Case List For LLB 2nd Semester

Law of Torts and Consumer Protection Laws

Case Reference Case Details Topic

Salmond - A tort is a civil wrong for which the remedy is action in common law for unliquidated damages and which is not exclusively a
breach of contract or breach of trust or other equitable obligation.

Winfield - Tortious liability arises from the breach of duty primarily afixed by law. The duty is towards persons in general and its breach is
redressable by an action for unliquidated damages.

Fraser - Tort in an infringement of a right in rem of a private individual giving a right of compensation at the suit of the injured party.
Donaghue vs. Stevenson A purchased ginger beer in a restaurant for his woman friend. She Rule of privity of contract
1932 drank a part of it and poured the rest into a glass. Thereby, she saw a was abolished in tort.
dead snail in the drink. She sued the manufacturer. It was held that
the manufacturer had a duty towards the public in general for making
sure there are no noxious things in the drink even though there was no
contract between the purchaser and the manufacturer.
Klaus Mittelbachert vs. East India Lufthansa Airlines had a contract with Hotel Oberoi Intercontinental for Contract is not
Hotels Ld the stay of its crew. One of the co-pilots was staying there took a dive necessary.
AIR 1997 in the pool. The pool design was defective and the person's head hit
the bottom. He was paralyzed and died after 13 yrs. The defendants
plead that he was a stranger to the contract. It was held that he could
sue even for the breach of contract as he was the beneficiary of the
contract. He could also sue in torts where plea of stranger to contract
is irrelevant. The hotel was held liable for compensation even though
there was no contract between the person and the hotel and the hotel
was made to pay 50Lacs as exemplary damages.
Municipal Corp of Delhi vs. A clock tower was not in good repairs. It fell and killed several people. Ingredients of Tort –
Subhagvanti MCD was held liable for its omission of repairs. Act or omission of an act.
AIR 1966
Donaghue vs. Stevenson See above. Ingredients of Tort –
1932 Act or duty must be
imposed by law.
Ashby vs. White The defendant wrongfully prevented the plaintiff from voting. Even Ingredients of Tort –
1703 though there was no damage, the defendant was held liable. Injuria Sine Damno
Bhim Singh vs. State of J K Plaintiff was an MLA and was wrongfully arrested while going to Ingredients of Tort –
AIR 1986 assembly session. He was not produced before a magistrate within Injuria Sine Damno
the requisite period. It was held that this was the violation of his
fundamental rights. Even though he was release later, he was
awarded 50,000RS as exemplary damages by SC.
Glaucester Grammer School's case Defendant opened a rival grammer school in front of an existing one Ingredients of Tort –
1410 thereby causing the fees of the existing one to be reduced from Damnum sine Injuria
40pence to 12 pence. He was not held liable as he did not violate any
legal right of the plaintiff.
Ushaben vs. BhagyaLaxmi Chitra Plaintiff sought a permanent injunction against the cinema house to Ingredients of Tort –
Mandir restrain them from showing the movie Jai Santoshi Maa. It was Damnum sine Injuria
AIR 1978 contended that the movie depicts the goddesses Laxmi, Saraswati,
and Parvati in bad light, which is offensive to the plaintiff. It was held
that hurt to religious sentiments is not recognized as a legal wrong.
Since there was no violation of a legal right, an injunction was not
granted.

Chesmore vs. Richards Plaintiff had been drawing water from underground for past 60 yrs. Ingredients of Tort –
1879 The defendant sunk a bore well on his land and drew huge quantity of Damnum sine Injuria
water which diminished the water supply of the plaintiff. It was held
that the defendant was not liable because he was only exercising his
right and did not violate any right of the plaintiff.
Dickson vs. Reuter's Telegram Co The defendant company delivered a telegram that was not meant for Damnum Sine Injuria –
1877 the plaintiff to the plaintiff. Based on the telegram, the plaintiff supplied Harm due to negligence
some order which was not accepted by the sender of the telegram.
Plaintiff suffered heavy losses and sued the defendant company. It
was held that the company owed a contractual duty only to the sender
of the telegram and not to the receiver. Hence they were not liable.

Bradford Corporation (mayor of) vs. The defendants sunk a shaft in their own land which caused the water Damnum Sine Injuria –
Pickles 1895 to become discolored and unsuitable for the plaintiff. It was held that Harm due to malice
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 even if the defendant did it with malice, he had not violated any right of
the plaintiff and hence was not liable.

General Defenses
Woolridge vs. Sumner The plaintiff, a photographer, was taking photographs at a horse show, Volenti non fit injuria
1963 during which, one horse rounded the bend too fast. As the horse
galloped furiously, the plaintiff was frightened and he fell in the course.
He was seriously injured. It was held that the defendants had taken
proper care in closing the course and the plaintiff, by being in the
show, agreed to take the risk of such an accident. The defendants
were held not liable.
Laxmi Rajan vs. Malar Hospital A woman consented for a surgery to remove a lump from her breast. Volenti non fit injuria –
1998 But the hospital removed her uterus as well without any genuine Must not go beyond
reason. It was held that removing of her uterus exceed beyond what consent.
she had consented for.
Bird vs. Holbrook The plaintiff was trespassing on the defendant's property and he was Plaintiff the wrong doer –
1828 hurt due to a spring gun. The defendant had put spring guns without Does not apply if
any notice and was thus held liable. plaintiff’s action is not
related to defendant’s
action.
Stanley vs. Powell The plaintiff and the defendant were members of a shooting party. The Inevitable Accident
1891 defendant shot a bird but the bulled ricocheted off a tree and hit the
plaintiff. The defendant was not held liable because it was an accident
and the defendant did not intent it and could neither have prevented it.
Ramalinga Nadar vs. Narayan It was held that criminal activities of an unruly mob is not an act of Act of God – Must not be
Reddiar God. because of human factor.
AIR 1971
Bird vs. Hollbrook The defendant used spring guns in his property without notice. It was Private Defense – Must
1892 held that he used excessive force and so was liable for plaintiff's injury not exceed reasonable
even though the plaintiff was trespassing on his property. force required.
Leigh vs. Gladstone Force feeding of a hunger striking prisoner to save her was held to be Necessity
1909 a good defense to an action for battery.
Vaughan vs. Taff Valde Rail Co Sparks from an engine caused fire in appellant's woods that existed in Statutory Authority
1860 his land adjoining the railway track. It was held that since the company
was authorized to run the railway and since the company had taken
proper care in running the railway, it was not liable for the damage.

Strict Liability
Ryland vs. Fletcher The defendant hired contractors to build a reservoir over his land for Strict Liability
1868 providing water to his mill. While digging, the contractors failed to
observe some old disused shafts under the site of the reservoir that
lead to plaintiff's mine on the adjoining land. When water was filled in
the reservoir, the water flooded the mine through the shafts. The
plaintiff sued the defendant. The defendant pleaded that there was no
intention of causing harm and since he did not know about the shafts,
he was not negligent either even though the contractors were. Even
so, he was held liable.
J Blackburn observed that when a person, for his own purposes,
brings to his property anything that is likely to cause a mischief if it
escapes, must keep it at his peril and if it escapes and causes
damage, he must be held liable. He can take the defense that the
thing escaped due to an act of the plaintiff or due to vis major (act of
God) but since nothing of that sort happened here, then it is
unnecessary to inquire what excuse would be sufficient.
Crowhurst vs. Amersham Burial Branches of a poisonous tree were hanging outside the land of the Requirements for Strict
Board defendant. Plaintiff's cattle ate them and died. Defendant was held Liability – Thing must
1878 liable because protrusion of branches out side his property were escape
considered as escaping from his property.
Ponting vs. Noakes When the plaintiff's horse intruded over his boundary and ate Requirements for Strict
1994 poisonous leaves of the defendant's tree, he was not held liable Liability – Thing must
because there was no escape of dangerous thing from defendant’s escape
property.
Noble vs. Harrison A branch of a tree growing on defendant's land broke and fell on Requirements for Strict
1926 plaintiff's vehicle. It was held that growing regular trees is not a non Liability – There must be
natural use of land and the branch fell because of an inherent problem non-natural use of land
and not because of any negligence of the defendant and so he was
not liable.
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Eastern and South African The plaintiff's submarine cable transmissions were disturbed by Exception to Strict
Telegraph Co. Ltd. vs. Capetown escape of electric current from defendant's tramway. It was held that Liability – Plaintiff’s own
Tramway Co since the current was not causing any problem to regular users and it wrong
1902 was causing problem to the cables only because they were too
sensitive and so the defendant cannot be held liable. One cannot
increase his neighbor's liabilities by putting his land to special uses.
Nichols vs. Marsland The defendant created artificial lakes to store rainwater. In that Exception to Strict
1876 particular year, there were exceptionally heavy rains, which caused Liability – Act of God (Vis
the embankments to break causing floods, which broke defendant's Major)
bridges. It was held that since there was no negligence on the part of
the defendant and the flood happened only because of rains so heavy
that nobody could imagine, the defendant was not liable.
M.P. Electricity Board vs. Shail A person was killed by a live electric wire lying on the road. SC applied Exception to Strict
Kumar the rule of strict liability and held that the defense of act of stranger is Liability – Act of third
AIR 2002 not applicable because snapping of wire can be anticipated and the party
Electricity Board should have cut off the current as soon as the wire
snapped.
Madras Railway Co. vs. Zamindar The water collected in a pond for agricultural purposes escaped and Strict Liability in India
1974 caused damage to the railway track and bridges. Here, the application
of this rule was restricted because the collection of water in such a
way is a necessity in Indian conditions and so it is a natural use of the
land. This mechanism to store rainwater is used throughout the
country and since ages. Therefore, the defendant was not held liable.
M C Mehta vs. Union of India In this case, oleum gas from a fertilizer plant of Shriram Foods and Absolute Liability
AIR 1987 Fertilizers leaked and caused damage to several people and even
killed one advocate. In this case, the rule of Ryland vs Fletcher was
applied. However, the company pleaded sabotage as a defense. SC
went one step further and promulgated the rule of Absolute Liability. J
Bhagwati observed that the rule of Ryland vs Fletcher was a century
old and was not sufficient to decide cases as science has advanced a
lot in these year. If British laws haven't progressed, Indian courts are
not bound to follow their law and can evolve the laws as per the
requirements of the society.
It was held that an enterprise that engages in dangerous substances
has an absolute responsibility to ensure the safety of the common
public. It is only the company that can know the consequences of its
activities and so it must take all the steps to prevent any accident. If,
even after all precautions, accident happens, the company still should
be made absolutely liable for the damages. The reason being that the
company has a social obligation to compensate the people who
suffered from its activity. SC also laid down that the measure of
compensation should depend on the magnitude and capacity of the
enterprise so that it can have a deterrent effect.
Re Polemis Servants of the defendant negligently let fall a plank into a ship’s hold Remoteness of Damage
1921 containing petrol in metal containers. The impact of the plank as it hit – Direct Consequence
3 KB 560 (CA) the floor of the hold caused a spark, and petrol vapor was ignited. The
ship was destroyed. Arbitrators found that the spark could not have
been reasonably foreseen, though some damage was foreseeable
from the impact. The defendant was found liable because the
claimant’s loss was a direct, though not reasonably foreseeable,
result.
The Wagon Mound (No. 1) The defendant carelessly discharged oil from a ship in Sydney Harbor, Remoteness of Damage
[1961] AC 388 and the oil floated on the surface of the water towards the claimant’s –
wharf. The claimant’s servants, who were welding on the wharf, Reasonably Foreseeable
continued their work after being advised (non-negligently) that it was Consequence
safe to do so. Sparks from the welding equipment first of all ignited
cotton waste mixed up in the oil; then the oil itself caught fire. The
claimant sued for destruction of the wharf by fire. The defendant was
found not liable in negligence, because it was not reasonably
foreseeable that the oil might ignite on water in these circumstances.
Damage by fouling was foreseeable; damage by fire (the case here)
was not foreseeable. The Privy Council said that in the tort of
negligence Re Polemis was no longer good law, and liability
would lie only for foreseeable damage of the kind or type in fact
suffered by the claimant.

Consumer Protection Act 1986

Ansal Properties vs. Chandra Bhan Held that Consumer Disputes Redressal Agencies provide complete Scope of CPA
Kohli machinery for justice including a final appeal to the Supreme Court
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1991 and so are outside the scope of High Courts and High Courts cannot
entertain writ petitions against their judgments.
National Insurance Co vs. Sonic A fire accident took place in Ambala and a part of the claim was Sec 11 – District Forum -
Surgical processed in Chandigarh. It was held that merely processing of claim Territorial Jurisdiction
2003 in one place does not form a ground to file a case in that district.
K S Sidhu vs. Senior Executive The complaint was dismissed by the District Forum by a non speaking Order of a Consumer
Engineer order. It did not discuss the evidence or the documents submitted Court must be a
2001 before it and thus it was held that the order was unjust and fit to be set speaking order
aside.
Indian Medical Association vs. VP SC held that a patient treated by a medical professional is a consumer Sec 2(1) d - Who is
Shantha and others of medical services and is covered by CPA. Consumer? – Buys
1995 goods or hires services
Motor Sales & Service vs. Renji The complainant booked a Hero Honda motor cycle to be delivered on Sec 2(1) d - Who is
Sebastian a given date for a consideration. His turn was ignored. The dealer was Consumer? – For
1991 ordered to give him the motorcycle for the price of that date and also Consideration
500/- as compensation.
Anant Raj Agencies vs. TELCO A company bought a car for personal use of a director of the company. Sec 2(1) d - Who is
1996 It was held that since the car was bought for personal use and not for Consumer? – For
commercial use or for making a profit on a large scale, the company Personal or Self
was a consumer. Employment Use.
Spring Meadows Hospital vs. In this landmark case, SC held that the parents of the child who was Sec 2(1) d - Who is
Harjot Ahluwalia treated by the hospital were hirers of the service while the child was Consumer? – For himself
AIR 1998 SC the beneficiary and thus both were consumers. or for any other person.

Further held that patients treated by a medical professional is also a Sec 2(1) o - Service
consumer of medical services and is covered by CPA.
Union of India vs. Mrs S Prakash Telephone facility was held as a service and the telephone rental paid Sec 2(1) o - Service
1991 by the consumer was the consideration for the service.
Srinivas Murthy vs. Chairman, In this case, the question before the court was whether a tax payer is Sec 2(1) o - Service –
Bangalore Development Authority a consumer or not. A person, who paid house tax, was bitten by a Must be a paid service.
1991 stray dog and he sued Bangalore Development Authority for not taking Not free or non-profit.
care of the menace of stray dogs. It was held that there was no quid
pro quo between the tax and the services rendered by BDA. The
removal of stray dogs was a voluntary action of BDA and was done
free of cost. Thus, the complainant was not a consumer and removal
of dogs was not a service under this act.
Mahanagar Telephone Nigam vs. When a complaint with the telephone dept. was pending for more than Sec 2 (1) g - Deficiency
Vinod Karkare six months, it was held to be a deficiency in service. in Service
1991
Indian Airlines vs. S N Singh A metallic wire was present in the food given to a traveler because of Sec 2 (1) g - Deficiency
1992 which his gums were hurt. He was awarded 2000 Rs as compensation in Service
for deficiency in service.

Mohammedan Law

Case Reference Case Details Topic

Talaq
Moonshee Buzloor Rahim vs. Held the following – Meaning of Talaq
Lateefutoon Nissa • Talaq is a mere arbitrary act of a Muslim husband, by which he Definition of Khula
may repudiate his wife at his own pleasure with or without cause.
• Khula was defined as a divorce by consent in which the wife
gives or agrees to give a consideration to the husband for her
release from the marriage tie. Khula is thus the right of divorce
purchased by the wife from her husband.
Fulchand vs. Nawab Ali Chaudhary Laid that Talaq should be deemed to have come into effect on the Talaq
1909 date on which the wife came to know of it.
Saiyyad Rashid Ahmad vs. Anisa One Ghayas Uddin pronounced triple Talaq in the presence of Talaq ul Biddat
Khatoon witnesses though in the absence of the wife. Four days later, a
1932 talaqnama was executed which stated that three divorces were given.
However, husband and wife still lived together and had five children.
Even though the husband treated her like a wife, it was held that
since there was no proof of remarriage, the relationship was illicit and
the children were illegitimate.
Mohd Khan vs. Mst Shahmali There was a pre-nuptial agreement in which the defendant agreed to Talaq e Tafweez

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AIR 1972 live in plaintiff's parental house after marriage and if he left the house,
he would pay a certain sum to the plaintiff, the default of which the
condition would act as divorce. It was held that the condition was not
unconscionable or opposed to public policy.
Zafar Hussain vs. Ummat ur The Allahabad HC accepted the doctrine of Lian and held that when Lian
Rahman the husband charges the wife with adultery and the charge is false,
1919 the wife is entitled to sue for and obtain divorce.
Fazal Mahmood vs Ummatur Held that if a wife is not faithful or obedient, the husband is under no Muslim Marriage
Rahman obligation to maintain her and her suit for divorce was dismissed. Dissolution Act 1939 –
AIR 1949, Peshawar HC Section 2(ii) Conditions for
maintenance as a ground
Mst Nur Bibi vs Pir Bux Held that a wife is entitled to divorce if the husband has failed to for divorce.
AIR 1950, Sind HC maintain her for two years preceding the suit even though she may
not be entitled to maintenance owing to her bad conduct.

Hiba
Smt Hussenabi vs. Husensab A grandfather made an offer of gift to his grandchildren. He also Hiba – Essential Elements
Hasan accepted the offer on behalf of minor grandchildren. However, no – Acceptance
AIR 1989 Kar express of implied acceptance was made by a major grandson.
Karnataka HC held that since the three elements of the gift were not
present in the case of the major grandchild, the gift was not valid. It
was valid in regards to the minor grandchildren.
Nawazish Ali Khan vs. Ali Raza Held that gift of usufructs is valid in Muslim law and that the gift of Hiba – What can be gifted.
Khan corpus is subject to any such limitations imposed due to usufructs
AIR 1984 being gifted to someone else. It further held that gift of life interest is
valid and it doesn't automatically enlarge into gift of corpus. This
ruling is applicable to both Shia and Sunni.
Rahim Bux vs. Mohd. Hasen Held that gift of services is not valid because it does not exist at the Hiba – What can be gifted.
1883 time of making the gift.
Ranee Khajoorunissa vs. Mst • Recognized by the privy council that a donor may gift all or any Hiba – Extent of donor’s
Roushan Jahan portion of his property even if it adversely affects the expectant right.
1876 heirs.
• Held that adequacy of the consideration is not the question. As Hiba bil iwaz
long is the consideration is bona fide, it is valid no matter even if
it is insufficient.
Mohd Hesabuddin vs. Mohd. The donee was looking after the donor, his mother, while other sons When delivery of
Hesaruddin were neglecting her. The donor gifted the land to the donee and the possession is not
AIR 1984 donee subsequently changed the name on the land records. It was required.
held that it was a valid gift even though there was no delivery of land.
Kashim Hussain vs. Sharif Unnisa A gifted his house to B along with the right to use a staircase, which Doctrine of Mushaa
1883 was being used jointly by C as well. This gift was held valid because
staircase is indivisible.

Wakf
M Kazim vs. A Asghar Ali AIR Observed that literal meaning of Wakf is detention, stoppage, or tying Meaning of Wakf
1932 up.
Abdul Sakur vs. Abu Bakkar Held that there are no restrictions as long as the property can be Wakf Conditions –
1930 used without being consumed and thus, a valid wakf can be created Permanent dedication.
not only of immovable property but also of movable property such as
shares of a company or even money. Some subjects that Hanafi law
recognizes are immovable property, accessories to immovable
property, or books.
Zulfiqar Ali vs. Nabi Bux The settlers of a wakf provided that the income of certain shops was Wakf Conditions – For any
to be applied firstly to the upkeep of the mosque and then the purpose recognized by
residue, if any, to the remuneration of the mutawalli. It was held to be Muslim Law
valid however, it was also pointed out that if a provision of
remuneration was created before the upkeep of the mosque, it would
have been invalid.
Kunhamutty vs. Ahman Musaliar Held that if there are no alms, the performing of ceremonies for the Wakf Conditions – Valid
AIR 1935, Madras HC benefit of the departed soul is not a valid object. Object
Garib Das vs. M A Hamid It was held that in cases where founder of the wakf himself is the first Completion of Wakf –
AIR 1970 mutawalli, it is not necessary that the property should be transferred Transfer of property
from the name of the donor as the owner in his own name as
mutawalli.
Md. Ismail vs. Thakur Sabir Ali Held that even in wakf ala aulad, the property is dedicated to God Incidents of Wakf –
AIR 1962, SC and only the usufructs are used by the descendants. Property dedicated to God

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Mst Peeran vs. Hafiz Mohammad Held that the wakf of a house built on a land leased for a fixed term Incidents of Wakf –
Allahbad HC was invalid. Permanent and Perpetual
Ahmad Arif vs. Wealth Tax Held that a Mutawalli has no power to sell, mortgage, or lease wakf Mutawalli
Commissioner property without prior permission of the court or unless that power is
AIR 1971, SC explicitly provided to the mutawalli in wakfnama.
Shahar Bano vs. Aga Mohammad Privy council held that there is no legal restriction on a woman Who can be Mutawalli
1907 becoming a mutawalli if the duties of the wakf do not involve religious
activities.
Bibi Sadique Fatima vs Mahmood Held that using wakf money to buy property in wife's name is such Removal of Mutawalli – By
Hasan breach of trust as is sufficient ground for removal of mutawalli. court
AIR 1978, SC

Mahr
Saburunnessa vs. Sabdu Sheikh Held that Muslim marriage is like a contract where wife is the property Mahr
AIR 1934, Cal. HC and Mahr is the price or consideration.
Abdul Kadir vs. Salima J Mahmood observed that the marriage contract is easily dissoluble Importance of Mahr
AIR 1980 and the freedom of divorce and of polygamy to a husband place the
power in the hands of the husband, which the Muslim law intends to
restrain by the mechanism of Mahr. Thus, right of wife to her Mahr is
a fundamental feature of the marriage contract.
Abdul Kadir vs. Salima J Mahmood observed that Mahr may be regarded as a consideration Nature of Mahr
AIR 1980 for concubial intercourse by way of analogy to the contract for sale. It
provides the woman with the right to resist the husband until Mahr is
paid. This right is akin to the right of lien of a vendor upon sold goods
while they remain in his possession and so long as the price for the
goods has not been paid.
Smt Nasra Begum vs. Rizwan Ali It was held that right to dower precedes cohabitation. Thus, a wife Nature of Mahr – Like
AIR 1980 can refuse consummation of marriage until Mahr is paid. Debt
Syed Sabir Hussain vs. Farzand A father stood surety for payment of dower by his minor son. After his Nature of Mahr – Like
Hussain death, his estate was held liable for the payment of his son's dower. Debt
Maina Bibi vs Chaudhary Vakil In this leading case, one Moinuddin died, leaving his widow Miana Non payment of dower -
Ahmad Bibi and some property. The respondents instituted a suit against the Right of Retention
1924 widow for immediate possession of the property. However, the widow
claimed that she had the right to possession until her dower was
paid. It was held that the respondents could have the possession of
their share of the property after paying the dower to the widow. The
respondents did not pay and the widow continued possession. Later,
the widow sold the property. The deed showed that the widow tried to
convey an absolute title to the property. The respondents again filed
the suit claiming that the widow did not have the right to transfer
property because she only had a right to retain and did not have any
right to title for herself. It was held by the privy council that a widow
has the right to retain the possession of the property acquired
peacefully and lawfully, until she is paid her dower. Further, she has
no right to alienate the property by sale, mortgage, gift, or otherwise.
Shah Bano vs. Iftikhar Mohammad When a wife she was being ignored by husband and thought that Who can change Mahr –
1956 Karachi HC only way to win him back was to waive Mahr, her remission of Mahr Wife, with free will
was considered without her consent and was not binding on her.

Wasiyat
Abdul Manan Khan vs. Mirtuza Held that any Mohammedan having a sound mind and not a minor Conditions of Will –
Khan may make a valid will to dispose off the property. So far as a deed is Competency of Testator
AIR 1991, Patna HC concerned, no formality or a particular form is required in law for the
purpose of creating a valid will. An unequivocal expression by the
testator serves the purpose.
Ghulam Mohammad vs Ghulam The general rule is laid down that a bequest in favor of a heir is not Limitation on testator
Hussain valid unless the other heirs consent to the bequest in after the death
1932 Allahbad HC of the testator. Whether a person is a heir or not is determined at the
time of testator's death.
Hussaini Begam vs Mohammad It was held that if all the property was bequeathed to one heir and Limitation on testator
Mehdi other were not given anything, the bequest was void in its entirety.
1927

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 Law of Contracts - II

Case Reference Case Details Topic

Indemnity
Anderson vs. Jarvis The plaintiff, an auctioneer, sold some goods on the instructions of Sec 124 - Indemnity
1872 the defendant, who did not own the goods. The true owner held the
auctioneer liable, who in turn sued the defendant. Held that since the
auctioneer acted on the instructions of the defendant, he was entitled
to assume that he will be indemnified by the defendant against the
consequences of his actions. This was an implied promise of
indemnity.
United Commercial Bank vs. Bank Letter of Credit and bank guarantees create an absolute liability on Sec 125 – Rights of
of India the banks. Held that the courts should not grant injunctions Indemnity Holder
AIR 1981 SC restraining the performance of contractual obligations arising out of
such LoCs or Bank Guarantees, if the terms given on the letter of
credit have been fulfilled,
Mohit Kumar Saha vs. New India A vehicle was lost due to theft. Held that the indemnifier must pay the Sec 125 – Rights of
Assurance Co full amount of the vehicle as determined by the surveyor. Any Indemnity Holder
AIR 1997 Cal HC settlement for a lesser amount is arbitrary and unfair and violates art
14 of the constitution.
Gajanan Moreshwar vs. Moreshwar Bombay HC observed that a contract of indemnity has very little Sec 125 – Rights of
Madan value of the indemnity holder cannot enforce the indemnifier in cases Indemnity Holder
AIR 1942 where a judgment requires him to pay, until he has actually paid. He
may well be unable to pay. Thus, the court of equity should step in
and allow the contract of indemnity to be enforced if the liability of the
indemnity holder has become absolute.

Guarantee

Birkmyr vs. Darnell Court held that when two persons come to a shop, one person buys, Sec 126 – Guarantee
1704 and to give him credit, the other person promises, "If he does not
pay, I will", this type of a collateral undertaking to be liable for the
default of another is called a contract of guarantee.
Swan vs. Bank of Scottland held that a contract of guarantee is a tripartite agreement between Sec 126 – Guarantee
1836 the creditor, the principal debtor, and the surety.
Allahabad Bank vs. S M The bank was not allowed to sue the surety in absence of any
Engineering Industries advance payment made after the date of guarantee.
1992 Cal HC
Union Bank of India vs. A P Past debts were also held to be recoverable under the wide language Sec 127 – Consideration
Bhonsle of this Sec. No uniformity on the issue
1991 Mah HC of past consideration.
London General Omnibus vs. A person was invited to guarantee an employee, who was previously Sec 142 – Guarantee
Holloway dismissed for dishonesty by the same employer. This fact was not must not be obtained by
1912 told to the surety. Later on, the employee embezzled funds but the misrepresentation or
surety was not held liable. concealment.
Hide Co vs. Bottrill held that the facts, circumstances, and intention of each case has to Sec 129 – Continuing
1873 be looked into for determining if it is a case of continuing guarantee Guarantee
or not.
Oxford vs Davies A promises to pay B for all groceries bought by C for a period of 12 Sec 130 – Revocation of
months if C fails to pay. In the next three months, C buys 2000/- Continuing Guarantee –
worth of groceries. After 3 months, A revokes the guarantee by giving Illustration 1 is based on
a notice to B. C further purchases 1000 Rs of groceries. C fails to this case.
pay. A is not liable for 1000/- rs of purchase that was made after the
notice but he is liable for 2000/- of purchase made before the notice
Lloyd's vs. Harper Held that employment of a servant is one transaction. The guarantee Sec 130 – Revocation of
1880 for a servant is thus not a continuing guarantee and cannot be Continuing Guarantee
revoked as long as the servant is in the same employment. (Discharge of surety)
Wingfield vs. De St Cron Held that a person who guaranteed the rent payment for his servant Sec 130 – Revocation of
1919 but revoked it after the servant left his employment was not liable for Continuing Guarantee
the rents after revocation. (Discharge of surety)
Durga Priya vs. Durga Pada Held that in each case the contract of guarantee between the parties Sec 131 – Revocation by
AIR 1928, Cal HC must be looked into to determine whether the contract has been death of surety.
revoked due to the death of the surety or not. If there is a provision (Discharge of surety)
that says death does not cause the revocation then the contract of
guarantee must be held to continue even after the death of the surety
7 of 20
Lampleigh Iron Ore Co Ltd, Re Court laid down that the surety will be entitled, to every remedy which Sec 140 – Right of
1927 the creditor has against the principal debtor; to enforce every security subrogation
and all means of payment; to stand in place of the creditor to have
the securities transferred in his name, though there was no stipulation
for that; and to avail himself of all those securities against the debtor.
This right of surety stands not merely upon contract but also upon
natural justice.
Kadamba Sugar Industries Pvt Ltd Held that surety is entitled to the benefits of the securities even if he Sec 140 – Right of
vs. Devru Ganapathi is not aware of their existence. subrogation
AIR 1993, Kar HC
Mamata Ghose vs. United Held that under the right of subrogation, the surety may get certain Sec 140 – Right of
Industrial Bank rights even before payment. In this case, the principal debtor was subrogation
AIR 1987, Cal HC disposing off his personal properties one after another lest the surety,
after paying the debt, seize them. The surety sought for temporary
injunction, which was granted.
Chekkara Ponnamma vs. A S The principal debtor died after hire-purchasing four motor vehicles. Sec 145 – Right to
Thammayya The surety was sued and he paid over. The surety then sued the Indemnity
AIR 1983 legal representatives of the principal debtor. The court required the Surety is entitled to
surety to show how much amount was realized by selling the recover only “rightful”
vehicles, which he could not show. Thus, it was held that the sums.
payment made by the surety was not proper.
Craythorne vs. Swinburne This case expounded the general rule of equity that the surety is Sec 141 – Right to
1807 entitled to every remedy which the creditor has against the principal Securities
debtor including enforcement of every security.
State of MP vs. Kaluram Held that the expression "security" in section 141 means all rights Sec 141 – Right to
AIR 1967 which the creditor had against property at the date of the contract. In Securities
this case, the state had sold a lot of felled trees for a fixed price in
four equal installments, the payment of which was guaranteed by the
defendant. The contract further provided that if a default was made in
the payment of an installment, the State would get the right to prevent
further removal of timber and the sell the timber for the realization of
the price. The buyer defaulted but the State still did not stop him from
removing further timber. The surety was then sued for the loss but he
was not held liable.
Goverdhan Das vs. Bank of Bengal The right to securities arises only after the creditor is paid in full. If the Sec 141 – Right to
1891 surety has guaranteed only part of the debt, he cannot claim a Securities
proportional part of the securities after paying part of the debt.
Sri Chand vs. Jagdish Prashad A creditor can release a co-surety at his will. However, the released Sec 138 – Right against
1966 co-surety is still liable to the others for contribution upon default. co-sureties
Where there are co-
sureties, a release by the
creditor of one of them
does not discharge the
others; neither does it free
the surety so released
from his responsibility to
the other sureties.
Maharashtra SEB vs. Official Held that if the principal debtor is released by a compromise with the Sec 134 – Discharge of
Liquidator creditor, the surety is discharged but if the principal debtor is surety by release of
AIR 1982 SC discharged by the operation of insolvency laws, the surety is not principal debtor
discharged.

(Discharge of surety – 130 - Revocation, 131 - Death, 133 - variance,

134 – release, 135 – composition, 139 - impairment)
Wandoor Jupitor Chits vs. K P Held that the surety was not discharged when the period of limitation Sec 135 – Composition,
Mathew got extended due to acknowledgement of debt by the principal Extension of time, promise
AIR 1980 debtor. not to sue.
Mahanth Singh vs U Ba Yi It must be noted that forbearing to sue until the expiry of the period of Sec 137 – Mere
1939 limitation has the legal consequence of discharge of the principal forbearance to sue does
debtor and thus as per section 134, will cause the surety to be not discharge surety.
discharged as well. If section 134 stood alone, this inference was
correct. However, section 137 explicitly says that mere forbearance
to sue does not discharge the surety. This contradiction was removed
in this case by Privy Council. It held that failure to sue the principal
debtor until recovery is banned by period of limitation does not
discharge the surety.
State of MP vs. Kaluram See Above Sec 139 – Surety is
AIR 1967 discharged if his remedy
is impaired.

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State Bank of Saurashtra vs. The bank failed to properly take care of the contents of a go down Sec 139 – Surety is
Chitranjan Ranganath Raja pledged to it against a loan and the contents were lost. The court discharged if his remedy
1980 held that the surety was not liable for the amount of the goods lost. is impaired.
Hiranyaprava vs. Orissa State Also, before disposing of the security, the surety must be informed on Sec 139 – Surety is
Financial Corp the account of natural justice so that he can have the option to take discharged if his remedy
AIR 1995 over the security by paying off the debt. Held that if such a notice of is impaired.
disposing off of the security is not given, the surety cannot be held
liable for the shortfall.
Harigopal Agarwal vs. State Bank Held that when part of a debt was recovered by disposing off certain Sec 128 - The liability of a
of India goods, the liability of the surety is also reduced by the same amount. surety is co-extensive with
AIR 1956 that of the principal
debtor, unless it is
otherwise provided in the
contract.
Bank of Bihar Ltd. vs. Damodar Held that where the liability is unconditional, the court cannot Sec 128
Prasad introduce any conditions. SC overruled trial court's and high court's
AIR 1969 SC order that the creditor must first exhaust all remedies against the
principal debtor before suing the surety.
National Provincial Bank of The defendant signed a guarantee which was supposed to be signed Sec 144 - Where a person
England vs. Brakenbury by three other co-sureties. One of them did not sign and so the gives guarantee upon a
1906 defendant was not held liable. contract that the creditor
shall not act upon it until
another person has joined
it as co-surety, the
guarantee is not valid if
the co-surety does not
join.

Bailment
Ultzen vs. Nicols The plaintiff went to a restaurant for dining. When he entered the Sec 148 – Bailment –
1894 room, the waiter took his coat and hung it on a hook behind him. Essential Elements –
When the plaintiff arose to leave, the coat was gone. It was held that Delivery
the waiter voluntarily took the responsibility of keeping the coat while
the customer was dining and was thus a bailee. Therefore, he was
liable to return it.
Kaliaperumal Pillai vs. Visalakshmi A woman gave some gold to a jeweler to make jewelry. Every Sec 148 – Bailment –
AIR 1938 evening she used to take the unfinished jewels, put it in a box, lock Essential Elements –
the box and take the keys of the box with her while leaving the box at Delivery
the goldsmith. One morning, when the opened the box the gold was
gone. It was held that, in the night, the possession of the gold was
not with the jeweler but with the plaintiff because she locked the box
and kept the keys with her.
Bank of Chittor vs. Narsimbulu A person pledged cinema projector with the bank but the bank Sec 149 – Type of
AIR 1966 allowed him to keep the projector so as to keep the cinema hall Delivery – Constructive
running. AP HC held that this was constructive delivery because Delivery
something was done that changed the legal possession of the
projector. Even though the physical possession was with the person,
the legal possession was with the bank.
Ram Gulam vs. Govt. of UP AIR Plaintiffs ornaments were seized by police on the suspicion that they Sec 148 – Bailment –
1950, were stolen. The ornaments were later on stolen from the custody or Essential Elements –
police and the plaintiff sued the govt. for returning the ornaments. It Delivery must be upon a
was held that the goods were not given to the police under any contract
contract and thus there was no bailment.
State of Gujarat vs. Menon Decision in Ram Gulam’s case was criticized and finally, in, SC held Sec 148 – Bailment –
Mohammad that bailment can happen even without an explicit contract. In this Essential Elements –
AIR 1967 case, certain motor vehicles were seized by the State under Sea Delivery must be upon a
Customs Act, which were then damaged. SC held that the govt. was contract
indeed the bailee and the State was responsible for proper care of
the goods.
U Co. Bank vs. Hem Chandra J Shetty of SC observed that the distinguishing feature between a Sec 148 – Bailment –
Sarkar bailment and an agency is that the bailee does not represent the Essential Elements –
1990 bailor. He merely exercises some rights of the bailor over the bail's Conditional Delivery
property. The bailee cannot bind the bailor by his acts. Thus, a
banker who was holding the goods on behalf of its account holder for
the purpose of delivering them to his customers against payment,
was only a bailee and not an agent.
Hyman and Wife vs. Nye & Sons The plaintiff hired a carriage from the defendant. During the journey, Sec 150 – Duties of bailor
1881 a bolt in the under part of carriage broke, causing an accident in – greater liability of non-

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 which the plaintiff was injured. The defendants were held liable even gratuitous bailor
though they did not know about the condition of the bolt.
Blount vs. War Office A house belonging to the plaintiff was requisitioned by the War Office. Sec 151 – Duties of bailee
1953 He was allowed to keep his certain articles in a room of the house, – Reasonable care
which he locked. The troops who occupied the house were not well
controlled and broke into the room causing damage and theft of the
articles. It was held that War office did not take care of the house as
an owner would and held the War Office liable for the loss.
Gopal Singh vs. PNB, Delhi HC held that on the account of partition of the country, when a Sec 152 - Bailee when
AIR 1976 bank had to flee along with mass exodus from Pakistan to India, the not liable for loss,
bank was not liable for the goods bailed to it in Pakistan. destruction, or
deterioration.
Join & Son vs. Comeron The plaintiff stayed in a hotel and kept his belonging in his room, Sec 152 - Bailee when
1922 which were stolen. The hotel was held liable because they did not not liable for loss,
take care of its security as an owner would. destruction, or
deterioration.
Shaw & Co vs. Symmons & Sons The plaintiff gave certain books to the defendant to be bound. The Sec 160 – Duty to return
1971 defendant bound them but did not return them within reasonable
time. Subsequently, the books were burnt in an accidental file. The
defendants were held liable for the loss of books.
Surya Investment Co vs. STC STC hired a storage tank from the plaintiff. On account of a dispute, Sec 158 – Right to
AIR 1987 STC appointed a special officer to take charge of the tank, who necessary expenses or
delivered the contents as per directions of STC. Thus, the plaintiff lost remuneration
his possession and with it, his right of lien. SC held that the plaintiff is
entitled to the charges even if he loses his right of lien because the
bailor has enjoyed bailee's services.
Hutton vs. Car Maintenance Co It was held that a job master has no lien for feeding and keeping the Sec 170 – Right of Lien –
1915 horse in his stable but a horse trainer does get a lien upon the horse. Particular Lien
Umarani Sen vs Sudhir Kumar A firm, which had consigned the goods, of which it was a bailee, with Sec 180 – Right to sue
AIR 1984 a carrier, was allowed to sue the carrier for loss of the goods.

Pledge
Lallan Prasad vs. Rahmat Ali J Shelat observed that a pawn or a pledge is the bailment of personal Sec 172 – Pledge
AIR 1967 goods as a security for a personal debt or engagement. Sec 176 – Right of
The defendant pledged certain aeroscrape worth 35000/- with the pledgee to sell goods
plaintiff for a sum of 20000/-. The defendant failed to pay and the
plaintiff sued. However, plaintiff was not able to produce the pledge
because he had sold it. It was held that a pledgee loses his right to
sue if he has already sold the goods. He cannot have both – the right
to sue as well as retain the security.
Revenue Authority vs. Sundaram A film producer took loan from a produce and promised to deliver the Sec 172 – Delivery
Pictures prints when finished. Held that it was not a pledge because there was
AIR 1968 no delivery.
Bank of Chittor vs. Narsimbulu See above Sec 172 – Delivery can be
AIR 1966 constructive -
Hypothecation
Bank of Bihar vs. State of SC observed that a pawnee obtains a special interest in the pledged Sec 173-174 – Pawnee’s
Bihar goods in the sense that he can transfer or pledge that special interest right of retainer
1972 to somebody else. The lien only gives the right to detain the goods
but not transfer. Thus, a pledgee get the first right to claim the goods
before any other creditor can get them. The pledgee's loan is
secured by the goods.
Prabhat Bank vs. Babu Ram The terms of a loan allowed the bank to sell security upon default. Sec 176 – Notice of sale
AIR 1966 The pawner defaulted and the bank sent him a notice that they will must be reasonable
sell the securities. The pawner responded and asked for more time.
Instead of replying, the bank sold the goods. SC held that this was
bad in law. The bank is required to give a clear and specific notice of
the impending sale. Pawner's request for more time cannot be
interpreted as a notice of sale.
Lallan Prasad vs. Rahmat Ali J Shelat held that the pawner has as absolute right to redeem his Sec 177 – Pawner’s right
property upon satisfaction or the debt or the promise. This right is of redemption.
not extinguished by the expiry of the stipulated time for repayment of
debt or performance of the promise but only by the actual sale of the
goods. If the pawner redeems his goods
after the expiry of the stipulated time, he is bound to pay the
expenses as have arisen on account of his default.
M R Dhawan vs. Madan Mohan Certain shares of a company were pledged. During the period of the Sec 177 – Pawner’s right
AIR 1969 pledge, the company issued bonus and rights shares. Delhi HC held of redemption – Right to

10 of 20
 that the pawner was entitled to those at the time of redemption. get increase.
Biddomoy Dabee vs. It was held that a pledge made by the servant who was holding the Pledge by non-owner is
Sittaram goods of his master was not valid. invalid.
Purushottam Das vs. Union of India A railway company delivered goods on a forged railway receipt. The Pledge by non-owner is
AIR 1967 goods were then pledged with the defendants. In a suit by the invalid.
railways to recover the goods it was held that the pledge was invalid.
Phillips vs. Brooks Ltd A fraudulent person pretending to be a man of credit induced the Sec 178 A – Pledge by
1919 plaintiff to give him a valuable ring in return for his check which party under voidable
proved worthless. Before the fraud could be discovered, he pledged contract is valid
the ring with the defendants. The pledge was held to be valid.
Jaswantrai Manilal Akhney vs. A cooperative bank had an overdraft account with the Exchange Sec 179 – Pledge by
State of Bombay Bank, which was secured by the deposit of certain securities. After person with limited
1956 many dealing and adjustments the last position of the account was interest – Valid only up to
that the overdraft limit was set at Rs 66150 and the securities under the interest and not more.
the pledge of the bank were worth Rs 75000. The cooperative bank
did not make use of this overdraft for a long time and when it
attempted to use it, the Exchange Bank was itself in financial crisis
and had pledged the securities first with Canara Bank and then after
having redeemed them, pledged them again with a private financier.
The SC held that the pledge was invalid.

Indian Partnership Act, 1932

Helper Girdharbhai vs Saiyed M J Sabyasachi of SC identified that the following elements must be Sec 4 – Essential
Kadri and others there in order to establish a partnership - there must be an Elements of a Partnership
AIR 1987 agreement entered into by all the parties concerned, the agreement
must be to share profits of the business, and the business must be
carried on by all or any of the person concerned for all.
Ram Priya Saran vs Ghanshyam Two persons agreed that after their tender is passed they will Sec 4 – Essential
Das construct the dam in partnership. In order to deposit earnest money, Elements of a Partnership
AIR 1981, Allahbad the plaintiff gave 2000 Rs. The tender was not accepted. It was held – Business must exist
that since a business was only contemplated and not started, there
was no partnership and so the plaintiff was entitled to get 2000 Rs.
from the defendant.
Khan vs Miah Two persons obtained loan from the bank to start a restaurant. They Sec 4 – Essential
2000 WLR also entered into a contract to purchase equipment and laundry for Elements of a Partnership
the restaurant. But their relationship terminated before the opening of – Business must exist
the restaurant. It was held that there is no rule of law that parties to a
joint venture do not become partners until they actually embark on
the activity in question. It is necessary to identify the venture in order
to decide whether the parties have actually embarked upon it but it is
not necessary to attach any name to it. Many business require a lot of
investment and activities before the actual trading begins. This does
not mean that the business has not started until the trading begins. It
was held that in this case the activity of the business had begun and
so the partnership was in existence.
Cox vs. Hickman In this case, two persons carried on business in partnership. Due to Sec 4 – Essential
financial crisis they obtained loans. Having unable to repay the loans Elements of a Partnership
they executed a trust deed of properties in favor of the creditors. – Mutual Agency
Some of the creditors were made trustees of the business. This
included Cox and Wheatcroft. They were empowered to enter into
contracts and execute instruments to carry on business and to divide
the profits among the creditors. After the recovery of debts, the
property was to be restored to the two original partners. Cox never
acted as trustee and retired, while Wheatcroft acted as a trustee for
some time and retired. Other trustee then became indebted to
Hickman and executed a bill of exchange, which was not accepted
and paid. Hickman sued the trustees for recovery of the money for
materials supplied. The trustees could be held liable if they were
partners. However, it was held that they were not partners. It was
observed that in partnership every partner is an agent of another and
in this case this element was absent.
Mollow March Co vs. The Court of A Hindu Raja loaned some money to Watson & Co. In return, he was Sec 4 – Essential
Wards to get a % of profit and was to exercise control on some aspects of Elements of a Partnership
1872 the business. He was not empowered to direct the transactions of the – Sharing of profit not the
company. It was held that although sharing of profits is a very strong sole criteria
test, yet whether a relation of partnership exists depends on the real
intention and conduct of the parties.

11 of 20
Bentlay vs. Craven It was held that if a partner was authorized to purchase goods for the Sec 16 – General Duties
1853 firm and if he supplies the goods from his own stock and makes a of partners
profit, he is liable to give the profit to the firm. This matter is further
clarified in section 16 which says that subject to contract between the
partners, if a partner derives any profit for himself from any
transaction of the firm or from the use of the property or business
connection of the firm, he shall pay that profit to the firm.
Suresh Kumar vs. Amrit Kumar Held that majority cannot trample on the opinion of minority in the key Sec 12 – Every partner
AIR 1982, Delhi HC matters of the partnership. Thus, majority cannot replace the must do his duties
managing director of the firm because it is a key business decision. It diligently. Majority can
can be done only with the consent of all the partners. take decisions only in
normal business and not
in key business decisions.
Devji vs. Magan Lal A partner had taken a sublease in his own name instead of the firm's Sec 18 & 25 – Implied
AIR 1965 name. Further, there did not seem to be any intention to bind the firm. authority of a partner.
SC held that the firm was not bound by the lease as the parties did
not intend to bind the firm by this transaction.
Sanganer Dal & Flour Mill vs. FCI A partner of the firm, who had the implied authority to enter the Sec 19(2) – Statutory
AIR 1982 contract with FCI to purchase goods, entered in to a contract with FCI restrictions on implied
to purchase Dal. The contract had an arbitration clause. In this case, authority.
the question was whether the partner had the power to enter into
such a contract? It was held by SC that the partner was within his
implied authority to enter into a contract to purchase goods from the
corporation because it was normal for their business and the contract
was done in the usual way. Thus, the contract was valid even if it
contained an arbitration clause.
Vishnu Chandra vs. Chandrika The question before SC was whether a partner was entitled to retire Sec 31(1)(b) – Retirement
Prasad Agarwal on the basis of partnership deed. The deed provided that a partner of a partner – Either by
AIR 1983 SC may retire by giving one month notice and that a partner cannot retire consent of all the other
within one year of commencement of business and if he does so, his partners or as per the
capital will not be returned. Held that it is consistent with the agreement of partnership.
provisions of Section 31(1)(b) and the partner can retire according to
the deed.
Carmichael vs. Evans A partner was caught traveling without ticket and was convicted on Sec 33(1) – Expulsion of a
1904 this charge. He was expelled by the majority of the partners. It was partner.
held that the expulsion was justified.
Blisset vs. Daniel A partner was expelled by the majority of the partners because he Sec 33(1) – Expulsion of a
1953 opposed the appointment of the son of a partner on the post of partner.
manager. It was held that the expulsion was invalid.
Venkatarama Iyer vs. Blayya Held that there must be some positive act of the partners so that the Sec 30(1) – Partnership
AIR 1936 court may infer that the minors have been admitted to the benefits of with a minor – Minor can
the partnership. Merely assuming that the minors were admitted be admitted to benefits of
would be an error in law and is not sufficient. partnership.
Addl Commr. of Income Tax vs. A partnership deed was not signed by minor or anybody on his Sec 30(1) – Partnership
Uttam Kumar Pramod Kumar behalf. It was held that to admit the minor to the benefits of with a minor – Minor can
1975 partnership it is necessary to have an agreement between the be admitted to benefits of
partners and the minor. Since the property and money of the minor partnership.
can be used for the firm, an agreement is necessary between the
partners and someone on behalf of the minor.
Shivganda R Patil vs. C a minor was admitted to the benefits of the partnership between A Sec 30(5) – Right of minor
Chandrakanth Neelkanth Sadalge and B. The partnership became indebted and was dissolved while C to elect after majority.
AIR 1965 was still a minor. Upon majority, C did not exercise the option of
election. Later on, the creditor started insolvency proceedings against
the partners and impleaded C as well in the proceedings. It was held
that a minor cannot be impleaded in insolvency proceedings against
the firm on the ground that he had become a major after dissolution
of the firm. At the time of his majority the firm had ceased to exist and
thus there was no question of electing to become or not to become a
partner.
Loonkaran Sethia vs. Mr Ivan E The firm was not registered and the plaintiff filed the suit to enforce Sec 69(1) –
John an agreement entered into by a partner of the firm. The suit was filed Consequences of non
AIR 1977 on behalf of the firm and was for its benefit. SC observed that a registration – Suit cannot
partner of an unregistered firm cannot bring a suit to enforce a right be brought against the
arising out of a contract falling within the ambit of section 69. It held firm by a partner.
that the suit was not maintainable.
Ram Adhar vs Rama Kirat Tiwary The plaintiff sold bricks to the defendant. The defendant did not pay Sec 69(1) –
AIR 1981 the price to the partnership firm and so the firm filed the suit. It was Consequences of non
held that since the firm was not registered the suit was not registration – Suit cannot
maintainable. be brought by the firm
against third party.
12 of 20
Carmichael vs. Evans A partner was convicted of traveling without ticket and the court Sec 44 – Dissolution of a
1856 dissolved the firm on this ground. firm by court.

Law of Crimes
Case Reference
Case Details Topic

General Exceptions
Waryam Singh vs. Emperor Took a defense of mistake saying he believed that the killed person Sec 76 – Mistake of fact –
AIR 1926 was a ghost because that would be a mistake of a fact. Meaning of Mistake

R vs. Prince It is an important case where a person was convicted of abducting a Sec 76 – Mistake of fact –
1875 girl under 18 yrs of age. The law made taking a woman under 18 Strict Liability
from her guardian without her guardian's permission a crime. In this
case, the person had no intention to abduct her. She had gone with
the person with consent and the person had no reason to believe that
the girl was under 18. Further, the girl looked older than 18. However,
it was held that by taking a girl without her guardian's permission, he
was taking a risk and should be responsible for it because the law
made it a crime even if it was done without mens rea. In this case,
five rules were laid down which are guideline whenever a question of
a mistake of fact or mistake of law arises in England and elsewhere -

1. When an act is in itself plainly criminal and is more severely

punishable if certain circumstances coexist, ignorance of the
existence is no answer to a charge for the aggravated offence.
2. When an act is prima facie innocent and proper unless certain
circumstances co-exist, the ignorance of such circumstances is an
answer to the charge.
3. The state of the mind of the defendants must amount to absolute
ignorance of the existence of the circumstance which alters the
character of the act or to a belief in its non-existence.
4. When an act in itself is wrong, and under certain circumstances,
criminal, a person who does the wrongful act cannot set up as a
defense that he was ignorant of the facts which would turn the wrong
into a crime.
5. When a statute makes it penal to do an act under certain
circumstances, it is a question upon the wording and object of the
statute whether responsibility of ascertaining that the circumstances
exist is thrown upon the person who does the act or not. In the former
case, his knowledge is immaterial.
The King vs. Tustipada Mandal The guidelines established in R vs. Prince were brought in Indian Sec 76 – Mistake of fact.
AIR 1951 Orissa HC. Law in this case.
R vs. Tolson A woman's husband was heard to be dead since the ship he was Sec 76 – Mistake of fact.
1889 traveling in had sunk. After some years, when the husband did not
turn up, she married another person. However, her husband came
back and since 7 years had not elapsed since his disappearance,
which are required to legally presume a person dead, she was
charged with bigamy. It was held that disappearance for 7 yrs is only
one way to reach a belief that a person is dead. If the woman and as
the evidence showed, other people in town truly believed that the
husband died in a shipwreck, this was a mistake of fact and so she
was acquitted.
R vs. White and R vs. Stock Here, the husband with limited literacy asked his lawyers about his Sec 76 – Mistake of Law.
1921 divorce, who replied that they will send the papers in a couple of
days. The husband construed as the divorce was done and on that
belief he married another woman. It was held that it was a mistake of
law and he was convicted of bigamy.
Tunda vs. Rex AIR Two friends, who were fond of wrestling, were wresting and one got Sec 80 – Accident
1950 thrown away on a stone and died. This was held to be an accident There must not be a
and since it was not done without any criminal intention, the criminal intent.
defendant was acquitted.
Jogeshshwar vs. Emperor The accused was fighting with a man and the man's pregnant wife Sec 80 – Accident
intervened. The accused aimed at the woman but accidentally hit the The act must be lawful
baby who was killed. He was not allowed protection under this and must be done in
section because he was not doing a lawful act in a lawful manner by lawful manner in lawful
lawful means. means.
13 of 20
Bhupendra Singh Chudasama vs. The appellant, an armed constable of SRPF, shot at his immediate Sec 80 – Accident
State of Gujarat supervisor while the latter was inspecting the dam site in dusk hours. The act must be done with
,1998 The appellant took the plea that it was dark at that time and he saw precaution and there must
someone moving near the dam with fire. He thought that there was a not be any negligence.
miscreant. He shouted to stop the person but upon getting no
response he fired the shot. However, it was proven that the shot was
fired from a close range and it was held that he did not take enough
precaution before firing the shot and was convicted.
Queen vs. Lukhini Agradanini Held that merely the proof of age of the child would be a conclusive Sec 82 – Child under 7 yrs
1874 proof of innocence and would ipso facto be an answer to the charge of age.
against him.
Hiralal vs. State of Bihar The boy who participated in a concerted action and used a sharp Sec 83 – Child above 7
1977 weapon for a murderous attack, was held guilty in the absence of any but below 12 yrs of age.
evidence leading to boy's feeble understanding of his actions.
Emperor vs. Paras Ram Dubey A boy of 12 years of age was convicted of raping a girl. In English Sec 83 – Child above 7
law, a boy below 14 years is deemed incapable of raping a woman. but below 12 yrs of age.
R vs. Arnold Wild Beast test was evolved in this case. Here, the accused was tried Sec 84 – Unsoundness of
1724 for wounding and attempting to kill Lord Onslow. By evidence, it was Mind
clear that the person was mentally deranged. J Tracy laid the test as Wild Beast Test
follows, "If he was under the visitation of God and could not
distinguish between good and evil and did not know what he did,
though he committed the greatest offence, yet he could not be guilty
of any offence against any law whatsoever."
Hadfield's Case Insane delusion test was evolved in this case, where Hadfield was Sec 84 – Unsoundness of
1800 charged with high treason and attempting the assassination of Kind Mind
George III. He was acquitted on the ground of insane delusion. Here, Insane Delusion Test
the counsel pleaded that insanity was to be determined by the fact of
fixed insane delusions with which the accused was suffering and
which were the direct cause of his crime. He pointed out that there
are people who are deprived of their understanding, either
permanently or temporarily, and suffer under delusions of alarming
description which overpowers the faculties of their victims.
M' Naghten's Rules In this case, Daniel M'Naghten was tried for the murder of a private Sec 84 – Unsoundness of
secretary of the then prime minister of England. He was acquitted on Mind
the ground of insanity. This caused a lot of uproar and the case was M' Naghten's Rules
sent to bench of fifteen judges who were called upon to lay down the
law regarding criminal responsibility in case of lunacy. Some
questions were posed to the judges which they had to answer. These
questions and answers are knows as M'Naghten's Rules which form
the basis of the modern law on insanity. The following principals were
evolved in this case -
Regardless of the fact that the accused was under insane delusion,
he is punishable according to the nature of the crime if, at the time of
the act, he knew that he was acting contrary to law.
Every man must be presumed to be sane until contrary is proven.
That is, to establish defense on the ground of insanity, it must be
clearly proven that the person suffered from a condition due to which
he was not able to understand the nature of the act or did not know
what he was doing was wrong.
If the accused was conscious that the act was one that he ought not
to do and if that act was contrary to law, he was punishable.
If the accused suffers with partial delusion, he must be considered in
the same situation as to the responsibility, as if the facts with respect
to which the delusion exists were real. For example, if the accused,
under delusion that a person is about to kill him and attacks and kills
the person in self defense, he will be exempted from punishment. But
if the accused, under delusion that a person has attacked his
reputation, and kills the person due to revenge, he will be punishable.
A medical witness who has not seen the accused previous to the trial
should not be asked his opinion whether on evidence he thinks that
the accused was insane.
S K Nair vs. State of Punjab The accused was charged for murder of one and grievous assault on Sec 84 – Unsoundness of
1997 other two. He pleaded insanity. However, it was held that the words Mind
spoken by the accused at the time of the act clearly show that he Incapacity must exist at
understood what he was doing and that it was wrong. Thus, he was the time of the act.
held guilty.
Chhagan vs. State Held that mere queerness on the part of the accused or the crime Sec 84 – Unsoundness of
1976 does not establish that he was insane. It must be proved that the Mind
cognitive faculties of the person were such that he did not know what Must be incapable of
he has done or what will follow his act. knowing -
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 either the nature of the
act.
or that the act is wrong.
or that the act is contrary
to law.
Director of Public Prosecution vs. In this case, a 13 yr old girl was passing by a mill area in the evening. Sec 85 -Intoxication
Beard A watchman who was drunk saw her and attempted to rape her. She
1920 resisted and so he put a hand on her mouth to prevent her from
screaming thereby killing her unintentionally. House of lords
convicted him for murder and the following principles were laid down-

1. If the accused was so drunk that he was incapable of forming the

intent required he could not be convicted of a crime for which
only intent was required to be proved.
2. Insanity whether produced by drunkenness or otherwise is a
defense to the crime charged. The difference between being
drunk and diseases to which drunkenness leads is another. The
former is no excuse but the later is a valid defense if it causes
insanity.
3. The evidence of drunkenness falling short of proving incapacity
in the accused to form the intent necessary to commit a crime
and merely establishing that his mind was affected by the drink
so that he more readily gave way to violent passion does not
rebut the presumption that a man intends the natural
consequences of the act.
Mannu vs. State of UP SC held that when the deceased was waylaid and attacked by the Sec 97 – Right to Private
AIR 1979 SC accused with dangerous weapons the question of self defense by the Defense
accused did not arise.
Ram Rattan vs. State of UP SC observed that a true owner has every right to dispossess or throw Sec 97 – Right to Private
1977 SC out a trespasser while the trespasses is in the act or process of Defense
trespassing and has not accomplished his possession, but this right
is not available to the true owner if the trespasser has been
successful in accomplishing the possession to the knowledge of the
true owner. In such circumstances the law requires that the true
owner should dispossess the trespasser by taking resource to the
remedies available under the law.
Kanwar Singh's case A team organized by the municipal corporation was trying to round up Sec 99 – Restrictions on
1965 stray cattle and was attacked by the accused. It was held that the RPD – Act done by public
accused had no right of private defense against the team. servant or on the direction
of a public servant.
Kurrim Bux's case A thief was trying to enter a house through a hole in the wall. The Sec 99 – Restrictions on
1865 accused pinned his head down while half of his body was still outside RPD – Excessive Force
the house. The thief died due to suffocation. It was held that the use
of force by the accused was justified.
Queen vs. Fukira Chamar A thief was hit on his head by a pole five times because of which he Sec 99 – Restrictions on
died. It was held that excessive force was used than required. RPD – Excessive Force
Ajodha Prasad vs. State of UP The accused received information that they were going to get Sec 99 – Restrictions on
1924 attacked by some sections of the village. However, they decided that RPD – When there is an
if they separated to report this to the police they will be in more opportunity to approach
danger of being pursued and so they waited together. Upon attack, appropriate authorities.
they defended themselves and one of the attackers was killed. It was
held that they did not exceed the right of private defense.
Viswanath vs. State of UP When the appellant's sister was being abducted from her father's Sec 100 – RPD of Body
AIR 1960 home even though by her husband and there was an assault on her up to causing death.
body by the husband, it was held that the appellant had the right of
private defense of the body of his sister to the extent of causing
death.
Sheo Persan Singh vs. State of UP The driver of a truck drove over and killed two persons who were Sec 100 – RPD of Body
1979 sleeping on the road in the night. People ahead of the truck stood in up to causing death.
the middle of the road to stop the truck, however, he overran them
thereby killing some of them. He pleaded right to private defense as
he was apprehensive of the grievous hurt being caused by the people
trying to stop him. SC held that although in many cases people have
dealt with the errant drivers very seriously, but that does not give him
the right of private defense to kill multiple people. The people on the
road had a right to arrest the driver and the driver had no right of
private defense in running away from the scene of accident killing
several people.
Yogendra Morarji vs. State of It is an important case in which SC observed that when life is in peril Sec 100 – RPD of Body
Gujarat the accused was not expected to weigh in golden scales what up to causing death.
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1980 amount of force does he need to use and summarized the law of
private defense of body as under -

1. There is no right of private defense against an act which is not in

itself an offence under this code.
2. The right commences as soon as and not before a reasonable
apprehension of danger to the body arises from an attempt or
thread to commit some offence although the offence may not
have been committed and it is continuous with the duration of the
apprehension.
3. It is a defensive and not a punitive or retributive right. Thus, the
right does not extend to the inflicting of more harm than is
necessary for defense.
4. The right extends to the killing of the actual or potential assailant
when there is a reasonable and imminent apprehension of the
atrocious crimes enumerated in the six clauses of section 100.
5. There must be no safe or reasonable mode of escape by retreat
for the person confronted with an impending peril to life or of
grave bodily harm except by inflicting death on the assailant.
6. The right being in essence a defensive right does not accrue and
avail where there is time to have recourse to the protection of
public authorities.
State of UP vs. Shiv Murat It was held that to determine whether the action of the accused was Sec 103 – RPD of
1982 SC justified or not one has to look in to the bona fides of the accused. In Property up to causing
cases where there is a marginal excess of the exercise of such right it death.
may be possible to say that the means which a threatened person
adopts or the force which he uses should not be weighed in golden
scales and it would be inappropriate to adopt tests of detached
objectivity which would be so natural in a court room.
Amjad Khan vs. State A criminal riot broke out in the city. A crowd of one community Sec 100 – RPD of Body
AIR 1952 surrounded the shop of A, belonging to other community. The crowd up to causing death.
started beating the doors of A with lathis. A then fired a shot which
killed B, a member of the crowd. Here, SC held that A had the right of Sec 102 –
private defense which extended to causing of death because the Commencement and
accused had reasonable ground to apprehend that death or grievous continuance of RPD of B
hurt would be caused to his family if he did not act promptly.
Sec 103 – RPD of P up to
Further, he did not have to wait until the doors were broken open and causing death
the mob had entered the shop because it was evident that other
muslim shops had been looted and muslims had lost life. Under such Sec 105 –
circumstances, the commencement of threat of death or grievous hurt Commencement and
had already begun. continuance of RPD of P

Preparation and Attempt

R vs. Cheesman Lord Blackburn identified a key difference between attempt and Sec 511 – Punishment for
1862 preparations. He says that if the actual transaction has commenced attempt
which would have ended in the crime if not interrupted, there is
clearly an attempt to commit a crime.
R vs. Riyasat Ali The accused gave orders to print forms that looked like they were Attempt or Preparation
1881 from Bengal Coal Company. He proofread the samples two times and Last Step Test or
gave orders for correction as well so that they would appear exactly Proximity Rule
as forms of the said company. As this time he was arrested for
attempt to make false document under section 464. However, it was
held that it was not an attempt because the name of the company
and the seal were not put on the forms and until that was done, the
forgery would not be complete.
Abhayanand Mishra vs. State of A applied to the Patna University for MA exam and he supplied Attempt or Preparation
Bihar documents proving that he was a graduate and was working as a Last Step Test or
AIR 1961 headmaster of a school. Later on it was found that the documents Proximity Rule
were fake. It was held that it was an attempt to cheat because he had
done everything towards achieving his goal.
Queen vs. Collins Held that a pickpocket was not guilty of attempt even when he put his Indispensable Element
hand into the pocket of someone with an intention to steal but did not Test or Theory of
find anything Impossibility.
R vs. Mc Pherson The accused was held not guilty of attempting to break into a building Indispensable Element
1857 and steal goods because the goods were not there. Test or Theory of
Impossibility.
R vs. King Above two were overruled. In this case, the accused was convicted Indispensable Element
1892 for attempting to steal from the hand bag of a woman although there Test or Theory of
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 was nothing in the bag. Illustration (b) of section 511 is based on this Impossibility.
decision.
State of Mah. vs. Mohd. Yakub Three persons were found with a truck loaded with silver near the sea Unequivocal Test
AIR SC 1980 dock. Further, the sound of engine of a mechanized boat was heard
from a nearby creek. They were convicted of attempting to smuggle
silver. J Sarkaria observed that what constitutes at attempt is a mixed
question of law and the facts of a case. Attempt is done when the
culprit takes deliberate and overt steps that show an unequivocal
intention to commit the offence even if the step is not the penultimate
one.
State of Mah. vs. Balram Bama Held that for conviction under sec 307, it is not necessary that a Sec 307 – Attempt to
Patil bodily injury capable of causing death must be inflicted but the nature Murder
AIR 1983, SC of the injury can assist in determining the intention of the accused. Injury not necessary
Vasudev Gogte 1932 The accused fired two shots at point blank range at the Governor of Sec 307 – Attempt to
Bombay. However, it failed to produce any result because of defect in Murder
ammunition or intervention of leather wallet and currency. It was held It is sufficient that the
that to support conviction under this section the accused must have culprit believes that the
done the act with intention or knowledge that but for any unforeseen act is capable of causing
intervention, it would cause death. Thus, he was held guilty. death.
Om Prakash vs. State of Punjab Husband tried to kill her wife by denying her food. Held that a person Sec 307 – Attempt to
AIR 1961, SC can be held guilty under this section if his intention is to murder and Murder
in pursuance of his intention he does an act towards its commission, Act need not be the
even if that act is not the penultimate act. penultimate act
R vs. Francis Cassidy Held that section 511 is wide enough to cover all cases of attempt Applicability of 307 and
1867, Bombay HC including attempt to murder. It further held that for application of 511
section 307, the act might cause death if it took effect and it must be
capable of causing death in normal circumstances. Otherwise, it
cannot lie under 307 even if it has been committed with intention to
cause death and was likely, in the belief of the prisoner, to cause
death. Such cases may fall under section 511.
Queen vs. Nidha However, in the case of expressed a contrary view and held that sec Applicability of 307 and
1891, Allahabad HC 511 does not apply to attempt to murder. It also held that section 307 511
is exhaustive and not narrower than section 511.

Konee 1867 Held that for the application of section 307, the act must be capable Applicability of 307 and
of causing death and must also be the penultimate act in commission 511
of the offence, but for section 511, the act may be any act in the
series of act and not necessarily the penultimate act.
Om Prakash vs State of Punjab Husband tried to kill his wife by denying her food but the wife Applicability of 307 and
AIR 1967 escaped. In this case, SC held that for section 307, it is not 511
necessary that the act be the penultimate act and convicted the
husband under this section.

Culpable Homicide and Murder

Kangla’s case The accused struck a man whom he believed was not a human being
1898 but something supernatural. However, he did not take any steps to
satisfy himself that the person was not a human being and was thus
grossly negligent and was held guilty of culpable homicide.
R vs. Govinda 1876 Bom, J. Melvill formulated the following table –

Culpable Homicide Murder

A person commits culpable homicide if the act by which death is A person commits murder if the act by which death is caused is
caused is done - done -
1. with the intention of causing death. 1. with the intention of causing death.
2. with an intention to cause such bodily injury as is likely to 2. with an intention to cause such bodily injury as the offender
cause death. knows to be likely to cause death of the person to whom the harm
is caused.
3. with an intention of causing bodily injury to any person and the
bodily injury intended to be inflicted is sufficient in ordinary course
of nature to cause death.
3. with the knowledge that such an act is likely to cause death. 4. With the knowledge that the act is so imminently dangerous
that it must in all probability cause death.

Based on this table, he pointed out the difference that when death is caused due to bodily injury, it is the probability of death due to that
injury that determines whether it is culpable homicide or murder. If death is only likely it is culpable homicide, if death is highly probable, it
is murder.
Augustine Saldanha vs. State of Karnataka LJ 2003, SC deliberated on the difference of culpable homicide and murder. SC observed
that in the scheme of the IPC culpable homicide is genus and 'murder' its specie. All 'murder' is 'culpable homicide' but not vice-versa.
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Speaking generally, 'culpable homicide' sans 'special characteristics of murder is culpable homicide not amounting to murder'. For the
purpose of fixing punishment, proportionate to the gravity of the generic offence, the IPC practically recognizes three degrees of culpable
homicide. The first is, what may be called, 'culpable homicide of the first degree'. This is the greatest form of culpable homicide, which is
defined in Section 300 as 'murder'. The second may be termed as 'culpable homicide of the second degree'. This is punishable under the
first part of Section 304. Then, there is 'culpable homicide of the third degree'. This is the lowest type of culpable homicide and the
punishment provided for it is also the lowest among the punishments provided for the three grades. Culpable homicide of this degree is
punishable under the second part of Section 304.

It further observed that the academic distinction between 'murder' and 'culpable homicide not amounting to murder' has always vexed the
Courts. They tried to remove confusion through the following table –
Culpable Homicide Murder
A person commits culpable homicide if the act by which death is Subject to certain exceptions, culpable homicide is murder if the
caused is done - act by which death is caused is done -
INTENTION
(a) with the intention of causing death. 1. with the intention of causing death.
(b) with an intention to cause such bodily injury as is likely to 2. with an intention to cause such bodily injury as the offender
cause death. . knows to be likely to cause death of the person to whom the harm
is caused.
3. with an intention of causing bodily injury to any person and the
bodily injury intended to be inflicted is sufficient in ordinary course
of nature to cause death
KNOWLEDGE
(c) with the knowledge that such an act is likely to cause death. 4. With the knowledge that the act is so imminently dangerous
that it must in all probability cause death.
Thus, it boils down to the knowledge possessed by the offender regarding a particular victim in a particular state being in such condition
or state of health that the internal harm caused to him is likely to be fatal, notwithstanding the fact that such harm would not, in the
ordinary circumstances, be sufficient to cause death. In such a case, intention to cause death is not an essential requirement. Only the
intention of causing such injury coupled with the knowledge of the offender that such injury is likely to cause death, is enough to term it as
murder.
Rawalpenta Venkalu v. State The accused set fire to the hut in which the deceased was sleeping Murder – Act by which
AIR 1956 SC 171 and locked the door. He also prevented the villagers from helping. death is caused is done
Thus, it was clear that his intention was to kill the person and was with an intention of
thus held guilty of murder. causing death.
Emperor vs. Dhirajia 1940 and In both the cases, a woman jumped into a well with her children. The Murder – Person
Gyarasi Bai vs. State 1953 woman was saved but the children died. In Dhirajia’s case, the committing the act knows
woman left the house with her 6 month old baby due to ill treatment that the act is so
by husband. The husband followed her. Upon seeing the husband, dangerous that it will
she jumped in a well in a state of panic. In Gyarasibai’s case, the cause death in all
woman left her house owing to domestic quarrel and jumped into the probability, and still does it
well with her children without any sudden provocation. So, Dhirajia without any valid reason.
was held guilty of only Culpable Homicide but Gyarasi Bai was held
guilty of Murder.
Byvarapu Raju vs. State of AP SC held that in a murder case, there cannot be any general rule to Sec 300 – Exception 4
2007 specify whether the quarrel between the accused and the deceased Death in sudden fight in
was due to a sudden provocation or was premeditated. "It is a the heat of passion
question of fact and whether a quarrel is sudden or not, must without premeditation.
necessarily depend upon the proved facts of each case," a bench of
judges Arijit Pasayat and D K Jain observed while reducing to 10
years the life imprisonment of a man accused of killing his father. The
bench passed the ruling while upholding an appeal filed by one
Byvarapu Raju who challenged the life sentence imposed on him by
a session's court and later affirmed by the Andhra Pradesh High
Court for killing his drunk father.
Nga Shwe Po's case The accused struck a man one blow on the head with a bamboo yoke Sec 319
1883 and the injured man died, primarily due to excessive opium Hurt
administered by his friends to alleviate pain. He was held guilty under
this section.
Marana Goundan's case The accused kicked a person and the person died because of a Sec 319
AIR 1941 diseased spleen, he was held guilty of only hurt because the accused Hurt
did not know about any special condition of the deceased.
Formina Sbastio Azardeo vs. State The deceased was making publicity about the illicit intimacy between Sec 320
of Goa Daman and Diu N and W. On the fateful day, N, W, and her husband A caught hold of Grievous Hurt
1992 CLJ SC D and tied him up to a pole and beat him as a result of which he died.
They were not armed with any dangerous weapon and had no
intention to kill him. N and W were held guilty of only causing
grievous hurt.
Vardrajan vs. State of Madras SC observed that there is a difference between taking away a minor Sec 361
AIR 1965 and allowing the minor to follow. If a person knowingly does an act Kidnapping from lawful
which he has reason to believe will cause the child to leave the guardian
guardian, then it would amount to taking away the child, however, if
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 child follows a person even when a person does not do any act
meant to entice a child to leave his guardian, he cannot be held
responsible.
Chajju Ram vs. State of Punjab A minor girl was taken away out of the house for only about 20 - 30 Sec 361
AIR 1968 yards. Held that it was kidnapping because distance is immaterial. Kidnapping from lawful
guardian
Sakshi vs. Union of India Held that the definition of Sexual Intercourse cannot, by judicial Sec 375 – Rape –
2004 interpretation, be extended up to different kinds of intercourse such Meaning of Sexual
as penile-oral because there is no ambiguity about the wordings of Intercourse
sec 375. Therefore, sexual intercourse must mean penile-vaginal
penetration.

Theft, Extortion, Robbery, Dacoity

K. N. Mehra vs. State of Rajasthan Proof of intention to cause permanent deprivation of property to the Sec 378 – Theft -
AIR 1957 S. C. 369 owner, or to obtain a personal gain is not necessary for the purpose Ingredients – Dishonest
of establishing dishonest intention. intention to take property
Pyarelal Bhargava vs. State AIR A govt. employee took a file from the govt. office, presented it to B, Sec 378 – Theft -
1963 and brought it back to the office after two days. It was held that Ingredients – Dishonest
permanent taking of the property is not required, even a temporary intention to take property
movement of the property with dishonest intention is enough and thus
this was theft.
White's case A person introduced another pipe in a gas pipeline and consumed the Sec 378 – Theft -
1853 gas bypassing the meter. Gas was held to be a movable property and Ingredients – Property
he was held guilty of theft. must be movable
HJ Ransom vs. Triloki Nath A had taken a bus on hire purchase from B under the agreement that Sec 378 – Theft -
1942 in case of default B has the right to take back the possession of the Ingredients – Property
bus. A defaulted, and thereupon, B forcibly took the bus from C, who must be taken out of
was the driver of the bus. It was held that the C was the employee of possession. Ownership
A and thus, the bus was in possession of A. Therefore, taking the bus not necessary.
out of his possession was theft.
Chandler's case A and B were both servants of C. A suggested B to rob C's store. B Sec 378 – Theft -
1913 agreed to this and procured keys to the store and gave them to A, Ingredients - Property
who then made duplicate copies. At the time of the robbery, they must be taken without
were caught because B had already informed C and to catch A red consent
handed, C had allowed B to accompany A on the theft. Here, B had
the consent of C to move C's things but A did not and so A was held
guilty of theft.
Bishaki's case The accused cut the string that tied the necklace in the neck of a Sec 378 – Theft -
1917 woman, because of which the necklace fell. It was held that he Ingredients – Physical
caused sufficient movement of the property as needed for theft. movement of the property
is must.
Rama's Case A person's cattle was attached by the court and entrusted with Theft of one’s own
1956 another. He took the cattle out of the trustee's possession without property.
recourse of the court. He was held guilty of theft.
Walton's case The accused threatened to expose a clergyman, who had criminal Sec 383 – Extortion –
1863 intercourse with a woman of ill repute unless the clergyman paid Ingredients – Intention
certain amount to him. He was held guilty of extortion.
Nizamuddin's case A refusal by A to perform marriage and to enter it in the register Sec 383 – Extortion –
1923 unless he is paid Rs. 5, was not held to be extortion. Ingredients – Intention
Duleelooddeen Sheikh's case A person offers no resistance to the carrying off of his property on Sec 383 – Extortion –
1866 account of fear and does not himself deliver it, it was held not to be Ingredients – Dishonestly
extortion but robbery. induces a person to
deliver property.
Romesh Chandra Arora's case The accused took a photograph of a naked boy and a girl by Sec 383 – Extortion –
1960 compelling them to take off their clothes and extorted money from Ingredients – Dishonestly
them by threatening to publish the photograph. He was held guilty of induces a person to
extortion. deliver property.
R S Nayak vs. A R Antuley and It was held that for extortion, fear or threat must be used. In this case, Sec 383 – Extortion
another chief minister A R Antuley asked the sugar cooperatives, whose
AIR 1986 cases were pending before the govt. for consideration, to donate
money and promised to look into their cases. It was held that there
was no fear of injury or threat and so it was not extortion.
Hushrut Sheikh's case C and D were stealing mangoes from tree and were surprised by B. Sec 390 – Robbery
1866 C knocked down B and B became senseless. It was held to be a Voluntary action causing
case of robbery. (or attempting to cause)
(or causing fear of) instant
death, hurt, or wrongful
confinement.

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Edward's case 1843 A person, while cutting a string tied to a basket accidentally cut the Sec 390 – Robbery
wrist of the owner who tried to seize it. He was held guilty of only Voluntary action
theft.
Shikandar vs. State The accused attacked his victim by knife many times and succeeded Sec 390 – Robbery
1984 in acquiring the ear rings and key from her salwar. He was held guilty
of robbery.
Ram Chand's case It was held that the resistance of the victim is not necessary. The Sec 391 - Dacoity
1932 victims, seeing a large number of offenders, did not resist and no
force or threat was used but the offenders were still held guilty of
dacoity.
Ghamandi's case It was held that less than five persons can also be convicted of Sec 391 - Dacoity
1970 dacoity if it is proved as a fact that there were more than 5 people
who committed the offence by only less than five were identified.

Education Process, Planning, and the Law

Case Reference Case Details Topic

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