

FACTORS INFLUENCING PRICING POLICIES

The factors that businesses must consider in determining pricing policy can be summarized in
four categories:

(1) Costs

In order to make a profit, a business should ensure that its products are priced above their total
average cost. In the short-term, it may be acceptable to price below total cost if this price exceeds
the marginal cost of production – so that the sale still produces a positive contribution to fixed
costs.

(2) Competitors
If the business is a monopolist, then it can set any price. At the other extreme, if a firm operates
under conditions of perfect competition, it has no choice and must accept the market price. The
reality is usually somewhere in between. In such cases the chosen price needs to be very
carefully considered relative to those of close competitors.

(3) Customers

Consideration of customer expectations about price must be addressed. Ideally, a business should
attempt to quantify its demand curve to estimate what volume of sales will be achieved at given
prices

(4) Business Objectives

Possible pricing objectives include:

• To maximize profits

• To achieve a target return on investment

• To achieve a target sales figure

• To achieve a target market share

• To match the competition, rather than lead the market

IMPORTANCE OF PRICING DECISIONS

The following points highlight the importance of pricing strategies in the current marketing
environment:

• The chosen price directly influences demand level and determines the level of activity. A price
set too high or too low can endanger the product’s development.

• The selling price directly determines the profitability of the operation, not only by the profit
margin allowed, but also through quantities sold by fixing the conditions under which fixed costs
can be recovered over the appropriate time• horizon. Thus, a small price difference may have a
major impact on profitability.

• The price set by the firm influences the product or the brand’s general perception and helps in
shaping brand’s image. The price quoted invariably creates a notion of quality, and therefore is a
component of the brand image.

• More than any other marketing variable, the price is an easy means of comparison between
competing products or brands especially when there is hardly any brand differentiation. The
slightest change in price is quickly perceived by the market, and because it is so visible it can
suddenly overturn the balance of forces.

• Pricing strategy must be compatible with the other components of strategic marketing. Product
packaging must reinforce high quality and high price positioning; pricing strategy must respect
distribution strategy and allow the granting of necessary distribution margins to ensure that the
objectives of covering the market can be achieved.

• Acceleration of technological progress and shortening of product life cycles means that a new
activity must be made to pay over a much shorter time span than previously. Given that
correction is so much more difficult, mistake in setting the initial price is that much more serious.

• Proliferation of brands or products which are weakly differentiated, the regular appearance of
new products and the range of products all reinforce the importance of correct price positioning;
yet small differences can sometimes modify the market’s perception of a brand quite
significantly.
• Increased prices of some raw materials, inflationary pressures, wage rigidities and price
controls call for more rigorous economic management.

• Legal constraints, as well as regulatory and social constraints, such as price controls, setting
maximum margins, authorization for increases etc., limit the firm’s autonomy in determining
prices.

• Reduced purchasing power in most economies makes buyers’ more aware of price differences,
and this increased price sensitivity reinforces the role of price as an instrument for stimulating
sales and market share.

• Given the importance and complexity of these decisions, pricing strategies are often elaborated
by the firm’s management.

SETTING THE PRICE

A firm must set a price for the first time when it develops a new product, when it introduces its
regular product into a new distribution channel or geographic area, and when it enters bids on
new contract work. The firm must decide where to position its product on quality and price. Most
marketers have 3–5 price points or tiers. Consumers often rank brands according to price tiers in
a category. Within any tier, there is a range of acceptable prices, called price brands. The price
brand provides managers with some indication of the flexibility and breadth they can adopt in
pricing their brands within a particular price tier.

The firm has to consider many factors in setting its pricing policy. The following is a six-step
procedure suggested by Kotler and Keller (2009:423-437) when setting pricing policy:
• Selecting the pricing objective

• Determining demand

• Estimating costs

• Analyzing competitors ‘costs, prices, and offers

• Selecting a pricing method

• Selecting the final price

Step 1: Selecting the Pricing Objective

The company first decides where it wants to position its market offering. The clearer a firm‘s
objectives, the easier it is to set price. A company can pursue any of five major objectives
through pricing:

 Survival
 Maximum current profit
 Maximum market share
 Maximum market skimming
 Product-quality leadership

Step 2: Determining Demand

Each price will lead to a different level of demand and therefore have a different impact on a
company‘s marketing objectives. The relation between alternative prices and the resulting
current demand is captured in a demand curve. In the normal case, demand and price are
inversely related; the higher the price, the lower the demand. In the case of prestige goods, the
demand curve sometimes slopes upward.
  Price Sensitivity

The demand curve shows the market‘s probable purchase quantity at alternative prices. The first
step in estimating demand is to understand what affects price sensitivity. Generally speaking,
customers are most price-sensitive to products that cost a lot or are bought frequently. Customers
are less price-sensitive to low-cost items or items they buy infrequently. They are also less price-
sensitive when price is only a small part of the total cost of obtaining, operating, and servicing
the product over its lifetime (total cost of ownership—TCO). Companies prefer customers who
are less price-sensitive.

 Estimating Demand Curves

Most companies attempt to measure their demand curves using several different methods.
Statistical analysis of past prices, quantities sold, and other factors can reveal their relationships.
In measuring the price-demand relationship, the market researcher must control various factors
that will influence demand. The competitor‘s response will make a difference.

 Price Elasticity of Demand

Marketers need to know how responsive or elastic demand would be to a change in price. If
demand hardly changes with a small change in price, we say the demand is inelastic. If demand
changes considerably, demand is elastic. Demand is likely to be less elastic under the following
conditions:

• There are few or no substitutes or competitors

• Buyers do not readily notice a higher price

• Buyers are slow to change their buying habits

• Buyers think the higher prices are justified

If demand is elastic, sellers will consider lowering the price. A lower price will produce more
total revenue as long as the costs of producing and selling more units do not increase
disproportionately. It is a mistake not to consider the price elasticity of customers and their needs
in developing marketing programmes. Price elasticity depends on the magnitude and direction of
the contemplated price change. It may be negligible with a small price change or substantial with
a large price change. It may differ for a price cut versus a price increase. There may be a price
indifference band within which price changes have little or no effect. Long-run price elasticity
may differ from short-run elasticity.

Step 3: Estimating Costs

Demand sets a ceiling on the price the company can charge for its product. Costs set the floor.

Types of Costs and Levels of Production

A company‘s costs take two forms, fixed and variable. Fixed costs (also known as overhead) are
costs that do not vary with production or sales revenue. Variable costs vary directly with the
level of production. Total costs consist of the sum of the fixed and variable costs for any given
level of production. Average cost is the cost per unit at that level of production. Management
wants to charge a price that will at least cover the total production costs at a given level of
production. To price intelligently, management needs to know how its costs vary with different
levels of production.

Accumulated Production

The decline in the average cost with accumulated production experience is called the experience
curve or learning curve. Experience-curve pricing carries major risks. Aggressive pricing might
give the product a cheap image. The strategy assumes that competitors are weak followers. Most
experience-curve pricing has focused on manufacturing costs, but all costs, including marketing
costs, can be improved on.

Activity-Based Cost Accounting

Today companies try to adapt their offers and terms to different buyers. To estimate the real
profitability of dealing with different retailers, the manufacturer needs to use activity-based
accounting (ABC). ABC accounting tries to identify the real costs associated with serving each
customer. The key to effectively employing ABC is to define and judge ―activities‖ properly.

Target Costing

Costs change with production scale and experience. They can also change as a result of a
concentrated effort to reduce them through target costing. The objective is to bring the final cost
projections into the target cost range.

Step 4: Analyzing Competitors’ Costs, Prices, and Offers

Within the range of possible prices determined by market demand and company costs, the firm
must take competitor’s costs, prices, and possible price reactions into account. The firm should
first consider the nearest competitor‘s price.

Step 5: Selecting a Pricing Method

Given the 3Cs - the customers’ demand schedule, the cost function, and competitor’s prices, the
company is now ready to select a price. Costs set the floor to the price. Competitor’s prices and
the price of substitutes provide an orienting point. Customer’s assessment of unique features
establishes the price ceiling. There are six price-setting methods:

Markup pricing

Target-return pricing

Perceived-value pricing

Value pricing

Going-rate pricing
Auction-type pricing

Mark up Pricing

The most elementary pricing method is to add a standard markup to the product‘s cost. Does the
use of standard markups make logical sense? Generally, no. Any pricing method that ignores
current demand, perceived value, and competition is not likely to lead to the optimal price.
Markup pricing remains popular. Sellers can determine costs much more easily than they can
estimate demand. By tying the price to cost, sellers simplify the pricing task. Where all firms in
the industry use this pricing method, prices tend to be similar. Many people feel that cost-plus
pricing is fairer to both buyers and sellers.

Target-Return Pricing

In target-return pricing, the firm determines the price that would yield its target rate of return on
investments (ROI). Target-return pricing tends to ignore price elasticity and competitors‘ prices

Perceived Value Pricing

An increasing number of companies base their price on the customer‘s perceived value. They
must deliver the value promised by their value proposition, and the customer must perceive this
value. Perceived value is made up of several characteristics:

Buyer‘s image of the product performance

Channel deliverables

The warranty quality

Customer support

Softer attributes such as:

- Supplier‘s reputation
- Trustworthiness

- Esteem

Furthermore, each potential customer places different weights on these different elements, with
the result that some will be:

Price buyers

Value buyers

Loyal buyers

Companies need different strategies for each of these three groups. The key to perceived-value
pricing is to deliver more value than the competitor and to demonstrate this to prospective
buyers. The company can try to determine the value of its offering in several ways:

Managerial judgments within the company

Value of similar products

Focus groups

Surveys

Experimentation

Analysis of historical data

Conjoint analysis
Going-Rate Pricing

In going-rate pricing, the firm bases its price largely on competitor‘s prices. The firm might
charge the same, more, or less than major competitor (s). Going-rate pricing is quite popular
where costs are difficult to measure or competitive response is uncertain.

Auction-type pricing

Auction-type pricing is growing more popular, especially with the growth of the Internet.

There are three types of auction-type pricing:

English auctions (ascending bids)

Dutch auctions (descending bids)

Sealed-bid auctions

Step 6: Selecting the Final Price

Pricing methods narrow the range from which the company must select its final price. In
selecting the price, the company must consider additional factors, including the impact of other
marketing activities, company pricing policies, gain-and-risk sharing pricing, and the impact of
price on other parties.

ADAPTING THE PRICE

Companies, according to Kotler and Keller (2009:437), usually do not set a single price, but
rather a pricing structure that reflects variations in: Geographical demand and costs, Market-
segment requirements, Purchase timing, Order levels, Delivery frequency, Guarantees or Service
contracts. Other factors as a result of discounts, allowances, and promotional support, a company
rarely realizes the same profit from each unit of a product it sells.

Geographical Pricing (Cash, Countertrade, Barter)

Geographical pricing involves the company deciding how to price its products to different
customers in different locations and countries. Should the company charge higher prices to
distant customers to cover the higher shipping costs or a lower price to win additional business?
How should exchange rates and the strength of different currencies be accounted for? Another
issue is how to get paid. Many buyers want to offer other items in payment, a practice known as
counter-trade. Counter-trade may account for 15 to 25 percent of world trade and takes several
forms:

Barter

Compensation deal

Buyback arrangement

Offset

Price Discounts and Allowances

Most companies will adjust list prices and give discounts and allowances for early payment,
volume purchases, and off-season buying. Discount pricing has become the modus operandi of a
surprising number of companies offering both products and services.

Some product categories tend to self-destruct by always being on sale. Discounting can be a
useful tool if the company can gain concessions in return. Sales management needs to monitor
the proportion of customers who are receiving discounts. Higher levels of management should
conduct a net price analysis to arrive at the ―real price‖ of their offering.

Promotional Pricing

Companies can use several pricing techniques to stimulate early purchase:

Loss-leader pricing

Special-event pricing

Cash rebates

Low-interest financing

Longer payment terms

Warranties and service contracts

Psychological discounting

Differentiated Pricing

Companies often adjust their basic price to accommodate differences in customers, products,
locations, and so on. Price discrimination occurs when a company sells a product or service at
two or more prices that do not reflect a proportional difference in costs. In first-degree price
discrimination, the seller charges a separate price to each customer depending on the intensity of
his or her demand. In second-degree price discrimination, the seller charges less to buyers who
buy a larger volume. In third-degree price discrimination, the seller charges different amounts to
different classes of buyers:

• Customer-segment pricing

• Product-form pricing

• Image pricing

• Channel pricing

• Location pricing

• Time pricing
Yield pricing, and yield management systems are used to offer discounts based upon some
criteria. Some forms of price discrimination are illegal. Price discrimination is legal if the seller
can prove that its costs are different when selling different volumes or different quantities of the
same product to retailers. Predatory pricing - selling below cost with the intent of destroying
competition - is unlawful. For price discrimination to work, certain conditions must exist:

 The market must be segmentable and the segments must show different intensities of
demands

 Members in the lower-price segment must not be able to resell the product to the higher-
price segment

 Competitors must not be able to undersell the firm in the higher-price segment

 The cost of segmenting and policing the market must not exceed the extra revenue
derived from price discrimination

 The practice must not breed customer resentment and ill will

 The particular form of price discrimination must not be illegal

INITIATING AND RESPONDING TO PRICE

CHANGES
Companies often face situations when they may need to cut or raise prices. Kotler and Keller
(2009:442-446) elaborate as follows:

Initiating Price Cuts

Several circumstances might lead a firm to cut prices:

• Excess plant capacity

• Companies may initiate a price cut in a drive to dominate the market through lower costs

• Either the company starts with lower costs or initiates price cuts in the hope of gaining
market share and lower costs

A price-cutting strategy involves possible traps:

• Low-quality trap

• Fragile-market-share trap

• Shallow-pockets trap

Initiating Price Increases

A successful price increase can raise profits considerably. A major circumstance provoking price
increases is cost inflation. Rising costs unmatched by productivity gains squeeze profit margins
and lead companies to regular rounds of price increases. Companies often raise their prices by
more than the cost increase in anticipation of further inflation or governmental price controls, in
a practice called anticipatory pricing. Another factor leading to price increase is over-demand.
The price can be increased in the following ways:

• Delayed quotation pricing

• Escalator clauses

• Unbundling

• Reduction of discounts
Reactions to Price Changes

Any price change can provoke a response from customers, competitors, distributors, suppliers,
and even government.

Customer Reactions

Customers often question the motivation behind price changes. A price cut can be interpreted in
different ways:

• The item is about to be replaced by a new model

• The item is faulty and is not selling well

• The firm is in financial trouble

• The price will come down even further

• The quality has been reduced

A price increase may carry some positive meanings to customers:

• The item is ―hot

• The item represents an unusually good value

Competitor Reactions

Competitors are most likely to react when:

• The number of firms are few

• The product is homogeneous

• Buyers are highly informed.

How can a firm anticipate a competitor’s reactions?

One way is to assume that the competitor reacts in a set way to price changes. The other is to
assume that the competitor treats each price change as a fresh challenge and reacts according to
self-interests at that time.

Responding to Competitors’ Price Changes

How should a firm respond to a price cut initiated by a competitor?

In markets characterized by high product homogeneity, the firm should search for ways to
enhance its augmented product. If not it will have to meet the price reduction. In non-
homogeneous product markets, the firm has more latitude. It needs to consider the following:

• Why did the competitor change the price?

• Does the competitor plan to make the price change temporary or permanent?

• What will happen to the company‘s market share and profits if it does not respond?

• Are other companies going to respond?

• What are the competitor‘s and other firm‘s responses likely to be to each possible
reaction?

Market leaders frequently face aggressive price cutting by smaller firms trying to build market
share. The brand leader can respond in several ways:

• Reduction of discounts

• Maintain price

• Maintain price and add value

• Reduce price

• Increase price and improve quality

• Launch a low-price fighter line

The best response varies with the situation. The company has to consider the products:

• Stage in the life cycle

• Its importance in the company‘s portfolio

• The competitor‘s intentions and resources

• The market‘s price and quality sensitivity

• The behavior of costs with volume

• The company‘s alternative opportunities

Place
Exchange is the core aspect of marketing. Ownership of a product has to be transferred somehow
from the individual or organization that makes it to the consumer who needs and buys it. Goods
also must be physically transported from where they are produced to where they are needed.
Services ordinarily cannot be transported but rather are produced and consumed simultaneously.
Distribution’s role within marketing mix is getting the product to its target market. The most
important activity in getting a product to market is arranging for its sale from producer to final
consumer. Other common activities are promoting the product, storing it, and assuming some of
the financial risk during the distribution process. A producer can carry out these functions in
exchange for an order from a customer. Typically, however, firms called middlemen perform
some of these activities on behalf of the producer.
In today’s economy, most producers do not sell their goods directly to the final users. Between
them and the final users stand a host of marketing intermediaries performing a variety of
functions and bearing a variety of names. Some intermediaries, such as wholesalers and retailers
buy, take title to, and resell the merchandise; they are called merchant middlemen. Others, such
as brokers, manufacturer’s representatives, and sales agents, search for customers and may
negotiate on behalf of the producer but do not take title to the goods; they are called agent
middlemen. Still others, such as transportation companies, independent warehouses, banks, and
advertising agencies, assist in the performance of distribution but neither take title to goods nor
negotiate purchases or sales; they are called facilitators.

Marketing-channel decisions are among the most critical decisions faced by management. The
company’s chosen channels ultimately affect all the other marketing decisions. A distribution
system is a key external resource. Normally it takes years to build, and it is not easily changed. It
ranks in importance with key internal resources such as manufacturing, research, engineering,
and field sales personnel. It represents a significant corporate commitment to large numbers of
independent companies whose business is distribution, and to the particular markets they serve.
It represents as well, a commitment to a set of policies and practices that constitute the basic
fabric on which is woven an extensive set of long term relationships. Individual consumers and
corporate buyers are aware that literally thousands of goods and services are available through a
very large number of diverse channel outlets. What they might not be well aware of is the fact
that the channel structure, or the set of institutions, agencies, and establishments through which
the product must move to get to them, can be amazingly complex.

REASONS FOR EMERGENCE OF CHANNELS

(a) Efficiency rationale for intermediaries

(b) Discrepancy of Assortment and Sorting

(c) Routinisation

(d) Searching

FUNCTIONS AND FLOWS IN MARKETING CHANNELS

Manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers as well as the other channel members exist in channel
arrangements to perform one or more of the functions such as, order processing, carrying of
inventory, demand generation, physical distribution, etc. At any given time the functions
performed by the channel members are more basic than institutions themselves. Therefore, while
channel institutions can be eliminated or substituted, the functions performed by them cannot.
The functions that need to be necessarily performed in a channel system include transfer of
ownership through selling, transfer of possession through transportation; order processing,
inventory carrying, storage, sorting, negotiation and promotion. The same function in a given
channel system may be performed at more than one level of the marketing channel; the work
load for the function is shared by the members at all levels. For example, manufacturer,
wholesalers, and retailers may all carry inventory. This duplication and redundancy in the
channel may increase the distribution cost. However, the increase in cost is justifiable to the
extent that it may be necessary in order to provide goods to customers at the right quantity, time,
and place.

Flow in channels is referred as a set of functions performed in sequence by channel members.

Therefore, the term flow is descriptive of movement. Figure 1 depicts important marketing
flows. Physical possession, ownership, and promotion are typically forward flows from producer
to consumer. Each of these moves down the distribution channel- a manufacturer promotes its
product to a wholesaler, which in turn promotes it to a retailer, and so on. The negotiation,
financing, and risk flows move in both directions, whereas, ordering and payment are backward
flows.

LEVELS OF CHANNEL

This indicates the number of intermediaries between the manufactures and consumers. Mainly
there are four channel levels. They are:

1. Zero level channel: - Here the goods move directly from producer to consumer. That is, no

Intermediary is involved. This channel is preferred by manufactures of industrial and consumer

durable goods.
2. One level channel: In this case there will be one sales intermediary ie, retailer. This is the
most common channel in case of consumer durable such as textiles, shoes, ready garments etc.

3. Two level channel: This channel option has two intermediaries, namely wholesaler and
retailer. The companies producing consumer non durable items use this level.

4. Three level channel: This contains three intermediaries. Here goods moves from manufacture
to agent to wholesalers to retailers to consumers. It is the longest indirect channel option that a
company has.

CHANNEL DESIGN DECISIONS

A new firm typically starts as a local operation selling in a limited market, using existing
intermediaries. Deciding on the best channels might not be a problem. The problem might be to
convince the available intermediaries to handle the firm's line. If the firm is successful, it might
branch into new markets. It might have to use different channels in different markets. In smaller
markets, the firm might sell directly to retailers; in larger markets, it might sell through
distributors. In rural areas, it might work with general goods merchants; in urban areas, with
limited line merchants in one part of the country, it might run exclusive franchisees; in another, it
might sell through all outlets willing to handle the merchandise. In one country it might use
international sales agents; in another, it might partner with a local firm. In short, the channel
system evolves in response to local opportunities and conditions. In managing its intermediaries,
the firm must decide how much effort to devote to push versus pull marketing. A push strategy
involves the manufacturer using its sales force and trade promotion money to induce
intermediaries to carry, promote, and sell the product to end users. Push strategy is appropriate
where there is low brand loyalty in a category, brand choice is made in the store, the product is
an impulse item and product benefits are well understood. A pull strategy involves a
manufacturer using advertising and promotion to induce consumers to ask intermediaries for the
product, thus inducing the intermediaries to order it. Pull strategy is appropriate when there is
high brand loyalty and high involvement in category, when people perceive differences between
brands, and when people choose the brand before they go to the store.

Designing a channel system involves five steps. Let us learn them in detail.
1.Analyze Customers' Desired Service Output Levels
In designing the marketing channel, the marketer must understand the service output levels
desired by target customers. Channels produce five service outputs. They are as follow:

a Lot Size: The number of units the channel permits a typical customer to purchase on one
occasion. In buying cars for its fleet, a company may prefer a channel from which it can buy a
large lot size; a household wants a channel that permits buying a lot size of one.

b.waiting Time: The average time customers of that channel wait for the receipt Distribution
Channels of the goods customers normally prefer fast delivery channels.

c. Spatial Convenience: The degree to which the marketing channel makes it easy for customers
to purchase the product. Chevrolet offers greater spatial convenience than Cadillac because there
are more Chevrolet dealers. Chevrolet's greater market decentralization helps customers save on
transportation and such cost in buying and repairing an automobile.

Product Variety: The assortment breadth provided by the marketing channel. Normally
customers prefer a greater assortment because more choices increase the chance of finding what
they need.

Service Backup: The add-on services (credit, delivery, installation, repairs) provided by the
channel. The greater the service backup, the greater the work provided by the channel.

The marketing-channel designer knows that providing greater service outputs means increased
channel costs and higher prices for customers. The success of discount stores indicates that many
consumers are willing to accept smaller service outputs if they can save money.

2. Establish Objectives and Constraints

Effective planning requires determining which market segments to serve and the best channels to
use in each case. Channel objectives vary with product characteristics. Perishable products
require more direct marketing. Bulky products such as building materials require channel that
minimize the shipping distance and amount of handling. Non standardized products, such as
custom built machinery and specialized business forms are sold directly by company sales
representatives. Products requiring installation or maintenance such as heating and cooling
system are usually sold and maintained by the company or by franchise dealers. High unit value
products such as generators and turbines are often sold through a company sales force rather than
intermediaries. Channel design must take into account the strengths and the weaknesses of
different types of intermediaries for e.g. manufacturers' reps. Are able to contact customers at a
low cost per customer because the total cost is shared by several clients, but the selling effort per
customer is less intense than if company sales representatives did the selling. Channel design is
also influenced by competitor's channels. Channel designs must adapt to the larger environment
when economic conditions are depressed, producer want to move their goods to market using
shorter channels and without services that add to the final price of the goods. Legal regulations
and restrictions also affect channel design.

3. Identify Major Channel Alternatives

Companies can choose from a wide variety of channels for reaching customers - from sales force
to agents, distributors, dealers, direct mail, telemarketing and the internet. Each channel has
unique strengths and weaknesses. Sales forces can handle complex products and transactions, but
they are expensive. The Internet is much less expensive. But it cannot handle complex products.
Distributor can create sales but the company loses direct contact with customers. The problem is
further complicated by the fact that most companies now use a mix of channels. Each channel
hopefully reaches a different segment of buyers and delivers\s the right products to reach at the
least cost when this does not happen; there is usually channel conflict and excessive cost. A
channel alternative is described by three elements:


The types of available business intermediaries

The number of intermediaries needed
 
Terms and responsibilities of each channel members A firm need to identify the types of
intermediaries available to carry on its channel work.

A company should search for innovative marketing channels. The Conn Organ company
merchandises organs through department stores and discount stores, thus drawing more attention
than it ever enjoyed in small music stores. The Book-of -the - Month club merchandises mail
through the mail. Other sellers have followed with the Record-of-the-Month clubs, Candy-of-
the-month clubs and dozen of others. Sometimes a company chooses an unconventional channel
because of the difficulty or cost of working with the dominant channel. The advantage is that the
company will encounter less competition during the initial move into this channel. After trying to
sell its inexpensive Timex watches through regular jewellery stores the U.S. Time Company
placed its watches in fast growing mass mechanized outlets. Avon chose door-to-door selling
because it was not able to break into regular department stores and has thus proved to be a great
success.

Companies have to decide on the number of intermediaries at each channel levels. Three
strategies may be adopted for this purpose. They are discussed below.

Exclusive Distribution: It means severely limiting the number of intermediaries. It is used when
the producer wants to maintain control over the service level and outputs offered by the resellers.
By granting exclusive distribution the producer hopes to obtain more dedicated and
knowledgeable selling. It is mainly seen in case of distribution of new automobiles, some major
appliances and some women's apparel brands. Relationship with intermediaries and the
corporation can be strained when a company decides to alter an exclusive distribution
relationship.

Selective Distribution: It involves the use of more than a few but less than all of the
intermediaries who are willing to carry a particular product. It is used by established companies
and new companies seeking distributors. The company does not have to worry about too many
outlets; it can gain adequate market coverage with more control and less cost than intensive
distribution. Disney sells its videos through five different channels: Movie rental stores like
Blockbuster; the company's proprietary retail stores, called Disney Stores; retail stores like Best
Buy; online retailers like Amazon.com and Disney's own online Disney Stores; the Disney
catalog and other. catalog sellers. These varied channels afford Disney maximum market
coverage, and enable the company to offer its videos at a number of price points.

Intensive Distribution: It consists of manufacturer placing the goods or services in as many

outlets as possible. This strategy is generally used for item such as tobacco products, soap, snack
foods, and gum, products for which the consumer requires a great deal of location convenience.
Manufacturers are constantly tempted to move from exclusive or selective distribution to
intensive distribution to increase coverage and sales.

4. Determine Terms and Responsibilities of Channel Members

The producer must determine the rights and responsibilities of participating channel members.
Each channel member must be treated respectfully and given the responsibility to be profitable.
The elements in the 'trade-relation mix' are:

price policies,
conditions of sale,
territorial rights, and
Specific services to be performed by each part.

Let us discuss them in detail.

Price policy calls for the producer to establish a price list and schedule of discounts and
allowances that intermediaries see as equitable and sufficient.
Conditions of sale refer to payment terms and producer guarantees. Most producers Distribution
Channels grant cash discounts to distributors for early payment. Producers must also guarantee
distributors against defective merchandise or price declines. A guarantee against price declines
give distributors an incentive to buy larger quantities.

Distributors' territorial rights define the distributors territories and the terms under which the
producer will enfranchise other distributors normally expect to receive full credit for all sales in
their territory whether or not they did the selling.

Mutual services and responsibilities. must be carefully spelled out especially in franchise and
exclusive agency channels. Mc Donald's provides franchisee with a building, promotional
support, record keeping system, training, and general administrative and technical assistance. In
turn franchisees are expected to satisfy company standards regarding physical facilities cooperate
with new promotional programmes, furnish requested informations, and buy supplies from
specified vendors.

5. Evaluate the Major Alternatives

Each channel alternative needs to be evaluated against economic control and adaptive

Economic Criteria: Each channel alternative will produce a different level of sales and costs
Companies
that are successful in switching their customers to lower cost channels, assuming no loss of sales
or deterioration in service quality, will gain a channel advantage. The lower-cost channel tends to
be low-touch channel. This is not important in ordering commodity items, but buyers who are
shopping for more complex products prefer high- touch channel such as sales people.

Control and Adaptive Criteria: Using a sales agency poses a control problem a sales agency is an
independent firm seeking to maximize its profits. Agents may concentrate on the customers who
buy the most not necessarily those who buy the manufacturer's goods. Furthermore, agents might
not master the technical detail of the company's product or handle its promotional materials
effectively. To develop a channel, members must make some degree of commitment to each
other for a specific period of time. Yet these commitments invariably lead to a decrease in the
producer's ability to respond to a changing market place. In rapidly changing volatile or
uncertain products' market producers need channel structures and policies that provide high
adaptability.

DESIGNING DISTRIBUTION CHANNELS

A company wants a distribution channel that not only meets customers’ needs but also provides
an edge on competition. Some firms gain a differential advantage with their channels. Marketers
should keep in mind the following points while designing distribution channels.

(a) Specifying the role of distribution

A channel strategy should be designed within the context of the entire marketing mix. First the
firm’s marketing objectives are reviewed. Next the roles assigned regarding product, price, and
promotion are specified. Each element may have a distinct role, or two elements may share an
assignment.

A company must decide whether distribution will be used defensively or offensively. Under a
defensive approach, a firm will strive for distribution that is as good as, but not necessarily better
than, other firms’ distribution. With an offensive strategy, a firm uses distribution to gain an
advantage over competitors.

(b) Selecting the type of channel

Once distribution’s role in the overall marketing programme has been agreed on, the most
suitable type of channel for the company’s product must be determined. At this point in the
sequence, a firm needs to decide whether middlemen will be used in its channel and, if so, which
types of middlemen.

(c) Determining intensity of distribution

The next decision relates to intensity of distribution, or the number of middlemen used at the
wholesale and retail levels in a particular territory. The target market’s buying behaviour and the
product’s nature have a direct bearing on this decision.

(d) Choosing specific channel members

The last decision is selecting specific firms to distribute the product. When selecting specific
firms to be part of a channel, a producer should assess factors related to the market, the product,
its own company, and middlemen. Two additional factors are whether the middleman sells to the
market that the manufacturer wants to reach and whether the middleman’s product mix, pricing
structure, promotion, and customer service are all compatible with the manufacturer’s needs.

SELECTING CHANNEL MEMBERS

Marketing channel decisions are among the most crucial decisions company has to take. The
company’s chosen channels intimately affect all the other marketing decisions. The company’s
pricing depends whether it uses extensive distribution or selective distribution. Likewise sales
force and advertising decisions depends on how much training and motivation the intermediaries
need. Effective channel decision means that- management must take into consideration a number
of constraints to determine how they are likely to influence various channels structure. It is seen
that each manufacturer selects its intermediaries in the context of constraints stemming from
market, product, customer, company, etc.

The Market: Customer buying habits is one of the most important aspects of the marketing
process. If a customer is used to buying a particular thing from a particular place, it is difficult to
change his mind set. It is seen that the market size and location play an important role in
distribution strategy of the company. If the buyers are concentrated in a particular area, then
distribution can be achieved with few middlemen, but if buyers are scattered, then many
middlemen are needed to cover up the area.

The Product: Product characteristics are important elements which should be taken into
consideration for selection of intermediaries among few important characteristics of a product,
its nature, value, degree of differentiation from competitive products. The products which
physically deteriorate fast and those which experience rapid fashion obsolescence are considered
to be highly perishable and require more direct marketing because of the possibilities of delay
and repeated handling of the product, which may lead to its deterioration. In case of non-
perishable products, company may go in for indirect channel. It is seen that higher the cost per
unit of the product larger the investment to keep the inventories in the market. In this case
manufacturers may go in for intermediaries to share the responsibility of marketing the product
to ultimate user. In case of low unit value products, companies choose indirect channels, unless
value is high enough involving high profit margin to support direct channels.

For marketing highly technical products, companies employ technically qualified sales and
service personnel for product demonstration, pre-purchase persuasion and post-purchase sales
service. Brand loyalty is highest in specialty goods and lowest in convenience goods. In case of
low brand loyalty products, substitutability is very easy, and company has to employ intensive
distribution. In order to provide support for such products, the company offers more than normal
margins to its intermediaries. Some companies even use selective or exclusive distribution
system to provide necessary channel support. Customer service is an important ingredient of the
physical distribution system. It can be used to differentiate the products, and may influence the
pricing policy of the market, if customers are willing to pay more for better service. Product
information means company’s ability to provide different types of information to the customers.
Customers are willing to know about the status, confirmation of the orders or substitution of the
order, or any other relevant information regarding products. The company should provide these
product related information to the customer. The ability of channel member to cooperate in this
regard is also a factor in channel design. It refers to the time required from placement of orders
to the receipt of the same by the customer and the ability of the supplier to meet consistently the
targeted order cycle time. It is seen that most customers generally prefer consistent service to fast
service, because in the former case it allows them to plan inventory levels to a much greater
extent than is possible with a fast and highly variable order cycle.

Company’s Characteristics: Company’s characteristics are the important element affecting

channel selection decisions. It is generally seen that the size of company plays an important role
in deciding the size of the market, thereby evolving a desired channel of distribution. Often it is
stated that the greater the financial resources available to company, the lower is its dependence
on intermediaries. Though it is not a hard and fast rule, but in some cases like industrial and
electronic products the company generally employs its own sales and support services. Even
small firms with limited market coverage also sell the products directly.

Competitive Characteristics: Design of a channel is influenced by competitors’ channels. In

some cases manufacturer may want to compete in or near the same distributive outlets selling the
competitors products. For example, Bata and Carona Shoes or Liberty Shoes outlets are often
situated near each other. But in some industries manufacturers want to avoid the channels used
by competitors because of scarcity of display place, unhealthy competitions etc.

Environmental Characteristics: When the environmental characteristics such as economic

conditions are in depressed form, manufacturers want that their product should move to the
market in the most economical way. In other words, economic environment has direct effect on
channel selection. In this case the company has to choose shorter channel to avoid extra cost to
be incurred on marketing the product. Since the functionality of the intermediaries is influenced
by the performance of non-member participants, the company should analyse the impact of
economic, competitive, technical and legal environmental factors especially since each of them is
dynamic in nature

Wholesalers
Wholesaler is a trader who deals in large quantity. He purchases goods from the producers inbulk
quantity and sell it to the retailers in small quantity. According to American Management
Association, “wholesalers sells to retailers or other merchants and/or individual,
institutional and commercial users but they do not sell in significant amounts to ultimate
consumers.”
Functions of wholesalers

1. Assembling and buying: It means bringing together stocks of different manufactures

producing same line of goods, and making purchases in case of seasonal goods.

2. Warehousing: The warehousing function of the wholesalers relieves both the producers and
the retailers from the problem of storage.

3. Transporting: In the process of assembling and warehousing, the wholesaler do undertake

transportation of goods form producers to their warehouse and back to retailers

4. Financing: They grant credit on liberal terms to retailers and taking early delivery of stock
from the manufacturers to reduce their financial burden.

5. Risk bearing: Wholesaler bear the risk of loss of change in price, deterioration of quality,
pilferage, theft. Fire etc.

6. Grading, Packing and packaging: By grading they sort out the stocks in terms of different
size, quality shape and so on.

7. Dispersing and selling: Dispersing the goods already stored with them to the retailers.

8. Market information: Finally providing the market information to the manufactures

Services of wholesalers:

A. Services to Manufacturers:

1. The wholesaler helps the manufacture to get the benefit of economies of large scale
production.

2. Wholesalers help the manufactures to save his time and trouble by collecting orders from large
number of retailers on behalf of the manufactures.

3. The wholesaler provides market information to the manufactures which will helps him tomake
modifications in his product.
4. The wholesaler buys in large quantities and keeps the goods in his warehouses. This relieves
the manufacturer the risk of storage and obsolescence.

5. The wholesales helps to maintain a steady prices for the product by buying the product when
the prices are low and selling when the prices are high.

B. Services to Retailers:

1. He gives valuable advices to the retailers on his business related matters.

2. He helps the retailer to get the goods very easily and quickly.

3. He renders financial assistance to the retailer by granting credit facilities.

4. The wholesalers bear the risk associated with storage and distribution of goods to a certain
extent.

5. The wholesaler helps the retailers to keep price steady.

Retailers:
The term ‘retail’ implies sale for final consumption. A retailer is the last link between final
user and the wholesaler or the manufacturer. According to Professor William Standton,
“retailing includes all activities directly related to the sale of goods and services to the
ultimate consumers for personal or non business use.” In other words retailer is one whose
business is to sell consumers a wide variety of goods which are assembled at his premises as per
the needs of final consumers. In India, Most of the Indian retail outlets are owner managed and
have few or no sales assistant. Most important issues of these outlets are those of inventory
management and funds management.

 Functions of retailers:
Buying and Assembling: - A retailer buys goods from the best and most dependable wholesalers
and assemble the goods in a single shop.
Warehousing: It helps the retailer to ensure adequate and uninterrupted supply of goods

Selling: A retailer sells the products in small quantities to the needy consumers.

Risk bearing: It is the basic responsibility of a retailer to bear the risk arising out of physical
deterioration and changes in prices.

Sales promotion: Retailer undertakes some sales promotion through displaying of goods in the
shop, distribution of sales literature, introduction of new product etc.

Financing: A retailer granting credit in liberal terms to the consumer and it helps the consumers
a lot to purchase the required goods

Supply of market information: As being in close and constant touch with the consumers, a
retailer can supply the market related information to the wholesalers and manufactures at the
earliest.

Grading and Packing: Retailers undertake second round grading and packing activities left by
the manufacturers and wholesalers.

 Services rendered by Retailers:

A retailer renders a number of services to the manufacturers, wholesalers and to the final users.
These services are outlined below:-
 A. Services to the manufacturers and wholesalers:
(1) Providing information: Retailer do provide the wholesalers and manufactures the
information about the latest consumer movements and it helps the manufactures to
produce goods according to the needs of consumers.

(2) Looks after the distribution process: A retailer, in general, looks after the entire
distribution process and it helps the manufactures to concentrate on production.

(3) Creation of demand: By giving local ad and display of goods, retailers helps to create
demand for the goods.

(4) A big relief: A retailer gives a relief to the manufacturers and wholesalers from the problem
of selling goods in small quantities.

A. Services to the consumers:

(1) No need to store goods: A retailer holds goods on behalf of the customers at a
convenient place and in convenient lot. Hence, the consumer need not buy and stock in
large quantity.

(2) Largest choice: Retailers collects products of different manufactures and it enables the
consumers to have a largest choice at cost, quality and so on.
(3) Providing information: A retailer supplies information about the introduction of a new
product in the market and its features.

(4)Granting credit: Most of the retailers grant credit facilities to regular customers.

(5) After sale services: In certain cases a retailer provides after sales services to the ultimate
consumers to ensure the customers shop loyalty.

PROMOTION
Promotion includes all those activities which are aimed at creating or stimulating demand. It has
been defined as “the coordination of all seller-initiated efforts to set up channels of information
and persuasion to facilitate the sale of a good or service, or acceptance of an idea”. Thus,
promotion is a marketing activity which is aimed at informing, persuading and inducing the
customer to buy goods or services. It shows that promotion is in tandem with other elements of
marketing strategy, viz., product, pricing and distribution strategies. The marketing manager
cannot design his promotion strategy unless it is decided what products are to be sold, what is
their price and what distribution channels are to be used• for selling. Once these decisions have
been made, he is ready to determine his advertising, sales promotion, personal selling and
publicity programmes for reaching the target market. Promotion programmes aimed at present
and potential customers result in sales. Sales volume provides feedback for marketing objectives
and marketing strategies including promotion strategy and indicate the need for adjustments in
them for the achievement of sales target.

The five major promotion tools, called the promotion mix, are advertising, personal selling, sales
promotion, publicity and public relations. Each of these promotion tools has its own
characteristics.
• Advertising is a unilateral and paid form of non-personal mass communication by a clearly
identified sponsor. Usually it is designed to create a favorable attitude toward the company or
product.

• Sales promotion includes all short-term incentives, generally organized on a temporary and for
local basis, and designed to stimulate immediate purchase and to move sales forward more
rapidly than would otherwise occur, and to effect higher demand.

• Public relations involve a variety of actions aimed at establishing a positive corporate image
and a climate of understanding and mutual trust between a firm and its various publics. Here, the
promotion objective is less to gain moral support from public opinion for the firm’s economic
activities, which ultimately would help the company in accomplishing its objectives.

• Personal selling has the objective of organizing a verbal dialogue with potential and current
customers and to deliver a tailor-made message with the short-term objective of making a sale.
Its role is also to gather information for the firm.

• Publicity, like advertising, is an impersonal method of promotion and it is also addressed to

groups of audience. It differs from advertising in the sense that it is not sponsored by the seller. It
is the coverage of commercially significant information regarding the company and/ or its
products is form of a news item or popular article by the media on its own.

In addition to these traditional promotion tools, one must also add direct mail, catalogue
selling, fairs and exhibitions, telemarketing etc.

 Advertising

The first and foremost tool of promotion is advertising. In today’s marketing scenario, it can be
easily said that “No advertising, No business”. Advertising is a means of communication by
which a firm can deliver a message to potential buyers with whom it is not in direct contact.
When a firm resorts to advertising, it is effectively following a pull communication strategy. Its
main objective is to create a brand image and brand equity, and to ensure cooperation from
distributors. Just as the sales force is the best tool for a push strategy, advertising is the best
means for a pull strategy.

Role of Advertising

• For the firm, the function of advertising is to produce knowledge for consumers and to generate
interest among them in order to create demand for its product.

• For consumers, advertising allows them to learn about the distinctive characteristics claimed by
the manufacturer. Advertising also helps them to save personal time, since the information
reaches them directly without their having to collect it.

Types of Advertising

Since the advent of the early form of advertising, advertising communication objectives have
diversified considerably, and different forms of advertising can be identified while using the
same media.

(i) Concept advertising: This is a media advertising message with a mainly ‘attitudinal’
communication objective: to influence the buyer’s attitude towards the brand. Its role can be
summed up as “The creative efforts of many national advertisers are designed, not to induce
immediate action, but to build favorable attitudes that will lead to eventual action i.e. purchase.
This definition implies that the effectiveness of this type of advertising can only by viewed from
a long-term perspective. The notion of attitude holds a central position here. The objective is
mainly to create an image based on communicating a concept”.

(ii) Promotional advertising: This is a media advertising message with a mainly ‘behavioral’
communication objective: to influence buyers’ purchasing behavior rather than their attitudes.
The objective is to trigger the act of purchase. Its effectiveness is evaluated directly in terms of
actual sales. This is the most aggressive type of communication, although it is not incompatible
with image creation. However, its immediate purpose is to achieve short-term results.

(iii) Response advertising: This is a personalized message of an offer, having the objective of
generating a ‘relationship’ with the prospect by encouraging a response from the latter on the
basis of which a commercial relation can be built. This type of advertising tries to reconcile the
characteristics of the two previous ones: building an image, but also encouraging a measurable
response allowing an immediate appraisal of the effectiveness of the communication.

(iv) Institutional advertising: In the first three styles of communication, the product or brand is
at the heart of the advertising message. Institutional advertising does not talk about the product,
but aims to create or reinforce a positive attitude towards the firm. The objective is, therefore, to
create an image, but that of the firm: to describe the firm’s profile and stress its personality in
order to create a climate of confidence and understanding. The purpose is to communicate
differently in a saturated advertising world and to fight against the fatigue of product advertising
with a softer approach, by drawing attention to the firm itself, its merits, its values and talents.
Clearly, the effectiveness of this kind of advertising can only be evaluated in the long-term.

DAGMAR Approach: Many specific communication and sales objectives can be assigned to
advertising. Colley lists 52 possible advertising objectives in his Defining Advertising Goals for
Measured Advertising Results. He outlines a method called DAGMAR

Advertising objectives can be classified according to whether

their aim is to inform, persuade, or remind.
• Informative advertising figures heavily in the pioneering stage of a product category, where
the objective is to build primary demand.

• Persuasive advertising becomes important in the competitive stage, where a company’s

objective is to build selective demand for its brands. Some persuasive advertising uses
comparative advertising, which makes an explicit comparison of the attributes of two or more
brands and tries to reveal its brands superiority vis-a-vis competing brands.

• Reminder advertising is important with mature products. A related form of advertising is

reinforcement advertising, which seeks to assure current purchasers that they have made the right
choice. Automobile ads often depict satisfied customers enjoying special features of their new
car.
SALES PROMOTION
Sales Promotion is an activity or material (or both) that acts as a direct inducement and
offers added value to or incentive to buy the product to resellers, sales persons or
consumers. It consists of a diverse collection of incentive tools, mostly short term, designed to
stimulate quicker or greater purchase of particular product or services by consumers or traders.

Sales promotion has grown dramatically in the last ten years, largely because of focus of
business on short term profits. A decade ago, the advertising-to-sales-promotion ratio was about
60:40. Today, in many consumer-packaged-goods companies, sales promotion accounts for 65%
to 75% of the combined budget. Sales promotion expenditure has been increasing as a
percentage of budget expenditure annually for the last two decades and the fast growth is
expected to continue. Several factors have contributed to the rapid growth of sales promotion,
particularly in consumer markets.

Internal factors include the following:

• Promotion is now more accepted by top management as an effective sales tool ;

• Product managers are under greater pressure to increase their current sales.

External factors include the following:

• The number of brands has increased;

• Competitors use promotions frequently;

• Many brands are seen as similar;

• Consumers are more price-oriented;

• Advertising efficiency has declined because of rising costs, media clutter, and legal restraints.

Sales promotion is a key ingredient in marketing campaigns and includes tools for:
(a) Consumer Promotion: These are aimed at consumers and include Samples, Coupons, Cash-
refund-offers, Premiums, Prizes, Rewards, Free trials, Warranties/Guarantees, Tie-in-
promotions, Point-of-purchase displays and demonstrations.

(b) Trade Promotion: These are aimed at distribution channel members and include Price offs,
Advertising and Display allowances, and Free goods.

(c) Business and Sales force Promotion: (Trade shows, Conventions, Contests for sales reps,
and Specialty Advertising).

 Objectives of Sales Promotion

Sales promotion objectives are derived from broader promotion objectives, which are derived
from more basic marketing objectives. The specific objective set for sales promotion varies with
the target market.

In relation to consumers, objectives of sales promotion include:

• Encouraging purchase of large size units

• Building trial among non-users.

• Attracting switchers away from competitors’ brands.

In relation to retailers, objectives include:

• Persuading retailers to carry new items and higher levels of inventory,

• Encouraging off-season buying,

• Encouraging stocking of related items,

• Off-setting competitive promotions,

• Building brand loyalty and gaining entry into new retail outlets.

In relation to the sales force, objectives include:

• Encouraging support of a new product or model,

• Encouraging more prospecting, and

• Stimulating off-season sales.

 MAJOR CONSUMER PROMOTION TOOLS

(a) SAMPLES: Offer of a free amount of a product or service. These might be delivered door to
door or found attached to another product or featured in an advertising offer. Sampling is the
most effective and most expensive way to introduce a new product.

(b) COUPONS: Certificates entitling the bearer to a stated saving on the purchase of a specific
product. These can be mailed or enclosed in other products or inserted in magazines and
newspaper ads. Coupons can be effective in stimulating sales of a mature brand and inducing
early trial of a new brand.

(c) CASH REFUND OFFERS: Provide a price reduction after the purchase rather than at the
retail shop. The manufacturer refunds a “part of purchase price” by mail after receiving a
“specified proof of purchase”.

(d) PRICE PACKS: They can take the form of a reduced-price pack (such as two for the price
of one) or banded pack, which is two related products banded together. Price-packs are very
effective in short-term sales even more so than coupons.

(e) PREMIUMS: Merchandise offered at a relatively low cost or free as an incentive to purchase
a particular product. The package itself, if a reusable container, can serve as a premium.

(f) PRIZES: Offer a chance to win cash, trips or merchandise as a result of purchasing
something. A contest calls for consumers to submit an entry, a jingle, estimate, suggestion to be
judged by a panel of judges who will select the best entries.
(g) FREE TRIALS: Invite prospective purchasers to try the product without cost, in the hope
that they will buy the product.

(h) PRODUCT WARRANTIES/GUARANTEES: Explicit or implicit promises by sellers that

the product will perform as specified or that the seller will fix it or refund the customer’s money
during a specified period.

(i) TIE-IN-PROMOTIONS: Involves two or more companies or brands that team up on

coupons, refunds and contests to increase their pulling power. The companies pool their funds
with the hope of broader exposure and multiple sales-forces push these promotions to retailers.

(j) POINT-OF-PURCHASE DISPLAYS AND DEMONSTRATION: Take place at the point

of purchase or sale

 Major Trade-promotion Tools

(a) PRICE-OFF: A straight discount off the list price on each case purchased during a stated
time period. The offer encourages dealers to buy a quantity that they might not ordinarily buy.
The dealers can use the buying allowance for immediate profit, advertising or price reductions.

(b) ALLOWANCE: An amount offered in return for the retailers agreeing to feature the
manufacturer’s product in some way. An advertising allowance compensates retailers for
advertising the manufacturer’s product. A display allowance compensates them for carrying a
special product display.

(c) FREE GOODS: Offers of extra cases of merchandise to intermediaries who buy a certain
quantity. Manufacturers might offer push money or free specialty advertising items to the
retailers that carry the company’s name, such as pens, pencils, calendars, paperweights, memo
pads, and ashtrays.

 Major Business-promotion tools

(a) TRADE SHOWS AND CONVENTIONS: Industry associations organize annual trade
shows and conventions. Firms selling products and services to a particular industry buy space
and set up booths and displays to demonstrate their products at the trade shows. The participating
vendors expect several benefits, including several new sales leads, maintaining customers’
contacts, introducing new products, educating customers with publications, motion pictures and
audio-visual materials.

(b) SALES CONTESTS: It is a contest involving the sales force or dealers, aimed at inducing
them to increase their sales over a stated period, with prizes going to those who succeed. The
good performance may receive trips, cash prizes or gifts.

(c) SPECIALITY ADVERTISING: Specialty advertising consists of useful, low cost items
given by salespeople to prospects and consumers without obligation and which bear the
company’s name and address and sometimes an advertising message. The item keeps the
company’s lame before the prospects and creates goodwill because of the items utility.

PUBLIC RELATIONS
Public relation (PR) is another important marketing tool. Not only must the company
relate it constructively to its customers, suppliers and dealers, but it must also be related to
a large set of interested publics.

PR department perform the following five activities, not all of which directly support marketing
objectives:

(i) Press relations: The aim of press relations is to place newsworthy information into the news
media to attract attention to a person, product, service, or organization.

(ii) Product publicity: Product publicity involves various efforts to publicize a specific product.

(iii) Corporate communication: This activity covers internal and external communications and
promotes understanding of the organization.

(iv) Lobbying: It involves dealing with legislators and government officials to promote or defeat
legislation and regulation.
(v) Counseling: Counseling involves advising management about public issues and company
positions and image. Marketing Public Relation as Publicity

The old name for Marketing Public Relations (MPR) was publicity, which was seen as the task
of securing editorial- as opposed to paid space- in print and broadcast media to promote a
product, place, or person. But MPR goes beyond simple publicity by contributing to the
following tasks:

(a) Assist in the launch of new products.

(b) Assist in repositioning a mature product.

(c) Build up interest in a product category.

(d) Influence specific target groups.

(e) Defend products that have encountered public problems.

(f) Build the corporate image in a way that projects favorably on its products.

 Objectives of Public Relations and Publicity

(a) Build awareness: PR can place stories in the media to bring attention to a product, service,
person, organization or idea.

(b) Build credibility: PR can add credibility by communicating the message in an editorial
context. c) Stimulate the sales-force and dealers: PR can help boost sales-force and dealer
enthusiasm. Stories about a new product before it is launched will help the sales farce sell it to
retailers and consumers.

(d) Hold down promotion costs: PR costs less than direct mail and media advertising. The
smaller the company’s promotion budget, the stronger is the case for using PR to gain share of
mind.
  Major tools of Public Relations and Publicity
(a) PUBLICATIONS: Companies rely extensively on communication materials to reach and
influence target markets. These include annual reports, brochures, articles, audio-visual
materials, and company newsletter and magazines. Company newsletters, and magazines can
help build up the company’s image and convey important news to target markets. Audio-visual
material, such as films, slides, and video and audio cassettes are coming into increasing use as
promotion tools. The cost of audio-visual material is usually greater than the cost of printed
material, but so is the impact.

(b) EVENTS: Companies can draw attention to’ new products or other company activities by
arranging special events. These include news conferences, seminars, outings, exhibits, contests
and competitions, anniversaries, and Sport and culture sponsorships that will reach the target
publics.

(c) NEWS: One of the major tasks of PR professionals is to’ find or create favorable news about
the company, its products, and its people. News generation requires skills in developing a story
concept, researching it, and writing a press release. But the PR person’s skill must go beyond
news preparing stories. Getting the media to’ accept press releases and press conferences calls
for marketing and interpersonal skills. A good PR media director understands the press’ needs
far stories that are interesting and timely. The media director needs to build favorable relations
with editors and reporters. The mare the press is cultivated, the mare likely it is to give more and
better coverage of the company.

(d) SPEECHES: Speeches are another tool for creating product and company publicity.
Increasingly, company executive must face questions from the media or give speeches at trade
associations or sales meetings. These appearances can build the company’s image.

(e) PUBLIC SERVICE ACTIVITIES: Companies can improve public goodwill by

contributing money and time to good causes. A large company may typically ask executives to
support community affairs where their offices are situated. In other instances, companies may
donate a certain amount of money to specified cause out of consumer purchases.
(f) IDENTITY MEDIA: Normally, a company’s materials acquire separate looks, which creates
confusions and misses an opportunity to-create and reinforce a corporate identity. In an over-
communicated society, companies have to compete for attention. They should strive to create a
visual identity that the public immediately recognizes. The visual identity is carried by the
companies’ logos, stationary, brochures, signs, business forms, business cards, buildings,
uniforms and dress codes, and rolling stock.

PERSONAL SELLING
Personal selling can make a strong contribution in consumer goods marketing. Some consumer
marketers play down the role of the sales-force, using them mainly to collect weekly orders from
dealers and to see that sufficient stock is on the shelf. The common feeling is that “salespeople
put products on shelves and advertising takes them off.” Although personal selling is useful for
almost every product or service, it is particularly important when:

• The market is concentrated either geographically or in a few industries, or in a few large

customers.

• The product has a high unit value, is quite technical in nature, or requires a demonstration.

• The product requires to be customized for each individual customer, as in the case of securities
or insurance.

• The product is in the introductory stage of its life cycle.

• The organization does not have enough money for an adequate advertising campaign.
• Personal Selling can usually be focused or pinpointed on prospective customers, thus,
minimising wasted effort.

• The goal of personal selling is to actually make a sale. Other forms of promotion are designed
to move a prospect closer to a sale.

Hurdles for personal selling

Although personal selling is very essential for any company but there are certain limitations like:

• A high cost involvement is a major limitation even though personal selling can minimize
wasted effort, the cost of developing and operating a sales force is high.

• The company is often unable to attract the quality of people needed to do the job. At the retail
level, many firms have abandoned their sales forces and shifted to self-service selling for this
very reason.

Types of personal selling

There are two major kinds of Personal Selling:

1. across the counter selling.

2. Outside sales force.

Across the counter selling is one where the customers come to the sales people. It primarily
involves retail-store selling. In this kind of selling, those sales people are also included who are
with catalogue retailers who take telephone orders. The other kind of personal selling is where
sales people go to the customers. These people sell in person at a customer’s place of business or
home

Types of sales jobs

The types of selling jobs and the activities involved in them cover a wide range. People who sell
are, called by various names: salesmen, sales representatives, salespersons, account executives,
sales consultants, sales engineers, field representatives, agents, and marketing representatives.
Given below is the classification of sales jobs by Robert Mcmurry:

(a) Driver sales person (Deliverer)- In this, the sales person primarily delivers the product. For
example, soft drinks, bread and milk salesman who deliver the respective products to retailers
and/or other customers. In these types of jobs selling responsibilities are secondary. Few of these
salesmen originate sales.

(b) Inside order taker- This is a position in which the sales person takes orders at the seller’s
place of business. Most of the sales persons visit grocery shops and general stores to take orders
for various items.

(c) Outside order taker- In this position the sales person goes to the customer in the field and
accepts an order. Most of the sales person who takes orders by visiting various colonies and
residential localities fall in this type of category.

(d) Missionary sales person- This type of sales job is extended to build goodwill, perform
promotional activities, and provide information and other services for the customers. This sales
person is not expected to solicit an order. Medical representatives calling on doctors fall in this
category.

(e) Sales engineer (Technician) - In this position the major emphasis is on the sales person’s
ability to explain the product to a prospective customer, and also to adapt the product to the
customer’s particular needs. The products involved here typically are complex, technically
sophisticated items. A sales engineer usually provides technical support, and works with another
sales representative who cans regularly on a given account.

(f) Creative sales person- an order getter- This involves the creative selling of goods and
intangibles- primarily services, but also social causes and ideas (do not use drugs, stop smoking,
obeys speed limits). This category contains the most complex, difficult and hence most
challenging sales jobs-especially the creative selling of intangibles, because you can not see,
touch, taste, or smell, then customers often are not aware of their need for a seller’s product or
they may not realize how that product can satisfy their wants better than the product they are
now using- creative selling often involves designing a system to fit the needs of a particular
customer.

 The personal selling process

The basic philosophy underlying the approach to personal selling should be an extension of the
marketing concept. This implies that, for long-term survival it is in the best interest of the sales
person and his/her company to identify customer needs and aid customer decision-making by
selecting from the product range those products which best fit the customer’s requirements.
Many persons have developed models for personal selling. Some say that it is nothing but
SPANCO (finding SUSPECTS, reaching PROSPECTS, APPROACH, NEGOTIATION,
CLOSE, AND ORDER TAKING) other say that it is SPIN (SUSPECT, PROSPECT,
INTERVIEW, and NEGOTIATION). However, in order to develop personal selling skills we
will distinguish six phases of the selling process. These phases are not watertight compartments
and may not occur in the given order. Objections may be raised during presentation or during
negotiation, or a trial close may be attempted at any point during the presentation if buyer
interest is high. Furthermore, negotiation mayor may not take place and may occur during any of
the stages.

(a) The Opening- Initial impressions can cloud later perceptions, and so it is important to
consider the ways in which a favorable initial response can be achieved. There is a saying that
‘first impression is the last impression’ you get. Buyers expect sales people to be business-like in
their personal appearance and behavior. Untidy hair and a sloppy manner of dress can create a
lack of confidence picture. Further the sales person who do not respect the fact that the buyer is
likely to be a busy person, may cause irritation on the part of the buyer.

Sales people should open the sales call with a smile, a handshake and, in situations where they
are not known to the buyer, introduce themselves and the company they represent. Common
courtesies should be followed. Opening remarks are important since they set the tone for the rest
of the sales interview. This can generate close rapport with the buyer, but the sales person must
be aware of the reason for being there, am not be excessively diverted from talking business.
(b) Need and problem identification- Most salespeople have a range of pro ducts to sell. A car
salesman has many models ranging from small economy cars to super luxury top-of-the range
models. The computer salesperson will have a number of systems to suit the needs and sources
of different customers. In each case, the seller’s first objective should be to discover the
problems and needs of the customer.

Before a car salesperson can sell a car, he needs to understand the customer’s circumstances.
What size of car is required? Is the customer looking for high fuel economy or performance?
What kind of price range being considered? Having obtained this information the salesperson is
in a position to sell the model which best suits the needs of the buyer.

(c) The presentation and demonstration- Once the problems and needs of the buyer have been
identified, the presentation follows as a natural consequence. A given product may have a range
of potential features that confers benefits to customers, but different customers• place different
priorities on them. Having identified the needs and problems of the buyer, the presentation
provides the opportunity for the salesperson to convince the buyer that he/she can supply the
solution.

There is a Chinese proverb- “Tell me and I’ll forget; show me and I may remember; involve me
and I shall understand.” This proverb is very important in a sales call. Demonstrations reduce
risk because they prove the benefits of the product. Car salespeople allow customers to test drive
cars. For all but the most simple of products it is advisable to divide the demonstration into two
stages. The first stage involves a brief description of the features and benefits of the product and
an explanation of how it works. The second stage entails the actual demonstration itself.

There are several advantages of demonstrations. They add realism to the sales routine in that they
utilize more human senses than mere verbal descriptions or visual presentation. When a potential
customer is participating in a demonstration it is easier for the salesperson to ask questions in
order to ascertain buying behavior. Customer objections can be more easily overcome if they can
be persuaded to take part in the demonstration process. There are advantages to customers in that
it is easier for them to ask questions in a more reliable way in order to ascertain the product’s
utility more clearly and quickly. Purchasing inhibitions are quickly overcome arid buyers;
declare their purchasing interest sooner than in face-to-face selling/buying situations. Once a
customer has participated in a demonstration there is less likelihood of ‘customer remorse’ (i.e.
the doubt that value for money is not good value after all).

(d) Dealing with objections- Objections should not always be viewed with dismay by
salespeople. Many objections are simply expressions of interest by the buyer when the buyer is
asking for further information because he or she is interested in what the Salesperson is saying.
The problem is that the-buyer is not yet convinced. Objections highlight the issues which are
important to the buyer. The effective approach for dealing with objections involves two areas:
tile preparation of convincing answer, and the development of a range of techniques for
answering objection in a manner which permits the acceptance of these answers without loss of
face on the part of the buyer.

(e) Negotiation- In some selling situations, the salesperson or sales team have a degree of
discretion with regard to terms of the sale. Negotiation may, therefore, enter into the sales
process. Sellers may negotiate price, credit terms, delivery times, trade-in values and other
aspects of the commercial transaction. The deal that is arrived at, will be dependent upon the
balance of power and the negotiating skills of the respective parties. The buyer’s needs, the
competition that the- supplier faces, knowledge about the buyer’s business, and the pressures
upon him/her should be estimated.

(f) Closing the sales- The skills and techniques discussed so far are not in themselves sufficient
for consistent sales success. A final ingredient necessary to complete the process is the ability to
close the sale. A major consideration at the closing is the timing. A general rule is to attempt to
close the sale when the buyer displays heightened interest or a clear intention to purchase the
product. Salespeople should look out for such buying signals and respond accordingly. Purchase
intentions are unlikely to grow continuously throughout the sales presentation, they are more
likely to rise and fall as the presentation progresses. The salesperson should attempt to close at a
peak and which peak is to be chosen comes with experience.

(g) Follow-up- This final stage in the sales process is necessary to ensure that the customer is
satisfied with the purchase and that no problem with such factors as delivery, installation,
product use and training has arisen. Salespeople may put-off the follow up call because it does
not result in an immediate order. However, for most companies repeat business is the hallmark of
success and follow-up call can play a major role in showing that a salesperson really cares about
the customer rather than only being interested in making sales. The follow-up call can also be
used to provide reassurance that the purchase was right one.

Direct Marketing
Direct Marketing: Although direct marketing has several forms- direct mail, telemarketing,
electronic marketing, and so on- it has a few distinctive characteristics:

Non-public: The message is normally addressed to a specific person and does not reach others.

Customized: The message can be customized to appeal to the addressed individual.

Up-to-date: A message can be prepared very quickly for delivery to an individual.

Direct Marketing tools

• Catalogue

• Mailings

• Telemarketing

• Electronic shopping

• TV shopping

Concept of Integrated Marketing Communication

Definition: A management concept that is designed to make all aspects of marketing
communication such as advertising, sales promotion, public relations, and direct marketing work
together as a unified force, rather than permitting each to work in isolation.
The Need for Integrated Marketing Communications

The shift from mass marketing to targeted marketing, with its corresponding use of a richer
mixture of communication channels and promotion tools, poses a problem for marketers.
Consumers are being exposed to a greater variety of marketing communications from and about
the company from an array of sources. However, customers don’t distinguish between message
sources the way marketers do. In the consumer’s mind, advertising messages from different
media—such as television, magazines, or online sources—blur into one. Messages delivered via
different pro-motional approaches—such as advertising, personal selling, sales promotion, public
relations, or direct marketing—all become part of a single message about the company.
Conflicting messages from these different sources can result in confused company images and
brand positions. All too often, companies fail to integrate their various communications
channels. The result is a hodgepodge of communications to consumers. Mass advertisements say
one thing, a price promotion sends a different signal, a product label creates still another
message, company sales literature says something altogether different, and the company’s Web
site seems out of sync with everything else.

MARKETING CONTROL
In order to achieve marketing objectives as well as organizational objectives, marketing managers
must effectively control marketing efforts. Marketing Control is gathering information on marketing
performance and comparing the achieved performances against planned or budgeted performances
using predetermined standards and yardstick. It is the process of taking steps to bring actual results &
desired results closer together.

Marketing Control Process

There are both formal and informal control systems in organizations. The formal marketing control
process consists of establishing performance standards; evaluating actual performance by comparing
it with established standards and reducing the difference between-the desired and actual performance.
The informal control process, however, involves self-control, social or group control, and cultural
control through acceptance of a firm’s value system. Given below are the steps involved in a formal
marketing control process:

(1) Establishing performance standards-The performance standards are parameters of expected

performance against which the actual marketing performance is gauged and evaluated. These can be
quantitative or qualitative in nature. Quantitative standards could be sales volume, profit or expenses
per product etc. and qualitative standards could be consumer satisfaction, dealer relations, brand
image etc. Most common types of marketing performance parameters are:
(a) Sales oriented performance
(b) Contribution to profits
(c) Budgeted costs
(d) Market support performance
(a) Sales Oriented Performance- These standards specify performance in term of sales volume and
market share.

(b) Contribution to Profits- Profit contribution requires marketing managers to consider both the
costs and sales directly attributable to marketing activity.

(c) Budgeted costs- Budgets are developed to anticipate the amounts needed. At the same time,
expected costs for each item in the budget also establish standards for cost performance.

(d) Market Support- The advertising communication objectives- awareness, attitude change, purchase
intentions and customer satisfaction- are kinds of market objectives.

(2) Appraising the performance- Performance appraisal calls for collecting and collating the
information about performance, analyzing it and relating it to the standards with a view to trace
deviations and lapses, if any, and the cause thereof. Such appraisal may be continuous or periodic.

(3) Correcting deviations- It is the performance appraisal that reveals the deviations or variations
from the standard performance or the planned course of action. These deviations can be favorable or
unfavorable. Favorable deviations are acceptable deviations as actual performance is better than the
planned one. Unfavorable deviations, on the other hand, are unacceptable deviations as they indicate
bitter performance, i.e., less than desired.

(4) Reforming the plan- The final phase of marketing control process is reformulating the plan on
the basis of the inputs provided by the marketing information system on the actual marketing
performance and its analysis and evaluation. For instance, if every time there is favourable or
unfavorable variances; it means that standards are too
low or too high where equalization has not been brought about in terms of zero deviations. Such
feed-back of facts and analysis makes the marketing personnel much alert and wiser about relevance
and effectiveness of policies, strategies, targets arid resources on the one hand and their practical
application on the one hand and their practical application on the other.

Significance of marketing control

Marketing control means monitoring and realigning the marketing effort.

(1) It puts the unit on the progress path- A well designed and strictly implemented marketing
control system aids the management in tracing the deviations from the chartered course. It monitors
the variations- favorable or unfavorable- and redress, the mechanism before it gets too late. Hence
marketing control puts every organization on the progress path.

(2) It helps in locating responsibility for deeds- Marketing control helps the marketing manager in
particular and the top management in general, in locating the responsibility for the deeds of
subordinates- both good and bad.

(3) Keep pace with environmental changes- Continuous and consistent monitoring of marketing
performance is an attempt to match the marketing efforts to the ever changing environmental forces
such as social, economic, political, cultural, ecological and technological.

(4) It absorbs organizational complexity- The outstanding feature of modern business enterprises is
that it is going mammoth in size and more complex in nature. Marketing control helps in reducing
the complexity of operations and actions.
(5) It brings about realistic reformulation of plans- A well developed and effectively operated
marketing system is capable of turning the intelligent management wiser than ever before
through the acid tests of cold facts.

Problems in controlling marketing activities

When marketing managers attempt to control marketing activities, they frequently run into several
problems. Often the information required to control the marketing activities is unavailable or is
available only at a high cost. Effective marketing control also hinges on the quantity and quality of
information and the speed at which it is received. If the flow of information is not rapid enough or
the processing is faulty, marketing manager will not be able to quickly detect the difference between
the actual and the planned level of performances

TYPES OF MARKETING CONTROL

Types of control Prime responsibility Purpose of Control Approaches

Annual Plan control Top management, To examine whether
Sales analysis
Middle management the planned results are
•Market share analysis
being achieved •Expense-to-sales
analysis
• Financial analysis
• Market-based score
card analysis

Profitability control Marketing controller To examine where the Profitability by:

company is making Product, Territory,
and losing money Customer, Segment,
Trade channels, order
size
Efficiency control Line and staff To evaluate and Efficiency of:
management, improve the spending
 Sales force
Marketing controller efficiency and impact
• Advertising
of marketing • Sales promotion
• Distribution
expenditures
Strategic control Top management, To examine whether
Marketing
Marketing auditor the company is
effectiveness rating
pursuing its best instrument
• Marketing audit
opportunities with
•Marketing excellence
respect to markets, review
• Company ethical
products and channels
and social
responsibility review

GREEN MARKETING
Unfortunately, a majority of people believe that green marketing refers solely to the promotion or
advertising of products with environmental characteristics. Terms like Phosphate Free, Recyclable;
Refillable, Ozone Friendly, and Environmentally Friendly are some of the things consumers most
often associate with green marketing. While these terms are green marketing claims, in general green
marketing is a much broader concept, one that can be applied to consumer goods, industrial goods
and even services. For example, around the world there are resorts that are beginning to promote
themselves as “eco tourist” facilities, i.e., facilities that “specialize” in experiencing nature or
operating in a fashion that minimizes their environmental impact.

Thus green marketing incorporates a broad range of activities, including product modification,
changes to the production process, packaging changes, as well as modifying advertising. Yet
defining green marketing is not a simple task. Indeed the terminology used in this area has varied, it
includes- Green Marketing Environmental Marketing and Ecological Marketing, while green
marketing came into prominence. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, it was first discussed much
earlier. The American Marketing Association (AMA) held the first workshop on “Ecological
Marketing” in 1975. The proceeding of this workshop resulted in one of the first books on green
marketing entitled “Ecological Marketing”. Since that time a number of other books on the topic,
have been published.

The AMA workshop attempted to bring together academics, practitioners, and public policy makers
to examine marketing’s impact on the natural environment. At this workshop ecological marketing
was defined as the study of the positive and negative aspects of marketing activities on pollution,
energy depletion and non-energy resource depletion.

This early definition has three key components, 1) it is a subset of the overall marketing
activity; 2) it examines both the positive and negative activities; and 3) a narrow range of
environmental issues are examined. While this definition is a useful starting point, to be
comprehensive green marketing needs to be more broadly defined. Before providing an
alternative definition it should be noted that no one definition or terminology has been
universally accepted. This lack of consistency is a large part of the problem, for how can an issue
be evaluated if all researchers have a different perception of what they are researching. The
following definition is much broader than those of other researchers and it encompasses all major
components of other definitions.

Green or Environmental Marketing consists of all activities designed to generate and

facilitate any exchanges intended to satisfy human needs or wants, such that the
satisfaction of these needs and wants occurs, with minimal detrimental impact on the
natural environment. This definition incorporates much of the traditional components of the
marketing definition, that is, all activities designed to generate and facilitate any exchanges
intended to satisfy human needs or wants. Therefore, it ensures that the interests of the
organization and all its consumers are protected, as voluntary exchange will not take place unless
both the buyer and seller mutually benefit. The above definition also includes the protection of
the natural environment, by attempting to minimize the detrimental impact this exchange has on
the environment. This second point is important, for human consumption by its very nature is
destructive to the natural environment. (To be accurate products making green claims should
state they are “less environmentally harmful” rather than “Environmentally Friendly”. Thus
green marketing should look at minimizing environmental harm, not necessarily eliminating it.

Why are Firms Using Green Marketing?

When looking through the literature there are several suggested reasons for firms increased use of
Green Marketing. Five possible reasons are:
(i) Organizations perceive environmental marketing to be an opportunity that can be used to achieve
its objectives.

(ii) Organizations believe they have a moral obligation to be more socially responsible.
(iii) Government bodies are forcing firms to become more responsible

(iv) Competitor’s environmental activities pressure firms to change their environmental marketing
activities; and

(v) Cost factors associated with waste disposal or reductions in material usage forces firms to modify
their behavior.

Relationship Marketing
Relationship marketing: Marketing activities aimed at building long-term relationship with the
parties, especially customers that contribute to a company’s success; also called relationship
management.

Effective marketers view customer services within the larger context of relationship marketing.
The term relationship marketing is used to communicate the idea that a major goal of
marketing, whether the product is a good or a service, is to build long term relationships
with suppliers, customers, and other parties who contribute to a company’s success. The
customer relations dimension of relationship marketing seeks to build customer loyalty by
fulfilling promises and continuing to satisfy customer wants and need.

Benefits to the Organization

An old business adage says .It costs six times as much to get a new customer as it does to keep and
old customer.

Consumer Benefits
Customers also profit from relationship marketing. First, many buyers do not want to evaluate too
many factors when choosing among alternatives. The continuity derived from a relationship with the
same seller simplifies the buying process.

Three Levels of Relationship Marketing Programs

Financial Relationships: Frequency & Club Marketing Programs
Social Relationships
Structural Relationships

Viral Marketing
What is viral marketing? What are the characteristics of an effective viral marketing campaign?
What does it take to produce content that flies on the wings of spontaneous word-of-mouth
promotion? In this Master NewMedia guide on viral marketing you can learn and understand the
basic principles, foundations and strategies at the heart of effective online viral marketing.

Viral marketing is a form of promotion based on the free circulation of ideas via a word of
mouth process. When you like something, it feels second nature to share your discovery with
someone you like. Be it friends, relatives or colleagues, you get a kick out of sharing with
someone else something cool that you have discovered. And in turn, those people you share
something with, will do the same with their network of friends. That is what "going viral" is all
about.

From a marketing standpoint, "going viral" is fascinating for a number of reasons:

 Distribution: Viral content spreads like virus, in an ever expanding loop which may
never end. For an online marketer, spreading content endlessly from person to person
represents a superior strategy to promote content at a fraction of the effort and costs
required by traditional marketing techniques.
  Reach: A successful viral marketing campaign may exponentially increase the reach of
your communications by placing you in touch with thousands of prospects which, with
your traditional communication approach, you might not have ever intercepted.
 Awareness: The more people will see your content, the more people will know who you
are, what you do, what can you offer customers. Not only: by sharing content on a
specific topic you will make yourself an authority in that field and people will start
naturally coming to you asking for advice and recommendations.
 Cost: Viral marketing is relatively inexpensive as you do not have to plan a huge budget
to promote your products or start campaigns that meet the needs of all your potential
customers. Once your content starts to go viral, your fans become your best marketing
agents.

Guerrilla marketing

Guerrilla marketing is an advertisement strategy concept designed for small businesses to promote their
products or services in an unconventional way with little budget to spend. This involves high energy and
imagination focusing on grasping the attention of the public in more personal and memorable level.

Guerrilla marketing is an advertisement strategy concept designed for small businesses to

promote their products or services in an unconventional way with little budget to spend. This
involves high energy and imagination focusing on grasping the attention of the public in more
personal and memorable level. Some large companies use unconventional advertisement
techniques, proclaiming to be guerrilla marketing but those companies will have larger budget
and the brand is already visible. The main point of guerrilla marketing is that the activities are
done exclusively on the streets or other public places, such as shopping centers, parks or beaches
with maximum people access so as to attract much audience.

Unlike typical public marketing campaigns that utilize billboards, guerrilla marketing involves
the application of multiple techniques and practices in order to establish direct contact with the
customers. One of the goals of this interaction is to cause an emotional reaction in the clients and
the final goal of marketing is to get people to remember brands in a different way than they are
used to . The technique involves from flyer distribution in public spaces to creating an operation
at major event or festival mostly without directly connecting to the event but using the
opportunity. The challenge with any guerrilla marketing campaign is to find the correct place and
time to do the operation without getting involved in legal issues.

Digital marketing is an umbrella term for the targeted, measurable, and interactive marketing of
products or services using digital technologies to reach and convert leads into customers and
retain them. The key objective is to promote brands, build preference and increase sales through
various digital marketing techniques. It is embodied by an extensive selection of service, product
and brand marketing tactics, which mainly use the Internet as a core promotional medium, in
addition to mobile and traditional TV and radio.

Digital marketing
Digital marketing activities are search engine optimization (SEO), search engine marketing
(SEM), content marketing, influencer marketing, content automation, campaign marketing, and
e-commerce marketing, social media marketing, social media optimisation, e-mail direct
marketing, display advertising, e–books, optical disks and games, and any other form of digital
media. It also extends to non-Internet channels that provide digital media, such as mobile phones
(SMS and MMS), callback and on-hold mobile ring tones.[2] The fundamental concept in digital
marketing is based on the inbound marketing approach or generally it’s called customer centric
approach.

According to the Digital Marketing Institute, Digital Marketing is the use of digital channels to
promote or market products and services to consumers and businesses.
WAREHOUSING & INVENTORY
MANAGEMENT
Warehousing refers to the activities involving storage of goods on a large scale in a systematic
and orderly manner and making them available conveniently when needed. In other words,
warehousing means holding or preserving goods in huge quantities from the time of their
purchase or production till their actual use or sale.

Warehousing is one of the important auxiliaries to trade. It creates time utility by bridging the
time gap between production and consumption of goods. The effective and efficient management
of any organization requires that all its constituent elements operate effectively and efficiently as
individual SBUs /facilities and together as an integrated whole corporate.

Warehousing is costly in terms of human resources and of the facilities and equipments required,
and its performance will affect directly on overall supply chain performance. Inadequate design
or managing of warehouse systems will jeopardize the achievement of required customer service
levels and the maintenance of stock integrity, and result in unnecessarily high costs.

Need for Warehousing

(i) Seasonal Production- You know that agricultural commodities are harvested during certain
seasons, but their consumption or use takes place throughout the year. Therefore, there is a need
for proper storage or warehousing for these commodities, from where they can be supplied as
and when required.
(ii) Seasonal Demand- There are certain goods, which are demanded seasonally, like woolen
garments in winters or umbrellas in the rainy season. The production of these goods takes place
throughout the year to meet the seasonal demand. So there is a need to store these goods in a
warehouse to make them available at the time of need.

(iii) Large-scale Production - In case of manufactured goods, now-a-days production takes

place to meet the existing as well as future demand of the products. Manufacturers also produce
goods in huge quantity to enjoy the benefits of large-scale production, which is more
economical. So the finished products, which are produced on a large scale, need to be stored
properly till they are cleared by sales.
(iv) Quick Supply - Both industrial as well as agricultural goods are produced at some specific
places but consumed throughout the country. Therefore, it is essential to stock these goods near
the place of consumption, so that without making any delay these goods are made available to
the consumers at the time of their need.
(V) Continuous Production- Continuous production of goods in factories requires adequate
supply of raw materials. So there is a need to keep sufficient quantity of stock of raw material in
the warehouse to ensure continuous production.
(vi) Price Stabilization- To maintain a reasonable level of the price of the goods in the market
there is a need to keep sufficient stock in the warehouses. Scarcity in supply of goods may
increase their price in the market. Again, excess production and supply may also lead to fall in
prices of the product by maintaining a balance of supply of goods, warehousing leads to price
stabilization.
Issues affecting Warehousing
Market and product base stability
Long –term market potential for growth and for how the product range may expand will
influence decisions on the size and location of a warehouse facility, including space for
prospective expansion. These considerations will also impact on the perceived need for potential
flexibility, which in turn can influence decisions on the type of warehouse and the level of
technology to be used.
Type of materials to be handled:
Materials handled can include raw materials, WIP, OEM Auto spare parts, packaging materials
and finished goods in a span of material types, sizes, weights, products lives and other
characteristics. The units to be handled can range from individual small items through carton
boxes, special storage containers for liquids, drums, sacks, and palletized loads. Special
requirements for temperature and humidity may also have to be met in the case of perishables
and all of these will impact on the type of warehouses and technology level.
Warehouse Facility: type, size and location.
The type of operation, the design capacity and size of a warehouse and its location will all be
influenced if not directly determined by its exact role and position in the supply chain network,
and the role, capacity and location of any other facilities in the supply chain. The customer base,
level of inventory, the need for optimization of inventory, time compression in the supply chain
and the overall customer service levels should also be considered when deciding on type, size
and location. A further consideration here is whether the warehouse facility should be an own-
account operation run by the company or outsourced and run by a 3PL.
Inventory and Inventory Location:
Within a supply chain network there is an issue not only of what materials to stock and in what
quantities, but also in what locations .Options can include distribution centers devoted to specific
markets or parts of the product range distribution centers dedicated to serving specific
geographic areas, or regional distribution centers that hold for example the fast moving product
lines, with the slower lines held only in a Regional distribution centre (RDC). The option
depends on such factors as customer base, product range and service levels required. The options
on the level of technology have already been noted, and the range can go from very basic
installations with high manual input and least mechanization to fully automated and robotic
installations.

Types of Warehouses
After getting an idea about the need for warehousing, let us identify the different types of
warehouses. In order to meet their requirement various types of warehouses came into existence,
which may be classified as follows.
i. Private Warehouses
ii. Public Warehouses
iii. Government Warehouses
iv. Bonded Warehouses
v. Co-operative Warehouses
Characteristics of Ideal Warehouses:
I. Warehouse should be located at a convenient place near highways, railway stations, airports
and seaports where goods can be loaded and unloaded easily.
II. Mechanical appliances should be there to loading and unloading the goods. This reduces the
wastages in handling and also minimizes handling costs.
III. Adequate space should be available inside the building to keep the goods in proper order.
IV. Ware houses meant for preservation of perishable items like fruits, vegetables, eggs and
butter etc. should have cold storage facilities.
V. Proper arrangement should be there to protect the goods from sunlight, rain, wind, dust,
moisture and pests.
VI. Sufficient parking space should be there inside the premises to facilitate easy and quick
loading and unloading of goods.
VII. Round the clock security arrangement should be there to avoid theft of goods.
VIII. The building should be fitted with latest fire-fighting equipments to avoid loss of goods
due to fire.
Functions of the Warehouse
1. Receiving-This includes the physical unloading of incoming transport, checking, recording of
receipts, and deciding where the received goods are to be put away in the warehouse. It can also
include such activities as unpacking and repackaging, quality control checks and temporary
quarantine storage for goods awaiting clearance by quality control
2. Inspection- Quality and quantity check of the incoming goods for their required
Characteristics
3. Repackaging- Incoming lot may be having non-standard packaging which may not be stored
as it is in the respective location. In those cases, these materials have to be pre packed in unit
loads/pallet loads suitable for storage.
4. Put away – Binning and storing the goods in their respective locations including the temp
locations from the receiving docking area.
5. Storage – Binning the approved material in their respective locations.
6. Order-Order picking / selection –Goods are selected from order picking stock in the
required quantities and at the required time to meet customer orders. Picking often involves
break bulk operations, when goods are received from suppliers in, say, whole pallet quantities,
but ordered by customers in less than pallet quantity order picking is important for achieving
high levels of customer service; it traditionally also takes a high proportion of the total
warehouse staff complement and is expensive. The good design and management of picking
systems and operations are consequently vital to effective warehouse performance
7. Sortation – This enable goods coming into a warehouse to be sorted into specific customer
orders immediately on arrival. The goods then go directly to order collation.
8. Packing and shipping – Picked goods as per the customer order are consolidated and packed
according to customer order requirement. It is shipped according to customer orders and
respective destinations.
9. Cross-docking –Move products directly from receiving to the shipping dock – these products
are not at all stored in the specific locations.
10. Replenishing – This is the movement of goods in larger order quantities, for example a
whole pallet at a time , from reserve storage to order picking, to ensure that order picking
locations do not become empty. Maintaining stock availability for order picking is important for
achieving high levels of order fill

Inventory Management
Introduction
Inventory is a modern trend. For example, why does every car or a truck carry a spare tyre? It is
because, in case of any puncture, the rider can change the tyre and immediately be on his way.
He need not have to be stranded for a more stretched time. To avoid similar circumstances in
business, companies carry inventory both for raw materials and finished goods. We can say that
Inventories are one of the main ingredients for any physical distribution system. We cannot
distribute any product without any inventory. However, costs and investments are involved in
inventories. They also directly influence the movement and transportation and cost. If inventory
policy of a company dictates maintenance of large stocks, then transportation characteristic will
be FTL (Full truck Load) shipments. This would result in economies of scale. The logistics
manager is responsible for all these costs. Responsibility lies in him for making decisions
concerning the size, depth or location of these inventories, the lot size, route and mode of
transport. His primary objective should be in optimizing distribution costs. He has to find an
economical balance between transportation and inventory cost where inventories represent an
important alternative to creating time and place utility in the product. Inventory management can
be defined as the sum total of those related activities essential for the procurement, storage, sale,
disposal or use of material. This can be understood by answering the following questions -when
is a refrigerator not a refrigerator? In terms of physical distribution, a refrigerator is not a
refrigerator when it is in Delhi, whereas when the demand is in Chandigarh. Furthermore, if the
color required is grey and the refrigerator is blue then also the refrigerator is not a refrigerator.
To conclude, utilities are created in goods when the right product is available at the right place,
at the right time, at the right quantity and is available to the right customer. Inventory
management deals itself with all these problems, placing importance on the quantities of goods
needed.

Role in the supply chain

Inventory exists in the entire supply chain because of disparity between supply and demand. This
disparity is international at a steel manufacture where it is economical to manufacture in large
lots that are then stored for future sales. The disparity is also intentional at a retail store where
inventory is held in anticipation of future demand.

Role in the competitive strategy

Inventory plays an important role in a supply chain’s ability to support a company’s competitive
strategy. If a company’s competitive strategy requires a very high level of responsiveness, a
company can use inventory to achieve this responsiveness by locating large amounts of
inventory close to the customer. Conversely, a company can also use inventory to make it more
efficient by optimizing inventory through centralized stocking. The latter strategy would support
a competitive strategy of being a low-cost producer. The trade-off implied in the inventory driver
is between the responsiveness that results from more inventories and the efficiency that results
from fewer inventories.

Functions of Inventory
Inventories have four functions. They are:
Minimize costs at acceptable inventory levels: Replacing inventories in exceptionally small
quantities result in low investments but high ordering costs. Thus, a point has to be set where the
total inventory carrying cost is bare minimum but the level of inventory is such that it does not
affect the production or customer base.
Provide desired customer service level: Inventories offer service in terms of satisfying
customer demand. Inventory influences the time and costs of service. The location of inventory
determines the time in which the customer will be served while a company policies concerning
the economic order quantity, safety stocks, placement procedures and time will determine the
cost at which the customer will be served.
Couple successive operations or functions: The decoupling effect of inventories is apparent
throughout manufacturing and distributions systems. Normally in the absence of inventories in a
system, a demand by a customer triggers a chain reaction of demand at each preceding level, i.e.
manufacturing and purchasing. But the customer does not have time or patience to wait for the
chain reaction. A small inventory requires frequent response rather than instant response from
the transport system, whereas, a large inventory reduces the need for frequent response and cost
of transport system .The decoupling effect of inventories allows a physical distribution manager
to choose amongst various inventory management policies.

Stabilize production and the labor force, thereby trying to reduce capital
requirements: This function of inventories is more associated to the manufacturing process,
though it influences the distribution function as well. If an inventory management system takes
responsibility of finished goods storage, then it has to provide storage facilities for higher levels
of inventories. For example, seasonal products in many cases are produced all around the year to
decrease investment in capital equipment. The stocks which come into existence are called
anticipation stocks. But to produce or not to produce anticipation stocks is a manufacturing
decision rather than a distribution decision.

Types of inventory
 Raw Material Inventory
 WIP Inventory
 Finished Goods Inventory
 MRO Inventories.

Raw Material Inventory

The materials, from which the final product of the company is made, are the raw materials. The
material does not include any material that supports production; these materials are called
indirect materials. But raw material is limited to the direct material (or) component that actually
becomes a part of the final product.

WIP Inventory (Work-In-Process Inventory)

All materials that have been transformed from their raw materials stage by some manufacturing
process but are not final products are work in-process goods. Sometimes, what may appear to be
a final product is still really an in –process good if the final production step is a packaging one.

Finished Goods Inventory

Finished goods inventory consists of all the stock that is ready for dispatch. In a bottling plant for
example, the finished products are the bottles of beverages that are in their cartons or cases and
are ready for shipment. This finished goods inventory acts as a buffer between the production
department and the marketing department. Higher the stock of finished goods, then the cost of
inventory is high.