III.

Fourier Series

Isaac Chavel

Contents
1 Fourier series and their coefficients 1

2 Mean-square convergence 7

3 Uniform convergence of Fourier series 12

4 Pointwise convergence of sN (x; φ) to φ(x) 24

§1. Fourier series and their coefficients

We are given the L–periodic, piecewise continuous complex-valued function φ(x), for x in
(−∞, +∞), and we wish to represent φ(x) by a series of the form
+∞
X
(1) φ(x) = an e2πinx/L .
n=−∞

Of course, for each integer n, the function

x 7→ e2πinx/L

is L–periodic. So any finite linear combination of such functions is also L–periodic. Our interest,
therfore, is in determining to what extent the above collection of functions is the basic building
block — by “infinite linear combinations” — of all L–periodic functions.

To find a candidate for an , we formally calculate:

Z L Z L( X +∞
)
φ(x)e−2πinx/L dx = ak e2πikx/L e−2πinx/L dx
0 0 k=−∞

1
§1. Fourier series and their coefficients 2

+∞
X Z L
= ak e−2πi(n−k)x/L dx
k=−∞ 0

= an L;

so the natural choice for an is

Z L
1
(2) an = φ(x)e−2πinx/L dx.
L 0

The basic question is: to what extent is this choice of an , for any given φ, justified? Well, if
φ(x) is actually given by the finite sum
N
X
φ(x) = αn e2πinx/L ,
n=−N

then for an given by (1) we certainly have

ak = αk

for k = −N, . . . , N , and all other ak vanish. Therefore a more precise version of the question is:

Given arbitrary φ, to what extent is it true that the function

N
X Z L
1
sN (x; φ) = an e2πinx/L , an = φ(x)e−2πinx/L dx
L 0
n=−N

is close to the function φ, for large N ? The answer is: It depends on what one means by “close.”
Here are three possibilities:

(a) pointwise convergence: For a given x in (−∞, +∞), we have

lim sN (x; φ) = φ(x).

N →+∞

(b) mean-square convergence:

Z L
lim {φ(x) − sN (x; φ)}2 dx = 0.
N →+∞ 0

(c) uniform convergence:

lim sup |φ(x) − sN (x; φ)| = 0.

N →+∞ x

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§1. Fourier series and their coefficients 3

Note: For students who had advanced calculus, they already know the definition of the supre-
mum. In our context of periodic finunctions, if a function is continuous, then the supremum
is the same as the maximum value of the function. If the function is allowed to have jump
discontinuities then the supremum refers to the maximum value of right and left hand limits of
the function.

It is easy to show that

Theorem 1. Uniform convergence implies the other two.

Proof. Certainly uniform convergence implies pointwise convergence. That uniform conver-
gence implies mean-square convergence follows from the estimate
Z L
{φ(x) − sN (x; φ)}2 dx ≤ L{sup |φ(x) − sN (x; φ)|}2 . qed
0 x

Example 1. Let fn (x) be a function on the real line for which

(i) fn (x) = 0 for all x ≤ 0 and for all x ≥ 1/n;
(ii) fn (1/2n) = 1;
(iii) fn (x), for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1/n consists of the line segments from (0, 0) to (1/2n, 1), and from
(1/2n, 1) to (1, 0).
(Reader! Draw yourself a picture of the function.) Then

lim fn (x) = 0 for every single x; but sup |fn (x) − 0| = 1

n↑+∞ x

— so fn converges, but not uniformly. Also note that fn mean-square converges to 0.

We, oddly enough, start by studying a different kind of convergence — the uniform convergence
of Caesaro sums of φ to φ itself. By a Caesaro sum we mean
N −1
1 X
δN (x; φ) := sk (x; φ)
N
k=0

— the average of the first N partial sums of the Fourier series. The naive idea is that irreg-
ularities in the original sequence of partial sums, that might prevent its convergence, become
muted when passing to the sequence of averages. It is a standard fact that

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§1. Fourier series and their coefficients 4

Theorem 2. Ordinary convergence of sN (x; φ) implies convergence of δN (x; φ).

The key to study of both sN (x; φ) and δN (x; φ) are the Dirichlet and Fejer kernels of Example
II.1. There, in Example II.1 the Dirichlet and Fejer kernels are defined to be 2π–periodic, so
we shall redefine them here to be L–periodic, namely,
N
1 X 2πinx/L 1 sin 2π(N + 1/2)ξ/L
(3) DN (ξ) := e = ,
L L sin πξ/L
n=−N
N −1 ½ ¾
1 X 1 sin πN ξ/L 2
(4) FN (ξ) := DN (ξ) = .
N NL sin πξ/L
k=0

Theorem 3. The partial and Caesaro sums of the Fourier series of φ are given by
Z L/2
(5) sN (x; φ) = DN (ξ − x)φ(ξ) dξ
−L/2
Z L/2
(6) δN (x; φ) = FN (ξ − x)φ(ξ) dξ.
−L/2

Proof. Well,
Z Z N
L/2 L/2
1 X 2πin(ξ−x)/L
DN (ξ − x)φ(ξ) dξ = e φ(ξ) dξ = · · ·
−L/2 −L/2 N
n=−N
N
X Z L/2 N
X
1
··· = e−2πinx/L e2πinξ/L φ(ξ) dξ = a−n e−2πinx/L = sN (x; φ),
N −L/2
n=−N n=−N

which implies (5). Then (6) also follows immediately. qed

In Example II.1 we showed that

lim FN (ξ − x) = δx (ξ).
N ↑+∞

Therefore, if φ is L–periodic, and continuous at all x, then δN (x; φ) → φ(x) as N ↑ +∞.

Actually more is true. The argument of Theorem II.1 also shows:

Theorem 4. If φ is L–periodic and continuous at all x, then δN ( ; φ) → φ uniformly.

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§1. Fourier series and their coefficients 5

Remark 1. The fact that the Dirichlet kernel is not an approximation to the identity, in the
sense of Theorem II.1, is what makes the question of convergence of partial sums more subtle
than convergence of Caesaro sums. One sees, rather strikingly, the improvement in control
achieved by passing from the partial sums to the Caesaro sums.

Remark 2. It is helpful to think of the formulae (1) and (2) as defining a transform and its
inverse. Namely, one direction is to consider a mapping from L–periodic functions on the line
b
to functions on the integers φ(x) 7→ φ(n), given by
Z L
b 1
φ(n) = φ(x)e−2πinx/L dx.
L 0

b
So φ(n) is the n–th Fourier coefficient. The opposite direction, the “inverse transform” is to
associate to the function a(n) on the integers the L–periodic function
+∞
X
φ(x) = a(n)e2πinx/L .
n=−∞

Our study then is to determine to what extent the “inverse transform” is a genuine inverse.

Exercises

Exercise 1. Show that

Z π Z π
cos nx cos kx dx = sin nx sin kx dx = 0
−π −π

for all integers n 6= k; that Z π

0= cos nx sin kx dx
−π
for all integers n, k; and that Z Z
π π
π= 2
cos nx dx = sin2 nx dx
−π −π
for all integers n.

Exercise 2. Give the formal calculation to show that if the complex-valued 2π–periodic function f (x)
has the Fourier series expansion
X∞
1
f (x) = a0 + {an cos nx + bn sin nx},
2 n=1

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§1. Fourier series and their coefficients 6

then Z π Z π
1 1
an = f (x) cos nx dx, bk = f (x) sin kx dx
π −π π −π
for all integers n = 0, 1, 2, . . . and k = 1, 2, . . . .

Exercise 3. Given the complex-valued 2π–periodic function f (x) with Fourier series expansions
+∞
X X∞
1
f (x) = cn einx = a0 + {an cos nx + bn sin nx},
n=−∞
2 n=1

then write the coefficients cn in terms of an , bk , and vice versa.

Exercise 4. Show that an = 0 for all n when the function f (x) is an odd function, that is, f (x) =
−f (−x) for all x. Similarly, show that bk = 0 for all k when the function f (x) is an even function, that
is, f (x) = f (−x) for all x.

Exercise 5. Expand the function f (x) = Ax2 + Bx + C, where −π < x < π, for the constants A, B, C
in a Fourier series. (Note: The function is only given for the interval (−π, π). The idea is to then extend
the function to the full real line by 2π–periodicity.)

Exercise 6. Expand the following functions in Fourier series:

(a) f (x) = eax (−π < x < π), where a 6= 0 is a constant;
(b) f (x) = cos ax (−π < x < π), where a is not an integer;
(c) f (x) = sin ax (−π < x < π), where a is not an integer.

Exercise 7.
(a) Let y be a real number, φ a function on (−∞, +∞). Let τy φ denote the translate of φ by y,
given by
(τy φ)(x) = φ(x − y).

Show that if φ is L–periodic piecewise continuous then

τd
y φ(n) = e
−2πiny/L b
φ(n).

(b) Also show that

b − m) = {eimx φ}b(n).
φ(n

(c) Given the L–periodic piecewise continuous functions φ, ψ, consider their convolution
Z
1 L
(φ ∗ ψ)(x) = φ(x − y)ψ(y) dy,
L 0

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§2. Mean-square convergence 7

and show that

b ψ(n)
φ(n) b = φ[
∗ ψ(n).

The analogy to the Laplace transform should be clear.

§2. Mean-square convergence

Here we are still working with our collection of L–periodic functions on the real line. This
collection of functions forms a vector space over the complex numbers.

Definition. For any two such functions φ, ψ, we define (an analog of the “dot product,” com-
monly called, in our context) the inner product of φ and ψ, by
Z
1 L
(φ, ψ) := φ(x)ψ(x) dx.
L 0

Then for constants α1 , α2 and functions φ, φ1 , φ2 , ψ we have

(α1 φ1 + α2 φ2 , ψ) = α1 (φ1 , ψ) + (α2 φ2 , ψ),

(φ, ψ) = (ψ, φ),
(φ, φ) ≥ 0.

We have (φ, φ) = 0 if and only if φ = 0 for all but, at most a finite number of x in any bounded
interval.

Definition. For any φ we define the norm of φ by

p
|φ| = (φ, φ).

Then for a constant α and a function φ we have

kαφk = |α|kφk.

One has the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality:

|(φ, ψ)| ≤ kφkkψk,

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§2. Mean-square convergence 8

with equality if and only if there exist constants α and β such that

αφ + βψ = 0

for all but, at most, a finite number of x in any bounded interval. One then easily derives the
triangle inequality:
kφ + ψk ≤ kφk + kψk.

Definition. Given φ, ψ, we may define their mean-square distance to be equal to kφ − ψk. Note
that
kφ − ψk = kψ − φk; kφ − ψk ≥ 0,

with equality if and only if φ = ψ at all but, at most, a finite of points in any bounded interval;
and
kφ − ψk ≤ kφ − σk + kσ − ψk

for functions φ, ψ, σ.

Definition. A collection of functions {φ1 , φ2 , . . .} (whether the collection is finite or infinite) is

said to be orthogonal if
(φj , φk ) = 0 for all j 6= k.

The collection is said to be orthonormal if, in addition to being orthogonal, we also have

kφk k = 1 for all k.

Theorem 5. If the collection {φ1 , . . . , φn } is orthonormal, and

n
X n
X
φ= ck φk , ψ= dk φk ,
k=1 k=1

then
n
X n
X
(φ, ψ) = ck dk , kφk = |ck |2 .
k=1 k=1
In particular,
(7) ck = ck (φ) = (φ, φk ).

Proof. Straightforward calculation. qed

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§2. Mean-square convergence 9

Remark 1. Therefore, if {φ1 , . . . , φn } are orthonormal, then they are linearly independent.

We now consider the least-squares approximation. Given the finite orthonormal collection
{φ1 , . . . , φn }. Suppose we are given φ and we seek the best choice of numbers α1 , . . . , αn to
make
n
X
kφ − αk φk k
k=1
as small as possible. Well, for ck (φ) given in (7) we have
n
X n
X n
X
2
kφ − αk φk k = (φ − αk φk , φ − α` φ` )
k=1 k=1 `=1
n
X
2
= kφk + {|αk |2 − 2Re αk ck (φ)}
k=1
n
X
= kφk2 + {|αk |2 − 2Re αk ck (φ) + |ck (φ)|2 − |ck (φ)|2 }
k=1
n
X n
X
= kφk2 − |ck (φ)|2 + |αk − ck (φ)|2 .
k=1 k=1
In summary,
n
X n
X n
X
2 2 2
(8) kφ − αk φk k = kφk − |ck (φ)| + |αk − ck (φ)|2 .
k=1 k=1 k=1
The ck (φ)’s are fixed, and the αk ’s vary freely. The best way to make the left hand side of (8)
as small as possible is to pick
(9) αk = ck (φ) for all j.

Theorem 6. We therefore have

n
X n
X
(10) kφ − αk φk k ≥ kφ − ck (φ)φk k
k=1 k=1

for all possible {α1 , . . . , αn }, with equality if and only if (9) is valid.

An elementary, but very important, consequence of the above calculation is the following.

Theorem 7. If αk is chosen as in (9), then we have Bessel’s inequality:

X
(11) |ck (φ)|2 ≤ kφk2 < +∞.
k

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§2. Mean-square convergence 10

Proof. From (8)

n
X n
X
2 2
(12) kφk − |ck (φ)| = kφ − ck (φ)φk k2 ≥ 0.
k=1 k=1
So
n
X
2
kφk ≥ |ck (φ)|2 , for all n.
k=1

Therefore, if we are given an infinite orthonormal sequence {φk }, then (11) follows. qed

One naturally asks: Is there equality in Bessel’s inequality?

Example 1. Consider L–periodic functions on the lines, and the orthonormal sequence

φn (x) = e2πinx/L for n = 0, +1, −1, +2, −2, . . .

So Z L
1 b
(13) cn (φ) = φ(x)e−2πinx/L dx = φ(n).
L 0

The basic result is

Theorem 8. Parseval’s theorem. We always have mean-square convergence of sN ( ; φ) to

φ, for piecewise continuous φ, namely,
N
X
2 2
(14) 0= lim kφ − sN ( ; φ)k = lim kφk − |cn (φ)|2 .
N →+∞ N →+∞
n=−N

In particular,
+∞
X
2
(15) kφk = |cN (φ)|2 .
n=−∞

Proof. We want to show that kφ − sn ( ; φ)k2 becomes small when n becomes large. We
accomplish this in two stages:
Step 1. Given any N , we have for all n ≥ N ,
n
X
kφ − sn ( ; φ)k2 = kφk2 − |ck (φ)|2
k=−n

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§2. Mean-square convergence 11

N
X
2
≤ kφk − |ck (φ)|2
k=−N
N
X
= kφ − ck (φ)φk k2
k=−N
N
X
≤ kφ − αk φk k2
k=−N

for all choices of α−N . . . αN . So as soon as we find a choice of N ; α−N . . . αN for which
P
kφ − N k=−N αk φk k is small, we are automatically guaranteed that kφ − sn ( ; φ)k is at least as
small for all n ≥ N .
Step 2. How to find such a choice of N ; α−N . . . αN . If φ is continuous for all x, then
we use the Caesaro sums δN (x; φ) to approximate φ(x). The Caesaro sum is a certainly linear
combination of φ−N , . . . , φN ; and δN ( ; φ) → φ uniformly. But uniform convergence implies
mean-square convergence, which is what we want.
If φ is only piecewise continuous, then one easily approximates (in the mean-square dis-
tance) φ by everywhere continuous ψ. Then ψ is approximated by its sequence of Caesaro sums.
qed

Exercises

Exercise 8. Suppose that {φn } is any complete orthonormal system, that is, for any φ, we have the
Parseval theorem:
0 = lim kφ − sN ( ; φ)k.
N →∞
Show that for any given φ, ψ we have
X
(φ, ψ) = cn (φ)cn (ψ).
n

hint: Give a calculation for the inner product

(φ − sn ( ; φ), ψ).

Show that, on the other hand, that the Cauchy–Schwartz inequality, and Parseval’s theorem, imply

lim (φ − sN ( ; φ), ψ) = 0.
N →+∞

Apply this last result to your calculation.

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series 12

Exercise 9. Give the formal Fourier series of δy , the Dirac delta function concentrated at y. Show that
the Fourier series can be only a formal expression, i.e., show
X
|cn (δy )|2 = +∞.
n

For h > 0, construct an approximation to the identity, calculate its Fourier coefficients, and see what
happens when h goes to 0.

Exercise 10. Weyl’s theorem.

(a) Let f (x) be continuous 2π–periodic. Show:
Z t Z π
1 1
lim f (x0 + s) ds = f (x) dx
t↑+∞ t 0 2π −π

for all x0 .
(b) Now we replace t by a discrete variable. Namely, let α ∈ (0, 1), and consider
n−1
1X
Fn (x0 ) := f (x0 + 2πkα).
n
k=0

(This is the analogue of the left hand side above.)

(i) Show that if α is rational, then one can construct a counterexample to:
Z π
1
(16) lim Fn (x0 ) = f (x) dx.
n↑+∞ 2π −π

(ii) Give the formal calculation to prove (16) when α is irrational.

(iii) Prove (16) when α is irrational. hint: First, just give a formal calculation to get the idea of
the result. Then, to give a more precise version, let δN denote the n–th Caesaro approximation of f ,
and show that it suffices to prove the result for δN . Then, prove the claim for δN .

§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series

Recall, given a series

X
an ,
n

we say that the series is absolutely convergent if

X
|an | < +∞.
n

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series 13

If a series converges absolutely, then it converges in the usual sense.

If given an interval I, and the series of functions
X
(17) fn (x),
n

each defined on I, then we say that the series (17) converges uniformly if
X
lim {sup |F (x) − fn (x)|} = 0.
N →+∞ I
|n|≤N

The main results

Theorem 9. If the Fourier series of an L–periodic piecewise continuous function φ converges

uniformly, then its limit is equal to φ itself for all but, at most, a finite number of points in any
bounded interval.

We now consider situations in which one concludes that the Fourier series converges uniformly.
Bessel’s inequality says, that for φ an L–periodic piecewise continuous function, that ck (φ)
converges to 0 quickly enough to guarantee that
X
|ck (φ)|2 < +∞.
k

Is there more information? We shall discover the striking fact that the speed with which
ck (φ) → 0 is related to the uniform convergence of sn ( ; φ) to φ, and the smoothness of φ.

Definition. We let C k , for k ≥ 1, denote the set of functions which have k continuous deriva-
tives. When k = 0, then C 0 denotes the collection of continuous functions.

Theorem 10. If φ is L–periodic continuous, with φ0 piecewise continuous, then the Fourier
series of φ converges absolutely uniformly to φ. Also, the Fourier coefficients of φ0 are given by

(18) cn (φ0 ) = 2πincn (φ)/L.

More generally, if φ is L–periodic continuous C k , k ≥ 0, with piecewise continuous φ(k+1) ,

then
cn (φ(`) ) = (2πin/L)` cn (φ)

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series 14

for all ` = 1, 2 . . . k + 1, and

(19) nk+1 cn (φ) → 0

as n ↑ +∞. Furthermore, for every j = 1 . . . k, the Fourier series of φ(j) converges absolutely
uniformly to φ(j) .

So given information on the smoothness of the function φ one deduces information on the speed
with which the Fourier coefficients converge to 0.

What can be said conversely, that is, in the other direction? That is, if one has information on
the speed with which the Fourier coefficients of φ converge to 0, what can one say about the
smoothness of φ?

Theorem 11. Given the Fourier series

+∞
X
(20) an e2πinx/L ,
n=−∞

which satisfies
const.
(21) |an | ≤ ,
|n|k+1+²
for a given positive integer k, and for all integers n, then it converges absolutely uniformly
to a C k function φ. The k derivatives of φ may be obtained through term-by-term differenti-
ation of (20), and in each case, the new Fourier series converges absolutely uniformly to the
corresponding derivative.

This concludes the discussion of the results. Before proceeding with the proofs,it is best to give
a number of exercises emphasizing and illustrating the results themselves.

Exercises

Exercise 11. Separation of variables for the heat equation. Let x range over the real numbers,
and t over the positive real numbers. Given an L–periodic function φ(x), we wish to solve the initial
value problem for the heat equation on the circle, namely we wish to solve, for u = u(x, t),
∂2u ∂u
= , u(x + L, t) = u(x, t) for all x, t, lim u(x, t) = φ(x) for all x.
∂x2 ∂t t↓0

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series 15

The method consists of first finding a selected collection of solutions to the heat equation satisfying the
boundary conditions, and then working in the initial data.
(a) To solve the heat equation first consider solutions u(x, t) of the form

u(x, t) = T (t)X(x).

Then substitute into the heat equation uxx = ut to obtain

T (t)X 00 (x) = T 0 (t)X(x),

where each prime refers to differentiation with respect to the indicated variable, whixh implies
X 00 (x) T 0 (t)
= .
X(x) T (t)
But each side depends on different variables; therefore the two sides must be constant, that is, there
exists a constant λ such that

X 00 (x) + λX(x) = 0, T 0 (t) + λT (t) = 0.

The second equation implies that λ is real. The solutions to the above equations, for X(x), are linear
combinations of solutions of the form
 √ √

 Ae − λx
+ Be λx
λ>0

X(x)(= A + Bx λ=0

 A cos √−λx + B sin √−λx λ < 0.


To determine which of these yields a possible solution, consider the periodic condition

X(x + L) = X(x) for all x.

Show that the only possibility is that X(x) have two zeroes is when λ is nonnegative, in which case we
have
λ = −4π 2 n2 /L2 , X(x) = A cos (2πn/L)x + B sin (2πn/L)x,

or, still better

λ = −4π 2 n2 /L2 , X(x) = αn e(2πin/L)x + α−n e−(2πin/L)x ,

for n = 0, 1, . . . . (Of course, when n = 0 one only has the constant term.) This implies that
2
n2 /L2 )t
T (t) = e−(4π ;

So the most ambitious solution obtained by this approach is an infinite linear combination, that is, a
series written as
∞
X 2
n2 /L2 )t 2πinx/L
u(x, t) = an e−(4π e .
n=−∞

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series 16

The next question is: what values to pick for the coefficients αn ? Use the initial conditions.
For t = 0 we have
∞
X
φ(x) = an e2πinx/L .
n=−∞

So the proper choice of coefficients an will be the Fourier coefficients of φ: an = cn (φ).

(b) Verify that the series
∞
X 2
n2 /L2 )t 2πinx/L
u(x, t) = cn (φ)e−(4π e
n=−∞

converges uniformly in x, and in t ∈ [α, β] ⊂ (0, ∞). Show that one may differentiate the series term-by-
term to verify that u(x, t) satisfies the heat equation.
Verifying that limt↓0 u(x, t) = φ(x) for all x is not so obvious. Assume, nonetheless, that it is true.
(c) Show that u(x, t) given above can be written as
Z L
u(x, t) = p(x, y, t)φ(y) dy,
0

where
∞
X 2
n2 /L2 )t 2πinx/L −2πiny/L
p(x, y, t) = e−(4π e e .
n=−∞

So we may write
lim p(x, y, t) = δx (y).
t↓0

Exercise 12. Poisson’s integral formula. Consider the unit disk D in C, with center located at the
origin. Given a 2π periodic function φ, we think of φ as defined on the unit circle S, the boundary of D.
We want to solve the Dirichlet problem for harmonic functions on D, namely, we seek a harmonic
function u = u(z), z = x + iy, that is a solution to Laplace’s equation

(22) ∆u := uxx + uyy = 0,

satisfying the boundary condition

(23) lim u(z) = φ(w),
z→w

for all w in S.
(a) Write z in polar coordinates
z = reiθ ,

and derive the formula

∂ 2 u 1 ∂u 1 ∂2u
∆u = + +
∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂θ2
for the Laplacian in polar coordinates.

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series 17

(b) Next carry out a separation of variables argument in this context, that is, look for solutions
of (22) of the form
(24) u(r, θ) = R(r)Θ(θ),
and show that such a solution of (22) must satisfy

R00 + (1/r)R0 − (λ/r2 )R = 0, Θ00 + λΘ = 0,

for some constant λ.

(c) Show that the full collection of solutions of (22) of the form (24) are given by

u(r, θ) = r|n| einθ ,

where n ranges over all the integers.

(d) Given φ, propose a solution for (22):(23), and show it may be written as
Z π
φ(eiα )(1 − r2 )
u(r, θ) = (1/2π) 2
dα.
−π 1 − 2r cos(α − θ) + r

hint: Naturally, the proposed solution is a series

+∞
X
u(r, θ) = an r|n| einθ ,
n=−∞

and the issue is how to pick the coefficients an . Of course, set r = 1; then an is the n–th Fourier
coefficient of φ. Substitute in the formula for an , use the geometric series, and do a little of this and a
little of that.
(e) Prove that if φ is continuous at w = eiθ , then u(r, θ) → φ(eiθ ) as r ↑ 1. hint: It suffices to
show that the family
1 1 − r2
Kr (α) =
2π 1 − 2r cos α + r2
is an approximation to the identity on the circle, as r ↑ 1.

Exercise 13. Bessel functions.

(a) For ν ≥ 0 and complex z, set
∞
X (−1)k (z/2)2k+ν
Jν (z) = ,
k!Γ(k + ν + 1)
k=0

and show that Jν (z) satisfies the differential equation

x2 Jν 00 + xJν 0 + (x2 − ν 2 )Jν = 0.

(b) Consider r the variable, z a parameter, expand

∞
X
e(r−1/r)z/2 = ezr/2 e−z/2r = an (z)rn ,
n=−∞

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series 18

in a Laurent series (or a Z–transform) in r, and calculate the coefficients

n≥0 ⇒ an (z) = Jn (z),

n<0 ⇒ an (z) = (−1)n J|n| (z).

(c) Set r = eiθ and derive the integral representation

Z π
1
an (z) = ei(z sin θ−nθ) dθ.
2π −π

Exercise 14. Diffusion on integers. Instead of functions on the real line, consider functions on the
integers. So f = f (n). The Laplacian here is given by

f (n + 1) + f (n − 1)
(∆f )(n) = − f (n).
2
For u = u(n, t), where n ranges over the integers, and t ranges over positive time, consider the heat
equation
∂u
∆u = , t > 0,
∂t
with initial-values given by
lim u(n, t) = φ(n),
t↓0

where φ(n) is a given function on the integers.

(a) Think of u(n, t) as Fourier coefficients depending on time, that is, consider the function on the
circle, having time t as parameter,
∞
X
U (θ, t) = u(n, t)einθ ,
n=−∞

and derive the equation

∂U
(θ, t) = {cos θ − 1}U (θ, t).
∂t
(b) Show that
∞
X
U (θ, t) = e−(1−cos θ)t φ(n)einθ .
n=−∞

(c) Now show that one obtains

∞
X
u(n, t) = i−n e−t ik φ(k)Jn−k (it)
k=−∞

for the solution to the initial value problem.

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series 19

Exercise 15. Wirtinger’s inequality. Prove that if f is continuous L–periodic, f 0 is piecewise con-
tinuous, and
Z L
f (ξ) dξ = 0,
0
then Z Z
L L
4π 2
0 2
|f | ≥ 2 |f |2 ,
0 L 0
with equality if and only if
f (x) = a−1 e−2πix/L + a1 e2πix/L .

Exercise 16. The isoperimetric inequality. Prove that if C is a continuous, piecewise differentiable,
simple closed curve, of length L, enclosing a domain D, of area A, then

L2 ≥ 4πA,

with equality if and only if C is a circle. sketch: Start with Green’s Theorem to show
Z
2A = x dy − y dx
C
Z
= r · ν ds,
C

where r = xi + yj, ν is the outward unit normal vector field along C, and ds is arc length along C.
Therefore
Z
2A = r · ν ds
ZC
≤ |r||ν| ds
ZC
= |r| ds
C
½Z ¾1/2 ½Z ¾1/2
2 2
≤ |r| ds 1 ds
C C
½ Z ¾1/2
L2
≤ |r0 |2 ds L1/2
4π 2 C
½Z ¾1/2
L3/2
= |r0 |2 ds .
2π C

Assume C is parametrized with respect to arclength. Then

½Z ¾1/2
L3/2 L2
2A ≤ ds = ,
2π C 2π

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series 20

which is the desired inequality. Validate the above argument. Note that the last inequality in the above
chain is ostensibly Wirtingers’s inequality. But we require (in order to apply Wirtinger’s inequality)
Z
~r ds = ~0.
C

Is this a real difficulty? Of course not — why not?

Prove the case of equality.

The proofs

First recall two facts about uniform convergence.

If each fn is continuous on the interval I, and the series (17) converges uniformly to F on I,
then it is a fact that F is also continuous on I.

If, in the above paragraph, the interval I is closed and bounded, then one also has
XZ Z
fn (x) dx = F (x) dx.
n I I

Theorem 9. If the Fourier series of an L–periodic piecewise continuous function φ converges

uniformly, then its limit is equal to φ itself for all but, at most, a finite number of points in any
bounded interval.

Proof. Assume
lim sN (x; φ) = ψ(x)
N →+∞
for some function ψ(x), uniformly; we want to show φ = ψ for all but, at most, a finite number
of points in any bounded interval. Well, ψ is L–periodic and continuous. Also,
Z
1 L
cn (ψ) = ψ(x)e−2πinx/L dx
L 0
Z ( +∞ )
1 L X
= ck (φ)e2πikx/L e−2πinx/L dx
L 0
k=−∞
+∞
X Z L
ck (φ)
= e−2πi(n−k)x/L dx
L 0
k=−∞
= cn (φ),

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series 21

that is, cn (ψ) = cn (φ); so

(25) sN ( ; ψ) = sN ( ; φ)

for all N . The triangle inequality, the Parseval theorem, and (25), imply

kφ − ψk = kφ − sN ( ; φ) + sN ( ; ψ) − ψk ≤ kφ − sN ( ; φ)k + ksN ( ; ψ) − ψk → 0

as N → +∞. So kφ − ψk = 0, which implies the theorem. qed

We require two more preliminaries for the proof of Theorem 10.

The Weierstrass M –test states that if there is a sequence Mn of nonnegative real numbers
satisfying
X
|fn (x)| ≤ Mn for allx ∈ I, and Mn < +∞,
n

then the series (17) converges absolutely uniformly to some function F in I.

Our next preliminary is the following elementary remark. For a, b > 0 one has

0 ≤ (a − b)2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab,

so
ab ≤ {a2 + b2 }/2.

Therefore, given a series

X
(26) |an |2 < +∞,
n

then
|an |/n ≤ {|an |2 + 1/n2 }/2;

which implies
X
(27) |an |/n < +∞.
n

Theorem 10. If φ is L–periodic continuous, with φ0 piecewise continuous, then the Fourier
series of φ converges absolutely uniformly to φ. Also, the Fourier coefficients of φ0 are given by

(28) cn (φ0 ) = 2πincn (φ)/L.

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series 22

More generally, if φ is L–periodic continuous C k , k ≥ 0, with piecewise continuous φ(k+1) ,

then
cn (φ(`) ) = (2πin/L)` cn (φ)

for all ` = 1, 2 . . . k + 1, and

(29) nk+1 cn (φ) → 0

as n ↑ +∞. Furthermore, for every j = 1 . . . k, the Fourier series of φ(j) converges absolutely
uniformly to φ(j) .
Proof. If φ is L–periodic continuous, and φ0 is piecewise continuous, then
Z
0 1 L 0
cn (φ ) = φ (x)e−2πinx/L dx
L 0
½ ¯L 2πin Z L ¾
1 ¯
= φ(x)e−2πinx/L ¯ + φ(x)e−2πinx/L dx
L 0 L 0
2πincn (φ)
= ,
L
that is, (28).
Now cn (φ0 ) → 0 by the Bessel inequality for φ0 , which implies ncn (φ) → 0, the limit (29)
with k = 0.
It remains to show the uniform absolute convergence of sn ( ; φ) to φ. Apply the implication
of (27) from (26) to
an = cn (φ0 ),

for φ an L–periodic continuous function, with piecewise continuous φ0 . Then (15), (28), and
(27) imply
+∞
X
|cn (φ)| < +∞,
n=−∞

which implies, by the Weierstrass M –test, that the Fourier series of φ converges absolutely
uniformly to a continuous function, which must be φ by Theorem 9. We therefore have the first
statement of Theorem 10.
Repeated application of this argument yields the second general statement of the theorem.
qed

Theorem 11. If the Fourier series (20) satisfies

const.
(30) |an | ≤ ,
|n|k+1+²

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§3. Uniform convergence of Fourier series 23

for a given positive integer k, and for all integers n, then it converges absolutely uniformly
to a C k function φ. The k derivatives of φ may be obtained through term-by-term differenti-
ation of (20), and in each case, the new Fourier series converges absolutely uniformly to the
corresponding derivative.

Proof. We are now given the series (20). If

|an | ≤ const./|n|1+²

for all n, (that is, k = 0 in (21)), for some ² > 0, then

X
|an | < +∞,
n

which implies by the Weierstrass M –test that the Fourier series (20) converges absolutely uni-
formly to a continuous function φ(x) with

an = cn (φ).

What if we are given the estimate (20) with k = 1, namely,

|an | ≤ const./|n|2+²

for all n, for some ² > 0 ? Then the Fourier series (20) converges to some continuous φ. Consider
the Fourier series
+∞
X
(31) (2πin/L)an e2πinx/L ;
n=+∞

then
|(2πin/L)an | ≤ const./|n|1+²

for all n, which implies that the Fourier series (31) converges absolutely uniformly to some
continuous ψ. We want to show that
(32) ψ = φ0 .

How to do it? Set

Z x
Ψ(x) := ψ(ξ) dξ
0
Z x +∞
X
= (2πin/L)an e2πinξ/L dξ
0 n=−∞

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§4. Pointwise convergence of sN (x; φ) to φ(x) 24

+∞ Z
X x
= (2πin/L)an e2πinξ/L dξ
n=−∞ 0
+∞
X
= an {e2πinx/L − 1}
n=−∞
+∞
X +∞
X
= an e2πinx/L − an
n=−∞ n=−∞
= φ(x) − φ(0).

So Ψ differs from φ by a constant. This implies (32). One can now repeat the above argument
for general k ≥ 2. qed

§4. Pointwise convergence of sN (x; φ) to φ(x)

We assume, for our convenience, that L = 2π. Then by (4) we have

Z π
sN (x; φ) = DN (ξ − x)φ(ξ) dξ;
−π

and by (2) we have

Z π
sin(N + 1/2)ξ
(33) sN (x; φ) = (1/2π) φ(ξ + x) dξ.
−π sin ξ/2
Therefore, to say that sN (x; φ) → φ(x) is to say DN converges to a delta function as N ↑ +∞.
But, as we mentioned earlier (example III.4), DN cannot be an approximation to the identity
in the usual sense, because of its oscillatory behaviour. So we must, again, work through the
details of the limit argument. First we state the results, and then we discuss the proofs.

Theorem 12. The localization principle. Given x, the convergence of sN (x; φ), as N ↑
+∞, is completely determined by the restriction of φ to any neighborhood of x.

Theorem 13. Given x. If φ0 is piecewise continuous on a neighborhood of x, then

(34) lim sN (x; φ) = (1/2){φ(x+) + φ(x−)}.

N ↑+∞

In particular, if φ is continuous at x, and φ0 is piecewise continuous on a neighborhood of x of

x, then sN (x; φ) → φ(x) as N → +∞.

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§4. Pointwise convergence of sN (x; φ) to φ(x) 25

Proof of Theorems 12and 13. In (33) write the integral for sN (x; φ) as
Z π Z Z
sN (x; φ) = (1/2π) = (1/2π) +(1/2π)
−π |ξ|≤δ δ≤|ξ|≤π

where δ is any chosen number in (0, π). The localization principle is then saying that
Z
1 sin(N + 1/2)ξ
(35) lim φ(ξ + x) dξ = 0
N ↑+∞ 2π δ≤|ξ|≤π sin ξ/2

— no matter how we pick δ in (0, π). (This is the condition (2) in Theorem III.1.)
To prove (35), write

sin(N + 1/2)ξ eiN ξ eiξ/2 − e−iN ξ e−iξ/2

=
sin ξ/2 2i sin ξ/2
eiξ/2 e−iξ/2 −iN ξ
= eiN ξ − e ,
2i sin ξ/2 2i sin ξ/2

that is,
sin(N + 1/2)ξ eiξ/2 e−iξ/2 −iN ξ
= eiN ξ − e .
sin ξ/2 2i sin ξ/2 2i sin ξ/2
We wish to substitute this expression into the integral in (35). Note that the integral is only
over the two intervals δ ≤ |ξ| ≤ π. Replace φ(ξ + x) in the integral by the function ψ(ξ) which
(i) is identically equal to 0 for |ξ| ≤ δ, (ii) is equal to φ(x + ξ) for δ ≤ |ξ| ≤ π, and (iii) is
2π–periodic. Then
Z Z π
1 sin(N + 1/2)ξ 1 sin(N + 1/2)ξ
φ(x + ξ) dξ = ψ(ξ) dξ
2π δ≤|ξ|≤π sin ξ/2 2π
−π sin ξ/2
à ! à !
ψ(ξ)eiξ/2 ψ(ξ)e−iξ/2
= c−N − cN
2i sin ξ/2 2i sin ξ/2
→ 0

as N ↑ +∞ (c−N and cN denote the respective Fourier coefficients of the indicated functions),
since the functions
ψ(ξ)eiξ/2 ψ(ξ)e−iξ/2
(36) , −
2i sin ξ/2 2i sin ξ/2
are piecewise continuous — the only potential trouble spot is at ξ = 0 (because of sin ξ/2 in the
denominator) but ψ = 0 on a full neighborhood of ξ = 0. So the functions (36) are piecewise
continuous, and (35) is proven.

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§4. Pointwise convergence of sN (x; φ) to φ(x) 26

To prove Theorem 13, we first consider the case when φ is actually continuous at x. Of
course Z π
DN (ξ) dξ = 1.
−π
Therefore, as above,
Z π
sin(N + 1/2)ξ
sN (x; φ) − φ(x) = (1/2π) {φ(ξ + x) − φ(x)} dξ
−π sin ξ/2
Z π
{φ(ξ + x) − φ(x)}eiξ/2 iN ξ
= (1/2π) e dξ
−π 2i sin ξ/2
Z π
{φ(ξ + x) − φ(x)}e−iξ/2 −iN ξ
+(1/2π) e dξ.
−π 2i sin ξ/2
Assume {φ(ξ + x) − φ(x)}/ sin ξ/2 is a piecewise continuous 2π–periodic function of ξ. (That
our hypothesis guarantees this fact — we’ll see shortly.) Then, as above,
à ! à !
{φ(ξ + x) − φ(x)}eiξ/2 {φ(ξ + x) − φ(x)}e−iξ/2
sN (x; φ) − φ(x) = c−N − cN
2i sin ξ/2 2i sin ξ/2
→ 0.

What does it take to ensure that {φ(ξ + x} − φ(x)}/ sin ξ/2 is a piecewise continuous
2π–periodic function of ξ? The only place for which any consideration is necessary is at ξ = 0,
where we must consider
φ(ξ + x) − φ(x) φ(ξ + x) − φ(x) ξ
= .
sin ξ/2 ξ sin ξ/2
Of course,
ξ
∼2
sin ξ/2
as ξ → 0.
Therefore, if φ is continuous at x, and φ0 has both right and left sided derivatives at x,
then, by the mean value theorem of differential calculus,

{φ(ξ + x) − φ(x)}/ sin ξ/2

is a piecewise continuous 2π–periodic function of ξ. By the previous discussion we have

sN (x; φ) → φ(x) as N ↑ +∞.
What if we are only given that φ and φ0 have right and left sided limits at x? Then we
adjust the above argument along the lines of Section II.3 (since (sin(N + 1/2)ξ)/ sin ξ/2 is an
even function of ξ) to obtain (28). qed

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§4. Pointwise convergence of sN (x; φ) to φ(x) 27

Exercises

Exercise 17. Use Exercise 6 to show that

∞ · ¸
1 1 X n 1 1
= + (−1) + ,
sin z z n=1 z − nπ z + nπ
∞ · ¸
1 X 1 1
cot z = + + ,
z n=1 z − nπ z + nπ

where z is any number which is not a multiple of π.

Exercise 18. Sum the series

X∞ ∞
X
sin nx sin nx
; (−1)n ;
n=1
n n=1
n
X∞ X∞
cos nx cos nx
; (−1)n .
n=1
n2 n=1
n2

Exercise 19. Find the sum of each of the following numerical series by evaluating — at a suitable point
— a Fourier series discussed in the problems:
∞
X X ∞
1 1 1
; + (−1)n 2 .
n=1
(2n − 1)2 2a n=1 n + a2

Exercise 20. Gibbs’ phenomenon. Consider the function

(
1 0<x<π
S(x) = ,
−1 −π < x < 0

So S(x) has a jump disconuity at the origin. Then

N
X
sN (x) = ck eikx ,
k=−N

where ck denotes the k–th Fourier coefficients of S. Of course, sN (x) is given by

Z π
1 sin (N + 1/2)ξ
sN (x) = S(x + ξ) dξ.
2π −π sin ξ/2

Now Theorem 10 states that sN (0) → 0 as N ↑ ∞. The question we ask now is about the approximation
of S(x) by sN (x) near x = 0 for large N . We already know what happens if we fix x. When x 6= 0

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.
§4. Pointwise convergence of sN (x; φ) to φ(x) 28

then sN (x) → S(x). But what if we fix N ? Is it true that if we fix N sufficiently large then sN (x) will
reasonably approximate S(x) for all x 6= 0? The answer is “no”. We sketch below the argument.
(a) Show that sN (0) = 0. Give two arguments.
(b) Show that for x > 0,
½Z x Z π ¾
1 sin (N + 1/2)ξ
sN (x) = − dξ.
π 0 π−x sin ξ/2
(c) Use integration-by-parts to show that
¯Z π ¯
¯ sin (N + 1/2)ξ ¯¯
¯ dξ ¯ ≤ const./N,
¯ sin ξ/2
π−x

which goes to 0 as N ↑ +∞, uniformly in x bounded away from π.

(d) Show that for 0 < x < π we have
Z
1 x sin (N + 1/2)ξ
lim dξ = 1.
N ↑+∞ π 0 sin ξ/2
(e) Show that for small x > 0 we may replace the study of
Z
1 x sin (N + 1/2)ξ
dξ
π 0 sin ξ/2
by the study of Z x
1 sin (N + 1/2)ξ
dξ,
π 0 ξ/2
uniformly with respect to N .
(f ) Prove: Z x
1 sin (N + 1/2)ξ
lim dξ = 1.
N ↑+∞ π 0 ξ/2
(g) Prove:
Z x Z (N +1/2)x
1 sin (N + 1/2)ξ 2 sin ξ
dξ = dξ.
π 0 ξ/2 π 0 ξ
(h) Prove: Z ∞
2 sin ξ
dξ = 1.
π 0 ξ
hint: Consider the Laplace transform of
Z ∞
2 sin tξ
F (t) = dξ.
π 0 ξ
(i) Prove: Z π
π 2 sin ξ
sN ( )∼ dξ > 1,
N + 1/2 π 0 ξ
as N ↑ +∞. So for every N , no matter how large, one can find points x > 0 close to 0 for which SN (x)
stays away from S(x) = 1 by a uniform amount.

c
°Isaac Chavel 1993.