Welding Aeronautical PDF
Welding Aeronautical PDF
Welding Aeronautical PDF
TECHNICAL MANUAL
Only those pages assigned to the manual are listed in this index. If changed pages are issued, insert the changed
pages and dispose of superseded pages, including classified data, in accordance with applicable regulations. The
portion of text affected by the change is indicated by change bars or the change symbol “R” in the outer margin of
each column of text. Changes to illustrations are indicated by pointing hands, change bars, or shaded areas as
applicable.
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ALPHABETICAL INDEX
LEVEL MAINTENANCE
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Tungsten............................................................................................................................................... 007 04
Weld Filler Materials ............................................................................................................................. 007 04
Weld Technique.................................................................................................................................... 007 04
Welding Carbon and Alloy Steel (Group I).................................................................................................. 007 01
Cleaning................................................................................................................................................ 007 01
Electric Arc Welding Ferrous Metals .................................................................................................... 007 01
Heat Treatments / Stress Relief ........................................................................................................... 007 01
Joint Design .......................................................................................................................................... 007 01
Preparation of Weld Joint.............................................................................................................. 007 01
Material Types ...................................................................................................................................... 007 01
Metal-Arc Welding High Carbon Steels ................................................................................................ 007 01
Metal-Arc Welding High Hardness Alloy Steels ................................................................................... 007 01
Metal-Arc Welding High Yield Strength, Low Alloy Structural Steels ................................................... 007 01
Metal-Arc Welding Low Carbon Steels................................................................................................. 007 01
Metal-Arc Welding Medium Carbon Steels........................................................................................... 007 01
Metal-Arc Welding Tool Steels ............................................................................................................. 007 01
Safety.................................................................................................................................................... 007 01
Shielding Gas ....................................................................................................................................... 007 01
Tools ..................................................................................................................................................... 007 01
Tungsten............................................................................................................................................... 007 01
Weld Filler Metals ................................................................................................................................. 007 01
Weld Technique.................................................................................................................................... 007 01
Braze Welding Steel....................................................................................................................... 007 01
Chrome-Molybdenum Alloy Steels................................................................................................. 007 01
General Principles in Welding Steel............................................................................................... 007 01
Low Carbon Steel........................................................................................................................... 007 01
Oxyacetylene Welding ................................................................................................................... 007 01
Preheating ...................................................................................................................................... 007 01
Weld Steel Plates........................................................................................................................... 007 01
Welding Cast Iron........................................................................................................................................ 007 08
Brazing Technique................................................................................................................................ 007 08
Cleaning................................................................................................................................................ 007 08
Joint Design .......................................................................................................................................... 007 08
Material Types ...................................................................................................................................... 007 08
Safety.................................................................................................................................................... 007 08
Shielding Gas ....................................................................................................................................... 007 08
Weld Filler Materials ............................................................................................................................. 007 08
Weld Technique.................................................................................................................................... 007 08
Braze Welding Cast Iron ................................................................................................................ 007 08
Flame Adjustment .......................................................................................................................... 007 08
Tinning............................................................................................................................................ 007 08
Heat Treatments / Stress Relief..................................................................................................... 007 08
Brazing Gray Cast Iron................................................................................................................... 007 08
Brazing Malleable Iron ................................................................................................................... 007 08
Welding Cobalt Alloys (Group VII) .............................................................................................................. 007 07
Cleaning................................................................................................................................................ 007 07
Joint Design .......................................................................................................................................... 007 07
Heat Treatments / Stress Relief ........................................................................................................... 007 07
Material Types ...................................................................................................................................... 007 07
Safety.................................................................................................................................................... 007 07
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
SAFETY
Reference Material
Aircraft Integral Tanks and Fuel Cells – Inspection and Repair of...............................................................T.O. 1-1-3
Air Force Occupational Safety and Health Standard .......................................................................................AFOSH
American National Standards Institute....................................................................................... ANSI Standard 788.2
Code of Federal Regulations ..................................................................................................................10CFR 40.13
Code of Federal Regulations ..................................................................................................................10CFR 40.22
Code of Federal Regulations Welding, Cutting, and Brazing General Requirements ......................29CFR 1910.252
Fire Protection and Prevention ........................................................................................................... AFOSH 127-56
Maintenance Instructions Organizational, Intermediate, and..........................................................NAVAIR 01-1A-35
Depot Aircraft Fuel Cells and Tanks
Navy Safety and Occupational Health (NAVOSH) Program Manual........................................ OPNAVINST 5100.23
Respiratory Protection Program...................................................................................................... AFOSH STD 48-1
Respiratory Protection Program.............................................................................................................. TB MED 507
Specification for Tungsten and Oxide Dispersed Tungsten Electrodes for ............................................. AWS A5.12
Arc Welding and Cutting
US Army Corps of Engineers Safety and Health Requirements.........................................................USACOE 385-1
Welding, Cutting, and Brazing......................................................................................................... AFOSH STD 91-5
Alphabetical Index
WARNING
To prevent injury or death, each service’s safety and health program must be
followed. Section II contains generalized information extracted from safety and
health related documents. Personnel shall follow their service safety and health
program (OPNAVINST 5100.23, AFOSH, USACOE 385-1, and national
consensus standards).
2. SAFETY SUMMARY.
a. The following are general safety precautions that are not related to any specific procedures and therefore do
not appear elsewhere in this publication.
b. These are recommended precautions that personnel must understand and apply during all phases of
operation and maintenance.
3. PHYSICAL EXAMINATIONS.
a. Annual physical examination may be required to permit early detection of possible detrimental effects
resulting from chronic exposures.
b. Local medical authorities and the Industrial Hygienist shall set the frequency of specific tests based on
exposure data.
4. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS.
a. Use all cleaning solvents, fuels, oils, adhesives and epoxies, and catalysts in a well ventilated area. Avoid
frequent and prolonged inhalation of fumes. Concentrations of fumes of many cleaners, adhesives and esters are
toxic and will cause serious deterioration of the body nervous systems and possible death if breathed frequently.
b. Avoid frequent or prolonged exposure to the skin. Wash thoroughly with soap and warm water as soon as
possible after completing use of such materials. Take special precautions to prevent material from entering the
eyes. If exposed, rinse the eyes in an eye bath fountain immediately and report to a physician.
WARNING
Thoriated tungsten poses a health hazard and should not be used except when
mandated by technical instructions. Otherwise, replace 1% or 2% Thoriated
Tungsten with 1.5% Lanthanum Tungsten for current and future welding
operations. (AWS A5.12 refers).
5. THORIUM.
a. Thorium is a naturally occurring radionuclide contained in various manufactured items such as incandescent
gas mantles, welding rods, lenses and aircraft parts.
b. Manufactured items exempted in 10CFR 40.13 or authorized by general license in 10CFR 40.22 do not
require a NRMP.
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a. Thoriated tungsten electrodes is manufactured using thorium contain radioactive material. Thorium is a
radioactive element containing the Alfa (α-Radiation) particle. Although the Alfa particle has no penetrating ability,
such as the Beta (β) or Gamma (γ) Ray, serious latent body damage could result if these particles where to be
ingested into the body. This could result from small particles of the dust coming in contact with the welder’s hands
and fingers while grinding and shaping the electrodes. The particles could then be ingested into the body when
eating or picking at body cavities. Since radiation poisoning is accumulative, and signs may not be visible until
several years latter it is recommended that welders follow safe practices during grinding operations of thoriated
electrodes. This could include wiping down the work area where grinding took place after dressing the electrodes
and washing their hands after final operation of the task.
b. Special tungsten electrode grinding machines are available that contain the dust and grinding materials and
use of such grinding machines may prove useful.
a. Grinding Requirements:
(3) Clean the grinding area after each shift, when used, by vacuum cleaning or wiping.
(4) Dispose of grinding dust, chips and cleaning rags as normal waste materials as it is generated.
(6) Ensure adequate ventilation by welding in large open areas whenever possible.
(7) In enclosed or restricted areas, provide dust respirators (3M Model 9940 or equivalent) for workers or
provide adequate ventilation by hood or portable duct. Hoods, enclosures and portable ducts shall be designed
and operated to the requirements of the latest edition of “Industrial Ventilation”, American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists. The face velocity for portable ducts shall be at least 1,500 feet per minute.
8. FLAMMABLES.
a. Keep all cleaning solvents, oils, esters and adhesives away from open flame space heaters, exposed
element electric heaters, sparks or flame.
b. Do not smoke when using; or in the vicinity of flammable materials, or in areas where flammables are
stored.
d. Provide approved containers for bulk storage of flammable materials and dispensers in the working areas.
Keep all containers tightly closed when not in use.
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9. COMPRESSED AIR.
a. Air pressure used in work areas for cleaning or drying operations, shall be regulated to 29 psi or less. Use
approved safety equipment (goggles/face shield) to prevent injury to the eyes.
b. Do not direct the jet of compressed air at self or other personnel or so that refuse is blown onto adjacent
work stations. If additional air pressure is required to dislodge foreign materials from parts, ensure that approved
safety equipment is worn, and move to an isolated area.
c. Be sure that the increased air pressure is not detrimental or damaging to the parts before applying high
pressure jets of air.
a. Use thermally or similar insulated gloves when handling either heated or chilled parts to prevent burns or
freezing of hands. Parts chilled to super-cold (-40°F to -65°F) temperatures can cause instant freezing of hands if
handled without protective gloves.
b. Adequate precautions should be taken to prevent maintenance personnel from inadvertently coming in
contact with the hot surfaces.
a. Improperly maintained support equipment can be dangerous to personnel and can damage parts.
b. Observe recommended inspections to avoid unanticipated failures. Use SE only for the purpose for which it
was designed, and avoid abuse.
c. Be constantly alert for damaged equipment and initiate appropriate action for approved repair immediately.
e. When installing lift/support fixtures and rail set use only the attachment hardware items (nuts, bolts, screws,
pins, etc.) supplied for specific use with the SE. Substitute items shall not be used.
b. Do not allow safety wire or wire clippings to fly from cutter when removing or installing wire.
c. Do not use fingers as guides when installing parts or to check alignment of holes. Use only correct tools and
fixtures, and use as recommended.
d. Avoid shortcuts, such as using fewer than recommended attaching bolts, shorter bolts, or bolts of incorrect
quality.
e. Heed all warnings in the manual text to avoid injury to personnel or damage to equipment.
NOTE
a. Care should be taken in handling any type of welding equipment to prevent personnel injury from fire,
explosions, or harmful agents. Safety precautions listed below must be strictly observed by workers who weld or
cut metals.
c. Do not weld in a building with wooden floors, unless the floors are protected from hot metal by means of
sand, or other fireproof material. Be sure that hot sparks or hot metal will not fall on the legs and feet of the
operator or on any welding equipment components.
d. Remove all flammable material such as cotton, oil, gasoline, etc., from the vicinity of welding.
e. Before welding or cutting, warn those in close proximity who are not protected by proper clothing or goggles.
f. Remove assembled parts that may become warped or otherwise damaged by the welding process.
g. Do not leave hot rejected electrode stubs, steel scrap, or tools on the floor about the welding equipment.
These may cause accidents.
i. Mark all hot metal after welding operations are completed. Soapstone or chalk may be used for this purpose.
j. Contact lenses shall not be worn during welding/hot work operations. No contact lenses shall be worn while
using a respirator.
k. No matches, cigarette lighters, or other flame producing devices, shall be carried on your person during
welding/ hot work operations.
b. During all oxyacetylene welding and cutting processes operators shall use welding goggles or glasses (with
side shields) (Figure 1) equipped with a suitable filter lens to protect the eyes from intense light levels, heat, glare,
and flying fragments of hot metal (Table 1).
c. The Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) and Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) processes require the
chipping of slag after the weld has been deposited. Operators shall use a welding hood for chipping slag.
d. All other electric welding processes require welding hoods equipped with a suitable filter glass to protect
against the intense ultraviolet and infrared rays (Figure 2).
e. When others are in the vicinity of the electric welding process the area must be screened so that the arc
cannot be seen either directly or by reflection from glass or metal.
a. Welding arcs are intensely brilliant lights. They contain a proportion of ultraviolet light which may produce
eye damage. For this reason, no one should look at the arc with the naked eye within a distance of 50 feet. The
brilliance and danger of the light depends on the welding method, current, and material being welded. Operators,
fitters, and others working nearby need protection against arc radiation. Since arc radiation decreases rapidly in
intensity with distance, the closest workers need the most protection.
b. The welder needs a helmet to protect the eyes and face from harmful light and particles of hot metal. The
welding helmet (Figure 2) is generally constructed of a pressed fiber insulating material. It has an adjustable
headband that makes it usable by persons with different head sizes. The helmet is dull black in color to minimize
reflection and glare produced by the intense light. The helmet fits over the head and can be swung upward when
not welding. The chief advantage of the helmet is that it leaves both hands free, making it possible to hold the arc
and weld at the same time.
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c. The hand shield (Figure 2) provides the same protection as the helmet except that it is held in position by
the handle. This type of shield is frequently used by an observer or a person who welds for a short period of time.
NOTE
The colored glass must be manufactured in accordance with specifications
detailed in the ”National Safety Code for the Protection of Hands and Eyes of
Industrial Workers”, issued by the National Bureau of Standards, Washington
DC, OSHA Standard, 29CFR 1910.252 Welding, Cutting and Brazing, American
National Standards Institute Standard (ANSI) Z87.1 1979, ”American National
Standard Practice for Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protection”.
d. The protective welding helmet has a glass window, containing a filter lens specifically designed to prevent
flash burns and possible eye damage through absorption of the infrared and ultraviolet rays produced by the arc.
Lenses come in various optical densities with different shades to be used when welding various metals with
different methods (Table 1).The color of the lenses, usually green, blue, or brown, is an added protection against
the intensity of white light or glare. Colored lenses make it possible to see the metal more clearly and weld more
efficiently.
e. Gas metal-arc (GMAW) welding requires darker filter lenses than shielded metal-arc (SMAW) welding,
because it produces less smoke to absorb arc rays.
f. Do not weld with cracked or defective shields because penetrating rays from the arc may cause serious
burns. Be sure that the colored glass plates are the proper shade for arc welding. Protect the colored glass plate
from spatter by using a cover glass. Replace these cover glasses when damaged or spotted by molten metal
spatter.
g. Face shields and safety glasses shall be worn during chipping and grinding operations.
h. In some welding operations, the use of mask-type respirators is required. Helmets with the ”bubble” front
design can be adapted for use with respirators.
a. Personnel exposed to the hazards created by welding, cutting or brazing operations shall be protected by
personal protective equipment within OSHA standard 29CFR 1910.137 Personal Protective Equipment.
Appropriate protective clothing (Figure 3) required for any welding operation will vary with the size, nature and
location of the work to be performed.
b. Cotton clothing should be worn during all welding operations to protect welder from metal spatter and
ultraviolet light. All other clothing such as jumpers or overalls should be reasonably free from oil or grease.
c. Flameproof aprons or jackets made of leather, or other suitable material shall be worn for protection against
spatter of molten metal, radiated heat, and sparks. Capes or shoulder covers made of leather or other suitable
materials should be worn during overhead welding or cutting operations. Leather skull caps may be worn under
helmets to prevent head burns.
d. Sparks may lodge in rolled-up sleeves or pockets of clothing, of cuffs or overalls or trousers. Therefore,
sleeves and collars should be kept buttoned and pockets eliminated from the front of overalls and aprons.
Trousers or overalls should not be turned up on the outside. For any welding operation, lace-up, high boots and
safety toes (such as those conforming to MIL-B-24911, Boots, Fliers, or A-A-1803 Boots, Safety, Men’s) shall be
worn. No low cut boots or shoes allowed. In production work, a sheet metal screen in front of the worker’s legs
can provide further protection against sparks and molten metal in cutting operations.
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e. Flameproof gauntlet gloves, preferably of leather, should be worn to protect the hands and arms from the
rays of the arc, molten metal spatter, sparks, and hot metal. Leather gloves should be of sufficient thickness that
they will not shrivel from heat, burn through, or wear out quickly. Do not allow oil or grease to come in contact with
the gloves because this will reduce their flame resistance and cause them to be readily ignited or charred.
a. Where there is exposure to sharp or heavy falling objects or a hazard of bumping in confined spaces, hard
hats or head protectors should be used.
b. For welding and cutting, overhead, or in confined spaces, ear protection is sometimes desirable.
c. When welding in any area, the operation should be adequately screened to protect nearby workers or
passers-by from the glare of welding. The screens should be so arranged that no serious restriction of ventilation
exists. The screens should be so mounted that they are about two feet above the floor unless the work is
performed at such a level that the screen must be extended nearer the floor to protect adjacent worker. The
height of the screen is normally six feet but may be higher depending upon the situation. The screens, if metal,
should be painted with a finish of low reflectivity. If other materials are used, the surface should be of low
reflectivity.
d. During the welding and cutting operations sparks and molten spatter are formed, and sometimes fly
appreciable distances. For this reason welding or cutting should not be done near flammable materials, unless
every precaution is taken to prevent ignition.
e. Whenever possible flammable materials attached to or near equipment requiring welding, brazing, or cutting
should be removed. If removal is not practical, a suitable shield of authorized heat resistant material should be
used to protect the flammable material. Fire extinguishing equipment for any type of fire that may be encountered
must be available.
a. Fire prevention and detection are the responsibility of welders, cutters, and supervisors. The elaboration of
basic precautions to be taken for fire prevention during welding or cutting is outlined in the Standard for Fire
Prevention in Use of Cutting and Welding Processes, National Fire Protection Association Standard 51B. Some of
the basic precautions for fire prevention in welding or cutting work are given below:
b. When welding or cutting parts of vehicles, the oil pan, gasoline tank, and other parts of the vehicle should
be considered fire hazards and effectively shielded from sparks, slag, and molten metal.
a. The following requirements have been established to provide guidelines and procedures to maximize
protection for welders and torch brazers exposed to flammable conditions, confined areas, hazardous materials
and contamination.
a. It is recognized that in individual instances other factors may be involved in which case ventilation or
respiratory protective devices should be provided as needed to meet the equivalent requirements of this section.
Such factors would include: (1) atmospheric conditions; (2) heat generated; (3) presence of volatile solvents; in all
instances, however, the required health protection, ventilation standards and standard operating procedures for
new as well as old welding operations should be coordinated and cleared through the Safety Officer, Gas Free
Engineer/Fire Inspector and Public Health Officer as required.
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NOTE
Specific procedures are covered by the Navy Gas Free Engineering Program as
detailed in the Fuel Cell Manual, NAVAIR 01-1A-35.
a. Local exhaust or general ventilating systems shall be provided and arranged to keep the amount of toxic
fumes, gas or dust below the acceptable concentration of toxic dust and gases: American National Standard
Institute Standard Z49.1 the latest Threshold Limit Values (TLV) of the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists; or the exposure limits as established by Public Law 91-596, Occupational Safety and Health
Act. Compliance shall be determined by sampling of the atmosphere. Samples collected shall reflect the exposure
of the persons involved. When a helmet is worn, the samples shall be collected under the helmet.
a. Individual respiratory protective equipment should be well maintained. Only respiratory protective equipment
approved by the US Bureau of Mines, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health or other governmental
approved testing agency shall be utilized.
b. Guidance for selection, care and maintenance of respiratory protective equipment is given in Practices for
Respiratory Protection, American National Standard Institute Standard 788.2, TB MED 507 and AFOSH 48-1.
c. Respiratory protective equipment should not be transferred from one individual to another without being
cleaned.
(3) In confined spaces or where the welding space contains partitions, balconies, or other structural barriers
to the extent that they significantly obstruct cross ventilation.
a. Such ventilation shall be at the minimum rate of 2,000 cubic feet per minute per welder, except where local
exhaust hoods and boots as in paragraph 25 [LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION], or airline respirators approved
by the US Bureau of Mines, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health or other governmental approved
testing agency may be used. When welding with rods larger than 3/16-inches in diameter, the ventilation shall be
higher as shown:
Welding Rod diameter Required Ventilation
(inches) (CFM)
1/4 3500
3/8 4500
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b. Natural ventilation is considered sufficient for welding or cutting operations where the restrictions in
paragraph 25 [LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION] are not present.
(1) Hoods. Freely movable hoods intended to be placed by the welder as near as practicable to the work
being welded and provided with a rate of air flow sufficient to maintain a velocity in the direction of the hood to 100
linear feet per minute in the zone of welding when the hood is at its most remote distance from the point of
welding. The rates of ventilation required to accomplish this control velocity using a 3-inch wide flanged suction
opening are shown in Table 2.
(2) Fixed Enclosure. A fixed enclosure must have a top and not less than two sides which surround the
welding or cutting operations and a rate of airflow sufficient to maintain a velocity away from the welder of not less
than 100 linear feet per minute. Downdraft ventilation tables require 150 cubic feet per minute per square foot of
surface area. This rate of exhausted air shall be uniform across the face of the grill.
CAUTION
All welding spaces must be classified by a Gas Free Engineer, Qualified Navy
Aviation Gas Free Engineering Technician. Air Force should refer to AFOSH
127-100 and AFOSH 127-25. The controlling documents for gas free engineering
program are: NAVSEA 56470-AA-SAF-010 (ashore) and NAVSEA 59086-CH-
STM-030 (afloat). The controlling document for the Aviation Gas Free
Engineering (AVGFE) program is NAVAIR 01-1A-35.
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a. The following criteria are used to classify confined or enclosed spaces including those with open tops, but
with a depth or configuration sufficient to restrict the natural movement of air, and those which are normally closed
with limited or restricted openings for entry and exit.
b. Confined or enclosed spaces are classified based on existing or potential hazards as defined in Table 3.
NOTE
a. The following restrictions apply to entry and work in or on Class I and Class II confined or enclosed spaces.
(1). CLASS I SPACES. Entry into and work in or on class I spaces shall not be permitted under normal
operations and is authorized only under the following circumstances:
(a) Entry into Class I spaces is authorized only in cases of extreme emergency such as rescue
efforts, emergency repairs, etc. In the event of any such emergency entry or work, personnel entering the
space shall be equipped with the following:
(c) Harness suitable to permit extraction of the person from the space.
(e) Other necessary personal protective equipment required by the conditions and exposure.
(f) Communication shall be maintained between the person entering the space and safety observer
outside the space.
(g) Emergency rescue personnel, equipped with the above listed equipment, and any additional
equipment which may be necessary to effect a rescue shall be stationed immediately outside the entry to the
confined/enclosed space.
(i) COLD WORK. Cold work may be performed on the exterior areas of a Class I space, from outside
the space, provided that the work performed does not generate heat or other ignition sources which may cause
ignition of atmosphere within the space.
(j) HOT WORK. Hot work may be performed on the exterior areas of a Class I space from outside the
space, when the atmosphere inside the space does not contain flammable, explosive, or oxygen enriched
atmosphere. The Class I classification of the space in this case, would be based on oxygen depletion or the
presence of toxins, and would include spaces which are inerted, pressed up or a combination thereof.
(2). CLASS II SPACES. Contamination in Class II spaces shall be identified and removed to the maximum
degree possible by cleaning, ventilating, or recommended methods prior to entry or work.
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a. The following paragraphs apply to all hot work performed in confined or enclosed spaces, or hot work
performed on closed structures such as pipes, fuel cells, ducts, tubes, jacketed vessels and similar items. Air
Force shall use AFOSH 91-5.
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a. Hot work for the purpose of gas free engineering, includes any work that produces heat by any means, of a
temperature of 400°F (204°C) or more, in the presence of flammables or flammable atmospheres, such as:
• Flame Heating.
• Welding.
• Brazing.
WARNING
Do not perform hot work without specific authorization of activity Gas Free
Engineer (GFE) or hot work certified Aviation Gas Free Engineering Technician
(AVGFET). Inerting shall not normally be used as a means to permit hot work on
any component of a fuel system that contains aviation gasoline or Jet Petroleum
(JP) fuels.
31. SPACE CLEANING.
a. Prior to commencing hot work in a confined or enclosed space, the space shall be tested, inspected,
cleaned, and ventilated as required by the provisions of this manual and the applicable aircraft MIM.
32. FIRE PREVENTION.
a. A fire guard shall be posted at the work site when hot work is to be conducted in the presence of
combustible materials or flammable residues. The fire guard shall be trained in the nature of any fire that may
occur, and be proficient in the proper use of fire extinguishing equipment.
b. Where hot work may create temperature increases in a wall, bulkhead, or other separating structure, an
additional fire guard shall be posted on the side opposite the work site. A system of communication shall be
established to permit the fire guard to convey the development of hazardous conditions on the opposite side of
separating structures, and to signal the necessity to stop work. Air Force shall refer to AFOSH 127-56.
CAUTION
Vaporizing liquid fire extinguishers such as CO2 shall not be used in confined or
enclosed spaces.
NOTE
a. Air Force shall use fire extinguishing equipment as prescribed by the local Fire Department.
b. Suitable fire extinguishing equipment shall be provided based on the nature and extent of the flammables or
combustibles present and the type of fire that may occur.
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c. Water extinguishers or water hoses equipped with fog nozzles or applicators are most suitable for hot work
in the presence of ordinary class A, combustible material or flammable residues or coatings. Fire extinguishing
equipment shall be selected based on the following:
(2) Any hazard that may be created by the discharge of the agent into the space.
(3) The capacity of the equipment in relationship to the size and intensity potential fires.
NOTE
Welding aboard ships on aircraft should be done only in cases where parts
cannot be removed to a welding area. All safety practices in this manual must be
followed and authority to weld shall be sole responsibility of the Commanding
Officer.
a. Obtain Hot Work permit in accordance with service instructions or program manuals. Air Force shall refer to
AFOSH 91-5.
a. Air Force shall refer to AFOSH 91-5. The flammability of coatings shall be determined prior to starting hot
work. If flammability of coating is unknown, tests shall be conducted to determine flammability, or worst case
conditions must be assumed to exist.
b. Coatings known or found by testing to be combustible shall be removed from the location of the hot work, to
a distance sufficient to prevent ignition or out-gassing from temperature increase of coating materials in the
unstripped areas. The distance required for stripping of coating material will vary according to the material
involved and the nature of the hot work, but in no case shall be less than 4 inches on all sides from the outermost
limits of the hot work.
NOTE
(1) Periodic or continuous testing shall be conducted from start of hot work to ensure flammable
atmospheres are not being produced.
(2) Where significant out-gassing is detected, hot work shall be stopped and further stripping conducted,
artificial cooling methods employed, or other means applied to prevent temperature increases in the unstripped
areas.
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(3) Flame or uncontrolled heat shall not be used for stripping flammable coatings.
(4) Methods shall be employed to prevent hot slag or sparks from falling onto flammable coatings in the
area of the hot work.
(5) The wetting down of surrounding areas to reduce ignition potential may also be used to minimize
ignition, consistent with the nature of the coating operation.
a. Soft, greasy coatings may present hazards more serious than those presented by hard surface coatings.
Some soft coatings may have much lower flash points, produce out-gassing at lower temperatures, and may
ignite more easily from hot slag or sparks.
b. Some materials may, under certain conditions, ”surface flash”, which would involve the entire coated area.
The above problems are often further complicated by difficulty in walking, standing, and maneuvering on slippery
surfaces, increasing the possibility of falls, dropping lighted torches on un-stripped material, etc. Therefore,
accomplish the following prior to start of hot work in a confined or enclosed space coated with soft, greasy
preservatives:
(1) Strip, clean, or otherwise remove the preservative from the area of the hot work a distance sufficient to
prevent out-gassing and to prevent ignition from heat, sparks, slag, etc.
(2) The space shall be tested and certified ”SAFE For Hot Work” by the activity GFE or hot work certified
AVGFET.
NOTE
Valves to pipes, tubes, and similar items shall be closed and the pipes blanked
off, where possible, to prevent inadvertent discharge or backflow of materials into
the space.
a. Pipes, tubes, coils, or similar items which service or enter and exit a confined or enclosed space shall be
flushed, blown, purged, or otherwise cleaned and certified ”SAFE For Hot Work” prior to the start of hot work.
b. Where they are not cleaned and certified, they shall be prominently tagged ”NOT Safe For Hot Work”.
c. The Navy Gas Free Certificate for the space shall also contain a notation to that effect.
b. Piping, fittings, valves, and other system components shall be protected from damage resulting from contact
with flames, arcs, hot slag, or sparks. care shall be taken to ensure that all contamination within the space, such
as leaking hydraulic fluid, is cleaned and removed prior to start of hot work.
c. Hydraulic fluid in the presence of high temperatures can decompose and produce highly toxic byproducts.
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a. Compressed gas cylinders shall be transported, handled, and stored in accordance with service standards.
b. Compressed gas cylinders or gas manifolds used in welding and cutting operations shall not be taken into a
confined or enclosed space.
c. Compressed gas cylinders or gas manifolds shall be placed outside the space, in open air, in an area not
subject to any fire, explosion, or emergency that may occur within the space.
a. Gas welding and cutting equipment such as hoses, connections, torches, etc., shall be inspected, tested,
operated, and maintained in accordance with current service standards.
a. Gas supplies shall be turned off at the cylinder or manifold outside the space when equipment is unattended
or unused for substantial periods of time, such as breaks or lunch periods.
b. Turn off gas supplies and remove torches and hoses from the space during shift changes or if the
equipment is to be idle overnight.
c. Open-ended hoses shall be immediately removed from the space when torches or other devices are
removed from the hose.
a. Electric arc machines shall not be taken into a confined or enclosed space.
b. Electric arc equipment shall be inspected, tested, operated, and maintained in accordance with current
service standards.
a. When electrode holders are to be left unattended or unused for substantial periods of time such as breaks
or lunch periods, the electrodes shall be removed from the holders.
b. The holders shall be placed in a safe location and protected, and the power switch to the equipment shall be
turned off. If unattended for extended periods or the equipment is to be idle overnight, electrode holders, cables,
and other equipment shall be removed from the space and the power supply to the equipment disconnected.
WARNING
Do not perform hot work without specific authorization of activity Gas Free
Engineer (GFE) or hot work certified Aviation Gas Free Engineering Technician
(AVGFET).
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a. Welding, cutting or burning in the presence of certain materials (such as hydraulic fluids), or the application
of heat to such materials can result in the decomposition of the materials and the production of hazardous
byproducts.
b. Procedures shall be established to ensure that hot work is not conducted on or in the vicinity of such
materials. Welding or cutting operations which produce high levels of ultra-violet radiation shall not be conducted
within 200 feet of chlorinated solvents.
CAUTION
If flammable residues, liquids, or vapors are present, the object shall be made
safe. Objects such as those listed above shall also be inspected to determine
whether water or other nonflammable liquids are present which, when heated,
would build up excessive pressure. If such liquids are determined to be present,
the object should be vented, cooled, or otherwise made safe during the
application of heat.
a. Drums, containers, or hollow structures that have contained flammable substances shall be treated as
follows:
(1) Before welding, cutting, or heating, the object should be filled with water or thoroughly cleaned of
flammable substances, ventilated, and tested.
(2) Before heat is applied to a drum, container, or hollow structure, a vent or opening shall be provided for
the release of any pressure buildup during the application of heat.
(3) Before welding, cutting, heating, or brazing is begun on structural voids, the object shall be inspected
and, if necessary, tested for the presence of flammable residues, liquids, or vapors.
(4) Jacketed vessels shall be vented before and during welding, cutting, or heating operations, in order to
release any pressure that may build up during the application of heat.
a. Welding and torch brazing operations performed in or around fuel systems and fuel cells must be
accomplished by thoroughly proficient operators following specific procedures.
(3) Understand emergency evacuation procedures from fuel cells as described in NAVAIR 01-1A-35, T.O.
1-1-3.
NOTE
c. Prior to beginning work ensure a hot work permit or GFE certificate Is posted.
NOTE
The compressed gas cylinder shall be securely fastened to prevent tipping and
the regulator and gage shall be in proper working condition.
(3) Always use the proper tip or nozzle, and always operate it at the proper pressure for the particular work
involved. This information should be taken from work sheets or tables supplied with the equipment.
(4) When not in use, make certain that the torch is not burning and that the valves are tightly closed. Do not
hang the torch with its hose on the regulator or cylinder valves. If left unattended for 15 minutes or more, secure
before leaving welding area.
(5) Do not light a torch with a match, from hot metal, or in a confined space. The explosive mixture of
acetylene and oxygen might cause personal injury or property damage when ignited. Use friction lighters,
stationary pilot flames, or some other suitable source of ignition.
(6) When working in confined spaces provide adequate ventilation for the dissipation of explosive gases
that may be generated.
(7) Keep a clear space between the cylinder and the work so that the cylinder valves can be reached easily
and quickly.
(8) Store full and empty cylinders separately and mark the latter MT.
(9) Never use cylinders for rollers, supports, or any purpose other than that for which they are intended.
a. Always refer to acetylene by its full name and not by the word ”gas” alone.
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b. Acetylene cylinders must be handled with care to avoid damage to the valves or the safety fuse plug. The
cylinders must be stored upright, well protected and in a dry location at least 20 feet from highly combustible
materials such as oil, paint or flammables. If received in other than vertical position, the cylinder must be stored in
the upright position at least 8 hours prior to use. Most cylinders are fitted with valve protection caps. These caps
must always be in place, hand tight, except when cylinders are in use or connected for use. Do not store the
cylinders near radiators, furnaces, or in any above normal temperature area. In tropical climate, care must be
taken not to store acetylene in areas where the temperature is in excess of 137°F (58° C). Heat will increase the
pressure which may cause the safety fuse plug in the cylinder to blow out. Storage areas should be located away
from elevators, gangways, or other places where there is danger of their being knocked over or damaged by
falling objects.
c. A suitable truck, chain, or strap must be used to prevent cylinders from falling or being knocked over while in
use. Cylinders should be kept at a safe distance from the welding operation so that there will be little possibility of
sparks, hot slag, or flames reaching them. They should be kept away from radiators, piping systems, layout
tables, etc., which may be used for grounding electrical circuits.
d. Never use acetylene from cylinders without reducing pressure with a suitable pressure reducing regulator
and flashback attachments. Never use acetylene at pressures in excess of 15 psi.
e. Before attaching the pressure regulators, open each acetylene cylinder valve for an instant to blow dirt out
of the nozzles. Wipe off the connection seat with a clean cloth. Do not stand in front of valves when opening them.
f. Outlet valves which have become clogged with ice should be thawed with warm water. Do not use scalding
water or an open flame.
g. Be sure the regulator tension screw is released before opening the cylinder valve. Always open the valve
slowly to avoid strain on the regulator gage which records the cylinder pressure. Do not open the valve more than
one and one-half turns. Usually one-half turn is sufficient. Always use the special T-wrench provided for opening
the acetylene cylinder valve. Leave this wrench on the stem of the valve while the cylinder is in use so that the
acetylene can be turned off quickly in an emergency.
h. Acetylene is a highly combustible fuel gas and great care should be taken to keep sparks, flames, and heat
away from the cylinders. Never open an acetylene cylinder valve near other welding or cutting work.
i. Never test for an acetylene leak with an open flame. Test all joints with leak test compound, MIL-L-25567.
Should a leak occur around the valve stem of the cylinder, close the valve and tighten the packing nut. Cylinders
leaking around the safety fuse plug should be taken outdoors, away from all fires and sparks, and the valve
opened slightly to permit the contents to escape.
j. Never interchange acetylene regulators, hose, or other apparatus with similar equipment intended for
oxygen.
k. Always turn the acetylene cylinder so that the valve outlet will point away from the oxygen cylinder.
l. When returning empty cylinders, see that the valves are closed to prevent escape of residual acetylene or
acetone solvent. Screw on protecting caps.
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WARNING
NOTE
a. Oxygen cylinders shall not be stored near highly combustible material, especially oil and grease; or near
reserve stocks of acetylene or other fuel-gas cylinders, or near any other substance likely to cause or accelerate
fire.
b. Oxygen cylinders in storage shall be separated from fuel-gas cylinders or combustible materials (especially
oil or grease), a minimum distance of 20 feet or by a noncombustible barrier at least 5 feet high having a fire-
resistance rating of at least one-half hour.
c. Where a liquid oxygen system is to be used to supply gaseous oxygen for welding or cutting and the system
has a storage capacity of more than 13,000 cubic feet of oxygen (measured at 14.7 psi and 70°F (21°C)),
connected in service or ready for service, or more than 25,000 cubic feet of oxygen (measured at 14.7 psi and
70°F (21°C), including unconnected reserves on hand at the site, it shall comply with the provisions of the
Standard for Bulk Oxygen Systems at Consumer Sites, NFPA No. 566-1965, National Fire Protection Association.
d. When oxygen cylinders are in use or being moved, care must be taken to avoid dropping, knocking over, or
striking the cylinders with heavy objects. Do not handle oxygen cylinders without safety caps installed.
e. All oxygen cylinders with leaky valves or safety fuse plugs and discs should be set aside and marked for the
attention of the supplier. Do not tamper with or attempt to repair oxygen cylinder valves. Do not use a hammer or
wrench to open valves.
WARNING
Oxygen must not be substituted for compressed air in pneumatic tools nor used
to blow out pipe lines, test radiators, purge tanks or containers, or to ”dust”
clothing or work.
f. Before attaching the pressure regulators, open each oxygen cylinder valve for an instant to blow dirt out of
the nozzles. Wipe off the connection seat with a clean cloth. Do not stand in front of valves when opening them.
g. The cylinder valve shall be opened slowly to prevent damage to the regulator high pressure gage
mechanism. Ensure that the regulator tension screw is released before opening the valve. When not in use the
cylinder valve should be closed, and the protecting caps screwed on to prevent damage to the valve.
h. When the oxygen cylinder is in use, the valve must be opened to the limit to prevent leakage around the
valve stem.
i. Regulators shall always be used on oxygen cylinders to reduce the cylinder pressure to a low working
pressure since the high cylinder pressure can burst the hose.
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j. Oxygen regulators, hose, or other apparatus with similar equipment intended for other gases shall not be
interchanged.
52. HOSES.
a. Hoses must not be allowed to come in contact with oil or grease. These will penetrate and deteriorate the
rubber and constitute a hazard with oxygen.
b. Precautions.
e. Hoses must not be left where they can be tripped over since this could cause personal injury, damaged
connections or upset cylinders.
f. No work shall be performed with hoses over the shoulder, around the leg(s) or tied to waist.
g. Hoses shall be protected from hot slag, flying sparks, and open flames.
h. Hose connections which do not fit shall never be forced. White lead, oil, grease, or other pipe fitting
compounds for connections on hose, torch, or other equipment shall not be used. Hoses shall never be crimped
to shut off gases.
i. Prior to use, inspect all hoses for damage. Hoses with abrasions or cracks shall be replaced. Do not use
open flames to check for leaks in acetylene hoses. Examine all hoses periodically for leaks by immersing in water
while under pressure. Do not use matches to check for leaks in acetylene hose. Repair leaks by cutting hose and
inserting a brass splice. Do not use tape for mending. Replace hose if necessary.
j. Make sure hoses are securely attached to torches and regulators before using.
k. Do not use new or stored hose lengths without first blowing them out to eliminate talc or accumulated
foreign matter which might otherwise enter and clog the torch parts.
a. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS. The electric current used in welding can cause severe shock or death. The
precautions listed below should always be observed:
(1) Check the welding equipment to make certain that electrode connections and insulation on holders and
cables are in good condition.
(2) Keep hands and body insulated from both the work and the metal electrode holder. Avoid standing on
wet floors.
(3) Perform all welding operations within the rated capacity of the welding cables. Excessive heating will
impair the insulation and damage the cable leads.
(4) Inspect the cables periodically for looseness at the joints, defects due to wear, or other damage.
Defective or loose cables are a fire hazard. Defective electrode holders should be replaced and connections to
the holder should be tightened.
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(5) Welding generators should be located or shielded so that dust, water, or other foreign matter will not
enter the electrical windings or the bearings.
(6) The presence of moisture (fog, rain, sweat) increase the risk of shock.
b. WELDING MACHINES
(1) Welding generating equipment powered by internal combustion engines and when used inside buildings
or in confined areas the engine exhaust must be conducted to the outside atmosphere.
(4) A motor-generator type of welding machine must have a power ground on the machine because stray
current may cause a severe shock to the operator if he should contact the machine and a good ground.
(5) The polarity switch should not be operated while the machine is operating under welding current load.
Consequent arcing at the switch will damage the contact surfaces, and the flash may burn the person operating
the switch.
(6) The rotary switch should not be operated for current settings while the machine is operating under the
welding current load; severe burning of the switch contact surface will result. Operate the rotary switch while the
machine is idling.
(7) The power source must be turned off when leaving welding machine unattended.
(8) Well insulated electrode holders and cables shall be used. Dry protective covering on hands and body
shall be worn.
(9) Partially used electrodes shall be removed from the holders when not in use and a place provided to
hang up or lay down the holder where it will not come in contact with persons or conducting objects.
(10) The work clamp must be securely attached to the work before the welding operation is started.
a. When welding is done near other personnel, screens should be used to protect the eyes from the arc or
reflected glare. Refer to paragraph 16, PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT for screen design and method of use.
b. In addition to using portable screens to protect other personnel, screens should be used, when necessary,
to prevent drafts of air from interfering with the stability of the arc.
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a. Gas shielded arc welding processes have certain dangers associated with them. The hazards which are
peculiar to or might be increased by gas shielded arc welding are gases, radiant energy, and metal fumes.
a. GASES.
(1) Ozone. Ozone concentration increases with the type of electrodes used, amperage, extension of arc
time, and increased shielding gas flow. If welding is carried out in confined spaces and poorly ventilated areas the
ozone concentration may increase to harmful levels. The exposure level to ozone will be reduced by adherence of
good welding practices and utilizing properly designed ventilation systems.
(2) Nitrogen Oxides. Natural ventilation may be sufficient to reduce the hazard of exposure to nitrogen
oxides during welding operations provided all three ventilation criteria given in paragraph 21, CONCENTRATION
OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES are satisfied. Nitrogen oxide concentrations will be very high when performing gas
tungsten-arc cutting of stainless steel, using a 90 percent nitrogen - 10 percent argon mixture. In addition, high
concentrations have been found during experimental use of nitrogen as a shield gas. Good industrial hygiene
practices dictate that mechanical ventilation, as defined in paragraph 23, VENTILATION FOR GENERAL
WELDING AND CUTTING, be used during welding or cutting of metals.
(3) Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide. Carbon dioxide is dissociated by the heat of the arc to form
carbon monoxide. The hazard from inhalation of these gases will be minimal provided ventilation requirements as
prescribed in paragraph 21, CONCENTRATION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES are satisfied. However, where the
welding fumes pass through the welder’s breathing zone or where welding is performed in confined space,
ventilation requirements as prescribed in paragraph 23, VENTILATION FOR GENERAL WELDING AND
CUTTING shall be adhered to.
(4) Vapors of Chlorinated Solvents. Ultraviolet radiation from the welding or cutting arc can decompose the
vapors of chlorinated hydrocarbons, to form highly toxic substances. Eye, nose, and throat irritation can result
when the welder is exposed to these substances. Sources of the vapors can be wiping rags, vapor degreasers or
open containers of the solvent. Since this decomposition can occur even at a considerable distance from the arc,
the sources of the chlorinated solvents should be located so that no solvent vapor will reach the welding or cutting
area.
b. RADIANT ENERGY.
(1) Electric arcs as well as gas flames produce ultraviolet and infrared rays that have a harmful effect on
the eyes and skin under continued or repeated exposure. The usual effect of ultraviolet is to ”sun-burn” the
surface of the eye, which is painful and disabling but generally temporary.
(2) Ultraviolet radiation may also produce the same effects on the skin as severe sunburn. Production of
ultra-violet radiation, hence the intensity, doubles when gas-shielded arc welding is performed instead of shielded
metal arc.
(3) Infrared radiations have the effect of heating the tissue with which it comes in contact. If the heat is not
sufficient to cause an ordinary thermal burn, the exposure is minimal.
c. METAL FUMES.
(1) The physiological response from exposure to metal fumes will vary depending upon the metal being
welded.
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(2) Ventilation and personal protective equipment requirements as prescribed in paragraph 21,
CONCENTRATION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES shall be employed to prevent hazardous exposure.
57. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR WELDING AND CUTTING POLYURETHANE FOAM FILLED ASSEMBLIES.
a. Welding or cutting parts filled with polyurethane foam shall be accomplished only after all appropriate safety
measures have been complied with.
a. Aircraft hangars in which welding is performed shall be equipped with the fixed fire protection equipment
specified in Chapters 12 and 13 of NFPA 409, Standard on Aircraft Hangars. No welding shall be permitted if
such fixed fire protection equipment is inoperative for any reason. Hangars are equipped with automatic fire
detection systems. This must be taken into consideration, especially with regard to type of system where welding
is to be performed. Care must be taken to avoid the causing of false alarms or accidental actuation.
b. The specific location where the welding is being done shall be roped off or otherwise segregated by physical
barriers to prevent unintended entry into the welding area. Placards reading ”Welding Operations in Progress”
shall be prominently displayed.
d. Good housekeeping shall prevail in the welding area. Floor drains in the area of a welding operation shall be
checked periodically to determine that no flammable or combustible liquids or vapors are present.
e. A fire extinguisher having a minimum rating of 20 B (minimum capacity 15 lb (6.8 kg) of agent) shall be
positioned in the immediate area of the welding operation ready for instant use. As a backup for the portable
extinguisher, a wheeled extinguisher having a minimum rating of 80 B (minimum capacity 125 lb (58 kg) of agent)
shall be readily available. A qualified fire watcher (see NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention in Use of Cutting
and Welding Processes, for training of fire watcher) shall be assigned to operate this equipment and shall monitor
the entire welding operation. In the event a hazardous condition develops, he shall have the authority to stop the
welding operation.
a. Fire watchers shall be assigned by the individual responsible for authorizing cutting and welding whenever it
is performed in locations where other than a minor fire might develop, or any of the following conditions exist:
(1) Appreciable combustible material in building construction or contents is closer than 35 ft. (11 m) to the
point of operation.
(2) Appreciable combustibles are more than 35 ft. (11 m) away but are easily ignited by sparks.
(3) Wall or floor openings within a 35 ft. (11 m) radius exposing combustible material in adjacent areas
including concealed spaces in walls or floors.
(4) Combustible materials are adjacent to the opposite side of metal partitions, walls, ceilings or roofs and
are likely to be ignited by conduction or radiation.
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a. Fire watchers shall have fire extinguishing equipment readily available and be trained in its use, including
practice on test fires.
b. Fire watchers shall be familiar with facilities and procedures for sounding an alarm in the event of a fire.
c. Fire watchers shall watch for fires in all exposed areas, and try to extinguish them first only when obviously
within the capacity of the equipment available, or otherwise sound the alarm immediately.
d. A fire watch shall be maintained for at least a half hour after completion of cutting or welding operations to
detect and extinguish smoldering fires.
61. BASIC PRECAUTIONS OUTLINED HEREIN SHOULD APPLY TO THE FOLLOWING OPERATIONS.
a. Stress relieving of certain portions of the aircraft engines or structures by normalizing through the use of an
oxyacetylene flame.
b. Silver brazing or soldering when required on certain electrical connections and fluid lines.
a. Support equipment operations performed in hangars/outdoors shall conform to the requirements of this
manual.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Aerospace Metals - General Data and Usage Factors ...........................................................................T.M. 43-0106
Army Publishing Program .............................................................................................................................AR 25-30
Catalog of Naval Training Courses ............................................................................................... NAVEDTRA 10500
Engineering Series for Aircraft Repair Aerospace Metals – General Data............................................... NA 01-1A-9
And Usage Factors
Engineering Series for Aircraft Repair Aerospace Metals – General Data............................................... T.O. 1-1A-9
And Usage Factors
Hazardous Materials Information System (HMIS).................................................................................... DOD 6050.5
Navy Aviation Maintenance Program (NAMP)............................................................................ OPNAVINST 4790.2
Specification for Fusion Welding for Aerospace Applications................................................................... AWS D17.1
Specification for Resistance Welding for Aerospace Applications............................................................ AWS D17.2
Specification for Torch Brazing ................................................................................................................... AWS C3.4
Technical Order System.............................................................................................................................T.O. 00-5-1
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
Description, Background Information................................................................................................................. 2
Metals Theory .................................................................................................................................................... 3
Purpose .............................................................................................................................................................. 2
Scope ................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Warnings and Cautions Applicable to Hazardous Materials.............................................................................. 3
Welding and Brazing Specifications................................................................................................................... 3
Welding Theory .................................................................................................................................................. 3
NOTE
1. PURPOSE.
a. This welding manual is intended to be used with aviation maintenance, repair and overhaul manuals.
b. This is a general series manual and is intended to be used in conjunction with specific
maintenance/repair/overhaul manuals or engineering documents for aircraft, aircraft components and support
equipment.
c. This manual does not apply to civil engineering, motor vehicle maintenance, or other support activities.
2. SCOPE.
a. This technical manual is published for use by personnel, at both Intermediate Level and Depot Level for
welding and other metal joining operations in the manufacture and maintenance of material.
(1) All Intermediate and Depot level aircraft and support equipment welding shall be in accordance with
data contained in this manual unless otherwise specified. When specific engineering drawings or overhaul
instructions conflict with this manual the specific document shall apply.
(2) The responsibility for this manual resides with FRC-East, ISSC 4.3.4.1, Cherry Point, North Carolina. All
activities using this manual should submit recommended changes, corrections, or deletions in accordance with
procedures set forth by NAVY instruction OPNAVINST 4790.2 series, Air Force instruction T.O. 00-5-1, and Army
Regulations 25-30.
3. DESCRIPTION, BACKGROUND INFORMATION.
a. This manual contains information organized into logical groups of information and further divided into
specific or unique information within each group.
c. As requirements change or more detailed information becomes available, the organization of the manual will
accommodate those changes without disrupting the logical flow of the document.
NOTE
a. Warnings and cautions for hazardous materials listed in here are designed to apprise personnel of hazards
associated with such items when they are exposed to them by actual use. Additional information related to
hazardous materials are provided within each service’s program manual and the DOD 6050.5 Hazardous
Materials Information System (HMIS) series publications.
b. Consult your local safety and health staff concerning specific personnel protective requirements and
appropriate handling and emergency procedures.
5. WELDING THEORY.
a. Welding is any metal joining process wherein coalescence is produced by heating the metal to suitable
temperatures, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metals.
b. Basic welding and torch brazing processes are described and illustrated in this manual.
c. Welding processes for these metals are varied and information contained in this manual covers theory and
application of welding for many types of metals.
6. METALS THEORY.
(1) Ferrous metals are those in the iron class and are magnetic in nature. These metals consist of iron,
steel and alloys related to them.
(2) Nonferrous metals are metals that contain either none or very small amounts of ferrous metals and are
generally divided into the aluminum, copper, magnesium, lead, and similar groups.
a. Welding and Brazing specifications change with time for various reasons. Changes to specification,
generally are transferred to the new specification with updated requirements, suggestions, or guidance.
b. Refer to Table 1 for a list of welding specifications which were replaced by later specifications when
translating legacy requirements with the latest requirements.
c. All welders performance qualifications, welding procedures, inspection/acceptance criteria currently used
today meet the requirements of the legacy specifications found on drawings.
Welding
MIL-W-8604 Aluminum
Alloys Welding
Combined
Welding Steel MIL-STD-2219 AWS D17.1 Requirements
MIL-W-8611 Welding Material
Alloys AMS-STD-2219 AMS-STD-2219 for Aerospace
Requirements
Welding Applications
MIL-W-18326 Magnesium
Alloys
Resistance RW
MIL-W-6858 -- -- D17.2
Welding Requirements
Brazing
MIL-B-7883 -- -- AWS C3.4 Brazing
Requirements
MIL-STD-278
Cancelled. Not applicable to this General Series Manual
MIL-STD-248
1/ Specifications read left (oldest) to right (latest).
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Reference Material
Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination ............................................... AWS A2.4
Standard Welding Terms and Definitions Including Terms for Adhesive Bonding, Brazing,...................... AWS A3.0
Soldering, Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
Glossary .............................................................................................................................................................. 2
Welding Terms and Definitions ........................................................................................................................... 2
NOTE
1. GLOSSARY.
a. General. This glossary of welding terms has been prepared to acquaint welding personnel with
nomenclatures and definitions of common terms related to welding and allied processes, methods, techniques,
and applications.
b. Scope. The welding terms listed are those used to describe and define the standard nomenclatures and
language used in this manual and based on American Welding Society (AWS), Standard Welding Terms, and
Definitions, A3.0-2001 standard. This glossary is a very important part of the manual and should be carefully
studied and regularly referred to for better understanding of common welding terms and definitions. Terms and
nomenclatures listed herein are grouped in alphabetical order.
AUTOMATIC WELDING: Welding with equipment that requires only occasional or no observation of the welding,
and no manual adjustment of the equipment controls.
B
BACK BEAD: A weld bead resulting from a back weld pass.
BACKFIRE: The momentary recession of the flame into the welding tip or cutting tip followed by immediate
reappearance or complete extinction of the flame, accompanied by a loud report.
BACKGOUGING: The removal of weld metal and base metal from the weld root side of a welded joint to
facilitate complete fusion and complete joint penetration upon subsequent welding from that side.
BACKHAND WELDING: A welding technique in which the welding torch or gun is directed opposite to the
progress of welding.
BACKING: A material or device placed against the back side of the joint adjacent to the joint root, or at both
sides of a joint in electroslag and electrogas welding, to support and shield molten weld metal. The material may
be partially fused or remain unfused during welding and may be either metal or nonmetal.
BACKING BEAD: A weld bead resulting from a backing weld pass.
BACKING FILLER METAL: A nonstandard term for consumable insert.
BACKING GAS: Backing in the form of a shielding gas employed primarily to provide a protective atmosphere.
BACKING RING: Backing in the form of a ring, generally used in the welding of pipe.
BACKING WELD PASS: A weld pass resulting in a backing weld.
BACKING WELD: Backing in the form of a weld.
BACKSTEP SEQUENCE: A longitudinal sequence in which weld passes are made in the direction opposite to
the progress of welding.
BACK WELD: A weld made at the back of a single groove weld.
BALLING UP: The formation of globules of molten filler metal or flux due to lack of wetting of the base metal.
BASE MATERIAL: The material that is welded, brazed, soldered or cut. SEE ALSO BASE METAL AND SUBSTRATE.
BASE METAL: The metal or alloy that is welded, brazed, soldered, or cut. SEE ALSO BASE MATERIAL AND
SUBSTRATE.
BRAZE: Joining as a result of heating an assembly to the brazing temperature using a filler metal having a
liquidus above 450°C (840°F) and below the solidus of the base metal. The filler metal is distributed between the
closely fitted faying surfaces of the joint by capillary action.
BRAZE INTERFACE: The interface between braze metal and base metal in a brazed joint.
BRAZEMENT: An assembly whose component parts are joined by brazing.
BRAZER: One who performs manual or semiautomatic brazing.
BRAZE WELDING (BW): A joining process that uses a filler metal with a liquidus above 450°C (840°F) and below
the solidus of the base metal. The base metal is not melted. Unlike brazing, in braze welding the filler metal is not
distributed in the joint by capillary action.
BRAZING (B): A group of joining processes that produces coalescence of materials by heating them to the
brazing temperature in the presence of a filler metal having a liquidus above 450°C (840°F) and below the solidus
of the base metal. The filler metal is distributed between the closely fitted faying surfaces of the joint by capillary
action.
BRAZING ALLOY: A nonstandard term for brazing filler metal.
BRAZING FILLER METAL: The metal or alloy used as a filler metal in brazing, which has a liquidus above
450°C (840°F) and below the solidus of the base metal.
BRAZING OPERATOR: One who operates automatic or mechanized brazing equipment.
BRAZING TEMPERATURE: The temperature to which the base metal is heated to enable the filler metal to wet
the base metal and form a brazed joint.
BRITTLE NUGGET: A nonstandard term used to describe a faying plane failure in a resistance weld peel test.
BRONZE WELDING: A nonstandard term when used for braze welding.
BUILDUP: A surfacing variation in which surfacing metal is deposited to achieve the required dimensions. SEE
ALSO BUTTERING.
C
CARBON-ARC CUTTING (CAC): An arc cutting process that uses a carbon electrode. SEE ALSO AIR CARBON ARC
CUTTING.
CONVEXITY: The maximum distance from the face of a convex fillet weld perpendicular to a line joining the weld
toes.
CONVEX ROOT SURFACE: The configuration of a groove weld exhibiting root reinforcement at the root surface.
COALESCENCE: The growing together or growth into one body of the materials being welded.
COATED ELECTRODE: A nonstandard term for covered electrode.
COEXTRUSION WELDING (CEW): A solid-state welding process that produces a weld by heating to the welding
temperature and forcing the workpieces through an extrusion die.
COLD CRACK: A crack which develops after solidification is complete.
COLD SOLDERED JOINT: A joint with incomplete coalescence caused by insufficient application of heat to the
base metal during soldering.
COLD WELDING (CW): A solid-state welding process in which pressure is used to produce a weld at room
temperature with substantial deformation at the weld. SEE ALSO DIFFUSION WELDING, FORGE WELDING AND HOT
PRESSURE WELDING.
COMPLETE FUSION: Fusion over the entire fusion faces and between all adjoining weld beads.
COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION (CJP): A groove weld condition in which weld metal extends through the
joint thickness.
COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION WELD: A groove weld in which weld metal extends through the joint
thickness.
CONCAVE FILLET WELD: A fillet weld having a concave face.
CONCAVE ROOT SURFACE: The configuration of a groove weld exhibiting underfill at the root surface.
CONCAVITY: The maximum distance from the face of a concave fillet weld perpendicular to a line joining the
weld toes.
CONE: The conical part of an oxyfuel gas flame to the tip orifice.
CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SOURCE: An arc welding power source with a volt-ampere relationship yielding
a small welding current change from a large arc voltage change.
CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER SOURCE: An arc welding power source with a volt-ampere relationship yielding
a large welding current change from a small arc voltage change.
CONSTRICTED ARC: A plasma arc column that is shaped by the constricting orifice in the nozzle of the plasma
arc torch or plasma spraying gun.
CONSTRICTING NOZZLE: A device at the exit end of a plasma arc torch or plasma spraying gun, containing the
constricting orifice.
CONSTRICTING ORIFICE: The hole in the constricting nozzle of the plasma arc torch or plasma spraying gun
through which the arc plasma passes.
CONSUMABLE INSERT: Filler metal that is placed at the joint root before welding, and is intended to be
completely fused into the joint root to become part of the weld.
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CONTACT RESISTANCE, RESISTANCE WELDING: Resistance to the flow of electric current between two
workpieces or an electrode and a workpiece.
CONTACT TIP: A tubular component of an arc welding gun that delivers welding current to, and guides, a
continuous electrode.
CONTACT TUBE: A nonstandard term when used for contact tip.
CONVEX FILLET WELD: A fillet weld having a convex weld face.
COPPER BRAZING: A nonstandard term when used for brazing with a copper filler metal.
CORNER-FLANGE WELD: A nonstandard term when used for an edge weld in a flanged corner joint.
CORNER JOINT: A joint between two members located approximately at right angles to each other in the form of
an L.
CORONA, RESISTANCE WELDING: The area sometimes surrounding the nugget of a spot weld at the faying
surface which provides a degree of solid-state welding.
CORRECTIVE LENS: A lens ground to the wearer’s individual corrective prescription.
CO2 WELDING: A nonstandard term when used for gas metal arc welding with carbon dioxide shielding gas.
COVERED ELECTRODE: A composite filler metal electrode consisting of a core of a bare electrode or metal
cored electrode to which a covering sufficient to provide a slag layer on the weld metal has been applied. The
covering may contain materials providing such functions as shielding from the atmosphere, deoxidation, and arc
stabilization, and can serve as a source of metallic additions to the weld.
CRACK: A fracture type discontinuity characterized by a sharp tip and high ratio of length and width to opening
displacement.
CRATER: A depression at the termination of a weld bead.
CUTTING ATTACHMENT: A device for converting an oxyfuel gas welding torch into an oxyfuel cutting torch.
CUTTING TIP: The part of an oxyfuel cutting torch from which the gases issue.
CUTTING TORCH (ARC): A device used in air carbon arc cutting, gas tungsten arc cutting, and plasma arc
cutting to control the position of the electrode, to transfer current, and to control the flow of gases.
CUTTING TORCH (OXYFUEL GAS): A device used for directing the preheating flame produced by the
controlled combustion of fuel gases and to direct and control the cutting oxygen.
CYLINDER MANIFOLD: A header for interconnection of multiple gas sources with distribution points.
D
DEFECT: A discontinuity or discontinuities that by nature or accumulated effect (for example, total crack length)
render a part or product unable to meet minimum applicable acceptance standards or specification. This term
designates rejectability. SEE ALSO DISCONTINUITY AND FLAW.
DEPOSITED METAL, BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND WELDING: Filler metal that has been added during
brazing, soldering, or welding.
DEPOSITION EFFICIENCY (ARC WELDING): The ratio of the weight of deposited metal to the net weight of
filler metal consumed, exclusive of stubs.
DEPOSITION SEQUENCE: A nonstandard term when used for weld pass sequence.
DEPTH OF FUSION: The distance that fusion extends into the base metal or previous bead from the surface
melted during welding.
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DIFFUSION BRAZING (DFB): A brazing process that produces coalescence of metals by heating them to
brazing temperature and by using a filler metal or an in situ liquid phase. The filler metal may be distributed by
capillary attraction or may be placed or formed at the faying surfaces. The filler metal is diffused with the base
metal to the extent that the joint properties have been changed to approach those of the base metal. Pressure
may or may not be applied. SEE ALSO COLD WELDING, FORGE WELDING AND HOT PRESSURE WELDING.
DIFFUSION WELDING (DFW): A solid-state welding process that produces a weld by the application of pressure
at elevated temperature with no macroscopic deformation or relative motion of the workpieces. A solid filler metal
may be inserted between the faying surfaces. SEE ALSO COLD WELDING, FORGE WELDING AND HOT PRESSURE
WELDING.
DILUTION: The change in chemical composition of a welding filler metal caused by the admixture of the base
metal or previous weld metal in the weld bead. It is measured by the percentage of base metal or previous weld
metal in the weld bead.
DIP BRAZING (DB): A brazing process that uses heat from a molten chemical or metal bath. When a molten
chemical is used, the bath may act as a flux. When a molten metal is used, the bath provides the filler metal.
DIP FEED (gas tungsten arc welding, oxyfuel gas welding and plasma arc welding): A process variation in which
filler metal is intermittently fed into the leading edge of the weld pool.
DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE NEGATIVE (DCEN): The arrangement of direct current arc welding leads in
which the electrode is the negative pole and workpiece is the positive pole of the welding arc.
DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE POSITIVE (DCEP): The arrangement of direct current arc welding leads in
which the electrode is the positive pole and the workpiece is the negative pole of the welding arc.
DIRECT CURRENT REVERSE POLARITY: A nonstandard term for direct current electrode positive.
DIRECT CURRENT STRAIGHT POLARITY: A nonstandard term for direct current electrode negative.
DISCONTINUITY: An interruption of the typical structure of a material, such as a lack of homogeneity in its
mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics. A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect. SEE ALSO
DEFECT AND FLAW.
DOWNHAND: A nonstandard term for flat welding position.
DROP-THROUGH: An undesirable sagging or surface irregularity, usually encountered when brazing or welding
near the solidus of the base metal, caused by overheating with rapid diffusion or alloying between the filler metal
and the base metal.
DUTY CYCLE: The percentage of time during a specified test period that a power source or its accessories can
be operated at rated output without overheating.
E
EDGE-FLANGE WELD: A nonstandard term for an edge weld in a flanged butt joint.
EDGE JOINT: A joint between the edges of two or more parallel or nearly parallel members.
EDGE PREPARATION: The preparation of the edges of the joint members, by cutting, cleaning, plating, or other
means.
EDGE WELD: A weld in an edge joint, a flanged butt joint or a flanged corner joint in which the full thickness of
the members are fused.
EDGE WELD SIZE: The weld metal thickness measured from the weld root.
EFFECTIVE THROAT: The minimum distance from the fillet weld face, minus any convexity, and the weld root.
In the case of a fillet weld combined with a groove weld, the weld root of the groove weld shall be used.
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ELECTRODE: A component of the electrical circuit that terminates at the arc, molten conductive slag, or base
metal.
ELECTRODE EXTENSION (gas metal arc welding): The length of electrode extending beyond the end of the
contact tip.
ELECTRODE FORCE (resistance welding): The force applied by the electrodes to the workpieces in making spot,
seam, or projection welds.
ELECTRODE HOLDER: A device used for mechanically holding and conducting current to an electrode during
welding or cutting.
ELECTRODE INDENTATION (resistance welding): The depression formed on the surface of workpieces by
electrodes.
ELECTRODE LEAD: The electrical conductor between the source of arc welding current and the electrode
holder.
ELONGATED POROSITY: A form of porosity having a length greater than its width that lies approximately
parallel to the weld axis.
EXHAUST BOOTH: A mechanically ventilated, semi-enclosed area in which airflow across the work area is used
to remove fumes, gases, and solid particles.
EXPULSION: The forceful ejection of molten metal from a resistance spot, seam, or projection weld usually at
the faying surface.
F
FACE REINFORCEMENT: Weld reinforcement on the side of the joint from which welding was done.
FACE SHIELD: A device positioned in front of the eyes and over all or a portion of the face to protect the eyes
and face.
FAYING SURFACE: The mating surface of a member that is in contact with or in close proximity to another
member to which it is to be joined.
FERRITE NUMBER (FN): An arbitrary, standardized value designating the ferrite content of an austenitic or
duplex ferritic-austenitic stainless steel weld metal based on its magnetic properties. The term is always a proper
noun and is always capitalized. Ferrite Number should not be confused with percent ferrite; the two are not
equivalent.
FILLER MATERIAL: The material to be added in making a brazed, soldered or welded joint.
FILLER METAL: The metal or alloy to be added in making a brazed, soldered or welded joint.
FILLER WIRE: A nonstandard term for welding wire.
FILLET WELD: A weld of approximately triangular cross section joining two surfaces approximately at right
angles to each other in a lap joint, T-joint, or corner joint.
FILLET WELD BREAK TEST: A test in which the specimen is loaded so that the weld root is in tension.
FILLET WELD LEG: The distance from the joint root to the toe of the fillet weld.
FILLET WELD SIZE: For equal leg fillet welds, the leg lengths of the largest isosceles right triangle that can be
inscribed within the fillet weld cross section. For unequal leg fillet welds, the leg lengths of the largest right triangle
that can be inscribed within the fillet weld cross section.
FILLET WELD THROAT: SEE ALSO ACTUAL THROAT, EFFECTIVE THROAT, AND THEORETICAL THROAT.
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FISHEYE: A discontinuity, attributed to the presence of hydrogen in the weld, observed on the fracture surface of
a weld in steel that consists of a small pore or inclusion surrounded by an approximately round, bright area.
FIT: The act of bringing together the workpiece(s) in preparation for welding.
FITUP: The resultant condition of the workpiece(s) that have been brought together for welding.
5F: A welding test position designation for a circumferential fillet weld applied to a joint in pipe, with its axis
approximately horizontal, in which the weld is made in the horizontal, vertical, and overhead welding positions.
The pipe remains fixed until the welding of the joint is complete.
5G: A welding test position designation for a circumferential groove weld applied to a joint in a pipe with its axis
horizontal, in which the weld is made in the flat, vertical, and overhead welding positions. The pipe remains fixed
until the welding of the joint is complete.
FIXTURE: A device designed to hold and maintain parts in proper relation to each other.
FLAME CUTTING: A nonstandard term for oxygen cutting.
FLAME PROPAGATION RATE: The speed at which a flame travels through a mixture of gases.
FLANGE WELD: A nonstandard term for weld in a flanged joint.
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELD: A weld in the groove formed between a joint member with a curved surface
and another with a planar surface.
FLARE-V-GROOVE WELD: A weld in a groove formed by two members with curved surfaces.
FLASH: Material that is expelled from a flash weld prior to the upset portion of the welding cycle.
FLASHBACK: A recession of the flame into or back of the mixing chamber of the oxyfuel gas torch or flame
spraying gun.
FLASHBACK ARRESTER: A device to limit damage from a flashback by preventing propagation of the flame
front beyond the location of the arrester.
FLASH BUTT WELDING: A nonstandard term for flash welding.
FLASH WELDING (FW): A resistance welding process that produces a weld at the faying surfaces of a butt joint
by a flashing action and by the application of pressure after heating is substantially completed. The flashing
action, caused by the very high current densities at small contact points between the workpieces, forcibly expels
the material from the joint as the workpieces are slowly moved together. The weld is completed by a rapid
upsetting of the workpieces.
FLAT POSITION: SEE ALSO FLAT WELDING POSITION.
FLAT WELDING POSITION: The welding position used to weld from the upper side of the joint at a point where
the weld axis is approximately horizontal, and the weld face lies in an approximately horizontal plane.
FLAW: An undesirable discontinuity. SEE ALSO DEFECT.
FLUX: A material used to hinder or prevent the formation of oxides and other undesirable substances in molten
metal and on solid metal surfaces, and to dissolve or otherwise facilitate the removal of such substances.
FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW): An arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous filler
metal electrode and the weld pool. The process is used with shielding gas from a flux contained within the tubular
electrode, with or without additional shielding from an externally supplied gas, and without the application of
pressure. SEE ALSO FLUX CORED ELECTRODE.
FLUX CORED ELECTRODE: A composite tubular filler metal electrode consisting of a metal sheath and a core
of various powdered materials, producing an extensive slag cover on the face of a weld bead.
FOREHAND WELDING: A welding technique in which the welding torch or gun is directed toward the progress
of welding.
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FORGE WELDING (FOW): A solid-state welding process that produces coalescence of metals by heating them
in air in a forge and by applying pressure or blows sufficient to cause permanent deformation at the interface. SEE
ALSO COLD WELDING, DIFFUSION WELDING.
4F, plate: A welding test position designation for a linear fillet weld applied to a joint in which the weld is made in
the overhead welding position.
4F, pipe: A welding test position designation for a circumferential fillet weld applied to a joint in pipe, with its axis
vertical, in which the weld is made in the overhead welding position.
4G: A welding test position designation for a linear groove weld applied to a joint in which the weld is made in the
overhead welding position.
FUEL GAS: A gas such as acetylene, natural gas, hydrogen, propane, stabilized methylacetylene propadiene
(MAPP), and other fuels normally used with oxygen in one of the oxyfuel processes and for heating.
FURNACE BRAZING (FB): A brazing process in which the workpieces are placed in a furnace and heated to the
brazing temperature.
FUSION (fusion welding): The melting together of filler metal and base metal, or of base metal only, to produce a
weld. SEE ALSO DEPTH OF FUSION.
FUSION FACE: A surface of the base metal that has been melted during welding.
FUSION WELDING: Any welding process that used fusion of the base metal to make the weld.
FUSION ZONE: The area of base metal melted as determined on the cross-section of a weld.
G
GAP: A nonstandard term when used for arc length, joint clearance, and root opening.
GAS BRAZING: A nonstandard term for torch brazing.
GAS CUP: A nonstandard term for gas nozzle.
GAS CUTTER: A nonstandard term for oxygen cutter.
GAS CUTTING: A nonstandard term for oxygen cutting.
GAS CYLINDER: A portable container used for transportation and storage of a compressed gas.
GAS GOUGING: A nonstandard term for oxygen gouging.
GAS LENS: One or more fine mesh screens located in the gas nozzle to produce a stable stream of shielding
gas. This device is primarily used for gas tungsten arc welding.
GAS METAL-ARC WELDING (GMAW): An arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous filler
metal electrode and the weld pool. The process is used with shielding from an externally supplied gas and without
the application of pressure.
GAS NOZZLE: A device at the exit end of the torch or gun that directs shielding gas.
GAS POCKET: A nonstandard term for porosity.
GAS REGULATOR: A device for controlling the delivery of gas at some substantially constant pressure
GAS SHIELDED ARC WELDING: A general term used to describe flux cored arc welding (when gas shielding is
employed), gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding.
GAS TORCH: A nonstandard term when used for cutting torch and welding torch.
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GAS TUNGSTEN-ARC WELDING (GTAW): An arc welding process that uses an arc between a tungsten
electrode (nonconsumable) and the weld pool. The process is used with shielding gas and without the application
of pressure.
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING TORCH: A device used to transfer current to a fixed welding electrode,
position the electrode, and direct the flow of shielding gas.
GAS WELDING: A nonstandard term for oxyfuel gas welding.
GLOBULAR TRANSFER (gas metal arc welding): The transfer of molten metal in large drops from a consumable
electrode across the arc. SEE ALSO SHORT CIRCUITING TRANSFER AND SPRAY TRANSFER.
GOGGLES: Protective glasses equipped with filter plates set in a frame that fits snugly against the face and used
primarily with oxyfuel gas processes.
GOUGING: SEE ALSO THERMAL GOUGING.
GROOVE ANGLE: The included angle between the groove faces of a weld groove.
GROOVE FACE: Any surface in a weld groove prior to welding.
GROOVE RADIUS: A nonstandard term when used for bevel radius.
GROOVE WELD: A weld in a weld groove on a workpiece surface, between workpiece edges, between
workpiece surfaces, or between workpiece edges and surfaces.
GROOVE WELD SIZE: The joint penetration of a groove weld.
GROUND CLAMP: A nonstandard and incorrect term for workpiece connection.
GROUND CONNECTION: An electrical connection of the welding machine frame to the earth for safety. SEE
ALSO WORKPIECE CONNECTION AND WORKPIECE LEAD.
H
HAMMER WELDING: A nonstandard term for cold welding and forge welding.
HAND SHIELD: A protective device used in arc cutting, arc welding and thermal spraying, for shielding the eyes,
face, and neck. It is equipped with a filter plate and is designed to be held by hand.
HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ): The portion of base metal whose mechanical properties or microstructure have
been altered by the heat of welding, brazing, soldering, or thermal cutting.
HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE CRACK: A crack occurring in the heat-affected zone.
HELMET: SEE WELDING HELMET.
HOOD: A nonstandard term for welding helmet.
HORIZONTAL FIXED POSITION (PIPE WELDING): A nonstandard term when used for multiple welding position
and 5G.
HORIZONTAL ROLLED POSITION (PIPE WELDING): A nonstandard term when used for the flat welding
position and 1G.
HORIZONTAL WELDING POSITION (FILLET WELD): The welding position in which the weld is on the upper
side of an approximately horizontal surface and against an approximately vertical surface.
HORIZONTAL WELDING POSITION (GROOVE WELD): The welding position in which the weld face lies in an
approximately vertical plane and the weld axis at the point of welding is approximately horizontal.
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I
IMPULSE (RESISTANCE WELDING): A group of pulses occurring on a regular frequency separated only by an
interpulse time.
INCLINED POSITION: A nonstandard term when used for the multiple welding position and 6G.
INCLINED POSITION (WITH RESTRICTION RING): A nonstandard term when used for the multiple welding
position and 6GR.
INCLUDED ANGLE: A nonstandard term for groove angle.
INCLUSION: Entrapped foreign solid material, such as slag, flux, tungsten, or oxide.
INCOMPLETE FUSION (IF): A weld discontinuity in which fusion did not occur between weld metal and fusion
faces or adjoining weld beads. SEE ALSO COMPLETE FUSION.
INCOMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION (IJP): A joint root condition in a groove weld in which weld metal does not
extend through the joint thickness. SEE ALSO COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION, COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION WELD,
JOINT PENETRATION, AND PARTIAL JOINT PENETRATION WELD.
INDUCTION BRAZING (IB): A brazing process that uses heat from the resistance of the workpieces to induced
electric current.
INERT GAS: A gas that normally does not combine chemically with materials. SEE ALSO PROTECTIVE
ATMOSPHERE.
INERT GAS METAL ARC WELDING: A nonstandard term for gas metal arc welding.
INERT GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING: A nonstandard term for gas tungsten arc welding.
INTERPASS TEMPERATURE (welding): In a multipass weld, the temperature of the weld area between weld
passes.
J
JOINT: The junction of members or the edges of members that are to be joined or have been joined.
JOINT CLEARANCE (brazing and soldering): The distance between the faying surfaces of a joint.
JOINT DESIGN: The shape, dimensions, and configuration of the joint.
JOINT EFFICIENCY: The ratio of the strength of a joint to the strength of the base metal, expressed in percent.
JOINT GEOMETRY: The shape, dimensions and configuration of a joint prior to welding.
JOINT PENETRATION: The distance the weld metal extends from the weld face into a joint, exclusive of weld
reinforcement. SEE ALSO GROOVE WELD SIZE.
JOINT ROOT: That portion of a joint to be welded where the members approach closest to each other. In cross
section, the joint root may be either a point, a line, or an area.
JOINT TYPE: A weld joint classification based on the five basic arrangement of the component parts such as
butt joint, corner joint, edge joint, lap joint and T-joint.
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K
KERF: The gap produced by a cutting process.
L
LAMELLAR TEAR: A subsurface terrace and step-like crack in the base metal with a basic orientation parallel to
the wrought surface caused by tensile stresses in the through-thickness direction of the base metals weakened by
the presence of small dispersed, planar shaped, nonmetallic inclusions parallel to the metal surface.
LAND: A nonstandard term for root face.
LAP JOINT: A joint between two overlapping members in parallel planes.
LINEAR DISCONTINUITY: A discontinuity with a length that is substantially greater than its width.
LINEAR INDICATION: A test result in which a discontinuity in the material being tested is displayed as a linear or
aligned array.
LINEAR POROSITY: A nonstandard term when used for aligned porosity.
LIQUATION: The separation of a low melting constituent of an alloy from the remaining constituents, usually
apparent in alloys having a wide melting range.
LIQUIDUS: The lowest temperature at which a metal or an alloy is completely liquid.
LOCKED-UP STRESS: A nonstandard term for residual stress.
LONGITUDINAL CRACK: A crack with its major axis orientation approximately parallel to the weld axis.
M
MACHINE WELDING: A nonstandard term when used for mechanized welding.
MACROETCH TEST: A test in which a specimen is prepared with a fine finish, etched, and examined using no
magnification or low magnification.
MACROEXAMINATION:. A metallographic examination in which a surface is examined using no magnification or
low magnification.
MANUAL WELDING: Welding with the torch, gun, or electrode holder held and manipulated by hand. Accessory
equipment, such as part motion devices and manually controlled filler material feeders may be used.
MECHANIZED WELDING: Welding with equipment that requires manual adjustment of the equipment controls in
response to visual observation of the welding, with the torch, gun, or electrode holder held by a mechanical
device.
MELTING RANGE: The temperature range between solidus and liquidus.
MELT-THROUGH: Visible root reinforcement produced in a joint welded from one side.
METAL CORED ELECTRODE: A composite tubular filler metal electrode consisting of a metal sheath and a
core of various powdered materials, producing no more than slag islands on the face of a weld bead.
METAL ELECTRODE: A filler or nonfiller metal electrode used in arc welding and cutting that consists of a metal
wire or rod that has been manufactured by any method and that is either bare or covered.
MIG WELDING: A nonstandard term for flux cored arc welding and gas arc welding.
MIXING CHAMBER: That part of a welding or cutting torch in which the gases are mixed for combustion.
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N
NEUTRAL FLAME: An oxyfuel gas flame in which the portion used is neither oxidizing nor reducing. SEE ALSO
OXIDIZING FLAME AND REDUCING FLAME.
O
1F, plate: A welding test position designation for a linear fillet weld applied to a joint in which the weld is made in
the flat welding position.
1G, plate: A welding test position designation for a linear groove weld applied to a joint in which the weld is made
in the flat welding position
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE: The voltage between the output terminals of the power source when no current is
flowing to the torch or gun.
ORIFICE GAS (PLASMA ARC WELDING AND CUTTING): The gas that is directed into the plasma arc torch or
thermal spraying gun to surround the electrode. It becomes ionized in the arc to form the arc plasma, and issues
from the constricting orifice of the nozzle as a plasma jet.
OVERHEAD WELDING POSITION: The welding position in which welding is performed from the underside of
the joint.
OVERLAP (FUSION WELDING): The protrusion of weld metal beyond the weld toes or weld root.
OVERLAP (RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING): The portion of the preceding weld nugget remelted by the
succeeding weld.
OVERLAYING: A nonstandard term when used for surfacing.
OXIDIZING FLAME: An oxyfuel gas flame in which there is an excess of oxygen, resulting in an oxygen-rich
zone extending around and beyond the cone. SEE ALSO CARBURIZING FLAME, NEUTRAL FLAME, AND REDUCING FLAME.
OXYACETYLENE CUTTING (OFC-A): An oxyfuel gas cutting process variation that uses acetylene as the fuel
gas.
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OXYACETYLENE WELDING (OAW): An oxyfuel gas welding process that uses acetylene as the fuel gas. The
process is used without the application of pressure.
OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING (OFC): A group of oxygen cutting processes that uses heat from an oxyfuel gas
flame. SEE ALSO OXYACETYLENE CUTTING.
OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING TORCH: A device used for directing the preheating flame produced by the controlled
combustion of fuel gases and to direct and control the cutting oxygen.
OXYFUEL GAS WELDING (OFW): A group of welding processes that produces coalescence by heating
materials with an oxyfuel gas flame or flames, with or without the application of pressure, and with or without the
use of filler metal.
OXYFUEL GAS WELDING (OFW): A group of welding processes that produces coalescence of workpieces by
heating them with an oxyfuel gas flame. The processes are used with or without the application of pressure and
with or without filler metal.
OXYFUEL GAS WELDING TORCH: A device used in oxyfuel gas welding, torch brazing, and torch soldering for
directing the heating flame produced by the controlled combustion of fuel gases.
OXYGEN CUTTING (OC): A group of thermal cutting processes that severs or removes metal by means of the
chemical reaction between oxygen and the base metal at elevated temperature. The necessary temperature is
maintained by the heat from an arc, an oxyfuel gas flame, or other source.
OXYGEN GOUGING (OG): Thermal gouging that uses an oxygen cutting process variation to form a bevel or
groove.
P
PARALLEL WELDING: A resistance welding secondary circuit variation in which the secondary current is
divided and conducted through the workpieces and electrodes in parallel electrical paths to simultaneously form
multiple resistance spot, seam, or projection welds.
PARENT METAL: A nonstandard term for base metal or substrate.
PARTIAL JOINT PENETRATION: A groove weld in which incomplete joint penetration exists.
PENETRATION: A nonstandard term when used for depth of fusion, joint penetration, or root penetration.
PILOT ARC: A low current arc between the electrode and the constricting nozzle of the plasma arc torch to
ionize the gas and facilitate the start of the welding arc.
PIPING POROSITY: A form of porosity having a length greater than its width that lies approximately
perpendicular to the weld face.
PLASMA ARC CUTTING (PAC): An arc cutting process that uses a constricted arc and removes the molten
metal with a high-velocity jet of ionized gas issuing from the constricting orifice.
PLASMA ARC CUTTING TORCH: A device used to transfer current to a fixed cutting electrode, position the
electrode, and direct the flow of shielding gas and orifice gas.
PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW): An arc welding process that uses a constricted arc between a nonconsumable
electrode and the weld pool (transferred arc) or between the electrode and the constricting nozzle (nontransferred
arc). Shielding is obtained from the ionized gas issuing from the torch, which may be supplemented by an
auxiliary source of shielding gas. The process is used without the application of pressure.
PLASMA ARC WELDING TORCH: A device used to transfer current to a fixed welding electrode, position the
electrode, and direct the flow of shielding gas and orifice gas.
PLENUM CHAMBER: The space between the electrode and the inside wall of the constricting nozzle of the
plasma arc torch or thermal spraying gun.
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PLUG WELD: A weld made in a circular hole in one member of a joint, fusing that member to another member. A
fillet-welded hole is not to be construed as conforming to this definition.
POLARITY: SEE DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE NEGATIVE AND DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE POSITIVE.
POROSITY: Cavity-type discontinuities formed by gas entrapment during solidification.
POSTFLOW TIME: The time interval from current shut off to either shielding gas or cooling water shut off.
POSTHEATING: The application of heat to an assembly after brazing, soldering, thermal spraying, thermal
cutting, or welding.
POWER SOURCE: An apparatus for supplying current and voltage suitable for welding, thermal cutting, or
thermal spraying.
POWER SUPPLY: A nonstandard term when used for power source.
PREFLOW TIME: The time interval between start of shielding gas flow and arc starting.
PREHEAT: The heat applied to the base metal or substrate to attain and maintain preheat temperature.
PREHEAT CURRENT (RESISTANCE WELDING): An impulse or series of impulses that occur prior to and are
separated from the welding current.
PREHEAT TEMPERATURE (BRAZING AND SOLDERING): The temperature of the base metal in the volume
surrounding the point of brazing or soldering immediately before brazing or soldering is started.
PREHEAT TEMPERATURE (WELDING): The temperature of the base metal in the volume surrounding the point
of welding immediately before welding is started. In a multipass weld, it is also the temperature immediately
before the second and subsequent passes are started.
PRESSURE-CONTROLLED RESISTANCE WELDING (RW-PC): A resistance welding process variation in
which a number of spot or projection welds are made with several electrodes functioning progressively under the
control of a pressure-sequencing device.
PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION: The demonstration that welds made by a specific procedure can meet
prescribed standards.
PROCESS: A grouping of basic operational elements used in brazing, soldering, thermal cutting, thermal
spraying or welding.
PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERE: A gas or vacuum envelope surrounding the workpieces, used to prevent or
reduce the formation of oxides and other detrimental surface substances, and to facilitate their removal.
PUDDLE: A nonstandard term when used for weld pool.
PULSE (RESISTANCE WELDING): A current of controlled duration of either polarity through the welding circuit.
PULSED POWER WELDING: An arc welding process variation in which the welding power source is
programmed to cycle between low and high power levels.
PURGE: The introduction of a gas to remove contaminants from a system or provide backing during welding.
PUSH ANGLE: The travel angle when the electrode is pointing in the direction of weld progression.
R
RANDOM INTERMITTENT WELDS: Intermittent welds on one or both sides of a joint in which the weld
increments are made without regard to spacing.
REACTION STRESS: A stress that cannot exist in a member if the member is isolated as a free body without
connection to other parts of the structure.
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REDUCING ATMOSPHERE: A chemically active protective atmosphere that will reduce metal oxides to their
metallic state at elevated temperature.
REDUCING FLAME: An oxyfuel gas flame with an excess of fuel gas. SEE ALSO CARBURIZING FLAME, NEUTRAL
FLAME, OXIDIZING FLAME, AND REDUCING ATMOSPHERE.
RESIDUAL STRESS: Stress present in a joint member or material that is free of external forces or thermal
gradients.
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING (RSEW): A resistance welding process that produces a weld at the faying
surfaces of overlapped parts progressively along a length of a joint. The weld may be made with overlapping weld
nuggets, a continuous weld nugget, or by forging the joint as it is heated to the welding temperature by resistance
to the flow of the welding current.
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING (RSW): A resistance welding process that produces a weld at the faying
surfaces of a joint by the heat obtained from resistance to the flow of welding current through the workpieces from
electrodes that serve to concentrate the welding current and pressure at the weld area.
RESISTANCE WELDING (RW): A group of welding processes that produces coalescence of the faying surfaces
with the heat obtained from resistance of the workpieces to the flow of the welding current in a circuit of which the
workpieces are a part, and by the application of pressure.
RESISTANCE WELDING CONTROL: The device, usually electronic, that determines the welding sequence and
timing with regard to the welding current pattern, electrode or platen force or movement, and other operational
conditions of a resistance welding machine.
RESISTANCE WELDING CURRENT: The current in the welding circuit during the making of a weld, but
excluding preweld or postweld current.
RESISTANCE WELDING DOWNSLOPE TIME: The time during which the welding current is continuously
decreased.
RESISTANCE WELDING ELECTRODE: The part of a resistance welding machine through which the welding
current and, in most cases, force are applied directly to the workpiece. The electrode may be in the form of a
rotating wheel, rotating roll, bar, cylinder, plate, clamp, chuck, or modification thereof.
RESISTANCE WELDING GUN: A manipulatable device to transfer current and provide electrode force to the
weld area (usually in reference to a portable gun).
RESISTANCE WELDING UPSLOPE TIME: The time during which the welding current continuously increases
from the beginning of the welding current.
RESISTANCE WELDING VOLTAGE: The voltage through the workpieces, between the resistance welding
electrodes.
RESISTANCE WELDING WELD TIME: The duration of welding current flow through the workpieces in making a
weld by single-impulse welding or flash welding
REVERSE POLARITY: A nonstandard term for direct current electrode positive.
ROOT: A nonstandard term for joint root and weld root.
ROOT BEAD: A weld that extends into or includes part or all of the joint root.
ROOT EDGE: A root face of zero width.
ROOT FACE: That portion of the groove face within the joint root.
ROOT GAP: A nonstandard term for root opening.
ROOT OPENING: A separation at the joint root between workpieces.
ROOT PASS: A weld pass made to produce a root bead.
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ROOT PENETRATION: The distance the weld metal extends into the joint root.
ROOT RADIUS: A nonstandard term for bevel radius.
ROOT REINFORCEMENT: Weld reinforcement opposite the side from which welding was done.
ROOT SHIELDING GAS: A nonstandard term for backing gas.
ROOT SURFACE: The exposed surface of a weld opposite the side from which welding was done.
S
SCARF JOINT: A nonstandard term for scarf groove.
SEAL WELD: Any weld intended primarily to provide a specific degree of tightness against leakage.
SEAM WELD: A continuous weld made between or upon overlapping members, in which coalescence may start
and occur on the faying surfaces, or may have proceeded from the outer surface of one member. The continuous
weld may consist of a single weld bead or a series of overlapping spot welds.
SECONDARY CIRCUIT: That portion of a welding machine that conducts the secondary current between the
secondary terminals of the welding transformer and the electrodes, or electrode and workpiece.
SECONDARY CURRENT PATH (RESISTANCE WELDING): The electrical path through which the welding
current passes.
SEMIAUTOMATIC ARC WELDING: Manual welding with equipment that automatically controls one or more of
the welding conditions.
SERIES WELDING: A resistance welding secondary circuit variation in which the secondary current is conducted
through the workpieces and electrodes or wheels in a series electrical path to simultaneously form multiple
resistance spot, seam, or projection welds.
SHEET SEPARATION (RESISTANCE WELDING): The distance between the faying surfaces, adjacent to the
weld, after a spot, seam, or projection weld has been made.
SHIELDED METAL ARC CUTTING (SMAC): An arc cutting process that uses a covered electrode.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW): An arc welding process with an arc between a covered electrode
and the weld pool. The process is used with shielding from the decomposition of the electrode covering, without
the application of pressure, and with filler metal from the electrode.
SHIELDING GAS: Protective gas used to prevent or reduce atmospheric contamination.
SHORT CIRCUITING TRANSFER (GAS METAL ARC WELDING): Metal transfer in which molten metal from a
consumable electrode is deposited during repeated short circuits.
SHOULDER: A nonstandard term when used for root face.
SHRINKAGE STRESS: A nonstandard term when used for residual stress.
SHRINKAGE VOID: A cavity type discontinuity normally formed by shrinkage during solidification.
SILVER ALLOY BRAZING: A nonstandard term when used for brazing with a silver-base filler metal.
SILVER SOLDERING: A nonstandard term for brazing with a silver-base filler metal.
SINGLE IMPULSE WELDING: A resistance welding process variation in which spot, projection, or upset welds
are made with a single pulse.
SINGLE-PORT NOZZLE: A constricting nozzle of the plasma arc torch that contains one orifice, located below
and concentric with the electrode.
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SINGLE-WELDED JOINT (FUSION WELDING): A joint that is welded from one side only.
6G: A welding test position designation for a circumferential groove weld applied to a joint in pipe, with its axis
approximately 45° from horizontal, in which the weld is made in the flat, vertical, and overhead welding positions.
The pipe remains fixed until welding is complete.
SKULL: The unmelted residue from a liquated filler metal.
SLAG: A nonmetallic product resulting from the mutual dissolution of flux and nonmetallic impurities in some
welding and brazing processes.
SLAG INCLUSION: A discontinuity consisting of slag entrapped in weld metal or at the weld interface.
SLOT WELD: A weld made in an elongated hole in one member of a joint fusing that member to another
member. The hole may be open at one end. A fillet welded slot is not to be construed as conforming to this
definition.
SLUGGING: The unauthorized addition of metal, such as a length of rod, to a joint before welding or between
passes, often resulting in a weld with incomplete fusion.
SPATTER: The metal particles expelled during fusion welding that do not form a part of the weld.
SPIT: A nonstandard term when used for expulsion and flash.
SPOOL: A filler metal package consisting of a continuous length of welding wire in coil form wound on a cylinder
(called a barrel), which is flanged at both ends. The flange contains a spindle hole of smaller diameter than the
inside diameter of the barrel.
SPOT WELD: A weld made between or upon overlapping members in which coalescence may start and occur
on the faying surfaces or may proceed from the outer surface of one member. The weld cross section (plan view)
is approximately circular.
SPRAY TRANSFER (GAS METAL ARC WELDING): Metal transfer in which molten metal from a consumable
electrode is propelled axially across the arc in small droplets. SEE ALSO GLOBULAR TRANSFER AND SHORT CIRCUITING
TRANSFER.
SQUEEZE TIME (RESISTANCE WELDING): The time between the initiation of the welding cycle and first
application of current in spot, seam, or projection and some types of upset welds.
STACK CUTTING: Thermal cutting of stacked metal plates arranged so that all the plates are severed by a
single cut.
STAGGERED INTERMITTENT WELD: An intermittent weld on both sides of a joint in which the weld increments
on one side are alternated with respect to those on the other side.
STANDARD WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION (SWPS): A welding procedure specification qualified
according to the requirements of AWS B2.1, approved by AWS, and made available for production welding by
companies or individuals other than those performing the qualification test.
STANDOFF DISTANCE: The distance between a nozzle and the workpiece.
START CURRENT (Gas Metal Arc Welding): The current value during start time interval.
START TIME: The time interval prior to weld time during which arc voltage and current reach a preset value
greater or less than welding values.
STICK ELECTRODE: A nonstandard term for covered electrode.
STICK ELECTRODE WELDING: A nonstandard term for shielded metal arc welding.
STICKOUT (GAS METAL ARC WELDING): The length of unmelted electrode extending beyond the end of the
gas nozzle.
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STICKOUT (GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING): The length of tungsten electrode extending beyond the end of
the gas nozzle.
STRAIGHT POLARITY: A nonstandard term for direct current electrode negative.
STRESS-CORROSION CRACKING: Failure of metals by cracking under combined action of corrosion and
stress, residual or applied. In brazing, the term applies to the cracking of stressed base metal due to the presence
of a liquid filler metal.
STRESS-RELIEF CRACKING: Intergranular cracking in the heat-affected zone or weld metal as a result of the
combined action of residual stresses and postweld exposure to an elevated temperature.
STRESS-RELIEF HEAT TREATMENT: Uniform heating of a structure or a portion thereof to a sufficient
temperature to relieve the major portion of the residual stresses, followed by uniform cooling.
STRINGER BEAD: A weld bead formed without appreciable weaving. SEE ALSO WEAVE BEAD.
STUB: The short length of filler metal electrode, welding rod, or brazing rod that remains after its use for welding
or brazing.
STUD ARC WELDING: A nonstandard term for arc stud welding.
STUD WELDING: A general term for joining a metal stud or similar part to a workpiece. Welding may be
accomplished by arc, resistance, friction, or other process with or without external gas shielding.
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW): An arc welding process that uses an arc or arcs between a bare metal
electrode or electrodes and the weld pool. The arc and molten metal are shielded by a blanket of granular flux on
the workpieces. The process is used without pressure and with filler metal from the electrode and sometimes from
a supplemental source (welding rod, flux, or metal granules).
SUCK-BACK: A nonstandard term when used for underfill at the root surface.
SURFACE EXPULSION (RESISTANCE WELDING): Expulsion occurring at an electrode to workpiece contact
rather than at the faying surface.
SURFACE PREPARATION: The operations necessary to produce a desired or specified surface condition.
SURFACING: The application by welding of a layer, or layers, of material to a surface to obtain desired
properties or dimensions, as opposed to making a joint.
SURFACING MATERIAL: The material that is applied to a base metal or substrate during surfacing.
SURFACING METAL: The metal or alloy that is applied to a base metal or substrate during surfacing.
SURFACING WELD: A weld applied to a surface, as opposed to making a joint, to obtain desired properties or
dimensions.
SYNCHRONOUS TIMING (RESISTANCE WELDING): The initiation of each half cycle of welding transformer
primary current on an accurately timed delay with respect to the polarity reversal of the power supply.
T
TACKER: A nonstandard term for a tack welder.
TACK WELD: A weld made to hold parts of a weldment in proper alignment until the final welds are made.
TAPER DELAY TIME: The time interval after upslope during which the maximum welding current or high pulse
current is constant.
TAPER TIME: The time interval when current increases or decreases continuously from the welding current to
final taper current.
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TEMPER TIME (RESISTANCE WELDING): The time following quench time during which a current is passed
through the weld for heat treating.
TEST COUPON: A weld, braze or solder assembly for procedure or performance qualification testing.
TEST SPECIMEN: A sample of a test coupon subjected to testing.
THEORETICAL THROAT: The distance from the beginning of the joint root perpendicular to the hypotenuse of
the largest right triangle that can be inscribed within the cross section of a fillet weld. This dimension is based on
the assumption that the root opening is equal to zero.
THERMAL STRESS: Stress resulting from nonuniform temperature distribution.
3F: A welding test position designation for a linear fillet weld applied to a joint in which the weld is made in the
vertical welding position.
3G: A welding test position designation for a linear groove weld applied to a joint in which the weld is made in the
vertical welding position.
THROAT OF FILLET WELD: SEE ACTUAL THROAT, EFFECTIVE THROAT AND THEORETICAL THROAT.
THROAT OF GROOVE WELD: A nonstandard term for groove weld size.
TIG WELDING: A nonstandard term for gas tungsten arc welding
T-JOINT: A joint between two members located approximately at right angles to each other in the form of a T.
TORCH BRAZING (TB): A brazing process in which the heat required is furnished by a fuel gas flame.
TORCH TIP: SEE CUTTING TIP AND WELDING TIP.
TRANSFERRED ARC (PLASMA ARC WELDING): A plasma arc established between the electrode of the
plasma arc torch and the workpiece. SEE ALSO NONTRANSFERRED ARC.
TRANSVERSE CRACK: A crack with its major axis oriented approximately perpendicular to the weld axis.
TRAVEL ANGLE: The angle less than 90° degrees between the electrode axis and a line perpendicular to the
weld axis, in a plane determined by the electrode axis and the weld axis. This angle can also be used to partially
define the position of guns, torches, rods, and beams.
TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE: A nonfiller metal electrode used in arc welding, arc cutting, and plasma spraying,
made principally of tungsten.
TUNGSTEN INCLUSION: A discontinuity consisting of tungsten entrapped in weld metal.
2F, PLATE: A welding test position designation for a linear fillet weld applied to a joint in which the weld is made
in the horizontal welding position.
2G, PLATE: A welding test position designation for a linear groove weld applied to a joint in which the weld is
made in the horizontal welding position.
U
UNDERBEAD CRACK: A heat-affected zone crack in steel weldments arising from the occurrence of a crack
susceptible microstructure, residual or applied stress, and the presence of hydrogen.
UNDERCUT: A groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the weld toe or weld root and left unfilled by weld
metal.
UNDERFILL: A groove weld condition in which the weld face or root surface is below the adjacent surface of the
base metal.
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V
VACUUM BRAZING: A nonstandard term for various brazing processes that take place in a chamber or retort
below atmospheric pressure.
VERTICAL WELDING POSITION: The welding position in which the weld axis, at the point of welding, is
approximately vertical and the weld face lies in an approximately vertical plane.
W
WEAVE BEAD: A weld bead formed using weaving.
WEAVING: A welding technique in which the energy source is oscillated transversely as it progresses along the
weld path. SEE ALSO WEAVE BEAD AND WHIPPING.
WELD: A localized coalescence of metals or nonmetals produced either by heating the materials to the welding
temperature, with or without the application of pressure, or by the application of pressure alone and with or
without the use of filler material.
WELDABILITY: The capacity of material to be welded under the imposed fabrication conditions into a specific,
suitably designed structure and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service.
WELD AXIS: A line through the length of the weld, perpendicular to and at the geometric center of its cross
section.
WELD BEAD: A weld resulting from a weld pass.
WELD BONDING: A resistance spot welding process variation in which the spot weld strength is augmented by
adhesive at the faying surfaces.
WELD CRACK: A crack located in the weld metal or heat affected zone.
WELDER: One who performs manual or semiautomatic welding.
WELDER CERTIFICATION: Written verification that a welder has produced welds meeting a prescribed
standard of welder performance.
WELDER PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATION: The demonstration of a welder’s or welding operator’s ability to
produce welds meeting prescribed standards.
WELD FACE: The exposed surface of a weld on the side from which welding was done.
WELD GAGE: A device designed for measuring the shape and size of welds.
WELD GROOVE (FUSION WELDING): A channel in the surface of a workpiece or an opening between two joint
members that provides space to contain weld metal.
WELDING: A joining process that produces coalescence of materials by heating them to the welding
temperature, with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or
without the use of filler metal.
WELDING ARC: A controlled electrical discharge between the electrode and the workpiece that is formed and
sustained by the establishment of a gaseous conductive medium, called an arc plasma.
WELDING BLOWPIPE: A nonstandard term for oxyfuel gas welding torch.
WELDING ELECTRODE: A component of the welding circuit through which current is conducted and that
terminates at the arc, molten conductive slag, or base metal.
WELDING FILLER METAL: The metal or alloy to be added in making a weld joint that alloys with the base metal
to form weld metal in a fusion welded joint.
WELDING GENERATOR: A generator used for supplying current for welding.
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WELDING POWER SOURCE: An apparatus for supplying current and voltage suitable for welding.
WELDING PROCEDURE: The detailed methods and practices involved in the production of a weldment. SEE
ALSO WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION.
WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD (WPQR): A record of welding variables used to produce
an acceptable test weldment and the results of tests conducted on the weldment to qualify a welding procedure
specification.
WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION (WPS): A document providing in detail the required variables for a
specific application to assure repeatability by properly trained welders and welding operators.
WELDING RECTIFIER: A device in a welding power source for converting alternating current to direct current.
WELDING ROD: A form of welding filler metal, normally packaged in straight lengths that does not conduct
electrical current.
WELDING SCHEDULE: A written statement, usually in tabular form, specifying values of parameters and the
welding sequence for performing a welding operation.
WELDING SEQUENCE: The order of making the welds in a weldment.
WELDING SYMBOL: A graphical representation of the specifications for producing a welded joint.
WELDING TECHNIQUE: The details of a welding procedure that are controlled by the welder or welding
operator.
WELDING TEST POSITION: The orientation of a weld joint for welding procedure or welder qualification testing.
SEE ALSO WELDING TEST POSITION DESIGNATION.
WELDING TEST POSITION DESIGNATION: A symbol representation for a fillet weld or a groove weld, the joint
orientation and the welding test position. SEE ALSO 1F, 2F, 2FR, 3F, 4F, 5F, 6F, 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G, 6G, AND 6GR.
WELDING TIP (OXYFUEL GAS WELDING): That part of an oxyfuel gas welding torch from which gases issue.
WELDING TORCH: SEE GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING TORCH, OXYFUEL GAS WELDING TORCH, AND PLASMA ARC
WELDING TORCH.
WELD INTERFACE: The interface between weld metal and base metal in a fusion weld, between base metals in
a solid-state weld without filler metal, or between filler metal and base metal in a solid-state weld with filler metal.
WELDMENT: An assembly whose component parts are joined by welding.
WELD METAL: Metal in a fusion weld consisting of that portion of the base metal and filler metal melted during
welding.
WELD METAL CRACK: A crack occurring in the weld metal zone.
WELD PASS: A single progression of welding along a joint. The result of a weld pass is a weld bead or layer.
WELD PASS SEQUENCE: The order in which the weld passes are made.
WELD PENETRATION: A nonstandard term for joint penetration and root penetration.
WELD POOL: The localized volume of molten metal in a weld prior to its solidification as weld metal.
WELD REINFORCEMENT: Weld metal in excess of the quantity required to fill a weld groove. SEE ALSO
CONVEXITY, FACE REINFORCEMENT, AND ROOT REINFORCEMENT.
WELD ROOT: The points, shown in cross section, at which the weld metal intersects the base metal and extends
furthest into the weld joint.
WELD SIZE: SEE EDGE WELD SIZE, FILLET WELD SIZE, FLANGE WELD SIZE AND GROOVE WELD SIZE.
WELD SYMBOL: A graphic character connected to the reference line of a welding symbol specifying the weld
type. For examples and rules for their application, refer to AWS A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing,
and Nondestructive Examination.
WELD TAB: Additional material that extends beyond either end of the joint, on which the weld is started or
terminated.
WELD THROAT: SEE ACTUAL THROAT, EFFECTIVE THROAT AND THEORETICAL THROAT.
WELD TOE: The junction of the weld face and the base metal.
WHIPPING: A manual welding technique in which the arc or flame is oscillated backwards and forwards in the
direction of travel as it progresses along the weld path.
WORK ANGLE: The angle less than 90° between a line perpendicular to the major workpiece surface and a
plane determined by the electrode axis and the weld axis. In a T-joint or a corner joint, the line is perpendicular to
the nonbutting member. This angle can also be used to partially define the position of guns, torches, rods, and
beams. SEE ALSO DRAG ANGLE, PUSH ANGLE, AND TRAVEL ANGLE.
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Reference Material
Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination ............................................... AWS A2.4
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
Basic Weld Symbols ............................................................................................................................................2
Elements of a Welding Symbol ............................................................................................................................2
Location of the Weld With Respect to Joint .........................................................................................................2
Location Significance of Arrow.............................................................................................................................2
Welding Symbols and Codes ...............................................................................................................................2
General............................................................................................................................................................2
NOTE
Brazing B
Torch brazing TB
Twin carbon-arc brazing TCAB
Furnace brazing FB
Induction brazing IB
Resistance brazing RB
Dip brazing DB
Block brazing BB
Flow brazing FLB
Infrared brazing IRB
Diffusion brazing DFB
Arc brazing welding ABW
Resistance welding RW
Flash welding FW
Upset welding UW
Percussion welding PEW
Induction welding IW
Projection welding PW
Resistance spot welding RSW
Resistance seam welding RSEW
Arc welding AW
Bare metal-arc welding BMAW
Arc Stud welding SW
Submerged arc welding SAW
Gas tungsten-arc welding GTAW
Gas metal-arc welding GMAW
Atomic hydrogen welding AHW
Shielded metal-arc welding SMAW
Twin carbon-arc welding CAW-T
Carbon-arc welding CAW
Gas carbon-arc welding CAW-G
Shielded carbon-arc welding CAW-S
Flux cored arc welding FCAW
Plasma arc welding PAW
Other Welding
Electron beam welding EBW
Electroslag welding ESW
Flow welding FLOW
Induction welding IW
Laser beam welding LBW
Thermite welding TW
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Arc cutting AC
AC-C
Air-carbon-arc cutting
CAC
Carbon-arc cutting
GMAC
Gas Metal-arc cutting
PAC
Plasma arc cutting
OC
Oxygen cutting
OC-F
Flux cutting
OC-P
Metal powder cutting
OAC
Oxygen arc cutting
OG
Oxygen gouging
*
The following suffixes may be used to indicate the methods of applying above processes:
Automatic cutting AU
Machine cutting ME
Manual cutting MA
Semi-automatic cutting SA
d. When a joint is depicted as an area parallel to the place of projection in a drawing and the arrow of a
welding symbol is directed to that area, the ”arrow side” member of the joint shall be considered as the near
member of the joint in accordance with the usual conventions of drafting.
5. LOCATION OF THE WELD WITH RESPECT TO JOINT. (Refer to Figure 4.)
a. Welds on the arrow side of the joint shall be shown by placing the weld symbol on the side of the
reference line toward the reader.
b. Welds on the other side of the joint shall be shown by placing the welding symbol on the side of the
reference line away from the reader.
c. Welds on both sides of the joint shall be shown by placing weld symbols on both sides of the reference
line, toward and away from the reader.
d. Resistance spot, resistance seam, flash and upset weld symbols have no arrow side or other side
significance in themselves, although supplementary symbols used in conjunction with these symbols may
have such significance. For example, the flush contour symbol is used in conjunction with the spot and seam
symbols to show that the exposed surface of one member of the joint is to be flush. Resistance spot,
resistance seam, flash and upset weld symbols shall be centered on the reference line.
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18684
Figure 3. Arrow Location Significance Fillet and Groove Welding Symbols Denoting Location of the Weld
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Figure 4. Groove and Other Welding Symbols Denoting Location of the Weld
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
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Reference Material
Standard Hardness Conversion Tables for Metals Relationship Among Brinell Hardness, .....................ASTM E140
Vickers Hardness, Rockwell Hardness, Superficial Hardness, Knoop Hardness, and
Scleroscope Hardness
Standard Test Methods for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials .............................................................ASTM E10
Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness of Metallic Materials ........................................................ASTM E18
Standard Test Methods for Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials ...........................................................ASTM E92
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
Classification of Aluminum Alloys ........................................................................................................................5
Heat-Treatable Alloys .....................................................................................................................................5
Non-Heat Treatable Alloys..............................................................................................................................5
Numbering System .........................................................................................................................................5
Temper Designation of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy .................................................................................5
Classification of Ferrous (IRON) Alloys ...............................................................................................................3
Alloy Steels .....................................................................................................................................................3
Carbon Steels .................................................................................................................................................3
Classification of Magnesium Alloys......................................................................................................................6
Basic Classification .........................................................................................................................................6
Temper Designation of Magnesium Alloys .....................................................................................................6
Generation of Heat in Welding .............................................................................................................................2
Hardness Testing .................................................................................................................................................7
Methods of Hardness Testing .........................................................................................................................8
Procedures of Hardness Testing ....................................................................................................................8
Procedures for Measuring Hardness ..............................................................................................................8
Relationship Between Hardness and Tensile Strength ..................................................................................8
Heat Treatment of Steel .......................................................................................................................................6
Annealing ........................................................................................................................................................7
Hardening .......................................................................................................................................................7
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) ..............................................................................................................................6
Normalizing .....................................................................................................................................................7
Stress Relief Heat Treatment .........................................................................................................................7
Tempering.......................................................................................................................................................7
Properties of a Metal ............................................................................................................................................2
Ductility............................................................................................................................................................3
Elasticity ..........................................................................................................................................................2
General Description ........................................................................................................................................2
Hardness.........................................................................................................................................................3
Heat and Electrical Conductivity .....................................................................................................................3
Mechanical Properties ....................................................................................................................................2
Plasticity ..........................................................................................................................................................3
Toughness ......................................................................................................................................................3
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NOTE
a. One BTU (British Thermal Unit) (about 252 calories) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. The approximate heat energy required to raise the temperature of
one pound of solid steel from room temperature to its melting point 2700°F (still in solid state) is 430 BTU or
109,000 calories.
b. An additional amount of heat is required to transform the solid steel to the liquid state without further
increase in temperature. This heat, called the latent heat of fusion, is about 115 BTU per pound of steel.
Therefore, the total heat required to melt one pound of steel is 430 plus 115: or a total of 545 BTUs.
c. In actual welding, a greater amount of heat is required to fuse a given amount of metal in a joint due to heat
loss through conduction to the adjacent metal. Therefore, the heat input for welding must be sufficient to melt the
metal despite the constant loss of heat to colder metal next to the weld pool and to the environment. Generally,
one-fourth of the heat is lost to the air and the electrode leaving three- fourths of the heat to raise the temperature
of the part to be welded.
d. The heat developed by the arc is approximately: Arc voltage times arc current times time the arc burns. An
electrode arc at 35 volts, 150 amps generates 35 times 150 = 5250 watts or 5 BTU every second.
2. PROPERTIES OF A METAL.
a. GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
(1) A physical property is an inherent characteristic of the metal such as melting point or magnetic property
and is not dependent on external pressure or force to determine its limits if there is no physical change in the
metal structure.
(2) A mechanical property, on the other hand, is measured by the extent to which the metal reacts to the
applied force. For example, tensile strength of a metal is determined by how much force is applied to the metal
before it breaks.
(3) For the purpose of welding, the mechanical properties of a weld are more important considerations than
the physical properties.
b. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(1) Tensile Strength. Tensile strength is expressed as either TS or UTS (ultimate tensile strength) and
appears in literature frequently to describe the ultimate strength where a metal will break under gradual increase
of the load in longitudinal direction. Tensile strength is usually expressed in pounds per square inch (PSI) or (KSI)
which is one thousand times PSI. For example, if a steel has an ultimate tensile strength of 90,000 psi or 90 KSI,
a load of 90,000 pounds is required to break the steel if it has one square inch of cross sectional area. In other
words, the steel will bear the load up to 89,999 pounds without failure under equilibrium conditions.
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(2) Yield Strength (YS). Yield strength is a stress required to produce the initial significant plastic
deformation of the metal. Yield strength is usually much less than the tensile strength but is a useful mechanical
property in designing the structure.
(3) Fatigue Strength. Fatigue strength is the ability of a metal to withstand cyclical or repeated alternating
stress without breaking. Since the aircraft landing gear is repeatedly subjected to a severe cyclical load each time
it lands and takes off, fatigue strength is a very important physical property for landing gear material. Metal fatigue
or fatigue failure occurs at much lower strength levels than yield or tensile strength limits.
(4) Shear Strength. Shear strength is the maximum amount of cross sectional stress that a metal will sustain
before permanent deformation or rupture occurs.
c. ELASTICITY. Elasticity is the property of a metal that allows it to be stretched like a rubber band and return
to its original size and shape after load is removed. Of course, it is hard to observe the stretch by the unaided eye
but with proper testing equipment, the elasticity can be demonstrated. The elastic property is very important in
design considerations as a basic requisite because the metal used must return to its original shape when the load
is removed.
d. PLASTICITY. With the increase of the load, the elastic behavior changes at some point of loading to plastic.
The stretched metal never returns to its original dimension even if the load is removed. In other words, the metal
is permanently deformed or plastically deformed. Therefore, plasticity can be defined as the ability of a material to
assume deformation without breaking.
e. DUCTILITY. Ductility is the ability of a metal to become permanently stretched without breaking or
deforming. Each metal has a ductility limit beyond which fracture will occur. Prior to reaching this limit, the metal
simply remains elongated.
f. TOUGHNESS. Toughness is the ability of a metal to resist rapid or sudden applications of force such as
impact.
g. HARDNESS. Hardness is the ability of a metal to resist penetration by another metal or diamond indenter.
The hardness of a metal is directly related to its machinability which will be discussed later. The relationship
between the hardness and tensile strength in certain hardness ranges will be discussed later.
h. HEAT AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY. Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct or transfer
heat or electricity.
a. A numerical index system (refer to Table 1) is used to identify the composition of the steels which enables
the use of numerals that partially describe composition of material. The first digit indicates the type to which the
steel belongs.
For example:
“1” indicates a carbon steel
“2” indicates a nickel steel; and
“3” indicates a nickel chromium steel.
b. In the case of simple alloy steels, the second digit indicates the approximate percentage of predominant
alloying element. The last two or three digits indicate approximate carbon content in hundredths of one percent.
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4. CARBON STEELS.
a. Steel containing carbon in the range of 0.10-0.30% is classified as low carbon steel. Low carbon steels are
in the range of 1010 through 1030 of numerical system described in Table 1. The steels of this grade are easy to
weld without any preparations such as post and preheat treatments.
b. Steel containing carbon in the range from 0.30-0.50% is classified as medium carbon steel. They are
weldable with certain precautions requiring preheat and post heat treatments.
c. Steel containing carbon in the range of 0.50-1.05% is classified as high carbon steel. In fully heat treated
conditions high carbon steel is very hard and welding should be avoided.
NUMERALS
TYPES OF STEEL
(and digits)
CARBON STEELS 1xxx
Plain Carbon 10xx
Free Cutting (screw stock) 11xx
Manganese Steel 13xx
NICKEL-CHROMIUM-MOLYBDENUM STEELS
1.80% Nickel; 0.5% - 0.8% Chromium; 0.25% Molybdenum 43xx
0.55% Nickel; 0.50%- 0.65% Chromium; 0.20% Molybdenum 86xx
0.55% Nickel; 0.50% Chromium; 0.25% Molybdenum 87xx
3.25% Nickel; 1.20% Chromium; 0.12% Molybdenum 93xx
NICKEL-MOLYBDENUM STEELS
1.75% Nickel; 0.25% Molybdenum 46xx
3.5% Nickel; 0.25% Molybdenum 48xx
CHROMIUM STEELS
Low Chromium 50xx
Medium Chromium 51xxx
High Chromium 52xxx
CHROMIUM-VANADIUM STEELS
0.80-1.00% Chromium; 0.10-0.15% Vanadium 61xx
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5. ALLOY STEELS.
a. In hardening steel, the carbon plays the most important role. The hardness attainable in the steel is
dependent upon the amount of carbon only. It is difficult, however, to heat treat high carbon steel unless other
alloying elements, such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium are used. Some benefits of adding
alloying elements are as follows:
(1) A lower percentage of carbon is required for hardening. Lowering the carbon content makes the steel
more ductile and less susceptible to embrittlement cracks.
(2) A lower critical temperature range is required which permits the use of lower heating temperatures for
hardening.
(3) Corrosion resistance is increased as in the 18% chromium and 8% nickel stainless steel.
(4) The lower heat treating temperature requirements reduce the dangers of overheating, excessive grain
growth and the consequent development of brittleness.
(5) The characteristic of depth hardening from the addition of nickel to steel as an alloy results in good
mechanical properties after quenching and tempering. At a given strength, the nickel steels provide greatly
improved elastic properties, impact resistance, and toughness.
a. NUMBERING SYSTEM. Aluminum and aluminum alloys have a standard four digit numbering system (refer
to Table 2). The first digit represents the major alloying element, the second digit identifies modification, and the
last two digits serve only to identify different aluminum alloys that are in common commercial use except in the
1xxx class. In the 1xxx class, the last two digits indicate the aluminum content over 99 percent in hundredths of
one percent.
Example #1: Aluminum alloy “1017” indicates a minimum aluminum composition of 99%;
the “0” indicates it is the original composition; and the “17” indicates aluminum content
99.17%.
Example #2: Aluminum Alloy “3217” indicates a manganese alloy “3”; the “2” indicates
the second modification of this alloy, and the “17” indicates a commonly used commercial
alloy.
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b. TEMPER DESIGNATION OF ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOY. In high purity form, aluminum is soft
and ductile. Most commercial uses, however, require greater strength than pure aluminum affords. This is
achieved in aluminum first by the addition of other elements to produce various alloys, which, singly or in
combination, impart strength to the metal. Further strengthening is possible by means which classify the alloys
roughly into two categories: non-heat treatable and heat-treatable.
c. NON-HEAT-TREATABLE ALLOYS. The initial strength of alloys in this group depends upon the hardening
effect of elements such as manganese, silicon, iron and magnesium, singly or in various combinations. The non-
heat-treatable alloys, therefore, are usually designated in the 1000, 3000, 4000, or 5000 series. Since these
alloys are workhardenable, further strengthening is made possible by various degrees of cold working, denoted by
the ”H” series of tempers as shown below:
H1: strain hardened
H2: strain hardened and partially annealed
H3: strain hardened and stabilized
F: as fabricated
O: annealed
The second number added to the above top three designations (H1, H2 and H3) indicates the degree of
hardness.
2 = 1/4 hard H12, H22, H32
4 = 1/2 hard H14, H24, H34
6 = 3/4 hard H16, H26, H36
8 = Full hard H18, H28, H38
For Example: Aluminum Alloy 5052-H24 is strain hardened and partially annealed to half-hard.
d. HEAT-TREATABLE ALLOYS. The initial strength of alloys in this group is enhanced by the addition of
alloying elements such as copper, magnesium, zinc, and silicon. Since these elements show increasing solubility
in aluminum with increasing temperature, it is possible to subject them to thermal treatments, which will impart
pronounced strengthening.
(1) The first step, called solution heat treatment (ST), is an elevated temperature process designed to put
the soluble elements into the solid solution. This is followed by rapid quenching, usually, which momentarily
“freezes” the structure in a short time to make the alloy very workable. It is at this stage that some fabricators
retain this more workable structure by storing the alloys at below freezing temperature until they are ready to form
the part.
For Example: Some rivets are stored in the freezer and taken out just prior to installation.
(2) At room or elevated temperatures, however, the alloys are not stable after quenching, and precipitation
of the constituents from the supersaturated solution begins. After a period of several days at room temperature,
termed aging (A) or room-temperature precipitation, the alloy is considerably stronger. Many alloys approach a
stable condition at room temperature, but some alloys, particularly those containing magnesium and silicon or
magnesium and zinc, continue to age harden at room temperature for long periods of time.
(3) By heating for a controlled time at slightly elevated temperatures, even further strengthening is possible
and properties are stabilized. This process is called artificial aging or precipitation hardening. By the proper
combination of solution heat treatment, quenching, cold working and artificial aging, the highest strengths are
obtained.
(4) Numerals 1 through 10 following the ”T” and ”F”, ”0”, ”W” indicate the basic treatment of the heat
treatable alloys as follows:
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-F: As fabricated
-0: Annealed Solution heat treated (unstable condition)
For Example: Aluminum Alloy 7075-T6 is a copper-zinc aluminum alloy, solution heat treated and
artificially aged.
e. CLAD ALLOYS. The heat treatable alloys in which copper or zinc are major alloying constituents, are less
resistant to corrosive attack than the majority of non-heat-treatable alloys. To increase the corrosion resistance of
these alloys in sheet and plate form, they are often clad with high-purity aluminum, a low magnesium-silicon alloy,
or an alloy containing 1 percent zinc. The cladding is usually from 2-1/2 to 5 percent of the total thickness on each
side or one side.
8. BASIC CLASSIFICATION.
a. The current system used to identify magnesium alloys is a two letter, two or three digit number designation
in that order. The letters designate the major alloying elements, (arranged in decreasing percentage, or in
alphabetical order if the elements are of equal amounts), followed by the respective digital percentages of these
elements. The percentage is rounded off to the nearest whole number or if a tolerance range of the alloy is
specified, the mean of the range (rounded off to nearest whole number) is used. A suffix letter following the
percentage digits denotes the latest qualified revision of the alloy.
For example: Magnesium Alloy Designated as AZ92A would consist of 9% (mean value) aluminum and
2% (mean value) zinc as the major alloying elements. The suffix ”A” indicates this is the first qualified alloy
of this type.
A Aluminum
E Rare earth
H Thorium
K Zirconium
M Manganese
Z Zinc
9. TEMPER DESIGNATION OF MAGNESIUM ALLOYS.
a. The temper (hardness) designation is similar to the one used for heat treatable aluminum alloys. The
hyphenated suffix symbol which follows an alloy designation denotes the condition of temper.
a. HEAT AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ). The properties of the metal adjacent to the weld joint are changed during
welding. The metal at HAZ does not actually melt but it can reach temperatures close to the melting point
therefore altering structural and physical properties, which is generally harmful and should be taken into
consideration when dealing with the ultimate tensile strength of a welded joint.
b. STRESS RELIEF HEAT TREATMENT. Welding a part usually results in localized residual stresses that
sometimes approach levels of the yield strength of the metal. This will eventually distort or crack the part. Stress
relief heat treatment is utilized to relieve this stress that is locked in the part after welding. Typical stress relief
temperatures for low alloy steel are attained by uniformly heating the part in a temperature range of 1100°F -
1200°F, holding at this temperature for a predetermined time followed by uniform cooling to room temperature.
c. ANNEALING. Annealing is performed to soften the part to improve machinability as well as dimensional
stability. It consists of heating to and holding at a certain temperature followed by cooling to room temperature at
a different rate. The higher the carbon content, the lower the annealing temperature.
For example: The annealing temperature of low carbon steel is 1575°F - 1650°F compared to 1450°F -
1600°F for medium carbon steel.
d. HARDENING. The carbon content of steel determines the maximum attainable hardness. Therefore, the
hardening of steel is the art of controlling the distribution of carbides in the steel. It is accomplished by heating the
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part to an elevated temperature, then cooling it rapidly (called quenching) in oil or water. The carbides are
precipitated as very fine particles, which is associated with high hardness of the steel.
e. NORMALIZING. A process in which an iron-base alloy is heated to a temperature above the transformation
range and subsequently cooled in still air at room temperature.
f. TEMPERING. The steel that has been hardened by rapid cooling or quenching is often harder than
necessary and too brittle for most purposes. It also contains residual stresses arising from the quenching. In order
to relieve the stress and reduce the brittleness or restore toughness, the hardened steel is usually tempered.
Tempering consists of heating the steel to a 370°F- 1100°F range depending on the desired hardness. The higher
the tempering temperature, the softer the steel becomes. In other words, as the tempering temperature increases,
the toughness increases, and hardness decreases.
g. SURFACE HARDENING. Gears must have very hard teeth to prevent wear, but at the same time, they
require softer and tougher cores to absorb impact loads during operation. Case hardening or surface hardening
produces a hard wear resistance surface but leaves a tough core for this type of application. Since low carbon
steel cannot be hardened largely by the hardening process, hardening of the surface or case is accomplished by
increasing the carbon content on the surface by the case hardening process. The depth of the portion into which
the carbon has been diffused is called case depth. Welding is not recommended on case hardened parts.
a. Hardness testing is an important tool in determining the results of the heat treatment as well as the condition
of the metal before heat treatment and must, therefore, be carefully considered in connection with this work. The
most common hardness testers in general use are: Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers. In certain hardness ranges,
values from these testers can be interchangeable.
b. Hardness values can give in formation about the metallurgical changes caused by welding.
c. In the case of premium and high carbon steels and cast iron, the heat affected zone or weld junction may
become hard and brittle because of the formation of marten site. Hardness values in a welded joint are usually
sensitive to such conditions of welding, as
d. Hardness values indicate whether the correct welding technique and pre and post heat treatments have
been carried out. The hardness of welds is particularly important if the welds must be machined.
(1) ASTM E10 - Standard Test Method for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials
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(2) ASTM E18 - Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness of Metallic Materials
(3) ASTM E92 - Standard Test Method for Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials
b. Vickers pyramid and Shore Scleroscope methods may also be used to find hardness. The welded specimen
in whose case hardness is to be tested is ground, polished or polished and etched to show clearly the weld metal
area. Hardness is determined on specific areas of interest, including the weld center line, face or root regions of
the weld deposit, the heat affected zone and the base metal.
c. Brinell Hardness Test - It consists of pressing a hardened steel ball into a test specimen. According to
ASTM 10 specifications, a 10 mm diameter ball is used for the purpose. Lower loads are applied for measuring
hardness of soft materials and vice versa.
a. Specimen is placed on the anvil; the hand wheel is rotated so that the specimen along with the anvil moves
up and contacts with the ball. The desired load is applied mechanically (by a gear driven screw) or hydraulically
(by oil pressure) and the ball presses into the specimen.
b. The diameter of the indentation made in the specimen by the pressed ball is measured by the use of a
micrometer microscope, having a transparent engraved scale in the field of view.
c. The indentation diameter is measured at two places at right angles to each other, and the average of the
two readings is taken. The Brinell hardness number (BHN) which is the pressure per unit surface area of the
indentation in kg per square meter, is calculated as follows:
e. Rockwell Hardness Testing - Rockwell hardness testing differs from Brinell testing in that the indenters and
the loads are smaller and therefore the resulting indentation on the specimen is smaller and shallower. Rockwell
testing is suitable for materials having hardness beyond the scope of Brinell testing. Rockwell testing is faster as
compared to Brinell testing because diameter of indentation need not be measured; the Rockwell machine gives
arbitrary direct reading. Unlike Brinell testing, rockwell testing needs no surface preparation (polishing, etc.) of the
specimen whose hardness is to be measured.
a. Test piece is placed upon the machine. The machine dial is showing any reading.
b. Hand wheel is turned, thereby raising the test piece up against the steel ball indenter till the needle on the
dial reads zero. This applies minor load.
c. Major load is applied by pressing the crank provided on the righthand side of the machine (not shown).
d. Crank is turned in the reverse direction thereby withdrawing major load but leaving minor load applied.
a. The approximate relationship between the tensile strength and hardness is indicated in Table 3. This table
is to be used as a guide and is usually applied to the plain carbon and low alloy steels and to the metals with
tensile strengths greater than 100,000 psi.
b. The tensile strength-hardness relation ship is quite uniform for parts which are sufficiently large and rigid to
permit obtaining a full depression of a flat surface without deflection of the piece. For cylindrical parts of less than
one inch in diameter, and all tubing, the Rockwell reading will be lower because the part has a tendency to yield
on pressure and become egg-shaped. Therefore, a correction factor has to be added to obtain a correct
hardness.
c. Any process which affects the surface such as buffing and plating, or the presence of decarburized, or
porous areas and hard spots, will affect the corresponding relationship between hardness and tensile strength.
Therefore, these surfaces must be adequately removed by sanding or grinding before the measurements are
made.
For Example: The part measured Rockwell C hardness 40. What is the approximate tensile
strength of this part?
Solution: From Table 3, cross over from 40 in the C scale and the approximate tensile
strength is 181 KSI or 181,000 psi.
d. Refer to ASTM E140, “Standard Hardness Conversion Tables for Metals Relationship Among
Brinell Hardness, Vickers Hardness, Rockwell Hardness, Superficial Hardness, Knoop Hardness, and
Scleroscope Hardness” for more information regarding the relationships between metal hardness’.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
None
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
General.................................................................................................................................................................2
Metal Groupings...................................................................................................................................................2
None
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NOTE
1. GENERAL.
b. Legacy coding of metal groups used a ‘small’ letter ‘a’ or ‘b’ to designate special alloying within a group. For
example, Carbon Steel was classified as Group Ia while Alloyed Carbon Steel was designated as Group Ib. This
meant that welders who certified in the subgroup ‘b’ were automatically certified in subgroup ‘a’. Those
designations are no longer in use and metal groups with two designations ‘a’ and ‘b’ are combined hereon.
c. Each metal is grouped by the primary Roman Numeral designation with respect to the legacy designations.
Included in the table, where possible, the corresponding Unified Number System (UNS) and common designators
are provided.
d. These tables are not all inclusive and provides a reference to commonly defined metals and metal
groupings.
For example: UNS G41300 equate to AISI 4130 alloy steel and UNS S41000 equates to 410
stainless steel.
2. METAL GROUPINGS.
a. The complete listing of metal groups by base metal is provided in Table 1. Welders may certify or recertify
on any metal listed in each group.
b. Weld schools are generally set up with a specific selection of metal groups and certified welders may
choose to use those metals for recertification.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
WELDING ELECTRODES
Reference Material
American Iron and Steel Institute............................................................................................................... AISI Series
American Welding Society ........................................................................................................................AWS Series
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
Bare Electrodes Classification ........................................................................................................................ 6
Classification of Electrodes ............................................................................................................................. 2
Covered Electrodes Classification .................................................................................................................. 2
ARC Action Obtained with a Light Coated Electrode.................................................................................... 5
ARC Action Obtained with a Shielded ARC Electrode ................................................................................. 5
Functions of Shielded ARC or Heavy Coated Electrodes............................................................................. 5
Light Coated Electrodes................................................................................................................................ 3
Shielded ARC or Heavy Coated Electrodes ................................................................................................. 4
Direct Current ARC Welding Electrodes ......................................................................................................... 5
Electrode Defects and their Effect .................................................................................................................. 8
Gas Metal ARC Welding Metal Transfer......................................................................................................... 6
Globular......................................................................................................................................................... 8
Pulsed Spray................................................................................................................................................. 8
Short-Circuiting ............................................................................................................................................. 7
Spray Transfer .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Storing Electrodes........................................................................................................................................... 5
Welding Electrodes ......................................................................................................................................... 2
General.......................................................................................................................................................... 2
GTAW/GMAW............................................................................................................................................... 2
SMAW ........................................................................................................................................................... 2
None
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NOTE
1. WELDING ELECTRODES.
a. GENERAL. Welding filler metals can take different forms such as a flux covered electrode, solid wire, cored
wire, or straight cut wire.
b. SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW). A flux covered electrode is used for the SMAW process. This
electrode may have some of the alloying elements within the flux which is mixed with the molten metal to form a
compatible alloy upon solidification.
c. GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)/GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW). Wire provided for
either process may of the same elemental composition and the full alloying effects are derived from the solid wire.
Wire designated for GMAW may be used for GTAW, if necessary.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRODES.
a. The American Welding Society’s (AWS) classification number series has been adopted by the welding
industry and will be used through this general series manual.
b. For further information regarding the “Description and Intended Uses” of various welding filler metals, refer
to the respective AWS weld filler metal specification.
a. The covered electrode identification system for steel arc welding is per the AWS system, as follows:
For Example:
b. The covered electrode identification system for stainless steel arc welding is set up as follows:
For Example:
• The first three digits indicate the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) type of stainless steel.
• The last two digits indicate the current and position used.
The number E-308-16 by this system indicates stainless steel type 308; with
alternating or reverse polarity direct current; and it is used in all positions.
c. Nonferrous, Nickel alloy, covered welding electrodes follow a similar convention as follows:
For Example:
The filler metal ENiCrFe-3 used by this system indicates that the filler metal is a covered
electrode made from the primary alloy elements, Nickel (Ni), Chromium (Cr), and Iron (Fe) and is
the third composition within that Alloy combination.
a. Light coated electrodes have a definite composition. A light coating has been applied on the surface by
washing, dipping, brushing, spraying, tumbling, or wiping to improve the stability and characteristics of the arc
stream.
c. The coating dissolves or reduces impurities such as oxides, sulfur, and phosphorus.
d. The coating, also changes the surface tension of the molten metal so that the globules of metal leaving the
end of the electrode are smaller and more frequent, making the flow of molten metal more uniform.
e. It increases the arc stability by introducing materials readily ionized (i.e., changed into small particles with
an electric charge) into the arc stream.
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f. Some of the light coatings may produce a slag, but it is quite thin and does not act in the same manner as
the shielded arc electrode type slag. The arc action obtained with light coated electrodes is shown in figure 1.
a. Shielded arc or heavy coated electrodes have a definite composition on which a coating has been applied
by dipping, extrusion, or other suitable process.
b. The electrodes are manufactured in three general types: those with cellulose coatings; those with mineral
coatings; and those whose coatings are combinations of mineral and cellulose. The cellulose coatings are
composed of soluble cotton or other forms of cellulose with small amounts of potassium, sodium, or titanium, and
in some cases added minerals. The mineral coatings consist of sodium silicate, metallic oxides, clay, and other
inorganic substances or combinations thereof. Cellulose coated electrodes protect the molten metal with a
gaseous zone around the arc as well as slag deposit over the weld. The mineral coated electrode forms a slag
deposit only.
c. The shielded arc or heavy coated electrodes are used for welding steels and cast iron, hard surfacing, and
other purposes. The arc action obtained with the shielded arc or heavy coated electrode is shown in figure 2.
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a. These electrodes produce a reducing gas shield around the arc which prevents atmospheric oxygen or
nitrogen from contaminating the weld metal. The oxygen would readily combine with the molten metal, removing
alloying elements and causing porosity. The nitrogen would cause brittleness, low ductility, and in some cases low
strength and poor resistance to corrosion. They reduce impurities such as oxides, sulfur, and phosphorus so that
these impurities will not impair the weld deposit.
a. They provide substances to the arc which increase its stability and eliminate wide fluctuations in the voltage
so that the arc can be maintained without excessive spattering.
b. By reducing the attractive force between the molten metal and the end of the electrode, or by reducing the
surface tension of the molten metal, the vaporized and melted coating causes the molten metal at the end of the
electrode to break up into fine, small particles.
c. The coatings contain silicates, which will form a slag over the molten weld and base metal. Since the slag
solidifies at a relatively slow rate it holds the heat and allows the underlying metal to cool and solidify slowly. This
slow solidification of the metal eliminates the entrapment of gases within the weld and permits solid impurities to
float to the surface. Slow cooling also has an annealing effect on the weld deposit.
d. The physical characteristics of the weld deposit are modified by incorporating alloying materials in the
electrode coating. Also the fluxing action of the slag will produce weld metal of better quality and permit welding at
higher speeds.
a The coating insulates the sides of the electrode so that the arc is concentrated into a confined area. This
facilitates welding in a deep U or V groove.
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b The coating produces a cup, cone, or sheath (figure 2) at the tip of the electrode which acts as a shield,
concentrates and directs the arc, reduces heat losses and increases the temperature at the end of the electrode.
a. The manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed when a specific type of electrode is being used. In
general, direct current shielded arc electrodes are designed either for reverse polarity (electrode positive) or for
straight polarity (electrode negative) and are interchangeable. Many, but not all of the direct current electrodes
can be used with alternating current. Direct current is preferred for many types of covered nonferrous, bare and
alloy steel electrodes. Recommendations from the manufacturer also include the type of base metal for which
given electrodes are suitable, corrections for poor fit-ups, and other specific conditions.
b. In most cases reverse polarity electrodes will provide less penetration than straight polarity electrodes, and
for this reason will permit greater welding speed. Good penetration can be obtained from either type with proper
welding conditions and arc manipulations.
c. Alternating Current Arc Welding Electrodes. Coated electrodes which can be used with either direct or
alternating current are available. Alternating current is more desirable while welding in a restricted area or when
using the high currents required for thick sections because it reduces arc blow. Arc blow causes blowholes, slag
inclusions, and lack of fusion in the weld.
a. Electrodes must be kept dry. Moisture destroys the desirable characteristics of the coating and may cause
excessive spattering and lead to the formation of cracks in the welded area by inducing Hydrogen (H2) into the
weld pool and the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ).
b. In general, electrodes exposed to air for more than two or three hours should be dried by heating in a
suitable oven (Figure 3) for two hours at 500°F (260°C). After they have been dried, they should be stored in a
suitable container.
c. Consult with the electrode manufacturer specification about drying electrodes which have exceeded the
recommended time limits when exposed to the atmosphere.
a. Bare wires are designated using the ER designation, where, ER – designates the Electrode and Rod,
followed by the primary alloy and subsequent alloys and a number, indicating separate compositions within the
alloy group.
For Example:
• ERNiCrFe-3
b. Bare electrodes are made of wire compositions required for specific applications and have no coatings other
than those required in wire drawing. These wire drawing coatings have some slight stabilizing effect on the arc but
are otherwise of no consequence.
a. Spray transfer GMAW was the first metal transfer method used in GMAW, best suited for welding aluminum
and stainless steel while employing an inert shielding gas and a relatively thick electrode.
b. Molten metal droplets (with diameters smaller than the electrode diameter) are rapidly passed along the
stable electric arc from the electrode to the workpiece, essentially eliminating spatter and resulting in a high-
quality weld finish.
c. High amounts of voltage and current are necessary, which means that the process involves high heat input
and a large weld area and heat-affected zone.
CAUTION
This Short-circuiting transfer method is not to be used for structural applications.
a. Short-circuiting or short-arc GMAW, for carbon steel alloys, in which mixtures of argon/oxygen,
argon/carbon dioxide, or 100% carbon dioxide shields the weld. The electrode wire is smaller, and the current is
lower than for the globular method. As a result of the lower current, the heat input for the short-arc variation is
reduced, making it possible to weld thinner materials while decreasing the amount of distortion and residual stress
in the weld area.
15. PULSED-SPRAY.
a. The pulse-spray metal transfer mode is based on the principles of spray transfer but uses a pulsing current
to melt the filler wire and allow one small molten droplet to all with each pulse.
b. The pulses allow the average current to be lower, decreasing the overall heat input and thereby decreasing
the size of the weld pool and heat-affected zone while making it possible to weld thin work pieces.
c. The pulse provides a stable arc and no spatter, since no short-circuiting takes place. This also makes the
process suitable for nearly all metals, and thicker electrode wire can be used as well.
d. The smaller weld pool gives the variation greater versatility, making it possible to weld in all positions.
e. It generates lower heat input and can be used to weld thin work pieces, as well as nonferrous materials.
a. GMAW with globular metal transfer is often considered the most undesirable of the four major GMAW
variations, because of its tendency to produce high heat, a poor weld surface, and spatter.
a. If certain elements or their oxides are present in electrode coatings the arc stability will be affected. In bare
electrodes the composition and uniformity of the wire is an important factor in the control of arc stability. Thin or
heavy coatings on electrodes will not completely remove the effects of defective wire.
b. Aluminum or aluminum oxide (even when present in quantities not exceeding 0.01 percent), silicon, silicon
dioxide, and iron sulfate cause the arc to be unstable. Iron oxide, manganese oxide, calcium oxide, and iron
sulfide tend to stabilize the arc.
c. When phosphorus or sulfur are present in the electrode in excess of 0.04 percent they will impair the weld
metal because they are transferred from the electrode to the molten metal with very little loss. Phosphorus causes
grain growth, brittleness, and ”cold shortness” (i.e., brittle when below red heat) in the weld, and these defects
increase in magnitude as the carbon content of the steel increases. Sulfur acts as a slag, breaks up the
soundness of the weld metal, and causes ”hot shortness” (i.e., brittle when above red heat). Sulfur is particularly
harmful to bare low carbon steel electrodes with a low manganese content. Manganese promotes the formation of
sound welds.
d. If the heat treatment given the wire core of an electrode is not uniform the electrode will produce welds
inferior to those produced with an electrode of the same composition that has been properly heat treated.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
WELDING MACHINES
Reference Material
None
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
NOTE
2. GENERAL.
a. The electrical equipment required for arc welding depends on the source from which the electric power is
obtained. If the power is obtained from utility lines one or more of the following devices is required: transformers
(of which there are several types), rectifiers, motor generators, and control equipment.
b. If public utility power is not available, portable generators driven by gasoline or diesel engines are used.
a. Direct current rectifier type welding machines have been designed with copper oxide, silicon, or selenium
dry plates. These machines usually consist of a transformer to reduce the power line voltage to the required
220/440 volts, 3 phase, 60 cycle input current; and a rectifier to change the alternating current to direct current.
Sometimes another reactor is used to reduce ripple in the output current.
b. The direct current welding machine has a heavy duty direct current generator. The generators are made in
six standardized ratings for general purposes as described below:
c. The machines rated 150 and 200 amperes, 30 volts, are used for light shielded metal-arc welding and for
gas metal-arc welding. They are also used for general purpose job shop work.
d. The machines rated 200, 300, and 400 amperes, 40 volts, are used for general welding purposes by
machine or manual application.
e. Machines rated 600 amperes, 40 volts, are used for submerged arc welding and for carbon-arc welding.
a. When electric generators powered by internal combustion engines are used inside buildings or in confined
areas the engine exhaust must be conducted to the outside atmosphere.
b. Welding generating equipment are gasoline or diesel engines (internal combustion engines) driving an
electric motor or welding generators, most producing 220/440 volts, 3 phase, 60 cycle.
c. The unit is designed for use with an ac-dc conventional, constant current type welding power supply. This
means that the gasoline engine-driven arc welding machines issued to field units may be used as both a power
source and a welding source.
d. The gasoline and diesel engines should have a rated horsepower in excess of the rated output of the
generator. This will allow for the rated overload capacity of the generator and for the power required to operate
the accessories of the engine. This simple equation can be used:
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HP = 1.25 P
746
Where HP is the engine horsepower and P is the generator rating in watts. For
example, a 20 horsepower engine would be used to drive a welding generator
with a rated 12 kilowatt output.
20 HP = 1.25 x 12000
746
e. In most direct current welding machines the generator is of the variable voltage type, and is so arranged
that the voltage is automatically adjusted to the demands of the arc. However, the voltage may be set manually
with a rheostat.
f. The welding current amperage is also manually adjustable and is set by means of a selector switch or series
of plug receptacles. In either case the desired amperage is obtained by tapping into the generator field coils.
When both voltage and amperage of the welding machine are adjustable the machine is known as a dual control
type. Welding machines are also manufactured in which current controls are maintained by movement of the
brush assembly.
g. A maintenance schedule should be set up to keep the welding machine in good operating condition.
(1) The machine should be thoroughly inspected every 3 months and blown free of dust with clean, dry,
compressed air.
(2) At least once each year the contacts of the motor starter switches and the rheostat should be cleaned
and replaced if necessary.
(3) Brushes should be inspected frequently to see if they are making proper contact on the commutator,
and that they move freely in the brush holders.
(4) Clean and true the commutator with sandpaper or a commutator stone if it is burned or roughened.
(5) Check the bearings twice a year. Remove all the old grease and replace it with new grease.
a. Practically all of the alternating current arc welding machines in use are of the single operator, static
transformer type. For manual operation in industrial applications, machines having 200, 300, and 400 ampere
ratings are the sizes in general use. Machines with 150 ampere ratings are sometimes used in light industrial,
garage and job shop welding.
b. The transformers are generally equipped with arc stabilizing capacitors. Current control is provided in
several ways. One such method is by means of an adjustable reactor in the output circuit of the transformer; in
other types, the internal reactions of the transformer are adjustable. A handwheel, usually installed on the front or
the top of the machine, makes possible continuous adjustment of the output current without steps.
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6. HEAT DISTRIBUTION.
a. The screws and bearings on machines with screw type adjustments should be lubricated every 3 months.
The same lubrication schedule will apply to chain drives. Contactors, switches, relays, and plug and jack
connections should be inspected every 3 months and cleaned or replaced as required.
b. The primary input current at no load should be measured and checked once a year to make certain that the
power factor connecting capacitors are working, and that input current is as specified on the nameplate or in the
manufacturer’s instruction book.
a. Constant current welding uses a current that varies slightly with significant changes in voltage.
b. Constant current, or CC, is often used in shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) and gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW).
a. Constant current power sources are used primarily with coated electrodes. This type of power source has a
relatively small change in amperage and arc power for a corresponding relatively large change in arc voltage or
arc length, thus the name constant current.
b. The characteristics of this power source are best illustrated by observing a graph that plots the volt-ampere
curve. As can be seen in Figure 1 (Dash Line), the curve of a constant current machine drops down-ward rather
sharply and for this reason, this type of machine is often called a "drooper."
c. In welding with coated electrodes, the output current or amperage is set by the operator while the voltage is
designed into the unit. The operator can vary the arc voltage somewhat by increasing or decreasing the arc
length. A slight increase in arc length will cause an increase in arc voltage and a slight decrease in amperage. A
slight decrease in arc length will cause a decrease in arc voltage and a slight increase in amperage.
a. Constant Voltage (CV) welding uses a voltage that varies slightly with significant changes in current. As
shown in Figure 1 (Solid Line).
b. Constant voltage is often used for gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and flux-cored arc welding (FCAW).
c. An inverter based machine is controlled by a microcontroller, so the electrical characteristics of the welding
power can be changed by software in real time updates. Typically the controller software will implement features
such as pulsing the welding current, variable ratios and current densities through a welding cycle, variable
frequencies, and automatic spot-welding; all of which would be prohibitively expensive in a transformer-based
machine but require only program space in software-controlled inverter machine.
a. Constant voltage power sources, also known as constant potential, are used in welding with solid and flux
cored electrodes, and as the name implies, the voltage output remains relatively constant. On this type of power
source, the voltage is set at the machine and amperage is determined by the speed that the wire is fed to the
welding gun. Increasing the wire feed speed increases the amperage. Decreasing the wire feed speed decreases
the amperage.
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b. Arc length plays an important part in welding with solid and flux cored electrodes, just as it does in welding
with a coated electrode. However, when using a constant voltage power source and a wire feeder that delivers
the wire at a constant speed, arc length caused by operator error, plate irregularities, and puddle movement are
automatically
a. Typically, power sources, which may be designed to supply power to the wire feeder, have been
constructed to operate in either a constant current (CC) mode or a constant voltage (CV) mode.
b. For those welding applications that require a constant current input to the wire feeder, the wire feeder is
connected to a CC power source. Conversely, for those welding applications that require a constant voltage at a
weld, the wire feeder is connected to a CV power source.
c. For CC mode of operation, the user is able to adjust the speed by which metal filler or consumable electrode
is delivered to a weld so as to maintain a desired voltage at the weld.
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d. Conversely, for a CV mode of operation, the user may adjust the wire feed speed to maintain a target
current level at the weld. Wire feed speed (WFS) and voltage at the weld are inversely related therefore to
increase the arc voltage at the weld, the WFS must be decreased and to lower the voltage at the weld, the WFS
must be increased. In contrast, WFS and current are directly related and, as such, an increase in WFS will cause
an increase in current and vice versa.
a. The new welding power source, the Inverter, is a high-power semiconductor, switching power supply,
capable of coping with the high loads of arc welding.
b. These supplies generally convert utility power to high voltage and store this energy in a capacitor bank; a
microprocessor controller then switches this energy into a second transformer as needed to produce the desired
welding current. The switching frequency is very high - typically 10,000 Hz or higher. The high frequency inverter-
based welding machines can be more efficient and have better control than non-inverter welding machines.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
None
Alphabetical Index
None
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NOTE
NOTE
1. BACKGROUND.
a. Many welding processes are available for the repair and fabrication or manufacture of aviation components,
including support equipment. Of these processes, a select few are described within this work package 004 series.
b. This work package is not intended to be all inclusive and only provides basic information concerning the
process to setup and use. Specific information related to the actual welding equipment should be consulted and
takes precedence over this general series manual.
c. this work package series is organized by welding process providing information to describe the overall
function including some details that ensure the process is properly setup for welding.
2. WELDING PROCESSES.
a. The common welding processes associated with aviation welding are provided within this work package
series.
a. Welding processes not listed in this work package series may be used when specified or required by the
repair technical manual. Specific equipment setup, operation, maintenance and training requirements shall be
established by each command incorporating the repair method.
b. Welding processes that currently fall in this category are listed below.
Reference Material
None
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
None
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NOTE
a. GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) is a process used to produce high quality welds in virtually all
weldable metals. It is done manually or automatically. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is also known as
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding. It was originally called Heliarc welding when it was first developed.
b. Welding is done normally with one tungsten electrode, but multiple electrodes have been used in special
applications. Gas tungsten arc welding may be done in any welding position. It is used to weld thin walled pipe
and tube. The process is also used almost exclusively to weld the root bead in heavy walled pipe in petroleum,
chemical, and power generating applications. Filler metal may or may not be required with GTAW. Flange joints
on thin metal may be designed for welding without filler metal.
c. Inert gases, specifically, argon are used to shield the GTAW from atmospheric contamination.
d. The welder must manipulate the gas tungsten arc welding torch to control the arc length. The welder must
also carefully add the filler metal when doing manual GTAW. Manual gas tungsten arc welding therefore requires
more welder skill than gas metal arc welding.
a. Gas tungsten arc welding requires the use of a torch, an inert gas, gas regulating equipment, a constant
current power supply, and filler metal when required.
b. Direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) power supplies may be used. Either direct current electrode
negative (DCEN/DCSP) or direct current electrode positive (DCEP/DCRP) may be used. When doing GTAW with
DCEN, two thirds of the heat generated in the arc is released on the work piece and one third is released at the
electrode. In DCEP, two thirds of the heat generated is released at the electrode and one third on the work. When
DCEP is used for GTAW, a larger diameter electrode must be used than when DCEN is used. Figure 1 shows
how the electrons flow and how the heat is distributed when DCEN, DCEP, or AC is used with GTAW. The
current carrying capacity of an electrode using DCEP is only about one tenth that of an electrode using DCEN.
DCEN is therefore used most often.
c. Filler metal is added to the arc pool either manually or automatically. When doing manual GTAW, the filler
metal is added in much the same way as when doing oxyfuel gas welding. A flange may be bent up on thin metal
and used as the filler metal.
d. Using automatic GTAW, metal as thin as .003 in. (.076 mm) may be welded using a flanged joint.
e. The filler metal used for automatic GTAW is usually in the form of spooled wire. The wire is fed into the arc
pool as shown in Figure 2. Thicknesses above .02 in. (.51 mm) are generally joined using an added filler metal.
f. Alternating current or direct current electrode positive (DCEP) or direct current reverse polarity (DCRP) is
used when surface oxides must be removed. Surface oxides occur on aluminum, magnesium, and some other
nonferrous metals. These metal oxides melt at a higher temperature than the base metal. The oxides therefore
make it hard to weld the base metal.
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g. Electrons flow from the work to the electrode when DCEP is used and during one-half of the AC cycle.
However, positively charged shielding gas ions travel from the nozzle to the negatively charged work; see Figure
1. These shielding gas ions strike the work surface with sufficient force to break up the oxides. DCEP and AC
both work well in breaking up the surface oxides on aluminum and magnesium. See Figure 3. AC gives better
penetration. AC can also be used with a smaller electrode diameter for a given current flow.
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a. Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) (DCSP) is used when the greatest amount of heat is to be on the
base metal. DCEN is also used when welding thicker sections and for deepest penetration. See Figure 1. Direct
current electrode positive (DCEP) (DCRP) is used to weld thin metal sections. DCEP or AC is used for the best
surface cleaning action when welding aluminum or magnesium. An alternating current source is chosen when
equal heating is preferred. AC is also used for medium penetration welds.
b. The power source may be able to furnish steady or pulsing current. Pulsing current is the best choice when
welding out of position.
c. During half of the alternating current (AC) cycle, the electrode is positive. Electrons do not travel easily from
the flat work surface to the relatively small tungsten electrode tip. This may cause a blocking (rectification) or
unbalancing of the current flow during the electrode positive half of the AC cycle. See A, Figure 4. Rectification
can be avoided or reduced by increasing the open circuit voltage of the welding machine. See B, Figure 4. The
alternating current wave form is said to be stabilized when some current flows during the electrode positive half of
the cycle. It may also be stabilized by adding a high frequency voltage circuit in series with the welding circuit.
This added high frequency circuit provides several thousand volts with an extremely low current or amperage. A
high frequency volt age is continually applied in the AC welding circuit for GTAW.
d. High frequency or a higher open circuit voltage will stabilize the AC wave form, but the wave form is still
unbalanced. To balance the AC wave form, capacitors are used to increase the current flow during the EP half
cycle. Capacitors store electricity during the EN half cycle and release the electricity during the EP half cycle.
Through the use of capacitors, a balanced AC wave form is obtained. See C, Figure 4.
e. Gas tungsten arc welding is always done with a power source which furnishes a CONSTANT CURRENT
supply. The current setting will be determined by the size of the electrode, metal thickness, shielding gas used,
and the type of current supplied.
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a. The typical gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) outfit will contain the following equipment and supplies:
b. Optional accessories.
(1) A water cooling system with hoses for heavy duty welding operations.
c. Figure 5 shows a schematic drawing of a gas tungsten arc welding outfit. The booth and exhaust system are
not shown in this illustration.
d. The arc welding machine (not shown but adequately described) should be given a brief safety inspection
prior to its use. With the main power switch off, check the ground and electrode lead connections for a tight
connection on the machine. Check the entire length of each lead for evidence of wear or cuts. These could
indicate internal damage to the conducting cables. Keep the leads protected with a steel channel whenever they
must run across an aisle way. The ground lead clamp or connection should be checked for a good connection.
The contact area of the ground clamp or connection must be clean for the best current flow conditions. All
shielding gas connections must be tight. This will prevent expensive gas leaks. Loose connections may also allow
air to enter the shielding gas lines. This will cause contamination of the electrode and the weld.
e. A remote control foot switch performs many functions. When the pedal is pressed, the shielding gas and
cooling water begin to flow. The switch is used to control the welding current. As the pedal is pressed, more
current is supplied to the torch. The pedal can also be used as a current on-off switch without varying the current.
If a remote control foot switch is used, the plug must be firmly installed in the arc welder receptacle. A microswitch
on the torch handle may also be used to perform these functions.
f. The control panel contains the following controls which are explained below:
(1) The RANGE SELECTOR is used to select a high or low current range.
(2) The CURRENT CONTROL DIAL CONTROL KNOB is used to set the desired current. This dial is
marked in white for the high range settings. It is marked in black for the low range settings.
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(3) Alternating or direct current may be selected by the setting of the AC/DC SELECTOR SWITCH.
(4) Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) (DCSP) or direct current electrode positive (DCEP) (DCRP)
may be selected by the setting of the POLARITY SWITCH.
(5) The POWER SWITCH is used to turn the arc welding machine primary circuit on or off. The machine
should not be turned off while the arc is struck. The machine should only be turned on or off while the GTAW
torch is hung on an insulated hook
(6) The POST-FLOW TIMER or after flow timer is used to control how long in seconds the shielding gas will
flow after the arc is stopped. The gas should flow for 10-15 seconds to keep the hot electrode from becoming
contaminated. A good rule to use is to continue the gas flow one second for each 10 amperes of current used.
(7) The VOLTMETER will show open circuit voltage and it will show the closed circuit voltage while
welding.
(8) The AMMETER will indicate the current flow while welding and on some machines, the ammeter
indicates the maximum in the range setting while not welding.
(9) The CONTACTOR SWITCH has two positions, standard and remote. In the standard position, a switch
on the control panel is used to turn the machine’s secondary circuit on or off. The standard position is generally
used for SMAW. In this position the electrode has open circuit voltage to it. When the switch is in the remote
position, a thumb switch on the torch or a remote foot switch is used to turn the secondary welding circuit on or
off. In the remote position the secondary current, and the water, and gas flow are started when the thumb switch
or foot switch is depressed slightly.
(10) The REMOTE OR CONTROL PANEL CURRENT SWITCH has two positions. In the remote position,
the current may be varied at the welding site. In the panel position, the current is changed on the machine panel
only.
(11) The HIGH FREQUENCY SWITCH has two positions. In the start position, high frequency is applied to
the welding circuit only until the arc is struck. This position is used when DC is used. In the continuous position,
high frequency is applied to the welding circuit constantly. This position is used when AC is used for GTAW.
(12) The START CURRENT SWITCH AND CONTROL work together. The control is marked from 0 - 10.
This control will set a starting current from low (1) to high (10). After the arc is stabilized, the regular welding
current will automatically come into use.
a. High quality welds using the gas tungsten arc can only be made using either argon (Ar), helium (He), or
argon-helium mixtures. Both argon and helium are inert gases. Table 1 describes usage of shielding gases and
power sources for different base metals.
b. Argon (Ar) provides a smoother, quieter arc. A lower arc voltage is required and it provides a better cleaning
action than helium. Argon is ten (10) times heavier than helium. Argon provides better shielding than helium with
less gas.
c. Helium (He) however, provides a higher available heat at the workpiece than does argon. GTAW done with
helium gas produces deeper penetration than does argon gas.
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Table 1 – Suggested Choices of Shielding Gases and Power Sources for Welding Various Metals
Copper Under 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) Ar-He (DCEN) Ar-He (DCEN)
Over 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) He (DCEN) He (DCEN)
Nickel & PH Nickel Alloys Under 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) Ar (DCEN) Ar-He (DCEN) or He (DCEN)
Cobalt Alloys Over 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) Ar-He (DCEN) He (DCEN)
Steel, Stainless & Under 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) Ar (DCEN) Ar-He (DCEN) or H25 (DCEN)
PH Stainless Over 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) Ar-He (DCEN) He (DCEN)
d. Both argon and helium produce good welds with direct current. Helium is best for use on thicker metal
sections than argon because of its higher available heat.
e. Alternating current GTAW cannot be done acceptably with helium gas. AC with argon is suggested only for
use on aluminum and its alloys. Argon and helium gas mixtures are used in some applications. These mixtures
contain up to 75 percent helium and produce a weld with deeper penetration and provides a good cleaning action.
f. Hydrogen (H2) may be added to argon when welding stainless steel, nickel-copper, and nickel-based alloys.
The addition of hydrogen to argon permits increased welding speeds. Hydrogen is not recommended for use on
other metals because it produces hydrogen cracks in the welds. The argon-hydrogen gas mixture contains up to
15 percent hydrogen.
a. The FLOW RATE is the volume of gas flowing. The rate of flow is measured in cubic feet per hour or liters
per minute. This flow rate varies with the base metal being welded, the thickness of the base metal, and the
position of the welded joint. A higher gas flow rate is required when welding overhead. This is because that argon
being heavier than air tends to fall away from the overhead joint.
b. Table 2 lists suggested flow rates for GTAW welding various base metals, thickness and welding positions.
c. After determining the correct gas and flow rate, the flow rate must be properly set on the Flowmeter. The
vertical tube gas Flowmeter is most common. See Figure 6 for a schematic of a gas Flowmeter.
d. Before setting the Flowmeter, the shielding gas cylinder must be opened. The procedure for opening the
shielding gas cylinder is as follows:
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NOTE
(1) Turn the regulator adjusting screw outward in a counter clockwise direction. This insures that the
regulator is closed. Once the pressure is set, an acorn nut is placed over the adjusting screw. In this case, the
regulator is always open.
Table 2 - Suggested Shielding as Flow Rates for GTAW Various Metals, Thicknesses, and Positions
Weld* Flow (L/Min) Flow (L/Min)
Base Metal Joint Thickness Flow (CFH)
Position Argon Helium
Argon Helium
Fillet, lap, edge, 1/16 FVH 16 7.55
and corner O 20 9.44
(2) Open the cylinder valve SLOWLY. Continue to open it until it is fully opened. This is necessary because
a back seating valve is used to seal the valve stem from leakage.
(3) If a regulator adjusting screw is used, turn it in to the pressure at which the Flowmeter is calibrated.
Most Flowmeter are calibrated and preset at the factory for 50 psig (344.7 kPa). The calibrating pressure should
be indicated on the Flowmeter.
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a. Nozzles used on gas tungsten arc welding torches vary in size and method of attachment. The end of the
nozzle which attaches to the torch varies in design. This design variation is necessary to permit attachment to
different manufacturers’ torches.
b. Most nozzles used for GTAW are manufactured from ceramic materials.
c. The diameter of the nozzle closest to the arc or the exit diameter is manufactured in a variety of sizes; see
Figure 7.
d. Manufacturers may put their own distinct part number on each nozzle. In addition, a single digit number is
used to identify the exit diameter. This number designates the exit diameter of the nozzle in 1/16 in. (1.6 mm).
e. The diameter of the nozzle must be large enough to allow the entire weld area to be covered by the
shielding gas. The action of the shielding gas will vary with a given gas flow rate as the diameter of the nozzle
changes. With a gas flow rate of 14 cubic feet/hour (CFH) or 6.61 liters/minute (L/min) and a number 8 nozzle, the
gas will flow out of the nozzle slowly and gently. With the same flow rate and a number 4 nozzle, the gas will flow
out more rapidly and may be blown away from the joint more quickly. However, a low number nozzle will have to
be used in a narrow groove in order to reach the bottom of the joint.
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f. The choice of the nozzle size is often a compromise which is necessary to meet the requirements of the job.
Small diameter nozzles are often used to permit a constant arc length. As an example, see Figure 8. In this case,
the important root pass is to be welded. The nozzle is constantly touching the sides of the groove as it is rocked
back and forth across the root opening. It is also kept in contact with the groove opening as the weld moves
forward slowly. This choice of a small nozzle diameter allows the welder to reach the bottom of the groove. It also
allows the welder to keep a constant arc length. A higher gas flow may be needed in this case to compensate for
the smaller nozzle diameter.
WARNING
Thoriated tungsten poses a health hazard and should not be used except when
mandated by technical instructions. Otherwise, replace 1% or 2% Thoriated
Tungsten with 1.5% Lanthanum Tungsten wherever Thoriated Tungsten is
specified.
a. The selection of the correct type and diameter of tungsten electrode is extremely important to performing a
successful gas tungsten arc weld. The types, common name, and band color of tungsten electrodes are listed in
Table 3.
Table 3. Tungsten Electrodes1
b. PURE TUNGSTEN ELECTRODES are preferred for AC welding on aluminum or magnesium. They are
preferred because they form a ball or hemisphere at the tip when they are heated. This shape reduces current
rectification and allows the AC to flow more easily.
c. Pure tungsten electrode will always form a ball at the tip when used with AC. When used with AC, the pure
tungsten electrode is not ground to a point and a ball the same size as the electrode diameter forms when the arc
is struck. This ball may be up to one and one half times the size of the electrode diameter, but should never
exceed that limit. Above the one and one half times the electrode diameter limit, the tungsten in the ball may melt
off and fall into the weld. If the ball on the end of the tip is much larger than the electrode diameter, the current
may be set too high.
d. Tungsten electrodes of any type must be protected from contamination. The electrode should not be
touched to the base metal, weld metal, or filler metal while it is hot. Such contamination prevents the electrode
from emitting or receiving electrons effectively. The end of this electrode must be broken off and reshaped. See
Figure 9 for the proper ways of retipping a contaminated or split electrode.
e. Tungsten electrodes of any type must be protected from contamination. The electrode should not be
touched to the base metal, weld metal, or filler metal while it is hot. Such contamination prevents the electrode
from emitting or receiving electrons effectively. The end of this electrode must be broken off and reshaped. See
Figure 9 for the proper ways of retipping a contaminated or split electrode.
f. The hot tungsten electrode and metal in the weld area may be contaminated by oxygen and nitrogen in the
air and by airborne dirt. To prevent this contamination, a shielding gas is used. The shielding gas is allowed to
flow over the electrode and the weld area after the arc is broken. The timing of this shielding gas AFTER FLOW is
set on the arc welding machine panel.
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g. Table 4 lists the operating current range for each type of tungsten electrode. Pure tungsten electrodes used
with AC are sometimes ground to a blunt point. The arc is then struck to form a small ball at the tip. This point
must not be sharp or the tip may fall into the crater when the ball forms. However, ground the tungsten to a point
or to a near point when welding with high currents.
CAUTION
h. Special grinding wheels should be used for pointing tungsten electrodes. These wheels should be used only
for grinding tungsten electrodes. Freedom from contamination is essential.
i. Silicon carbide or alumina oxide grinding wheels are preferred. Alumina oxide cuts more slowly, but lasts
longer than silicon carbide wheels. Electrodes should be rough ground on an 80-grit grinding wheel. The finish
grinding should be done on a 120-grit wheel. A grinding wheel with an open structure is best because it will run
cooler and pick up less contamination.
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Table 4 - Suggested Current Range for Various Types and Sizes of Tungsten Electrodesa
DCEN DCEP Alternating Current Alternating Current
Electrode
(DCSP) (DCRP) Unbalanced Wave Balanced Wave
Diameter
Amps Amps Amps Amps
in. mm EWX-X EWX-X EWP EWX-X EWP EWX-X
0.010 0.30 Up to 15 nab Up to 15 Up to 15 Up to 15 Up to 15
0.020 0.50 5-20 na 5-15 5-20 10-20 5-20
0.040 1.00 15-80 na 10-60 15-80 20-30 20-60
0.060 1.60 70-150 10-20 50-100 70-150 30-80 60-120
0.093 2.40 150-250 15-30 100-160 140-235 60-130 100-180
0.125 3.20 250-400 25-40 150-200 225-325 100-180 160-250
0.156 4.00 400-500 40-55 200-275 300-400 160-240 200-320
0.187 5.00 500-750 55-80 250-350 400-500 190-300 290-390
0.250 6.40 750-1000 80-125 325-450 500-630 250-400 340-525
Notes:
a. All are values based on the use of argon gas. Other current values may be employed depending on the
shielding gas, type of equipment and application.
b. na = not applicable
x-x Equates to alloyed tungsten
j. After the electrode diameter has been selected, a collet of the same inside diameter must be placed into the
torch. The electrode is then placed into the torch collet. An electrode may be adjusted even with the end of the
nozzle. It may extend up to 1/2 in. (approximately 13 mm) beyond the nozzle. However, as a general rule, an
extension distance equal to one electrode diameter is an average setting. The extension beyond the nozzle is
determined by the shape of the joint. A longer extension permits the welder to see the arc crater better. Higher
gas flow rates are required with longer extensions in order to protect the electrode from contamination. The
extension distance of the electrode generally should not be greater than the exit diameter of the nozzle.
k. Electrodes should be ground in a lengthwise direction. The grinding marks on the tapered area must run in a
lengthwise direction. This method on grinding insures the best current carrying characteristics. Figures 10 and 11
illustrate the suggested method for grinding tungsten electrodes, composite cored, or stranded rod. The filler
metal is procured in coils of several hundred feet or in precut lengths. The coiled wire is cut to any desired length
by the welder. The pre-cut wire is usually in lengths of 24 or 36 in. (610 or 914 mm).
a. Filler metal used for gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is generally bare wire. This filler metal is produced in
a solid wire form. Corrosion resisting chromium and chromium-nickel steel filler metal comes as a solid,
composite cored, or stranded rod. The filler metal is procured in coils of several hundred feet or in pre-cut lengths.
The coiled wire is cut to any desired length by the welder. The pre-cut wire is usually in lengths of 24 or 36 in.
(610 or 914 mm).
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b. Steel welding rods should not be copper coated as in oxyfuel gas welding. The copper coating will cause
spatter which may contaminate the tungsten electrode.
c. The diameter of the most frequently used filler wire varies from 1/16 in. - 1/4 in. (1.59 - 6.35 mm). Smaller
wire is readily available in coils down to .015 in (.38 mm) diameter. Precut filler rods are readily available up to 1/4
in. (6.35 mm). The proper filler rod diameters to use when welding various thicknesses of metals are shown in
Tables 5 through 9.
Table 5 - Variables for Manually Welding Mild Steel Using Gas Tungsten ARC and DCEN (DCSP)
Tungsten Filler Rod Gas
Metal Joint
Electrode Diameter Amperage Flow
Thickness Type
Diameter (If required) Type CFH L/Min*
1/16 in. Butt 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) 1/16 in. (1/59 mm 60-70 Argon 15 7.08
(1.59 mm) Lap 1/16 in. 1/16 in. 70-90 Argon 15
Corner 1/16 in. 1/16 in. 60-70 Argon 15
Fillet 1/16 in. 1/16 in. 70-90 Argon 15
1/8 in. Butt 1/16-3/32 in. (1.59-2.38 mm) 3/32 in. (3.38 mm) 80-100 Argon 15 7.08
(3.18 mm) Lap 1/16 in.-3/32 in. 3/32 in. 90-115 Argon 15
Corner 1/16 in.-3/32 in 3/32 in. 80-100 Argon 15
Fillet 1/16 in.-3/32 in 3/32 in. 90-115 Argon 15
3/16 in. Butt 3/32 in. (2.38 mm) 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) 115-135 Argon 20 9.44
(4.76 mm) Lap 3/32 in. 1/8 in. 140-165 Argon 20
Corner 3/32 in. 1/8 in. 115-135 Argon 20
Fillet 3/32 in. 1/8 in. 140-170 Argon 20
1/4 in. Butt 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) 160-175 Argon 20 9.44
(6.35 mm) Lap 1/8 in. 5/32 in. 170-200 Argon 20
Corner 1/8 in. 5/32 in. 160-175 Argon 20
Fillet 1/8 in. 5/32 in. 175-210 Argon 20
* Liters per minute
Table 6 - Variables for Manually Welding Aluminum Using the Gas Tungsten ARC Using AC and High
Frequency
Gas
Metal Joint Tungsten Electrode Filler Rod Diameter
Amperage Flow
Thickness Type Diameter (If required) Type L/Min*
CFH 1/
1/16 in. Butt 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) 60-85 Argon 15 7.08
(1.59 mm) Lap 1/16 in. 1/16 in. 70-90 Argon 15
Corner 1/16 in. 1/16 in. 60-85 Argon 15
Fillet 1/16 in. 1/16 in. 70-100 Argon 15
1/8 in. Butt 3/32-1/8 in. (2.38-3.18 mm) 3/32 in. (2.38 mm) 125-150 Argon 20 9.44
(3.18 mm) Lap 3/32-1/8 in. 3/32 in. 130-160 Argon 20
Corner 3/32-1/8 in. 3/32 in. 120-140 Argon 20
Fillet 3/32-1/8 in. 3/32 in. 130-160 Argon 20
3/16 in. Butt 1/8-5/32 in. (3.18-4.0 mm) 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) 180-225 Argon 20 11.80
(4.76 mm) Lap 1/8-5/32 in. 1/8 in. 190-240 Argon 20
Corner 1/8-5/32 in. 1/8 in. 180-225 Argon 20
Fillet 1/8-5/32 in. 1/8 in. 190-240 Argon 20
1/4 in. Butt 5/32-3/16 in. (4.0-4.76 mm) 3/16 in. (4.76 mm) 240-280 Argon 25 14.16
(6.35 mm) Lap 5/32-3/16 in. 3/16 in. 250-320 Argon 25
Corner 5/32-3/16 in. 3/16 in. 240-280 Argon 25
Fillet 5/32-3/16 in. 3/16 in. 250-320 Argon 25
1/ - Recommended shielding and backing gas values only. In no circumstances should the Argon go below
15CFH or above 25 CFH.
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Table 7 - Variables for Manually Welding Stainless Steel Using the Gas Tungsten ARC and DCEN or DCSP
Tungsten Filler Rod Gas
Metal Joint
Electrode Diameter Amperage Flow
Thickness Type Type L/Min*
Diameter (If required) CFH
1/16 in. Butt 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) 40-60 Argon 15 7.08
(1.59 mm) Lap 1/16 in. 1/16 in. 50-70 Argon 15
Corner 1/16 in. 1/16 in. 40-60 Argon 15
Fillet 1/16 in. 1/16 in. 50-70 Argon 15
1/8 in. Butt 3/32 in. (2.38 mm) 3/32 in. (2.38 mm) 66-85 Argon 15 7.08
(3.18 mm) Lap 3/32 in. 3/32 in. 90-110 Argon 15
Corner 3/32 in. 3/32 in. 66-85 Argon 15
Fillet 3/32 in. 3/32 in. 90-110 Argon 15
3/16 in. Butt 3/32 in. (2.38 mm) 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) 100-125 Argon 20 9.44
(4.76 mm) Lap 3/32 in. 1/8 in. 124-150 Argon 20
Corner 3/32 in. 1/8 in. 100-125 Argon 20
Fillet 3/32 in. 1/8 in. 126-150 Argon 20
1/4 in. Butt 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) 136-160 Argon 20 9.44
(6.35 mm) Lap 1/8 in. 5/32 in. 160-180 Argon 20
Corner 1/8 in. 5/32 in. 136-160 Argon 20
Fillet 1/8 in. 5/32 in. 160-180 Argon 20
Table 8 - Variables for Manually Welding Stainless Steel Using the Gas Tungsten ARC and DCEN or DCSP
Tungsten Filler Rod Gas
Joint Amperage1 W/O
Metal Thickness Electrode Diameter Flow
Type with Backup Backup Type L/Min
Diameter (If required) CFH
1/16 in. (1.59 mm) All 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) 3/32 in. (2.38 mm) 60 35 Argon 13 6.14
3/32 in. ( 2.38 mm) All 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) 90 60 Argon 15 7.08
1/8 in. (3.18 mm) All 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) 115 85 Argon 20 9.44
3/16 in. (4.76 mm) All 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) 120 75 Argon 20 9.44
1/4 in. (6.35 mm) All 3/32 in. (2.38 mm) 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) 130 85 Argon 20 9.44
3/8 in. (9.53 mm) All 3/32 in. (2.38 mm) 3/16 in. (4.76 mm) 180 100 Argon 25 11.80
1/2 in. (12.7 mm) All 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) 3/16 in. (4.76 mm) - 250 Argon 25 11.80
3/4 in. (19.05 mm) All 3/16 in. (4.76 mm) 1/4 in. (6.35 mm) - 370 Argon 35 16.52
1
Use alternating current with a constant high frequency (AC-HF)
Table 9 - Variables for Manually Welding Deoxidized Copper Using the Gas Tungsten ARC and DCEN or
DCSP
Gas
Joint Tungsten Electrode Filler Rod Diameter (If
Metal Thickness Amperage1 Flow
Type Diameter required) Type L/Min
CFH
1/16 in. (1.59 mm) All 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) 3/32 in. (2.38 mm) 110 - 150 Argon 15 7.08
1/8 in. (3.18 mm) All 3/32 in. (2.38 mm) 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) 175 - 250 Argon 15 7.08
3/16 in. (4.76 mm) All 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) 250 - 325 Argon 18 9.50
1/4 in. (6.35 mm) All 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) 300 - 375 Argon 22 10.38
3/8 in. (9.53 mm) All 3/16 in. (4.76 mm) 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) 375 - 450 Argon 25 11.80
1/2 in. (12.7 mm) All 3/16 in. (4.76 mm) 3/16 in. (4.76 mm) 525 - 700 Argon 30 14.16
1
Use DCEN DCSP
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b. To start the arc, the remote finger or foot operated contactor switch must be depressed. This switch also
causes the shielding gas and cooling water to flow prior to starting the arc.
c. When TOUCH STARTING is used, the electrode is touched to the base metal and withdrawn about 1/8 in.
(about 3 mm). After a few seconds when the arc is stabilized (running smoothly), the electrode may be brought
down to a short arc length of about 1/32 - 3/32 in. (.8 - 2.4 mm). Touching the tungsten electrode to the base
metal again may contaminate the electrode.
d. To start the arc using the SUPERIMPOSED HIGH FREQUENCY, place the nozzle on the metal as shown
in Figure 12. With the electrode and nozzle in this position, the contactor switch is turned on to start the high
frequency current. The machine contactor switch may be operated by a pedal or manually operated remote
switch. Another method of using high frequency start is to hold the electrode horizontally about 1 in. (about 25
mm) above the metal. The electrode is then rotated toward a vertical position. As the electrode comes near the
base metal, the high frequency will jump the gap to start the arc. When using direct current, the high frequency
will turn off automatically when the arc is stabilized. The high frequency should remain on constantly when using
alternating current.
Figure 12. Position of Electrode and Nozzle for High Frequency Arc Starting
e. HIGH VOLTAGE STARTING is done with a high voltage surge. The electrode is brought close to the base
metal as in high frequency starting. When the contactor switch is turned on, a high voltage surge causes the arc
to jump and start the arc. After the arc is stabilized, the voltage surge stops automatically.
f. When welding with alternating current, the electrode forms a ball or spherical shape on the end. This ball can
be formed before the actual weld begins. To form the ball on the electrode tip, strike the arc on a clean piece of
copper. Copper will not melt easily and will not contaminate the electrode readily if a touch occurs. This piece of
copper may be 2 in. x 2 in. (roughly 50 x 50 mm) and 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) thick. It should be kept by the welder as
a part of the station equipment.
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a. One advantage of GTAW is that a weld may be made with a small heat affected zone around the weld. Oxy
fuel gas and SMAW heat a large area while the metal is raised to the melting temperature. This causes a large
heat affected zone and a potentially weaker metal area around the weld.
b. Another advantage of GTAW is that there is no metal transfer through the arc. There is no spattering of
metal globules from the arc or crater. The arc action is very quiet and the completed weld is of high quality.
c. GTAW should be done with the lowest current necessary to melt the metal. The highest welding speed
possible, which will insure a sound weld, should be used.
d. Once the arc is struck, it is directed to the area to be melted. A puddle or molten pool is formed under the
arc and the filler rod is added to fill the pool. The width of the pool, when making stringer beads, should be about
2 - 3 times the diameter of the electrode used. If the bead must be wider, a weaving bead is used. Several
stringer beads may also be used to fill a wide groove joint. Sufficient shielding gas must flow to protect the molten
metal in the weld area from becoming contaminated.
e. The filler rod must not be withdrawn from the area protected by the shielding gas. If the filler rod is
withdrawn while it is molten, it will become contaminated. If it is then melted into the weld, the weld will be
contaminated.
f. After the arc is struck, heat a spot until a molten pool forms. The electrode should be held at about a
minimum of 60-75 degree angle from the work where an angle of 70-80 degrees may be preferred. Hold the filler
rod at about a 16-20 degree angle to the work. See Figure13. When the molten pool reaches the desired size,
add the filler rod to the pool. When the filler rod is to be added, the electrode should be moved to the back of the
pool. The filler rod is than added to the forward part of the molten pool. Refer to Figure 14. This technique of
adding the filler metal to the pool may be used for all weld joints in all positions.
Figure 13. Relative Positions of Electrode and Filler Rod When GTAW
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a. Each time the arc is broken, the shielding gas continues to flow for a few seconds. This protects the weld
metal, electrode, and filler metal from becoming contaminated by the surrounding atmosphere. The gas also
continues to flow after the torch or foot operated contactor (off-on) switch is turned off.
b. When welding is stopped for a short time, the GTAW torch is hung on an insulated hook. It may be hung on
the hook of a gas economizer valve.
c. If welding is to be stopped for a long period of time, the station should be shut down. After the gas post-flow
period, hang up the torch. Shut off the shielding gas cylinder. Turn on the torch or foot operated contactor switch
to start the gas flow. Lift the torch from the economizer, if used, to drain the complete shielding gas system of gas.
Hang the torch up again. Turn the regulating screw on the regulator counterclockwise to turn it off. Turn the screw
in the flowmeter clockwise to shut it off. If the flowmeter is not turned off, the float ball will hit the top of the
flowmeter very hard when the regulator is opened again. Turn off the arc welding machine power switch.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
None
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
None
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a. Description. A manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld.
An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding power supply, is used
to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be joined. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of
the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of
which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.
2. CHARACTERISTICS.
a. WELD METAL DEPOSITION. In metal-arc welding a number of separate forces are responsible for the
transfer of molten filler metal and molten slag to the base metal. Among these forces are those described in (1)
through (6) below.
(1) Vaporization and condensation. A small part of the metal passing through the arc, especially the metal
in the intense heat at the end of the electrode, is vaporized. Some of this vaporized metal escapes as spatter but
most of it is condensed in the weld crater which is at a much lower temperature. This occurs with all types of
electrodes and in all welding positions.
(2) Gravity. Gravity affects the transfer of metal in flat position welding. In other positions, smaller
electrodes must be used to avoid excessive loss of weld metal, as the surface tension is too low to retain a large
volume of molten metal in the weld crater.
(3) Pinch effect. The high current passing through the molten metal at the tip of the electrode sets up a
radial compressive magnetic force that tends to pinch the molten globule and detach it from the electrode.
(4) Surface tension. This is the force that holds the filler metal and the slag globules in contact with the
molten base or weld metal in the crater. It has little to do with the transfer of metal across the arc but is an
important factor in retaining the molten weld metal in place and in the shaping of weld contours.
(5) Gas stream from electrode coatings. Gases are produced by the burning and volatilization of the
electrode covering and are expanded by the heat of the boiling electrode tip. The velocity and movement of this
gas stream tend to give the small particles in the arc a movement away from the electrode tip and into the molten
crater on the work.
(6) Carbon monoxide evolution from electrode. According to this theory of metal movement in the welding
arc, carbon monoxide is evolved within the molten metal at the electrode tip, causing miniature explosions which
expel molten metal away from the electrode and toward the work. This theory is substantiated by the fact that
bare wire electrodes made of high purity iron or ”killed steel” (i.e., steel that has been almost completely
deoxidized in casting) cannot be used successfully in the overhead position. The metal transfer from electrode to
the work, the spatter, and the crater formation are, in this theory, caused by the decarburizing action in molten
steel.
b. Arc Craters are formed by the pressure of expanding gases from the electrode tip (arc blast), forcing the
liquid metal toward the edges of the crater. Also, the higher temperature of the center, as compared with that of
the sides of the crater, causes the edges to cool first. Metal is thus drawn from the center to the edges forming a
low spot.
a. The selection of the proper welding currents and voltages depends on the electrode size, plate thickness,
welding position, and welder’s skill.
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b. Electrodes of the same size can withstand higher current and voltage values in flat position welding than in
vertical or overhead welding. Since several factors affect the current and voltage requirements, data provided by
welding equipment and electrode manufacturers should be used. For initial settings, see tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. E60XX Series Electrodes with Suggested Metal Thickness Applications and Amperage Ranges
Suggested Metal Electrode E6010 E6012 E6013 E6020 E6022 E6027
Thickness Size and
E6011
in. mm in. mm
1/16 & 1.16 & 1/16 1.6 20-40 20-40
less less
1/16-5/64 1.6-2.0 5/64 2.0 25-60 25-60
5/64-1/8 2.0-3.2 3/32 2.4 40-80 35-85 45-90
1/8-1/4 3.2-6.4 1/8 3.2 75-125 80-140 80-130 100-150 110-160 125-185
1/4-3/8 6.4-9.5 5/32 4.0 110-170 110-190 105-180 130-190 140-190 169-240
3/8-1/2 9.5-12.7 3/16 4.8 140-215 140-240 150-230 175-250 170-400 210-300
1/2-3/4 12.7-19.1 7/32 5.6 170-250 200-320 210-300 225-310 370-520 250-350
3/4-1 19.1-25.4 1/4 6.4 210-320 250-400 250-350 275-375 300-420
1-up 25.4-up 5/16 8.0 275-425 300-500 320-430 340-450 375-475
Table 2. E70XX Series Electrodes with Suggested Metal Thickness Applications and Amperage Ranges
Suggested Metal Electrode E7014 E7015 E7018 E7024 E7027 E7048
Thickness Size and and
E7016 E7028
in. mm in. mm
5/64-1/8 2.0-3.2 3/32* 2.4* 80-125 65-110 70-100 100-145
1/8-1/4 3.2-6.4 1/8 3.2 110-160 100-150 115-165 140-190 125-185 80-140
1/4-3/8 6.4-9.5 5/32 4.0 150-210 140-200 150-220 180-250 160-240 150-220
3/8-1/2 9.5-12.7 3/16 4.8 200-275 180-255 200-275 230-305 210-300 210-270
1/2-3/4 12.7-19.1 7/32 5.6 260-340 240-320 260-340 275-365 250-350
3/4-1 19.1-25.4 1/4 6.4 330-415 300-390 315-400 335-430 300-420
1-up 25.4-up 5/16* 8.0* 390-500 375-475 375-470 400-525 375-475
Note: When welding vertically up, currents near the lower limit of the range are generally used.
*: These diameters are not manufactured in the E7028 classification.
c. In preparation for welding, the machine must be adjusted to provide proper welding conditions for the size
and type of electrode to be used. These adjustments include proper polarity, current, and voltage settings. Dual
control machines make possible control of both voltage and current delivered to the arc. In single control units,
current is controlled manually while the voltage is adjusted automatically.
d. Shown in Figure 1 are different arc transfer modes with maximum voltage and minimum current on the left
through short circuiting of the arc on the right side of the figure. For more information about the problems from the
different arc lengths refer to IMPROPER ARC CONTROL.
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e. After the welding machine has been properly adjusted, the exposed end of the electrode should be gripped
in the electrode holder so the entire fusible length can be deposited, if possible, without breaking the arc. In some
cases, in welding with long electrodes, the electrode is bared and gripped in the center. Carbon and graphite
electrodes should be gripped short of the full length to avoid overheating the entire electrode.
WARNING
If the electrode becomes frozen to the base metal during the process of starting
the arc, all work to free the electrode when the current is on should be done with
the welding shield covering the eyes.
a. Two methods are used for starting the arc, the striking or brushing method (figure 2) and the tapping
method (figure 3). In both methods the arc is formed by short circuiting the welding current between the electrode
and the work surface. When the arc is struck a surge of high current causes both the end of the electrode and a
small spot of the base metal beneath the electrode to melt, instantly causing the two molten metals to puddle,
completing the weld.
b. In the striking or brushing method the electrode is brought to the surface of the work in a lateral motion
similar to striking a match. As soon as the electrode touches the surface, the electrode is raised to establish the
arc (figure 2). The arc length or gap between the electrode and the work should be approximately equal to the
diameter of the electrode. When the proper arc length is obtained a sharp crackling sound is heard.
c. In the tapping method the electrode is held in a vertical position to the work and tapped, or bounced, on the
work surface (figure 3). Upon contact, the electrode is raised approximately the diameter of the electrode to
establish the proper arc length.
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d. If the electrode is raised too slowly with either of the above arc starting methods the electrode will freeze to
the base metal. If this occurs, the electrode can usually be freed by a quick sideways twist to snap the end of the
electrode from the base metal. If twisting does not dislodge the electrode, stop the welding machine, remove the
holder from the electrode, and free the electrode with a light chisel blow.
e. With some electrodes, known as contact electrodes, the coating is an electrical conductor, and the arc is
normally struck by holding the electrodes in contact with the work. The end of the electrode is held against the
base metal and sufficient current passes through the coating to establish the arc. The arc length is held constant
by maintaining this contact, which is possible because the coating has a melting point lower than the metal core of
the electrode. The surface contact of this coated electrode, as it melts, forms a deep cut which prevents the
electrode from freezing and also shields the arc.
a. Two procedures, as described below, are used to break the arc when changing electrodes or stopping the
weld for any purpose.
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(1) In manual welding, when changing electrodes, if the weld is to be continued from the crater the arc is
shortened and the electrode moved quickly sideways to break the arc. When the weld is resumed, it is started at
the forward, or cold end of the crater, moved backward over the crater, and then forward again to continue the
weld.
(2) In manual semi-automatic welding, where filling or partial filling of the crater is required, the electrode is
held stationary for a sufficient time to fill the crater and then withdrawn until the arc breaks.
6. AC WELDING.
a. In ac welding, the electrode does not have to touch the workpiece to start the arc. The superimposed high
frequency current jumps the gap between the welding electrode and the work, thus establishing a path for the
welding current to follow. The striking or brushing method is used to start the arc, with the difference that contact
is not made during the swing.
b. The arc can be struck on the workpiece itself or on a heavy piece of copper or scrap steel and then carried
to the starting point of the weld. Do not use a carbon block for starting the arc, as the electrode becomes
contaminated, causing the arc to wander.
a. MALADJUSTMENTS. The effects of improper current and welding speed control and the effect on the
welding bead are shown in figure 4 and table 3.
Table 3. Effects of Maladjustment of Welding Current and Speed on the Bead Characteristics
b. LONG ARC. When welding with a long arc the protecting arc flame, as well as the molten globule at the end
of the electrode, will whirl and oscillate from side to side (figure 5). The fluctuating flame will permit the molten
base metal to become oxidized or burned before the molten metal of the electrode reaches the base metal. The
direction of the molten filler metal, as it passes through the arc, will be difficult to control and a considerable
portion will be lost as spatter. The long arc melts the electrode quickly, but the metal is not always deposited at
the desired point. The long arc causes poor penetration, excessive overlap, and burned or porous metal in the
weld, as shown in figure 6.
c. CORRECT ARC. In welding with the short arc, which is the desired procedure, the molten metal leaving the
electrode passes through the arc under good protection from the atmosphere by the enveloping arc flame. With
this arc better control of the filler metal is obtained and a better quality of weld metal results (figure 7). The short
arc provides maximum penetration, better physical properties in the weld, and deposits the maximum amount of
metal at the point of weld.
d. VERY SHORT ARC. A very short arc is as undesirable as a long arc since it will produce much spatter,
frequently freeze, and make continuous welding difficult. The results of welding with a very short arc are similar to
those of the long arc (figure 5).
e. ARC BLOW.
(1) A characteristic of dc welding is arc blow, which is the occasional dancing of the arc forward and
backward or side to side. This is caused by the magnetic field built up in the workpiece as a result of the flow of
current. This magnetic field in the metal becomes crowded as the arc nears the end of the workpiece and this
distortion of the field deflects the arc from its normal path and makes it difficult to control (figure 8).
(2) Arc blow may be reduced by carefully clamping the work to the table in several places. When welding
large items it may be desirable to move the ground clamp or cable as the weld progresses.
(3) If the current flow changes direction rapidly, as in ac welding, the magnetic field will also change
directions very rapidly, and this change will cancel the arc blow effect and stabilize the arc.
8. WELDING BEADS.
a. As the arc is struck, metal melts off the end of the electrode and is deposited in a molten puddle on the work
and the electrode is shortened. This causes the arc to increase in length unless the electrode is fed downward as
fast as it is melted off and deposited. Before moving forward, the arc should be held at the starting point for a
short time to insure good fusion and to allow the bead to build up slightly. With the welding machine adjusted for
proper current and polarity, good weld beads can be made by maintaining a short arc and welding in a straight
line with constant speed.
b. For welding beads, the electrode in theory should be held at 90 degrees to the base metal (A, figure 9).
However, in order to obtain a clearer view of the molten puddle, crater, and arc, the electrode should be tilted
between 5 and 15 degrees toward the direction of travel (B, figure 9).
c. Proper arc length cannot be accurately judged by the eye but can be recognized by sound. The typical
sharp crackling sound (Table 3) should be heard during the time the electrode is moved down to and along the
surface of the work.
d. A properly made weld bead (figure 10) should leave little spatter on the surface of the work, and the arc
crater or depression in the bead as the arc is broken should be approximately 1/16 inch deep (B, figure 10),
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varying slightly with the size of electrode and plate thickness. The bead metal should be built up slightly but
without weld metal overlap on the top surface, which would indicate poor fusion.
e. In some situations it is more economical to repair machined parts by building up worn surfaces with weld
material, rather than replacing the parts. The built-up surface is then machined to the required size. This process
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is called surface buildup or padding, and is done by depositing several layers of beads, usually at right angles to
each other (figure 11), until the necessary thickness is attained. Surface buildup can be performed with either
oxyacetylene (brass or steel), arc, or gas shielded arc welding processes. Each bead deposited must overlap
each preceding bead by 1/4 of the bead width (figure 12).
(1) A butt joint is used to weld plates having surfaces in approximately the same plane. Several forms of
joints are used to make butt welds in the flat position and most of these are shown in figure 13.
(2) Plates 1/8 inch thick or less can be welded in one pass; no special edge preparation is necessary.
Plates 1/8 to 3/16 inch thick can be welded with no edge preparation by running a weld bead on both sides of the
joint. Tack welds should be used to keep the plates aligned. The electrode motion is the same as that used in
making a weld bead (WELDING BEADS).
(3) In welding 1/4 inch or heavier plates the edge of the plate should be prepared by beveling or by U or V
grooving (figure 13), whichever is more applicable. Single or double bevels may be used depending on the
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thickness of the plate being welded. The first bead should be deposited to seal the space between the two plates
and weld the root of the joint. This layer must be thoroughly cleaned of slag before the second layer of metal is
deposited. In making multipass welds (figure 14) the second, third, and fourth layers are deposited with a weaving
motion of the electrode and each layer must be cleaned before the next layer is deposited. Any of the weaving
motions illustrated in figure 15 may be used depending on the type and size of the electrode used.
(4) In the weaving motion, the electrode should be oscillated or moved uniformly from side to side, with a
slight hesitation at the end of each oscillation and, as in welding beads, the electrode should be inclined 5 to 15
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degrees in the direction of the welding. If the weaving motion is not properly performed, undercutting will occur as
shown in figure 16. Excessive welding speed will also cause undercutting and poor fusion at the edges of the
weave bead
(1) Backup, or backing strips, as they shall be referred to in this manual, are used when welding 3/16 inch
or heavier plates to obtain complete fusion at the root of the weld, provide better control of the arc, and act as a
cushion for the first bead or layer of weld metal. The edges of the plates to be welded are prepared in the same
manner as required for welding without backing strips. Backing strips approximately 1 inch wide and 3/16 inch
thick are used for plates up to 3/8 inch thick and backing strips 1-1/2 inches wide and 1/4 inch thick for plates over
3/8 inch thick. The backing strips are tack welded to the base of the joint as shown in figure 17.
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(3) After the joint is completed, the backing strip can be ”washed away” with a cutting torch and a seal bead
may be applied along the root of the weld, if necessary.
(1) Plug and slot welds are used to join two overlapping plates by depositing metal to fill a hole or slot
which extends through the upper plate. Joints of this type are shown in figures 18 and 19.
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(2) Slot welds are used in butt straps to join casehardened armor plate edges from the back or soft side.
Plug welds are used to fill holes in plates and to join overlapping plates. Both of these welds are used to join
plates where it is impossible to join them by other methods.
(3) A continuous fillet weld is made to obtain good fusion between the side walls of the hole or slot and the
surface of the lower plate. The procedure for this fillet weld is the same as that required for lap welds and the hole
or slot is then filled in to provide additional strength in the weld.
(4) The plug weld procedure may also be used to remove bolts or studs twisted off flush with the surface of
the part. A nut somewhat smaller than the bolt or stud size is centered on the bolt or stud to be removed. A heavy
coated electrode is then lowered into the nut and an arc struck on the exposed end of the broken bolt or stud. The
nut is then welded to the bolt or stud and sufficient metal is added to fill the hole. The broken bolt or stud can then
be removed with a wrench.
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a. Tee Joints.
(1) In making tee joints in the horizontal position, the two plates are located approximately at right angles to
each other in the form of an inverted T. The ends of the vertical plate are tack welded to the surface of the
horizontal plate as shown in figure 20.
(2) A fillet weld is used in making the tee joint and the correct arc (IMPROPER ARC CONTROL) is
necessary to provide good fusion at the root and along the legs of the weld (A, figure 21). The electrode should be
held at a 45 degree angle to the two plate surfaces and inclined approximately 15 degrees in the direction of
welding (B, figure 21).
(3) Light plates can be secured with a fillet weld of one pass with little or no weaving of the electrode.
Welding of heavier plates may require two or more passes, in which each successive pass is made in a
semicircular weaving motion as illustrated in figure 22. There should be a slight pause at the end of each weave
so as to obtain good fusion between the weld and base metals without undercutting.
(4) A fillet welded joint on a 1/2 inch plate or heavier can be made by depositing string beads in sequence,
as shown in figure 23.
(5) Chain intermittent or staggered intermittent fillet welding (figure 24) is used for long tee joints. Fillet
welds of this type are used where high weld strength is not required. In this type of weld the short welds are
arranged so that the joint is equal in strength to a fillet weld along the entire length of a joint from one side only.
Warpage and distortion are held to a minimum in chain intermittent type welds.
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Figure 21. Position of Electrode and Fusion Area of Fillet Weld on the Joint
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b. Lap Joints.
(1) In making lap joints, two overlapping plates are tack welded in place (figure 25) and then a fillet weld is
deposited along the joint.
(2) The procedure for making this fillet weld is the same as that used in making fillet welds in tee joints
except that the electrode should be held at an approximate 30 degree angle as shown in figure 26. The weaving
motion is used and the pause at the edge of the top plate is sufficiently long to ensure good fusion and no
undercut.
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(3) In making lap joints on plates of different thicknesses the electrode is held so as to form an angle of 20
to 30 degrees from the vertical. Care must be taken not to overheat or undercut the edge of the thinner plate and
the arc must be controlled to ”wash-up” the molten metal to the edge of this plate.
a. VERTICAL WELDING. Welding on a vertical surface is more difficult than welding in a flat position since,
due to the force of gravity, the molten metal tends to flow downward.
b. WELD BEADS.
(1) In welding in a vertical position, current settings should be less than those used in the flat position.
Currents used for welding in an upward direction on a vertical plane are slightly lower than those used when
welding downward.
(2) The proper angle between the electrode and the base metal is important to the deposit of a good bead
in vertical welding. The welding electrode should be held at 90 degrees to the vertical, as shown at A, figure 27.
When welding upward and weaving is necessary, the electrode should be oscillated, as shown at B, figure 27.
When welding downward, the electrode should be inclined downward about 15 degrees from the horizontal with
the arc pointing upward, as shown at C, figure 27. When welding downward, and a weave is required, the
electrode should be oscillated as shown at D, figure 27.
(3) When depositing a weld bead in a horizontal direction on a vertical plate, the electrode should be held
at right angles to the vertical plate and tilted about 15 degrees toward the direction of the welding, as shown in
figure 28.
c. Butt Joints.
(1) Butt joints on plates in a vertical position are prepared for welding in the same way as those required for
butt joints in flat positions, and backing strips may be used in as illustrated in figure 17, (FLAT POSITION
WELDING).
(2) Butt joints on beveled plates 1/4 inch in thickness can be made by using a triangular weave motion, as
shown in figure 29.
(3) Welds on 1/2 inch thick plates, or heavier, should be made in several passes, as shown in figure 30.
The first pass, or root weld, should be made with the electrode at 90 degrees to the vertical plate (A, figure 30)
and subsequent passes made at 30 degrees to vertical plate (B and C, figure 30). All passes in the weld should
be made with a semicircular weave or triangular motion.
(4) When welding butt joints in the horizontal direction on vertical plates, the metal is deposited in multi-
pass beads, as shown in figure 30. The first pass is made at an angle of 90 degrees to the vertical plate and
subsequent passes are made with the electrode held parallel to the beveled edge opposite the edge on which the
bead is being deposited. The weaving motion should have a short pause at the edge of the weld.
d. Fillet Welds.
(1) In making fillet welds in lap joints the electrode should be held at 90 degrees to the plates or not more
than 15 degrees above the horizontal for proper molten metal control (F, figure 31).
(2) In welding fillets in tee joints the electrode should be held at 90 degrees to the vertical position of the
plate (A, figure 31) and approximately 1/2 of the distance, or 45 degrees, from each plate of the tee. In making the
weaving motion care must be taken not to pass the electrode too close to either side of the tee so as not to strike
an arc from the side of the electrode.
(3) In welding tee joints in the vertical position the weld should be started at the bottom and progress
upward in a triangular weaving motion, as shown at A, figure 31. A slight pause in the weave at the points
indicated will improve side wall penetration.
(a) If the weld metal should overheat and start to run, the electrode should be shifted away quickly from
the crater, without breaking the arc (B, figure 31). This will permit the molten metal to solidify. The electrode
should be returned immediately to the crater after the metal has ceased to run, in order to maintain the desired
size of the weld.
(b) When more than one pass is necessary to make a fillet weld on a tee joint, either of two weaving
motions (C or D, figure 31) may be used to lay succeeding beads on top of the root pass.
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(4) To make fillet welds on lap joints in a vertical position, the electrode should be held in a 90 degree angle
from the vertical position and at a 45 degree angle to the vertical plate (E, figure 31). The triangular weaving
motion should be used and the pause at the end of the weave on plate G should be slightly longer than that at the
edge of plate H. Care should be taken not to undercut either plate or to allow the molten metal to overlap at the
edges of the weave.
a. Overhead Welding. The overhead position is the most difficult in welding and a well maintained arc is
necessary in order to retain complete control of the molten metal. As in vertical welding, the force of gravity tends
to cause the metal to sag on the plate or drop away from the joint. If the arc is too long the difficulty of transferring
the metal from the electrode to the metal is increased and large globules of metal will drop from the electrode. If
the arc is too short the electrode will periodically freeze to the plate (STARTING THE ARC). This action can be
prevented by intermittently shortening and lengthening the arc slightly during the welding procedure. Care should
be taken never to carry too large a pool of molten metal in the weld.
b. Weld Beads.
(1) For welding beads in the overhead position, the electrode should be held at 90 degrees to the base
metal (A, figure 32) or tilted approximately 15 degrees in the direction of the weld, as shown in B, figure 32, if it
will provide a better view of the arc and crater.
(2) Weave beads can be accomplished by using the motion illustrated at C, figure 32. A rather rapid motion
at the end of each semicircular weave is necessary in order to control the molten metal deposit. Excessive
weaving will cause overheating and formation of large molten metal pools, which will be hard to control.
c. Butt Joints.
(1) Plates for overhead position welding should be prepared the same as those required for flat positioning
and the weld is most satisfactory if backing strips are used (FLAT POSITION WELDING). If the plates are
beveled with a feather edge and no backing strip is used, the weld will tend to burn through unless extreme care
is taken by the operator.
(2) For overhead butt welding, bead rather than weaving welds are preferred. Each bead should be
cleaned and rough areas of the weld chipped before subsequent passes are made.
(3) The positions of the electrode in relation to the plates are shown in figure 33 for depositing weld beads
on 1/4 to 1/2 inch material. The first pass is deposited as illustrated in A, figure 33 and subsequent passes are
shown in B and C, figure 33.
(4) The electrodes should not be too large in diameter as this will prevent holding the correct arc to insure
good penetration at the root of the joint. Avoid excessive current. This would create a very fluid puddle which is
difficult to control.
d. Fillet Welds.
(1) In making fillet welds in either tee or lap joints in the overhead position, weaving of the electrode is not
recommended. The electrode should be held at approximately 30 degrees to the vertical plate and moved
uniformly in the direction of the welding with a 15 degree tilt so the operator can observe the condition of the
molten metal as it is deposited (B, and C, figure 34). The arc motion should be controlled to secure good
penetration to the root of the weld and good fusion with the side walls of the plates. If the molten metal becomes
too fluid and tends to sag, the electrode should be quickly whipped away from the crater and ahead of the weld to
lengthen the arc and allow the metal to solidify. The electrode should then be returned to the crater and welding
continued.
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(2) Fillet welds for either tee or lap joints on heavy plate in overhead positions may require several passes
to make a secure joint. The order in which these beads are deposited is shown in A, figure 34. The first, or root
pass is a string bead with good penetration and fusion to the root and side walls of the plates. Second, third, and
fourth passes are then applied and although a weaving motion is not used to apply these beads the electrode is
moved in a slight circular motion, as shown in C, figure 34. This motion of the electrode permits greater control
and better distribution of the metal being deposited. All slag and oxides must be removed from the surface of the
weld between each successive pass.
a. General.
(1) The heat affected zone in welding operations is that portion of the base metal which is changed
metallurgically by the welding heat. This heat affected zone consists of three sections: the very hot section next to
the molten filler metal, the annealed section next to the over-heated base metal and the section adjacent to the
cold base metal.
(2) The rate at which heat is applied to the plates is greater in arc welding than in oxyacetylene welding;
this causes a higher concentration of heat at a particular point, and therefore, steeper heat climb at that particular
point but less metal affected by the heat. In bare metal arc welding, the heat affected zone is narrowest; it
increases with heavy coated electrodes. Stainless steel electrodes produce a smaller heat affected zone than the
heavy coated electrodes.
(1) In general, the extent of the heat affected zone will increase with the amount of welding energy used in
arc welding. This energy is a function of the voltage and amperage settings.
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(2) Greater penetration for arc welds is not necessarily obtained with an increase in the heat affected zone
because this increase is in width rather than in depth. With the exception of cored and stainless steel arc welds,
the smaller the heat affected zone, the more rapid is the removal of heat from this area by the surrounding parent
metal.
c. In arc welding, the extent of the heat affected zone is increased under the conditions listed below:
DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
None
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
a. Gas metal-arc welding is a process in which a consumable, bare wire electrode is fed into a weld at a
controlled rate of speed, while a blanket of inert shielding gas shields the weld zone from atmospheric
contamination.
NOTE
Different types of GMAW welding equipment are available through normal supply
channels. Manuals for each type must be consulted prior to welding operations.
NOTE
If for any reason the wire electrode stops feeding, a burn-back will result. With
the trigger depressed, the welding contactor is closed, allowing the welding
current to flow through the contact tube. As long as the wire electrode advances
through the tube, an arc will be drawn at the end of the wire electrode. Should
the wire electrode stop feeding while the trigger is still depressed, the arc will
then form at the end of the contact tube, causing it to melt-off. This is called burn-
back.
(1) Three basic sizes of wire electrode may be used: 3/64 inch, 1/16 inch, and 3/32 inch.
(2) Any type of metal may be welded provided the welding wire electrode is of the same composition as the
base metal.
b. A Spool Gun Type GMAW contains a motor and gear reduction unit which feeds the wire electrode from a 4
inch diameter spool holding one pound (1 lb.) of electrode wire. The spool is mounted behind the trigger assembly
as shown in Figure 1.
NOTE
The contact tube transfers power from the electrode cable to the welding wire
electrode. An insulated lock screw is provided which secures the contact tube in
the torch.
(1) Contact tube. This tube, made of copper, has a hole in the center that is from 0.01 to 0.02-inch larger
than the wire electrode being used. The contact tube and the inlet and outlet guide bushings must be changed
when the size of the wire electrode is changed.
(2) Nozzle and holder. The nozzle is made of copper to dissipate heat and chrome-plated to reflect the
heat. The holder is made of stainless steel and is connected to an insulating material which prevents an arc from
being drawn between the nozzle and ground in case the gun comes in contact with the work.
(3) Inlet and outlet guide bushings. The bushings are made of nylon for long wear. They must be changed
to suit wire electrode size when the electrode wire is changed.
(4) Pressure roll assembly. This is a smooth roller under spring tension, which pushes the wire electrode
against the feed and allows the wire to be pulled from the spool. A thumbscrew applies the tension as required.
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(5) Motor. When the inch button is depressed, the current for the motor is supplied by a 110-volt ac-dc
source, and the motor pulls the wire electrode from the spool before starting the welding operation. When the
trigger is depressed, the actual welding operation starts and the motor pulls the electrode from the spool at the
required rate of feed. The current for this motor is supplied by the welding generator.
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(6) Spool enclosure assembly (spool gun). This assembly is made of plastic which prevents arc spatter
from jamming the wire electrode on the spool. A small window allows a visual check on the amount of wire
electrode remaining on the spool.
b. The Wire Feed Type GMAW uses a wire spool mounted behind the Wire Drive Wheels on the DC Welding
Machine Power Unit. An adjustable, constant speed motor actuates the Wire Drive Wheels (Figure 2).
(1) Welding contactor. The positive cable from the dc welding generator is connected to a cable coming out
of the welding contactor and the ground cable is connected to the workpiece. The electrode cable and the welding
contactor cable are connected between the welding contactor and voltage control box as shown.
(2) Shielding gas hose. This hose is connected from the voltage control box to the shielding gas regulator
on the shielding gas cylinder(s).
(3) Electrode cable. The electrode cable enters through the welding current relay and connects into the
shielding gas supply line. Both then go out of the voltage control box and into the torch in one line.
(4) Voltage pickup cable. This cable must be attached to the ground cable at the work. This supplies
current to the motor during welding when trigger is depressed.
(5) Torch switch and grounding cables. The torch switch cable is connected into the voltage control box,
and the torch grounding cable is connected to the case of the voltage control box.
c. Figure 3 displays the connecting diagram explained below for the Gas Metal Arc Welding Station used with
either the Spool Gun Type or the Wire Feed Type GMAW.
2. SETTING MACHINE.
a. A dial on the front of the voltage control box, labeled WELDING CONTROL regulates the speed of the wire
electrode feed.
b. drive roll adjustment - The most common mistake made during setup is over-tightening the drive rolls.
Tighten drive rolls just enough (and no more) so that no slippage occurs when wire is pulled through rolls.
c. Turning the dial counterclockwise increases the speed of the wire electrode being fed from the spool. This
decreases the amount of resistance across the arc and allows the motor to turn faster. Turning the dial clockwise
will increase the amount of resistance, thereby decreasing the speed of the wire electrode being fed from the
spool.
d. Setting wire feed rate automatically draws the required amperage. As amperage increases the transfer
modes changes from shorting to globular to spray to buried. The current/wire feed setting at which these
transitions take place depends on the wire diameter and shielding gas composition. Some examples of the
transfer modes are depicted in Figure 4.
e. The instant the wire electrode touches the work, between 50 to 100 volts dc is generated. This voltage is
picked up by the voltage pickup cable and shunted back through the voltage control box into a resistor. There it is
reduced to the correct voltage (24v dc) and sent to the torch motor.
f. Voltage setting - Volts setting will set the arc length. Set voltage at 24-26 volts.
a. Open the spool enclosure cover assembly, brake, and pressure roll assembly (Figure 2).
NOTE
Spooled wire has a tendency to unravel when loosened from the spool. Maintain
a firm grip on the wire during the threading operation.
b. Unroll and straighten 6 inches of wire electrode from the top of the spool.
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d. Close the pressure roller, and secure it in place. Press the inch button, feeding the wire electrode until there
is one-half inch protruding beyond the end of the nozzle.
a. Cut off any portion of the free end of the wire which is not straight. Ensure that the cut end is free from
rough surfaces to permit proper feeding.
b. Loosen the knob on the drive roll pressure adjustment, pivot the pressure adjustment free of the cover, and
pivot the pressure gear assembly away until it is in an open position.
c. Feed the wire through the inlet wire guide, past drive rolls, and on into the outlet wire guide. Feed
approximately 4 in. (102 mm) of wire into outlet wire guide.
d. Close the gear cover making sure the teeth on the pressure gear mesh with teeth on the drive gear. The
welding wire must also be in the grooves of the drive rolls.
e. Pivot the pressure adjustment knob until washer on the pressure adjustment is seated on top of the gear
cover.
f. Turn the pressure adjustment knob in a clockwise direction until the drive rolls are tight against the welding
wire. Do not overtighten. Further adjustment to attain desired clamping pressure can be made after the welding
power source and wire feeder are put into operation.
h. Turn the Line Disconnect Switch and the welding power source POWER switch to the ON position. If the
welding power source has spot welding capabilities, place the Selector switch located on the welding power
source front panel, in the CONTINUOUS position.
i. Press and hold the gun trigger until the wire extends about 1/4 in. (6 mm) out of the contact tube.
j. Cut off excess wire to 1/4 in. (6 mm) length with side cutters.
a. Flip the shielding switch on the front of the voltage control panel to the MANUAL position.
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b. Turn on the shielding gas cylinder valve, and set the appropriate pressure on the regulator.
c. When the proper pressure is set on the regulator, flip the shielding switch to the AUTOMATIC POSITION.
d. With the shielding switch in the MANUAL position, the shielding gas continues to flow. With the shielding
switch in the AUTOMATIC position, the shielding gas flows only when the torch trigger is depressed and stops
flowing when the torch trigger is released.
6. GENERATOR POLARITY.
a. The generator is set on reverse polarity. When set on straight polarity, the torch motor will run in reverse,
withdrawing the wire electrode and causing a very severe burn-back.
a. When burn-backs occur, a maximum of 3/8 inch may be filed off. File a flat spot on top of the guide tube,
place a drill pilot on the contact tube, and then drill out the contact tube. For a 3/64 inch contact tube, use a No.
46 or 47 drill bit.
8. COMMENCING TO WELD.
a. Press the inch button and allow enough wire electrode to emerge from the nozzle until one-half inch
protrudes beyond the end of the nozzle. With the main light switch ON and the shielding gas and power sources
adjusted properly, the operator may commence to weld.
b. If welding in the open air, a protective shield must be installed to prevent the shielding gas from being blown
away from the weld zone.
c. Pressing the torch trigger sends current down the torch switch cable and through the contactor cable,
closing the contactor.
d. When the contactor closes, the welding circuit from the generator to the welding torch is completed.
e. As the contactor closes, the shielding gas solenoid valve opens, allowing a flow of shielding gas to pass out
of the nozzle to shield the weld zone.
f. As the contactor closes, the shielding gas solenoid valve opens, allowing a flow of shielding gas to pass out
of the nozzle to shield the weld zone.
CAUTION
To prevent overloading the torch motor when stopping the arc, release the
trigger; never snap the arc out by raising the torch without first releasing the
trigger.
g. Welding will continue as long as the arc is maintained and the trigger is depressed.
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9. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE.
a. Keep all weld spatter cleaned out of the inside of the torch. Welding in the vertical or overhead positions will
cause spatter to fall down inside the torch nozzle holder and restrict the passage of the shielding gas. Keep all
hose connections tight.
b. To replace the feed roll, remove the name plate on top of the torch, the flathead screw and retainer from the
feed roll mounting shaft, and the contact ring and feed roll. Place new feed roll on the feed roll mounting shaft,
making certain that the pins protruding from the shaft engage the slots in the feed roll. Reassemble the contact
ring and nameplate.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
None
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
None
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a. The equipment used for oxyacetylene welding consists of a source of oxygen and a source of acetylene
from a portable or stationary outfit, two regulators, two lengths of hose with fittings, a welding torch with a cutting
attachment or a separate cutting torch.
b. Suitable goggles for eye protection, gloves to protect the hands, a method to light the torch, and wrenches
for the various connections on the cylinders, regulators, and torches are required.
a. GENERAL. This equipment is installed where welding operations are conducted in a fixed location.
b. OXYGEN. The oxygen is obtained from a number of cylinders arranged in a manifold configuration and
equipped with a master regulator to control the pressure and the gas flow (Figure 1). The oxygen is supplied to
the welding stations through a pipe line equipped with station outlets (Figure 2).
c. ACETYLENE. The acetylene is obtained from acetylene cylinders set up as shown in Figure 3. The
acetylene is supplied to the welding stations through a pipe line equipped with station outlets as shown in Figure
2.
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a. The portable oxyacetylene welding outfit consists of an oxygen cylinder and an acetylene cylinder with
attached valves, regulators, gages, and hose (Figure 4). This equipment may be temporarily secured on the floor,
or mounted in a two wheel all welded steel truck equipped with a platform which will support two large cylinders.
The cylinders are secured by chains attached to the truck frame. A metal toolbox, welded to the frame, provides
storage space for torch tips, gloves, fluxes, goggles, and necessary wrenches.
5. ACETYLENE CYLINDERS.
a. Acetylene is a compound of carbon and hydrogen (C2H2). It is a versatile industrial fuel gas used in cutting,
heating, welding, brazing, soldering, flame hardening, metalizing and stress relieving applications. It is produced
when calcium carbide is submerged in water or from petrochemical process. The gas from the acetylene
generator is then compressed into cylinders or fed into a piping system.
WARNING
NEVER ADJUST AN ACETYLENE REGULATOR TO ALLOW A DISCHARGE
GREATER THAN 15 PSI GAUGE.
b. Acetylene can become unstable when compressed in its gaseous state above 15 PSIG and therefore
cannot be stored in a hollow cylinder under high pressure the way other gases are stored. Acetylene cylinders are
filled with a porous material creating in effect a ”solid” as opposed to a ”hollow” cylinder. The porous filling is then
saturated with liquid acetone.
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c. When acetylene is pumped into the cylinder it is absorbed by the liquid acetone throughout the porous filling
and is held in a stable condition (Figure 5). Acetylene cylinders must never be transfilled. Acetylene cylinders are
available in capacities of 10, 40, 60, 75, 100, 130, 190, 225, 290, 300, 330, 360 and 390 cubic feet.
WARNING
All acetylene cylinders should be checked with a soap solution for leakage at the
valves and safety fuse plugs. Leaking acetylene could accumulate in the storage
room or other confined spaces and become a fire and explosion hazard.
d. The acetylene cylinders are equipped with safety plugs (Figure 5) having a small hole through the center.
This hole is filled with a metal alloy which melts at approximately 212°F (100°C) or releases at 500 psi. When a
cylinder is overheated the plug will melt and permit the acetylene to escape before a dangerous pressure can
build up. The plug hole is too small to permit a flame to burn back into the cylinder if the escaping acetylene
should become ignited.
e. The brass acetylene cylinder valves have squared stainless steel valve stems which can be fitted with a
cylinder wrench and opened or closed when the cylinder is in use. The outlet of the valve is threaded for
connection to an acetylene pressure regulator by means of a union nut. The regulator inlet connection gland fits
against the face of the threaded cylinder connection and the union nut draws the two surfaces together.
Whenever the threads on the valve connections are damaged to a degree that will prevent proper assembly to the
regulator, the cylinder should be marked and set aside for return to the manufacturer.
f. A protective metal cap (Figure 5) screws onto the valve to prevent damage during shipment or storage.
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a. Oxygen is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless gas that is slightly heavier than air. It is nonflammable but will
support combustion with other elements. In its free state oxygen is one of the most common elements. The
atmosphere is made up of approximately 21 parts of oxygen and 78 parts of nitrogen, the remainder being rare
gases. Rusting of ferrous metals, discoloration of copper, and the corrosion of aluminum are all due to the action
of atmospheric oxygen. This action is known as oxidation.
b. Production of oxygen.
(1) Oxygen is obtained commercially either by the liquid air process or by the electrolytic process.
(2) In the liquid air process air is compressed and cooled to a point where the gases become liquid. As the
temperature of the liquid air is raised nitrogen in a gaseous form is given off first, since its boiling point is lower
than that of liquid oxygen. These gases, having been separated, are then further purified and compressed into
cylinders for use.
(3) In the electrolytic process water is broken down into hydrogen and oxygen by the passage of an electric
current. The oxygen collects at the positive terminal and the hydrogen at the negative terminal. Each gas is
collected and compressed into cylinders for use.
c. Oxygen Cylinders. A typical oxygen cylinder is shown in Figure 6. It is made of steel and has a capacity of
220 cubic feet at a pressure of 2,000 psi and a temperature of 70°F (21°C). The attached equipment provided by
the oxygen supplier consists of an outlet valve, a removable metal cap for the protection of the valve during
shipment or storage, and a low melting point safety fuse plug and disk.
a. General. The gases compressed in oxygen and acetylene cylinders are at pressures too high for
oxyacetylene welding. Regulators are necessary to reduce pressure and control the flow of gases from the
cylinders. Most regulators in use are either the single stage or the two stage type. Check valves should be
installed between the torch hoses and their respective regulators to prevent flashback through the regulators.
(1) The mechanism of a single stage oxygen regulator (Figure 7) has a nozzle through which the high
pressure gas passes, a valve seat to close off the nozzle, and balancing springs. Some types have a relief valve
and an inlet filter to exclude dust and dirt.
(2) Pressure gages are provided to show the pressure in the cylinder or pipe line and the working pressure.
In operation the working pressure falls as the cylinder pressure falls. For this reason the working pressure must
be adjusted at intervals during welding operations. The oxygen regulator controls and reduces the oxygen
pressure from any standard commercial oxygen cylinder containing pressures up to 3,000 psi.
(3) The high pressure gage, which is on the inlet side of the regulator, is graduated from 0 to 3,000 psi. The
low pressure gage which is on the outlet side of the regulator, is graduated from 0 to 500 psi.
(1) The oxygen enters the regulator through the high pressure inlet connection and passes through a glass
wool filter which removes dust and dirt. The seat which closes off the nozzle is not raised until the adjusting screw
is turned in. Turning in the adjusting screw applies pressure to the adjusting spring which bears down on the
rubber diaphragm.
(2) The diaphragm presses downward on the stirrup and overcomes the pressure on the compensating
spring. When the stirrup is forced downward the passage through the nozzle is opened, and oxygen is allowed to
flow into the low pressure chamber of the regulator. From here the oxygen passes through the regulator outlet
and the hose to the torch.
(3) A certain set pressure must be maintained in the low pressure chamber of the regulator so that oxygen
will continue to be forced through the orifices of the torch, even if the torch needle valve is open. This pressure is
indicated on the working pressure gage of the regulator and depends on the position of the regulator adjusting
screw. The pressure is increased by turning the adjusting screw to the right and decreased by turning this screw
to the left.
NOTE
Regulators used at stations to which gases are piped from an oxygen manifold,
acetylene manifold, or acetylene generator have only one low pressure gage
because the pipe line pressures are usually set at 15 psi for acetylene and
approximately 200 psi for oxygen.
(1) The operation of the two stage regulator (Figure 8) is similar in principle to that of the single stage
regulator. The difference is that the total pressure decrease takes place in two steps instead of one.
(2) On the high pressure side the pressure is reduced from cylinder pressure to intermediate pressure.
(3) On the low pressure side the pressure is reduced from intermediate pressure to working pressure.
Because of the two stage pressure control the working pressure is held constant, and pressure adjustment during
welding operations is not required.
e. Acetylene Regulator.
WARNING
Acetylene should not be used at pressures exceeding 15 psi.
(1) This regulator controls and reduces the acetylene pressure from any standard commercial cylinder
containing pressures up to and including 500 psi. It is of the same general design as the oxygen regulator but will
not withstand such high pressures.
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(2) The high pressure gage, on the inlet side of the regulator, is graduated from 0 to 500 psi.
(3) The low pressure gage, on the outlet side of the regulator, is graduated from 0 to 30 psi.
a. General. The oxyacetylene welding torch is used to mix oxygen and acetylene in definite proportions and to
control the volume of these gases burning at the welding tip. The torch has two needle valves, one for adjusting
the flow of oxygen and one for adjusting the flow of acetylene. In addition, there are two tubes, one for oxygen,
the other for acetylene; a mixing head; inlet nipples for the attachment of hoses; a tip; and a handle. The tubes
and handle are of seamless hard brass, copper-nickel alloy, stainless steel, or other noncorrosive metal of
adequate strength. The tips, which are available in different sizes, are described in WELDING TIPS AND
MIXERS.
9. TYPES OF TORCHES.
a. General. There are two general types of welding torches; the low pressure or injector type, and the equal
pressure type.
b. In the low pressure or injector type (Figure 9) the acetylene pressure is less than 1 psi. A jet of high
pressure oxygen is used to produce a suction effect to draw in the required amount of acetylene. This is
accomplished by designing the mixer in the torch to operate on the injector principle. The welding tips may or may
not have separate injectors designed integrally with each tip.
c. Equal pressure torch (Figure 10) is designed to operate with equal pressures for the oxygen and acetylene.
The pressure ranges from 1 to 15 psi. This torch has certain advantages over the low pressure type in that the
flame desired can be more readily adjusted, and since equal pressures are used for each gas the torch is less
susceptible to flashbacks.
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a. Welding and cutting tips, such as the one shown in Figure 11, are made of hard drawn electrolytic copper or
95 percent copper and 5 percent tellurium. They are made in various styles and types, some having a one piece
tip with either a single orifice or a number of orifices, and others with two or more tips attached to one mixing
head. The diameters of the tip orifices differ in order to control the quantity of heat and the type of flame. These tip
sizes are designated by numbers which are arranged according to the individual manufacturer’s system. In
general, the smaller the number, the smaller the tip orifice.
b. A mixer (Figure 10) is frequently provided in tip mixer assemblies to assure the correct flow of mixed gases
for each size tip. In this tip mixer assembly the mixer is assembled with the tip for which it has been drilled and
then screwed onto the torch head. The universal type mixer is a separate unit which can be used with tips of
various sizes.
11. HOSE.
a. The hose used to make the connection between the regulators and the torch is made especially for this
purpose. It is built to withstand high internal pressures. It is strong, nonporous, light, and flexible to permit ready
manipulation of the torch. The rubber used in its manufacture is chemically treated to remove free sulfur so as to
avoid possible spontaneous combustion. The hose is not impaired by prolonged exposure to light.
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b. The oxygen hose is green and the acetylene hose is red. The hose is a rubber tube with braided or wrapped
cotton or rayon reinforcements and a rubber covering. For heavy duty welding and cutting operations, requiring
1/4 to 1/2 inch internal diameter hose, three to five plies of braided or wrapped reinforcements are used. One ply
is used in the 1/8 to 3/16 inch hose for light torches.
c. Hoses are provided with connections at each end so that they may be connected to their respective
regulator outlet and torch inlet connections. To prevent a dangerous interchange of acetylene and oxygen hoses
all threaded fittings used for the acetylene hook up are left hand, and all threaded fittings for the oxygen hook up
are right hand.
d. Welding and cutting hose is obtainable as a single hose for each gas or with the hoses bonded together
along their length under a common outer rubber jacket. This type prevents the hose from kinking or becoming
entangled during the welding operation.
a. When setting up welding and cutting equipment it is important that all operations be performed
systematically in order to avoid mistakes and possible trouble. The setting up procedures given in CYLINDERS
through ADJUSTMENT OF WORKING PRESSURE below will assure safety to the operator and the apparatus.
13. CYLINDERS.
a. Place the oxygen and the acetylene cylinders, if they are not mounted on a truck, on a level floor and tie
them firmly to a work bench post, wall, or other secure anchorage to prevent their being knocked or pulled over.
WARNING
c. “Crack” the cylinder valves by opening slightly for an instant to blow out any dirt or foreign matter that may
have accumulated during shipment or storage.
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d. Close the valves and wipe off the connection seats with a clean cloth.
14. PRESSURE REGULATORS.
a. Connect the acetylene regulator to the acetylene cylinder and the oxygen regulator to the oxygen cylinder.
Use either a regulator wrench or a close fitting wrench and tighten the connecting nuts sufficiently to prevent
leakage.
b. Install safety check valves on oxygen/acetylene regulators before attaching individual hoses.
c. Connect the red hose to the acetylene regulator and the green hose to the oxygen regulator. Screw the
connecting nuts up tightly to insure leak proof seating. Note that the acetylene hose connection has left hand
threads.
WARNING
d. Release the regulator screws to avoid damage to the regulators and gages.
WARNING
Do not stand directly in front or in back of the regulator when opening the cylinder
valves. Stand off to one side.
e. Slowly open the cylinder valves. Read the high pressure gages to check the cylinder gas pressure. Blow out
the oxygen hose by turning the regulator screw in and then release the regulator screw.
15. TORCH.
a. Connect the red acetylene hose to the torch needle valve which is stamped AC.
b. Connect the green oxygen hose to the torch needle valve which is stamped OX.
c. Test all hose connections for leaks at the regulators or torch valves by turning both regulators screws in with
the torch needle valves closed.
d. Release the regulator screws after testing and drain both hose lines by opening the torch needle valves.
e. Slip the tip nut over the mixing head, screw tip into mixing head and assemble in the torch body.
f. Tighten by hand and adjust the tip to the proper angle. Secure this adjustment by tightening with the tip nut
wrench.
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WARNING
Purge both acetylene and oxygen lines (hoses) prior to igniting the torch. Failure
to do this can cause serious injury to personnel and damage to the equipment.
a. Adjust the acetylene working pressure by opening the acetylene needle valve in the torch and turning the
regulator screw to the right, then adjust the acetylene regulator to the required pressure for the tip size to be used
(see Table 1). Close the needle valve.
a. Shut off the gases. First close the acetylene valve and then the oxygen valve on the torch. Then close the
acetylene and oxygen cylinder valves.
c. Open the torch acetylene valve until the gas stops flowing, then close the valve.
d. Next open the torch oxygen valve to drain the oxygen regulator and hose. When gas stops flowing, close
the valve.
e. When the above operations are performed properly both high and low pressure gages on the acetylene and
oxygen regulators will register zero.
f. Release the tension on both regulator screws by turning the screws to the left until they rotate freely.
g. Coil the hoses without kinking them and suspend them on a suitable holder or hanger. Avoid upsetting the
cylinders to which they are attached.
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WARNING
Regulators with leakage of gas between the regulator seat and the nozzle should
be replaced immediately to avoid injury to personnel. With acetylene regulators
this leakage is particularly dangerous because acetylene at high pressure in the
hose is an explosion hazard.
a. Leakage of gas between the regulator seat and the nozzle is the principal trouble encountered with
regulators. It is indicated by a gradual increase in pressure on the working pressure gage when the adjusting
screw is fully released or is in position after adjustment. This defect, commonly called “creeping regulator”, is
caused by bad valve seats or by foreign matter lodged between the seat and the nozzle.
d. If the malfunction is caused by fouling with dirt or other foreign matter, clean the seat and nozzle thoroughly
and blow out any dust or dirt in the valve chamber.
e. The procedure for removing valve seats and nozzles will vary with the make or design.
f. Broken or buckled gage tubes and distorted or buckled diaphragms are usually caused by backfire at the
torch, leaks across the regulator seats, or by failure to release the regulator adjusting screw fully before opening
the cylinder valves.
g. Defective bourdon tubes in the gages are indicated by improper action of the gages or by escaping gas from
the gage case. Gages with defective bourdon tubes should be removed and replaced by new gages because
satisfactory repairs cannot be made without special equipment.
h. Buckled or distorted diaphragms cannot be adjusted properly and should be replaced with new ones.
Rubber diaphragms can be replaced easily by removing the spring case with a vise or wrench. Metal diaphragms
are sometimes soldered to the valve case and their replacement is a factory or special repair shop job. It should
not be attempted by anyone unfamiliar with the work.
a. Improper functioning of welding torches is usually due to one or more of the following causes: leaking
valves, leaks in the mixing head seat, scored or out-of-round welding tip orifices, clogged tubes or tips, and
damaged inlet connection threads.
b. Corrective measures for these common torch defects are described below.
WARNING
Defects in oxyacetylene welding torches which are sources of gas leaks should
be corrected immediately, as they may result in flashbacks or backfires, with
resultant injury to the operator and/or damage to the welding apparatus.
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a. This condition is due to worn or bent valve stems, damaged seats, or a combination of both. Loose packing will
also cause leaks around the valve handle. Such leaks are indicated when the gases continue to flow after the
valves are closed.
b. Bent or worn valve stems should be replaced and damaged seats should be refaced.
c. Loose packing may be corrected by tightening the packing nut or by installing new packing and then tightening
the packing nut.
a. This condition is indicated by the popping out of the flame and by emission of sparks from the tips
accompanied by a squealing noise. Leaks in the mixing head will cause improper mixing of the oxygen and
acetylene which will cause flashbacks; i.e., ignition and burning of the gases back of the mixing head in the torch
tubes.
b. A flashback causes the torch head and handle to suddenly become very hot. This defect is corrected by
reaming out and truing the mixing head seat.
CAUTION
This work should be done by manufacturer because special reamers are required
for truing these seats.
a. Tips in this condition will cause the flame to be irregular even after the tip has been thoroughly cleaned.
They cannot be repaired and must be replaced.
a. This condition is due to carbon deposits caused by flashbacks or backfire, or to the presence of foreign
matter that has entered the tubes through the hoses. If the tubes or tips are clogged, greater working pressures
will be needed to produce the flame required for a given tip. The flame produced will be distorted.
b. To correct this condition the torch should be disassembled so that the tip, mixing head, valves, and hose
can be cleaned and blown out with compressed air at a pressure of 20 to 30 psi.
c. The tip and mixing head should be cleaned either with a cleaning drill of the proper size or with soft copper
or brass wire, and then blown out with compressed air. The cleaning drills should be approximately one drill size
smaller than the tip orifice to avoid enlarging the orifice during cleaning.
a. Leaks due to damaged inlet connection threads can be detected by opening the cylinder valves and keeping
the needle valves closed. Such leaks will cause the regulator pressure to drop.
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b. If the threads are damaged, the hose connection at the torch inlet will be difficult to impossible to tighten. To
correct this defect the threads should be recut and the hose connections thoroughly cleaned.
WARNING
Damaged inlet connection threads may cause fires by ignition of the leaking gas,
resulting in injury to the welding operator and/or damage to the equipment.
a. The cutting torch (Figure 12) like the welding torch has a tube for oxygen and one for acetylene; in addition,
there is a tube for high pressure oxygen, together with a cutting tip or nozzle.
(1) The tip (Figure 13) is provided with a center hole through which a jet of pure oxygen passes.
(2) Mixed oxygen and acetylene pass through holes surrounding the center hole for the preheating flames.
The number of orifices for oxyacetylene flames ranges from two to six, depending on the purpose for which the tip
is used.
(4) The cutting torch is furnished with interchangeable tips for cutting steel from less than 1/4 inch to more
than 12 inches in thickness.
b. A cutting attachment fitted to a welding torch in place of the welding head is shown in Figure 13.
a. Attach the required cutting tip to the torch and adjust the oxygen and acetylene pressures in accordance
with Table 1.
c. Hold the torch so that the cutting oxygen lever or trigger can be operated with one hand. Use the other hand
to steady and maintain the position of the torch head to the work. Keep the flame at a 90 degree angle to the work
in the direction of travel, with the inner cones of the preheating flames about 1/16 inch above the end of the line to
be cut. Hold this position until the spot has been raised to a bright red heat and then slowly open the cutting
oxygen valve.
d. If the cut has been started properly a shower of sparks will fall from the opposite side of the work. Then
move the torch at a speed which will allow the cut to continue penetrating the work. A good cut will be clean and
narrow.
e. When cutting billets, round bars, or heavy sections, time and gas are saved if a burr is raised with a chisel at
the point where the cut is to start. This small portion will heat quickly and cutting will start immediately. A welding
rod can also be used to start a cut on heavy sections. When so used, it is called a ”starting rod”.
f. Oxygen and acetylene are provided in the welding areas outlined in b and c below.
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a. The edges to be welded by the oxyacetylene welding process must be properly prepared, aligned, and
correctly spaced.
b. A good weld requires the proper torch tip, correct flame adjustment, and skillful rod and torch manipulation.
c. Under some conditions special procedures are necessary such as preheating, slow cooling, or stress
relieving.
d. When welding certain metals a flux is required to remove oxides and slag from the molten metal, and to
protect the puddle from the action of atmospheric oxygen.
e. When welding light sheet metal the edges are normally prepared by flanging. Light sheet metal requires no
filler. In welding heavier sheets and plates filler metals are required, and the edges being welded must be
prepared so that the filler metal will penetrate to the joint root.
NOTE
Oxygen pressures are approximately the same as acetylene pressures in the
balanced pressure type torch. Pressures for specific types of mixing heads and
tips are specified by the manufacturer.
a. The required working pressure increases as the tip orifice increases. The relation between the tip number
and the diameter of the orifice may vary with different manufacturers.
c. For the approximate relation between the tip number and the required oxygen and acetylene pressures, see
Tables 2 and 3.
a. To start the welding torch hold it so as to direct the flame away from the operator, gas cylinders, hose, or
any flammable material. Open the acetylene valve 1/4 turn and ignite the gas by striking the sparklighter in front of
the tip.
b. Since the oxygen valve is closed the acetylene is burned by the oxygen in the air. There is not sufficient
oxygen to provide complete combustion so the flame is smoky and produces a soot of fine unburned carbon.
Continue to open the acetylene valve slowly until the flame burns clean. The acetylene flame is long, bushy and
has a yellowish color. This pure acetylene flame is unsuitable for welding.
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c. Slowly open the oxygen valve. The flame changes to a bluish-white and forms a bright inner cone
surrounded by an outer flame envelope or sheath flame. The inner cone develops the high temperature required
for welding. The outer envelope contains varying amounts of incandescent carbon soot, depending on the
proportions of oxygen and acetylene in the flame.
d. The temperature produced is so high (up to 6,300°F (3,482°C)) that the products of complete combustion
(i.e., carbon dioxide and water) are decomposed into their elements. Acetylene burning in the inner cone with
oxygen supplied by the torch forms carbon monoxide and hydrogen. As these gases cool from the high
temperatures of the inner cone they burn completely with the oxygen supplied by the surrounding air and form the
lower temperature sheath flame. The carbon monoxide burns to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen burns to form
water vapor. Since the inner cone contains only carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which are reducing in character
(i.e., able to combine with and remove oxygen), oxidation of the metal will not occur within this zone.
a. Three types of oxyacetylene flames, shown in Figure 14 are commonly used for welding. These are neutral,
reducing (or carburizing), and oxidizing flames.
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a. The welding flame should be adjusted to neutral before either the carburizing or oxidizing flame mixture is
set. There are two clearly defined zones in the neutral flame. The inner zone consists of a luminous cone that is
bluish-white. Surrounding this is a light blue flame envelope or sheath. This neutral flame is obtained by starting
with an excess acetylene flame in which there is a ”feather” extension of the inner cone. When the flow of
acetylene is decreased or the flow of oxygen increased the feather will tend to disappear. The neutral flame
begins when the feather disappears.
b. The neutral or balanced flame is obtained when the mixed torch gas consists of approximately one volume
of oxygen and one volume of acetylene. It is obtained by gradually opening the oxygen valve to shorten the
acetylene flame until a clearly defined inner cone is visible. For a strictly neutral flame no whitish streamers
should be present at the end of the cone. In some cases it is desirable to leave a slight acetylene streamer or
”feather” (1/16 to 1/8 inch long) at the end of the cone to insure that the flame is not oxidizing. The volume ratio of
oxygen to acetylene in forming a neutral flame is 1.04 to 1.14. This flame adjustment is used for most welding
operations and for preheating during cutting operations. When welding steel with this flame the molten metal
puddle is quiet and clear. The metal flows easily without boiling, foaming or sparking.
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c. In the neutral flame the temperature at the inner cone tip is approximately 5,850°F(3,232°C), while at the
end of the outer sheath or envelope the temperature drops to approximately 2,300°F (1,260°C). This variation
within the flame permits some temperature control when making a weld. The position of the flame to the molten
puddle can be changed, and the heat controlled in this manner.
a. The reducing or carburizing flame is obtained when slightly less than one volume of oxygen is mixed with
one volume of acetylene. The volume ratio is 0.85 to 0.95. This flame is obtained by first adjusting to neutral and
then slowly opening the acetylene valve until an acetylene streamer or ”feather” is at the end of the inner cone.
The length of this excess streamer indicates the degree of flame carburization. For most welding operations this
streamer should be no more than half the length of the inner cone.
b. The reducing or carburizing flame can always be recognized by the presence of three distinct flame zones.
There is a clearly defined bluish-white inner cone, a white intermediate cone indicating the amount of excess
acetylene, and a light blue outer flame envelope. This type of flame burns with a coarse rushing sound and has a
temperature of approximately 5,700°F(3,149°C) at the inner cone tips.
c. When a strongly carburizing flame is used for welding, the metal boils and is not clear. The steel is
absorbing carbon from the flame then gives off heat which causes the metal to boil. When cold the weld has the
properties of high carbon steel, being brittle and subject to cracking.
d. A slight feather flame of acetylene is sometimes used for backhand welding (refer to BACKHAND
WELDING). A carburizing flame is advantageous for welding high carbon steel for hard facing operations, and for
welding such nonferrous alloys as nickel and Monel. When used in silver solder and soft solder operations only
the intermediate and outer flame cones are used. They impart a low temperature soaking heat to the parts being
soldered.
a. The oxidizing flame is produced when slightly more than one volume of oxygen is mixed with one volume of
acetylene. The volume ratio is 1.7 to 1.15. To obtain this type of flame the torch should first be adjusted to give a
neutral flame. The flow of oxygen is then increased until the inner cone is shortened to about one-tenth of its
original length. When the flame is properly adjusted the inner cone is pointed and slightly purple. An oxidizing
flame can also be recognized by its distinct hissing sound. The temperature of this flame is approximately
6,300°F(3,482°C) at the inner cone tip.
b. When applied to steel an oxidizing flame causes the molten metal to foam and give off sparks. This
indicates that the excess oxygen is combining with the steel and burning it. An oxidizing flame should not be used
for welding steel because the deposited metal will be porous, oxidized, and brittle. This flame will ruin most metals
and should be avoided, except as noted in (c) below.
c. A slightly oxidizing flame is used in torch brazing of steel and cast iron. A stronger oxidizing flame is used in
the welding of brass or bronze.
d. In most cases the amount of excess oxygen used in this flame must be determined by observing the action
of the flame on the molten metal.
a. The welding rod which is melted into the welded joint plays an important part in the quality of the finished
weld. Good welding rods are designed to permit free flowing metal which will unite readily with the base metal to
produce sound, clean welds of the correct composition.
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b. Welding rods are made for various types of carbon steel, for cast iron, aluminum, bronze, stainless steel
and other metals, and for hard surfacing.
a. The oxides of all the ordinary commercial metals and alloys except steel have higher melting points than the
metals themselves and are usually pasty (some are even infusible) when the metal is quite fluid and at the proper
welding temperature. An efficient flux will combine with oxides to form a fusible slag having a melting point lower
than the metal so that it will flow away from the immediate field of action. This slag, incidentally, forms a coating
over the molten metal and thus serves as a protection against atmospheric oxidation. The chemical
characteristics and melting points of the oxides of different metals vary greatly and therefore there can be no one
flux that will be satisfactory for all metals.
b. The melting point of a flux must be lower than that of either the metal or the oxides formed, so that it will be
liquid. The ideal flux has exactly the right fluidity at the welding temperature and thus tends to blanket the molten
metal from atmospheric oxidation. Such a flux remains close to the weld area instead of flowing over the base
metal for some distance from the weld.
c. Fluxes usually are packed in powder form in tin cans. Some of them lose their welding properties if exposed
too long to the atmosphere, and in such cases small containers are best.
d. Fluxes differ in their composition according to the metals with which they are to be used. In cast iron welding
a slag forms on the surface of the puddle and the flux serves to break this up. Equal parts of carbonate of soda
and bicarbonate of soda make a good compound for this purpose. Nonferrous metals usually require a flux.
Copper also requires a filler rod containing enough phosphorus to produce a metal free from oxides. Borax which
has been melted and powdered is often used as a flux with copper alloys. A good flux is required with aluminum
because there is a tendency for the heavy slag formed to mix with the melted aluminum and weaken the weld. For
sheet aluminum welding, it is customary to dissolve the flux in water and apply it to the rod. After welding
aluminum, all traces of the flux should be removed.
a. In this method the welding rod precedes the torch. The torch is held at an angle of approximately 30
degrees from the vertical, in the direction of welding as shown in Figure 15. The flame is pointed in the direction of
welding and directed between the rod and the molten puddle. This position permits uniform preheating of the plate
edges immediately ahead of the molten puddle. By moving the torch and the rod in opposite semicircular paths
the heat can be carefully balanced to melt the end of the rod and the side walls of the plate into a uniformly
distributed molten puddle. The moving flame melts off a short length of the rod and adds it to the molten puddle.
The heat which is reflected backwards from the rod keeps the metal molten. The metal is distributed evenly to
both edges being welded and to the deposited weld by the motion of the tip and rod.
b. This method is satisfactory for welding sheets and light plates in all positions. Some difficulties are
encountered in welding heavier plates for the reasons given below:
c. In forehand welding the edges of the plate must be beveled to provide a wide V with a 90 degree included
angle. This edge preparation is necessary to insure satisfactory melting of the plate edges, good penetration, and
fusion of the weld metal to the base metal.
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d. Because of this wide V a relatively large molten puddle is required. It is difficult to obtain a good joint when
the puddle is too large.
a. In this method the torch precedes the welding rod, as shown in Figure 16. The torch is held at an angle of
approximately 30 degrees from the vertical away from the direction of welding, with the flame directed at the
molten puddle. The welding rod is between the flame and the molten puddle. This position requires less
transverse motion than is used in forehand welding.
b. Backhand welding is used principally for welding heavy sections because it permits the use of narrower V’s
at the joint. A 60 degree included angle of bevel is sufficient for a good weld. In general there is less puddling, and
less welding rod is used with this method than with the forehand method.
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a. In single layer welding of thick metal the side walls of the V could be melted excessively, which results in a
wide weld. Multilayer welding (Figure 17) consists of depositing metal in two or more layers or passes. It is used
in welding thick plates or pipe walls to avoid carrying a large puddle of molten metal, which is difficult to control.
b. The multilayer method allows the welder to concentrate on getting good penetration at the root of the V in
the first pass or layer. The final layer is easily controlled to obtain a good smooth surface.
c. This method permits the metal deposited in a given layer to be partly or wholly refined by the succeeding
layers, and therefore improved in ductility. The lower layer of weld metal, after cooling to black heat, is reheated
by the upper layer through the critical temperature range and then cooled, in effect being heat treated. In work
where this added quality is desired in the top layer of the welded joint, an excess of weld metal is deposited on
the finished weld and then machined off. The purpose of this last layer is simply to provide welding heat to refine
the final layer of weld metal.
a. A different welding technique is required for fillet welding than for butt joints because of the position of the
parts to be welded. When welding is done in the horizontal position, the lower plate is continuous under the weld,
and there is a tendency for the top plate to melt before the bottom plate. This can be avoided, however, by
pointing the flame more at the bottom plate than at the edge of the upper plate. Both plates must reach the
welding temperature at the same time.
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b. In making the weld, a modified form of backhand technique should be used. The welding rod should be kept
in the puddle between the completed portion of the weld and the flame, but the flame should be pointed ahead
slightly in the direction in which the weld is being made and directed at the lower plate. To start welding, the flame
should be concentrated on the lower plate until the metal is quite red and then should be directed so as to bring
both plates to the welding temperature at the same time. It is important that the flame not be pointed directly at
the inner corner so that the burning gases are reflected back around the tip, since this makes for pocketing in the
weld and control of the puddle is difficult.
c. It is essential in this form of welding that fusion be obtained at the inside corner or root of the joint.
a. In order to make satisfactory weld beads on a plate surface the flame motion, tip angle, and position of the
welding flame above the molten puddle should be carefully maintained. The welding torch should be adjusted to
give the proper type of flame for the particular metal being welded.
b. Narrow weld beads are made by raising and lowering the welding flame with a slight circular motion while
progressing forward. The tip should form an angle of approximately 45 degrees with the plate surface, and the
flame should point in the welding direction (Figures 18 and 19).
c. To increase the depth of fusion either increase the angle between the tip and the plate surface or decrease
the welding speed. The size of the puddle should not be too large because this will cause the flame to burn
through the plate. A properly made weld bead, without the addition of filler rod, will be slightly below the upper
surface of the plate, and a ridge will form on the underside to indicate full penetration (Figure 18). A weld bead
with filler rod shows a buildup on the surface of the plate.
d. A small puddle should be formed on the surface when making a weld bead with a welding rod (Figure 19).
The welding rod is inserted into the puddle and then the base plate and rod are melted together. The torch should
be moved slightly from side to side to obtain good fusion. By varying the speed of welding and the amount of
metal deposited from the welding rod the size of the weld bead can be controlled to any desired limit.
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a. Several types of joints are used to make butt welds in the flat position. These are illustrated in Figures 20
and 21.
b. Tack welds should be used to keep the heavier plates aligned. The lighter sheets should be spaced to allow
for weld metal contraction and thus prevent warpage.
c. The following guide should be used for selecting the number of passes (Figure 17) in butt welding steel
plates:
d. The position of the welding rod and torch tip in making a flat position butt joint is shown in Figure 22. The
motion of the flame should be controlled so as to melt the side walls of the plates and enough of the welding rod
to produce a puddle of the desired size. By oscillating the torch tip and welding rod a molten puddle of a given
size can be carried along the joint at a speed which will ensure both complete penetration and sufficient filler
metal to provide some reinforcement at the weld.
e. Care should be taken not to overheat the molten puddle. This will result in “burning the metal”, porosity, and
low strength in the completed weld.
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Figure 22. Position of Rod and Torch for a Butt Weld in a Flat Position
a. It is a little more difficult to master butt welding in the horizontal position than in the flat position. This is due
to the tendency of molten metal to flow to the lower side of the joint, while the heat from the torch rises to the
upper side of the joint. The combination of these opposing factors makes it difficult to apply a uniform deposit to
this joint.
b. Align the plates and tack weld at both ends (Figure 23). The torch should move with a slight oscillation up
and down to distribute the heat equally to both sides of the joint. A slight rolling motion should be applied to the
rod. The torch movement and the movement of the rod are the same as before, a rolling motion up and down the
width of the deposit, thereby holding the molten metal in a plastic state to prevent excessive flow of the metal to
the lower side of the joint and permit faster solidification of the weld metal.
c. This joint in horizontal position will require considerably more practice than the previous techniques. It is,
however, important that the technique be mastered before passing on to other types of weld joints.
a. When welding is done on a vertical surface the molten metal has a tendency to run downward and pile up. A
weld that is not carefully made will result in a joint with excessive reinforcement at the lower end and some
undercutting on the surface of the plates.
b. The flow of metal can be controlled by pointing the flame upward at an angle of 45 degrees to the plate, and
holding the rod between the flame and the molten puddle (Figure 24). The flow of gases from the inclined tip
keeps the metal from sagging or falling and insures good penetration and fusion at the joint. Both the torch and
welding rod should be oscillated to deposit a uniform bead. The welding rod should be held slightly above the
center line of the joint, and the welding flame should sweep the molten metal across the joint to distribute it
evenly.
c. Butt joints welded in the vertical position should be prepared for welding in the same manner as that
required for welding in the flat position (FLAT POSITION WELDING).
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a. In overhead welding the metal deposited tends to drop or sag on the plate causing the bead to have a high
crown. To overcome this difficulty the molten puddle should be kept small and enough filler metal should be
added to obtain good fusion with some reinforcement at the bead. If the puddle becomes too large the flame
should be removed for an instant to permit the weld metal to freeze. When welding light sheets the puddle size
can be controlled by applying the heat equally to the base metal and filler rod.
b. The torch and welding rod position for welding overhead butt joints are shown in Figure 25. The flame
should be directed so as to melt both edges of the joint, and sufficient filler metal should be added to maintain an
adequate puddle with sufficient reinforcement. The welding flame should support the molten metal and distribute it
along the joint. Only a small puddle is required so a small welding rod should be used. Care should be taken to
control the heat to avoid burning through the plates. This is particularly important when welding is done from one
side only.
c. The pool of the molten metal should progress evenly down the seam as the weld is being made.
d. The inner cone tip of the flame should not be permitted to come in contact with the welding rod, molten
puddle, or base metal. The flame should be manipulated so that the molten metal is protected from the
atmosphere by the envelope or outer flame.
e. The end of the welding rod should be melted by placing it in the puddle under the protection of the
enveloping flame. The rod should not be melted above the puddle and allowed to drip into it.
f. Do not overheat the molten metal because this will cause the metal to boil and spark excessively. The
resultant grain structure of the weld metal will be large, the strength will be lowered, and the weld will be badly
scaled.
g. Low carbon steels do not harden in the fusion zone as a result of welding heat.
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a. Brazing is a group of welding processes in which the filler metal is a nonferrous metal or alloy with a melting
point above 800°F(427°C), but lower than that of the metals to be joined. The filler metal is distributed between
the closely fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary attraction.
b. In brazing, a nonferrous filler rod, strip, or wire is used for repairing or joining cast iron, malleable iron,
wrought iron, steel, copper, nickel, and high melting point brasses and bronzes. Some of these brasses and
bronzes, however, melt at a temperature so near to that of the filler rod that fusion welding rather than brazing is
required.
c. In brazing with the oxyacetylene torch the base metal parts are heated to the temperatures required for the
melting and free flowing of the brazing alloy. Care should be taken not to overheat the base metal. One method
for determining the correct temperature is to touch the joint with the filler rod, strip, or wire as the heating
progresses. As soon as the temperature of the metal is high enough to melt the alloy, the rod, strip, or wire is
brought under the flame to perform the operation.
d. Repairs on high carbon and tool steels should be made by brazing only in cases of an emergency, and
where the lower strength and hardness of the filler metal are acceptable. Brazing should never be used where the
part is subjected to temperatures higher than 630°F(343°C).
a. Silver brazing, frequently called ”silver soldering,” is a low temperature brazing process with rods having
melting points ranging from 1,145°F to 1,650°F (618°C to 899°C). This is considerably lower than that of the
copper alloy brazing filler metals. The strength of a joint made by this process is dependent on a thin film of silver
brazing filler metal.
b. Silver brazing filler metals are composed of silver with varying percentages of copper, nickel, tin, and zinc.
They are used for joining all ferrous and nonferrous metals except aluminum, magnesium, and other metals which
have too low a melting point.
c. It is essential that the joints be free of oxides, scale, grease, dirt, or other foreign matter. Surfaces other than
cadmium plating can be easily cleaned mechanically by wire brushing, or an abrasive cloth; chemically by acid
pickling or other means. Extreme care must be used in grinding all cadmium surfaces to the base metals since
cadmium oxide fumes formed by heating and melting of silver brazing alloys are highly toxic.
d. Silver braze flux is generally required. The melting point of the flux must be lower than the melting point of
the silver brazing filler metal so that it will clean the base metal and properly flux the molten metal. A satisfactory
flux should be applied by means of a brush to the parts to be joined and also to the silver brazing filler metal rod.
e. When silver brazing by the oxyacetylene process, a strongly reducing flame is desirable. The outer
envelope of the flame, not the inner cone, should be applied to the work. The cone of the flame is too hot for this
purpose. Joint clearances should be between 0.002 and 0.005 inch for best filler metal distribution. A thin film of
filler metal in a joint is stronger and more effective, and a fillet build up around the joint will increase its strength.
Some joints which can be used are shown in Figure 26.
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f. The base metal should be heated until the flux starts to melt along the line of the joint; the filler metal is not
subjected to the flame but is applied to the heated area of the base metal just long enough to flow the filler metal
completely into the joint. If one of the parts to be joined is heavier than the other, the heavier part should receive
the most heat. Also, parts having high heat conductivity should receive more heat
a. If iron or steel is heated to its kindling temperature (not less than 1,600°F (871°C)), and then brought into
contact with oxygen it burns or oxidizes very rapidly. The reaction of oxygen with the iron or steel forms iron oxide
(Fe304) and gives off considerable heat. This heat is sufficient to melt the oxide and some of the base metal;
consequently, more of the metal is exposed to the oxygen stream. This reaction of oxygen and iron is used in the
oxyacetylene cutting process. A stream of oxygen is firmly fixed onto the metal surface after it has been heated to
the kindling temperature. The hot metal reacts with oxygen, generating more heat and melting. The molten metal
and oxide are swept away by the rapidly moving stream of oxygen. The oxidation reaction continues and
furnishes heat for melting another layer of metal. The cut progresses in this manner. The principle of the cutting
process is shown in Figure 27.
b. Theoretically, the heat created by the burning iron would be sufficient to heat adjacent iron red hot, so that
once started the cut could be continued indefinitely with oxygen only, as is done with the oxygen lance. In
practice, however, excessive heat absorption at the surface caused by dirt, scale, or other substances, makes it
necessary to keep the preheating flames of the torch burning throughout the operation.
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a. Plain carbon steels with a carbon content not exceeding 0.25 percent can be cut without special precautions
other than those required to obtain cuts of good quality. Certain steel alloys develop high resistance to the action
of the cutting oxygen, making it difficult and sometimes impossible to propagate the cut without the use of special
techniques.
a. This portion includes those processes where oxygen and an oxyacetylene flame are used in removing the
surfaces of metals. Several of these processes are described below.
(1) Scarfing or Deseaming. This process is used for the removal of cracks, scale, and other defects from
the surface of blooms, billets, and other unfinished shapes in steel mills. In this process, a spot or area on the
surface of the metal is heated to the ignition temperature, then a jet or jets of oxygen are impinged on the
preheated area and advanced as the surface is cut away. The scarfed surface is comparable to that of steel
cleaned by chipping.
(2) Gouging. This process is used for the removal of welds. It is also used in the elimination of defects such
as cracks, sand inclusions, and porosity from steel castings.
(3) Hogging. This is a flame machining process used for the removal of excess metals such as risers and
sprues from castings. It is a combination of scarfing and gouging techniques.
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1 September 2009 Page 1
DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Specification for Resistance Welding for Aerospace Applications............................................................ AWS D17.2
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
Resistance Welding Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 2
Projection Welding ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Seam Welding............................................................................................................................................... 5
Spot Welding................................................................................................................................................. 2
Upset and Flash Welding .............................................................................................................................. 5
Welding Operations......................................................................................................................................... 5
Welding Specifications .................................................................................................................................... 6
a. Resistance welding is a type of welding process in which the workpieces are heated by the passage of an
electric current through the area of contact. Such processes include spot, seam, projection, upset and flash
welding.
b. The standard types of equipment used for resistance welding are composed of these principal elements:
(1) An electrical circuit with a transformer and current regulator, with a secondary circuit to conduct the
welding current to the electrodes.
(2) The mechanical equipment for holding the work and applying the required pressure.
2. SPOT WELDING.
a. This is a resistance welding process wherein coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from resistance
to the flow of electric current through the workpieces, which are held together under pressure by electrodes. The
size and shape of the individually formed welds are limited primarily by the size and contour of the electrodes.
Spot welding is particularly adaptable to thin sheet metal construction and has many applications in this type of
work. The spot welding principle is illustrated in Figure 1.
b. A spot welding machine with its essential operating elements for manual operation is shown in Figure 2. In
this machine the electrode jaws are extended in such a manner as to permit a weld to be made at a considerable
distance from the edge of the base metal sheet. The electrodes are composed of a copper alloy, which are
assembled in such a manner that considerable force or squeeze may be applied to the metal during the welding
process.
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c. In aluminum spot welding conventional machines may be used, however the best results are obtained only if
certain refinements are incorporated into these machines. Some of these desirable features are:
• ability to handle high current for short weld times; precise electronic control of current and length of
time it is applied
• rapid follow up of the electrode force by use of anti-friction bearings and lightweight low inertia heads
• high structural rigidity of the welding machine arms, holders, and platens to minimize deflection under
the high electrode forces used for aluminum, and to reduce magnetic deflections
• a variable or dual force cycle to permit forging the weld nugget; slope control to permit a gradual build-
up and tapering off of the welding current
• postheat current to allow slower cooling of the weld nugget
• good cooling of the Class 1 electrodes to prevent tip pickup or sticking. Refrigerated cooling is often
helpful
3. PROJECTION WELDING.
a. This is a process wherein coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from resistance to the flow of
electric current through the workpieces, which are held together under pressure by electrodes. The resulting
welds are localized at predetermined points by the design of the parts to be welded. This localization is usually
accomplished by projections, embossments, or intersections. A method of localization is illustrated in Figure 3.
This process is commonly used in the assembly of punched, formed, and stamped parts.
b. The projection welding dies or electrodes have flat surfaces with larger contacting areas than spot welding
electrodes. The effectiveness of this type of welding depends on the uniformity of the projections or
embossments on the base metal with which the electrodes are in contact (Figure 3).
a. This is a resistance welding process wherein coalescence is produced simultaneously over the entire area
of abutting surfaces or progressively along a joint by the heat obtained from resistance to the flow of electric
current through the area of contact of these surfaces. Pressure is applied before heating is started and is
maintained throughout the heating period. Upsetting is accompanied by expulsion of metal from the joint (Figure
4).
b. Both of these processes can be performed on the same type of machine. The metals that are to be joined
serve as electrodes.
5. SEAM WELDING.
a. Roll Spot Welding. This is a resistance welding process wherein separate spot welds are made without
retracting the electrodes. This is accomplished by means of circular electrodes which are in continuous contact
with the work.
b. Seam Welding. This is a resistance welding process wherein coalescence is produced by the heat obtained
from resistance to the flow of electric current through the workpieces, which are held together under pressure by
rotating circular electrodes. The resulting weld is a series of overlapping spot welds made progressively along a
joint. Lapped and flanged joints in cans, buckets, tanks, mufflers, etc., are commonly welded by this process.
c. Several types of machines are used for seam welding, the type used depending on the service
requirements. In some machines the work is held in a fixed position and a wheel type electrode is passed over it.
d. Portable seam welding machines use this principle. In the traveling fixture type seam welding machine the
electrode is stationary and the work is moved.
6. WELDING OPERATIONS.
a. The operation of spot, seam, and projection welding involves the use of electric current of proper magnitude
for the correct length of time. The current and time factors must be coordinated so that the base metal within a
confined area will be raised to its melting point and then re-solidified under pressure. The temperature obtained
must be sufficient to insure fusion of the base metal elements but not so high that metal will be forced from the
weld zone when the pressure is applied.
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b. In upset welding (Figure 4), the surfaces to be welded are brought into close contact under pressure and the
welding heat is obtained from resistance to the flow of current through the area of contact of the abutting surfaces.
When a sufficiently high temperature is obtained, welding of the surfaces is achieved by upsetting with the
application of high pressure.
c. Non-destructive quality verification of serviceable resistance welds has proven difficult. As a result, the
welding industry has often adopted pre-run, post-run and in-process (weld coupon or sample part) destructive
evaluation for quality verification of production runs
7. WELDING SPECIFICATIONS.
DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
None
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
None
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Page 2
2. GENERAL.
a. A plasma is a mixture of free electrons, positively charged ions and neutral atoms. The plasma is formed in
the torch head by swirling a gas (often air in cutting operations) around a tungsten electrode in a small arc
chamber. The gas is ionized to a plasma, expands and accelerates through a nozzle or orifice which constricts
the flow to form a high energy jet of plasma. The jet heats the work piece by bombarding it with electrons and
transferred energy from the high temperature gas. Cutting power depends upon intensity and velocity of the
plasma which is controlled by gas composition, inlet pressure and the shape and size of the nozzle orifice. The
process may be used for almost any metal which conducts electricity.
3. SAFETY CAUTIONS.
4. EYE PROTECTION.
a. Wear dark safety glasses or goggles, with the appropriate Lens Shade of Table 1 and with side shields or a
welding helmet to protect eyes against plasma arc’s Ultraviolet (UV) and Infrared (IR) rays.
b. Replace the glasses, goggles or helmet when the lens becomes pitted or broken.
c. Warn other people in the area not to look directly at the arc unless they are wearing glasses, goggles or a
helmet.
d. Prepare the cutting area in a manner that reduces the reflection and transmission of UV light.
(1) Paint walls and other surfaces with dark colors to reduce reflection.
(2) Install protective screens or curtains to reduce UV transmission.
5. SKIN PROTECTION.
a. Wear protective clothing to protect against burns caused by UV, sparks or hot metal.
(1) Gauntlet gloves, safety shoes and hat.
(2) Flame-retardant clothing which covers all exposed areas.
(3) Cuffless trousers to prevent entry of sparks and slag.
d. Before removing a power supply cover for maintenance disconnect the main power at the wall disconnect
switch or unplug the power supply. To avoid exposure to severe electrical hazard wait five minutes after
disconnecting the main power to allow capacitors to discharge.
e. Inspect the torch lead. Replace if frayed or damaged.
f. Do not pick up the work piece, including the waste cutoff while cutting. Leave the work piece in place or on
the workbench with the work cable attached during the cutting process.
g. Before changing the torch parts disconnect the main power or unplug the power supply. After changing
torch parts and replacing the retaining cap, plug in the power supply again.
7. GROUNDING.
a. Be sure to connect the power cord ground wire to the ground in the disconnect box.
b. Tighten all electrical connections to avoid excessive heating.
c. Attach the work cable securely to the work piece or the work table by making good metal to metal contact as
close as possible to the area to be cut. Do not connect it to the piece that will fall away when the cut is
complete.
d. Connect the work table to a high-quality ground.
8. NOISE PREVENTION.
a. The plasma cutting process can generate high levels of noise. Always wear proper ear protection when
cutting or gouging with the plasma system.
WARNING
Do not cut metal or painted metals containing zinc, lead, cadmium or beryllium
unless the operator, or anyone else subjected to the fumes, wears respiratory
equipment or an air supplied helmet.
NOTE
Never operate the plasma system in an atmosphere which contains heavy
concentrations of dust, flammable gas or combustible liquid vapors unless
properly vented.
NOTE
If the Plasma Arc Cutting equipment manufacturer’s information is not readily
available or accessible, refer to Table 2 for suggested cutting amperages.
a. The plasma inverter produces DC output voltage and cutting occurs in a transferred arc mode. The circuit
must be complete. Ensure good metal to metal contact of work clamp as close as possible to area to be cut.
b. Start at the edge of the work piece. (Refer to Figure 1).
c. Sparks should come out of the bottom. If spraying on top, the torch is moving too fast, or there is not
sufficient power to fully penetrate the work piece. (Refer to Figure 2 and Table 2.)
d. Hold the torch lightly on the metal or just off the metal. Holding the torch firmly to the work piece causes the
shield or nozzle to stick and makes smooth cutting difficult. The arc transfers to the work piece once the torch
is within 1/8 inch of the surface.
e. Pulling the torch through the cut is easier than pushing it although either method is acceptable.
f. Hold the torch nozzle at a vertical position and watch the arc as it cuts along the line. By lightly dragging the
shield or nozzle on the work piece, it is possible to maintain a steady cut. (Refer to Figure 2).
g. When cutting thin material reduce amperage until the best quality cut is obtained. If the Plasma Arc Cutting
equipment manufacturer’s information is not readily available or accessible, refer to Table 2 for suggested
cutting amperages.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
None
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Page 2
NOTE
1. SCOPE.
a. This Work Package describes general welding certification requirements; provide qualified welding
procedures for a range of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys commonly used on aircraft and missile weapon systems
and support equipment.
b. This Work Package gives methods and procedures for primarily the Gas tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
process. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) and Torch Brazing (TB) are
required for repair of aircraft support equipment and are included in this certification section.
c. Machine operator certifications, such as Electron Beam (EB), Laser Beam Welding (LBW), and Resistance
Welding (RW) are provided for guidance and information only. Specific operator certification process shall be
determined by each Military Service and is beyond the scope of this general technical series manual.
d. If methods and procedures for other welding certifications are required, obtain the methods and procedures
by complying with the instructions in section WELDER CERTIFICATION PROCEDURES NOT CONTAINED IN
THIS SECTION.
NOTE
Refer to the following specific service Work Packages 005 01 (Navy), 005 02 (Air
Force), or 005 03 (Army) for additional requirements.
2. DEFINITIONS.
a. The welding terms used in this manual are shall be interpreted per AWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms,
and Definitions, published by the American Welding Society. Some of the terms are defined in the Glossary of
Terms in this manual. For further definitions and illustrations, refer to Work Package 003 or AWS A3.0.
3. GENERAL.
a. This work package describes the standards and procedures to certify military aircraft and missile welders.
The military qualification requirements are derived from the minimum requirements from the commercial aviation
welding specification, American Welding Society, D17.1.
c. A qualified welder or torch brazer, must be trained, tested, and certified under this section and the guidance
of AWS D17.1 (GTAW, SMAW and GMAW), AWS C3.4 (Torch Brazing), and AWS D17.2 (RW).
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d. Work Package 005 04 provides visual, metallographic, and radiographic tests required to examine
completed test welds, including acceptance and rejection criteria.
e. Where there is a conflict between NA 01-1A-34 and the commercial welding or brazing specifications, the
NA-01-1A-34 takes precedence.
4. RESPONSIBILITIES.
CAUTION
Each military service is responsible to ensure that only personnel fully trained
and certified by this work package are permitted to weld on aircraft, missile,
weapons systems, and support equipment.
a. Each military service will determine which welding process and metal groups are required for welder
certification.
c. Military Units that are unable to perform the required test may send either the welder or the completed test
welds to their geographic Air Logistics Centers (WP 005 02), Naval Aviation Welding School (WP005 01) or Army
Aviation Welding Certification Center (WP 005 03).
d. Major commands and units are responsible for funding the certification of welders.
a. Welders shall have vision acuity of 20/30 or better in either eye and shall be able to read a Jaeger No. 2
Eye Chart at a distance of 16 inches. Natural or corrected vision may be used to achieve eye test requirements.
b. Vision acuity testing should be checked annually and not to exceed two years maximum.
NOTE
Refer to the following specific service Work Packages 005 01 (Navy), 005 02 (Air
Force), or 005 03 (Army) for welding position requirements.
a. A welder or welding operator, upon successful completion of a sanctioned welding training school, will be
capable of welding sheet or tube, out-of position, as defined by AWS D17.1.
b. GTAW PROCESS. Certification can be accomplished by welding sheets in the 2G, 3G, and 3F position or
welding tubes in the 6G position depending on specific service requirements. Refer to Figure 1 and Table 1 for
clarification.
c. GMAW AND SMAW PROCESSES. Plate positions 1G and 2F are the minimum required for GMAW and
SMAW certifications depending on service specific requirements. Refer to Figure 1 and Table 1 for clarification.
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Table 1. Welding Position, Base Metal Form, and Weld Type Qualified by Test Weld
(Per AWS D17.1)(3)
QUALIFIED POSITION
TEST WELD SHEET TUBE
WELD POSITION Groove Fillet (1) Groove(2) Fillet (1)
FORM TYPE
1G 2G 3G 4G 1F 2F 3F 4F 1G 2G 3G 4G 1F 2F 3F 4F
1G X X X X X
2G X X X X X X X
Sheet Groove
3G X X X X X X X X X
4G X X X X X X X X
1F X X
2F X X X X
Sheet Fillet
3F X X X X
4F X X X X X X X
1G X X X X X X
2G X X X X X X X X
Tube Groove
5G X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
6G X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
1F X X
2F X X X X
Tube Fillet
4F X X X X X X X
5F X X X X X X X X
Notes:
(1) A groove test weld does not qualify for fillet welds in base metal equal to or less than 0.063 inch in thickness.
(2) A sheet test weld qualifies for tube welds 1 inch in OD or greater.
(3) Welding position, base metal form, and base metal qualified by test weld. Use of heat sinks or backing is optional.
However, qualification using heat sinks or backing does not qualify for welding without heat sinks or backing.
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NOTE
NOTE
Civilian welders at depot activities shall re-qualify every five (5) years.
a. To maintain certification, all military and civilian welders at the Intermediate Level must weld every three
months in any given welding process. This process does not apply to Depot Level welders.
a. For unique welding processes and/or base material combinations that are not contained herein, contact
your local support depot regarding specific requirements for certification.
9. CERTIFICATION PROCEDURES.
NOTE
a. Welders shall be certified for each metal group listed in Table 2 of this section, in which they are to perform
welding and/or torch brazing. Select the appropriate Work Packages for certification based on service specific
requirements.
NOTE
b. Test specimen materials for certification/recertification shall be prepared and furnished by the organization
responsible for observing the welding certification process. The welder identified on the specimen shall weld the
specimen in the welder’s normal duty shop. The shop supervisor or maintenance officer shall assure that each
specimen is welded by the welder identified on the specimen, and returned to the welding instructor at one of the
examination facilities listed in Work Packages 005 01 (Navy), 005 02 (Air Force), or 005 03 (Army) for service
specific requirements.
c. Welders whose specimens fail to meet minimum requirements shall have one (1) additional requalification
examination. The recertification examination requires a double set of specimens and recording documents
identified as recertification examination. Should the results of either specimen of a recertification examination be
unsatisfactory, the operator shall require further training. Welders who fail the recertification examination will not
perform any production welding operations until recertification is successfully achieved.
d. Weld specimens that are visually satisfactory to the welding instructor/shop supervisor or maintenance
officer shall be forwarded together with the Welding Examination Record (WER) (Figure 2), to the appropriate
welding examination and evaluation facility for final examination/test. Refer to Work Packages 005 01 (Navy), 005
02 (Air Force), or 005 03 (Army) for location of evaluation facilities.
e. Each Welding Examination Record (see Figure 2) indicating acceptable weld specimens, assigned by
evaluating lab and the welding inspector/instructor, shall be forwarded to the service training coordinator for
processing and issuing of Welding Certification Card (see Figure 3).
f. The certifying facility shall maintain records of training, certification/recertification of all qualified welders for
the duration of their use for a period not less than two (2) years.
a. A welder who fails to meet the certification requirements for one or more of the required test welds
contained in this section may be retested as described in CERTIFICATION PROCEDURES.
NOTE
Refer to the following Work Packages 005 01 (Navy), 005 02 (Air Force), or 005
03 (Army) for specific service welding position requirements.
a. WELDERS. A welder shall be recertified to the same requirements as the original certification. It shall be the
responsibility of the service commands to determine the interval of recertification. It is recommended that
intermittent or part time welders recertify more frequently than full time welders. Recertification is required when:
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(1) A welder has not welded with a given welding process for a period of 90 days; except that this period
shall be extended to 180 days if the welder has welded with another welding process (i.e. GMAW, SMAW, etc.).
(2) There is specific reason to question the ability of the welder or welding operator to meet the
requirements for certification in a given welding process. Specific reasons may include poor quality welds,
eyesight acuity, health, and behavior.
(1) Three or five years, depending of military service, has passed from the date of last certification or
recertification. Refer to specific service work packages for recertification intervals.
(2) A brazer has not used the brazing process for a period of six (6) months or more.
(3) When there is a specific reason to question the ability to make brazes that meet this specification.
a. GENERAL. For welders and welding operators, a test weld made with a given welding process as listed in
GENERAL is qualified only with that welding process. These procedures do not apply to welding processes not
included in that list.
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Page 14
NOTE
Each military service will determine the metal groups for which the welders are
certified.
b. GTAW. Successful welding of WPS #1 through #7 and #11 through #54, as required by service
requirements (refer to Table 3, this WP).
d. SMAW. Successful welding of the joint described in WPS #10 (refer to Table 3, this WP).
e. EVALUATION. Visual and radiographic evaluation of the test weldment shall be in accordance with Work
Package 005 04.
Table 3. Welding Procedure Specifications
WPS No. 1 WPS No. 2 WPS No. 3 WPS No. 4 WPS No. 5 WPS No. 6 WPS No. 7 WPS No. 8
WELDING GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GMAW
T.C. 9-238
PROCESS
BASE METAL Low Alloy Steel Stainless Steel Nickel Alloy Aluminum Magnesium Titanium Alloy Cobalt Allot Mild Steel
4130 347 IN718 Alloy 6061-T6 Alloy 3Al-2.5V L605
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AZ31B 1010-1020
THICKNESS 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.250
JOINT
NAVAIR 01-1A-34
Tube Butt Joint Tube Butt Joint Tube Butt Joint Tube Butt Joint Tube Butt Joint Tube Butt Joint Tube Butt Joint Sheet Butt
DESCRIPTION Joint
Single Square Single Square Single Square Single Square Single Square Single Square Single Square Single V-
WELD TYPE Groove Groove Groove Groove Groove Groove Groove Groove
Note #1: Incline position. The position of a tube joint in which the axis of the tube is approximately at an angle of 45° to the horizontal, and the tube
is not rotated during welding.
Note #2: Joint prepared by machining edges, grinding and degreasing.
Note #3: Post weld heat treatment not required.
005 00
Page 15
Table 3. Welding Procedure Specifications (Cont.)
WPS No. 9 WPS No. 10 WPS No. 11 WPS No. 12 WPS No. 13 WPS No. 14 WPS No. 15 WPS No. 16
WELDING BRAZE SMAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW
PROCESS
BASE METAL SS-St-Brass MILD STEEL 4130 4130 4130 321 SS 321 SS IN718
1010-1020
T.C. 9-238
THICKNESS See Fig 4 & 5 0.250 0.032 0.125 0.125 0.020 0.032 0.125
JOINT See Fig 4 & 5 SHEET SHEET SHEET SHEET SHEET SHEET SHEET
DESCRIPTION BUTT JOINT BUTT JOINT BUTT JOINT T-JOINT BUTT JOINT BUTT JOINT BUTT JOINT
T.O. 00-25-252
WELD TYPE Lap SINGLE SINGLE SINGLE FILLET SINGLE SINGLE SINGLE
V-GROOVE SQUARE V-GROOVE 1 SIDE SQUARE SQUARE SQUARE
GROOVE, Max Leg 3/16” GROOVE, GROOVE, GROOVE,
NAVAIR 01-1A-34
Note #1: Incline position. The position of a tube joint in which the axis of the tube is approximately at an angle of 45° to the horizontal, and the tube
is not rotated during welding.
Note #2: Joint prepared by machining edges, grinding and degreasing.
Note #3: Post weld heat treatment not required.
005 00
Page 16
Table 3. Welding Procedure Specifications (Cont.)
WPS No. 17 WPS No. 18 WPS No. 19 WPS No. 20 WPS No. 21 WPS No. 22 WPS No. 23 WPS No. 24
WELDING GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW
T.C. 9-238
PROCESS
BASE METAL IN718 6061-T6 6061-T6 6061-T6 AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A Ti-6Al-4V
THICKNESS 0.040 0.032 0.125 0.020 0.032 0.125 0.020 0.040
JOINT
T.O. 00-25-252
Note #1: Incline position. The position of a tube joint in which the axis of the tube is approximately at an angle of 45° to the horizontal, and the tube
is not rotated during welding.
Note #2: Joint prepared by machining edges, grinding and degreasing.
Note #3: Post weld heat treatment not required.
005 00
Page 17
Table 3. Welding Procedure Specifications (Cont.)
WPS No. 25 WPS No. 26 WPS No. 27 WPS No. 28 WPS No. 29 WPS No. 30 WPS No. 31 WPS No. 32
WELDING GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW
T.C. 9-238
PROCESS
BASE METAL Ti-6Al-4V L605 4130 4130 4130 321 321 321
THICKNESS 0.125 0.016 0.063 0.063 0.063 0.063 0.063 0.063
JOINT
T.O. 00-25-252
Note #1: Incline position. The position of a tube joint in which the axis of the tube is approximately at an angle of 45° to the horizontal, and the tube
is not rotated during welding.
Note #2: Joint prepared by machining edges, grinding and degreasing.
Note #3: Post weld heat treatment not required.
005 00
Page 18
Table 3. Welding Procedure Specifications (Cont.)
WPS No. 33 WPS No. 34 WPS No. 35 WPS No. 36 WPS No. 37 WPS No. 38 WPS No. 39 WPS No. 40
T.C. 9-238
JOINT
WELD TYPE SINGLE SINGLE SINGLE SINGLE SINGLE SINGLE SINGLE SINGLE
SQUARE SQUARE SQUARE SQUARE SQUARE SQUARE SQUARE SQUARE
GROOVE GROOVE GROOVE GROOVE GROOVE GROOVE GROOVE GROOVE
Note #1: Incline position. The position of a tube joint in which the axis of the tube is approximately at an angle of 45° to the horizontal, and the tube
is not rotated during welding.
Note #2: Joint prepared by machining edges, grinding and degreasing.
Note #3: Post weld heat treatment not required.
005 00
Page 19
Table 3. Welding Procedure Specifications (Cont.)
WPS No. 41 WPS No. 42 WPS No. 43 WPS No. 44 WPS No. 45 WPS No. 46 WPS No. 47 WPS No. 48
WELDING GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW
T.C. 9-238
PROCESS
BASE METAL Inco 718 L-605 6061-T6 17-7PH Inco 718 Inco 718 A286 AZ31B
THICKNESS 0.032 0.032 0.035/0.032 0.035/0.032 0.035/0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032
JOINT
T.O. 00-25-252
WELD TYPE SINGLE SINGLE FILLET FILLET FILLET SINGLE FILLET SINGLE
SQUARE SQUARE SQUARE SQUARE
GROOVE GROOVE GROOVE GROOVE
Note #1: Incline position. The position of a tube joint in which the axis of the tube is approximately at an angle of 45° to the horizontal, and the tube
is not rotated during welding.
Note #2: Joint prepared by machining edges, grinding and degreasing.
Note #3: Post weld heat treatment not required.
005 00
Page 20
Table 3. Welding Procedure Specifications (Cont.)
WPS No. 49 WPS No. 50 WPS No. 51 WPS No. 52 WPS No. 53 WPS No. 54 WPS No. 55
T.C. 9-238
Note #1: Incline position. The position of a tube joint in which the axis of the tube is approximately at an angle of 45° to the horizontal,
and the tube is not rotated during welding.
Note #2: Joint prepared by machining edges, grinding and degreasing.
Note #3: Post weld heat treatment not required.
005 00
Page 21
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a. General. This section describes the welding requirements and welding procedures. The conditions given in
the welding procedures are of two types, nonessential and essential.
• Nonessential conditions may be changed as desired; provided good welding practice is followed.
• Essential conditions may not be changed or may be changed only within specified limits.
• The status of each welding condition of the welding procedure specification is given below.
(2) Base Metal Composition. The base metals specified in Work Package 003 should be used. Essential.
(5) Other Base Metal Dimensions. Larger dimensions may be substituted. Greater lengths and widths may
be substituted. Nonessential.
(17) Current Type. No change permitted. Essential (with exception that inverter power supplies can be
used instead of AC-HF to weld aluminum and magnesium).
WARNING
Thoriated tungsten poses a health hazard and should not be used except when
mandated by technical instructions. Otherwise, replace 1% or 2% Thoriated
Tungsten with 1.5% Lanthanum Tungsten for current and future welding
operations.
NOTE
(21) Fixtures. The use of a fixture is permitted but not required, provided that no support for molten weld
metal is present. Essential (Refer to Work Packages 005 01 (Navy), 005 02 (Air Force), or 005 03 (Army) for
service specific requirements).
b. Table 4 provides a Cross Reference of Process and Base Metal of available WPSs within this general
series manual.
MATERIAL GROUPS
Process Steel Stainless Nickel Alloys Aluminum Magnesium Titanium Cobalt
Steel
(Group I) (Group II) (Group III) (Group IV) (Group V) (Group VI) (Group VII)
GTAW 1, 11, 12, 2, 14, 15, 3, 16, 17, 4, 18, 19, 5, 21, 22, 6, 24, 25, 7, 26, 39,
13, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 20, 36, 37, 23, 48 49, 53 42, 51
29, 54 40, 47 41, 44-46, 38, 43, 52
50
GMAW 8
SMAW 10
c. Table 5 provides a Cross Reference of Thickness and Base Metal of available WPSs within this general
series manual.
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MATERIAL GROUPS
Thickness Steel Stainless Nickel Aluminum Magnesium Titanium Cobalt
Steel Alloys
(Group I) (Group II) (Group III) (Group IV) (Group V) (Group VI) (Group VII)
0.016 26
0.020 14 20 23
0.032 41, 44-46,
11, 54 15, 40, 47 18, 43, 52 21,48 49, 53 39, 42, 51
0.035 50
0.040 17 24
0.050 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.063 27, 28, 29 30, 31, 32 33, 34, 35 36, 37, 38
0.125 12, 13 16 19 22 25
0.250 8, 10
Groups I, II, and Brass – 9
Braze
Stainless Steel – Stainless Steel (SS-SS) - 55
NOTE
It is the decision of the individual service to choose the required metals for their
particular applications within each material groups. Refer to Work Packages 005
01 (Navy), 005 02 (Air Force), or 005 03 (Army) for service specific requirements.
a. Table 2, of this Work package, lists some recommended base metals within their respective groups in which
a welder can use for certification. The base metals listed in Table 2 is not all-inclusive and is used a guideline to
select base metals, based on cost or availability.
b. The base metals, listed as groups, in Work Package 003 provides alternative specifications, as necessary,
which may be used for certification.
NOTE
The individual service will determine the metal groups to which the welders will
be certified.
(1) Three or five years has passed from the date of last certification or recertification. Refer to Work
Packages 005 01 (Navy), 005 02 (Air Force), or 005 03 (Army) for specific service recertification intervals.
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(2) A brazer has not used the brazing process for a period of six (6) months or more.
16. GTAW.
NOTE
Successful GTAW certification on 0.063 inch sheet certifies the welder for 1/2T
(0.032”) through 4T (0.250”) thick materials.
17. Sheet.
a. Each position (2G, 3G, and 3F) and base material (Groups I, II, III, and IV) will consist of a specimen made
from two sheets of 1.5” x 6” sheets with a thickness of 0.063”.
b. Each sheet is de-burred, cleaned, and tack welded at each end and placed in a weld fixture. Once the
specimen is placed in the weld fixture, the specimen shall not be removed during testing.
NOTE
Successful GTAW certification on 0.050 inch tubes certifies the welder for 1/2T
(0.025”) through 4T (0.200”) thick materials.
NOTE
18. Tubes.
a. Position 6G is illustrated in Figure 5. It will consist of one inch diameter tubing, 4 inches long, with a wall
thickness of 0.050 inch for every metal group.
c. Tack weld together (on the bench) in three places around the joint circumference.
d. The tack-welded tube assembly is slipped over the end of the weld fixture described in Figure 6.
e. The tube shall not be rotated in the fixture at any time while welding. This is a FIXED-Position weld test.
g. Only the fixture can be moved around to accommodate welder comfort provided the tube stays in the 6G
position.
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Figure 5. Position 6G
NOTE
Successful SMAW/GMAW certification on plate certifies the welder for 1/2T - 4T,
depending on qualification material and plate thickness.
a. Certification procedures for GMAW and SMAW will be accomplished in the 1G/2F position as illustrated in
Figure 1, or as determined by service command.
b. SMAW plate thickness shall be 0.250” for carbon steel (Group I) certification.
c. GMAW plate thickness shall be 0.250” for aluminum (Group IV) certification.
d. GMAW plate thickness shall be 0.125” for stainless steel (Group II) for certification.
a. Refer to Work Packages 005 01 (Navy), 005 02 (Air Force), or 005 03 (Army) for service specific
requirements for information regarding availability of welding fixtures.
a. Brazing Materials
b. Certification tests in TB (see WPS #9), are intendeded to determine the ability of brazers and brazing
operators to make sound brazed joints.
c. RECORD OF TESTS. The training department/shop supervisor shall maintain a record of the procedures,
including the essential variables under which brazers and brazing operators are examined and the results of the
examinations.
(1) The type of materials and the number of pieces that makeup the test assembly is given in Figure 7. One
completed test assembly, comprises of all materials and an assembly as shown in Figure 7. Fittings may vary in
type but the base metal shall be a Brass composition only.
(2) Tests for brazers shall meet the requirements of Figures 7 and 8.
e. Brazers. Each brazer who is qualified to braze under the rules of this work package shall pass the tests
prescribed herein for performance certification.
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f. Pressure Testing. Pressure test finished assembly with 3000 psi for leaks with MIL-PRF-83282 hydraulic
fluid or equivalent. Hold for 10 minutes. No leaks or weeping permitted.
g. Specimens for Torch Braze. The dimensions and preparation of the workmanship sample specimen shall
conform to the requirements of Figures 7 and 8.
(2) After smoothing of the cut sides, each specimen shall be etched with a suitable etchant to give clear
definition of the braze.
(3) When examined with a minimum of 3X power magnifying glass, the total voids, inclusions or unbrazed
areas shall not exceed 20% of the length of the overlap.
h. Peel Testing. As an alternate method for pressure testing the brazed tube the peel test may be used for
certification.
i. Visual Acceptance Criteria. In order to pass the peel test, the specimens shall show evidence of brazing filler
metal along each edge of the joint. Specimens shall be separated or peeled by clamping across the major
diameter. The separated faying surfaces of joints shall meet the following criteria:
(1) The total area of defects (unbrazed areas, flux inclusions, etc.) shall not exceed 20% of the total area of
any individual faying surface.
(2) The sum of the lengths of the defects measured on any one line in the direction of the lap shall not
exceed 25% of the lap.
(3) No defect shall extend continuously from one surface of the joint to the other surface, irrespective of the
direction of the defect.
a. Machine welding processes include but are not limited to electron beam welding, laser welding, orbital
welding, resistance welding, and dabber TIG.
b. Machine welder operators do not have to be certified welders. The certification usually applies to very
specific or limited production parts and must have engineering approval prior to qualification, certification, and
application to aviation components or parts.
c. The certification is limited to the welding conditions of the test weld with regard to welding process, base
metal composition, thickness, base metal form type of weld and other welding conditions.
a. Refer to the component manual for specific certification/recertification and weld quality requirements.
a. Refer to the component manual for specific certification/recertification and weld quality requirements.
a. General. Specific operator certification process shall be determined by each Military Service. Refer to the
component manual/AWS D17.2 for specific certification and testing requirements.
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Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
Certification Procedures.................................................................................................................................. 4
General............................................................................................................................................................ 2
Intermediate and Organization Level Welding Recertification Requirements ................................................ 9
‘Mail-in’ Recertification Procedure .................................................................................................................. 9
Naval Air Unique Certification Requirements.................................................................................................. 2
Proficiency Documentation ............................................................................................................................. 8
Requirements.................................................................................................................................................. 4
Responsibilities ............................................................................................................................................... 2
Weld School Recertification Procedure .......................................................................................................... 13
NOTE
NOTE
Where conflicts between the American Welding Society (AWS) specifications and
this manual exist, this manual shall take precedence.
a. This work package defines the weld qualification and certification for the U. S. Navy and modifies the
general requirements of Work Package 005 00.
b. Welders qualified per this Work Package are certified to perform welding on Naval aviation structures,
engines, components, and support equipment as authorized by Type, Series, Model (TMS) technical documents.
c. The requirements for qualifying/certifying and maintenance of DEPOT level civilian welders are governed by
local process specifications and takes precedence over this work package.
2. GENERAL.
b. A Naval Aviation welder must be trained, tested, and certified per the requirements set forth within this
manual. The certification requirements are developed from AWS D17.1 for fusion welding, AWS D17.2 for
resistance welding, AWS C3.2 for torch brazing and AWS B2.1 for performance and procedure qualification.
c. Training courses presented at the COMFRCs, meet these requirements (refer to Table 1, for more
information). Other service schools that meet or exceed the Learning Objectives and qualification requirements
may be suitable.
d. Testing and certification must be accomplished within the guidelines listed in OPNAV 4790.2 and this
manual.
3. RESPONSIBILITIES
a. Supervisors are responsible to ensure that only personnel fully trained and certified in accordance with this
section are permitted to perform welding on aircraft, missile, weapon systems and support equipment. Activities
that test and evaluate test welds in accordance with this technical manual are identified in Table 2.
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Page 3
COMFRC-SOUTHEAST
NAS Jacksonville, FL 32212
(ATTN: Materials Engineering Division)
COMFRC-EAST
MCAS Cherry Point, NC 28533
(ATTN: Materials Engineering Division)
COMFRC-SOUTHWEST
NAS North Island, San Diego, CA 92135
(ATTN: Materials Engineering Division)
4. REQUIREMENTS.
a. PERSONNEL.
(1) Physical Examinations. Annual physical examination may be required to permit early detection of
possible detrimental effects resulting from chronic exposures. Local medical authorities and the Industrial
hygienist shall set the frequency of specific tests based on exposure data.
(2) Physical requirements. Each activity shall establish reasonable and appropriate physical requirements
for welders and welding operators.
(3) Visual Acuity Requirements. Welders shall have vision acuity of 20/30 or better in either eye and shall
be able to read a Jaeger No. 2 Eye Chart at a distance of 16 inches. Natural or corrected vision may be used to
achieve eye test requirements. Vision shall be tested every two years.
NOTE
(1) Aviation and missile welders or welding operators shall be certified in accordance with this manual to
positions 2G, 3G, and 3F for each required metal group. This certification requirement applies to GTAW process
only.
(2) Support equipment welders shall be certified in accordance with this manual to positions 1G and 2F.
This certification requirement is for GMAW and SMAW processes only.
(3) Brazing workmanship sample is positioned in a fixture, holding in the vertical (lengthwise) position and
shall not deviate from vertical greater than 10° at any time.
c. WELDING METAL GROUP. Naval aviation welders are required to be certified in the four basic metal
groups:
d. WELD PACKAGES. When requested by the Maintenance Activity, (refer to ‘MAIL-IN’ RECERTIFICATION
PROCEDURE), the receiving weld school shall send a Mail-in Recertification Weld Package. (Refer to Table 3). A
Weld Package consists of enough metal for each metal group and position for a complete recertification and will
depend on the CANTRAC course number. (Refer to Table 1, for description.)
5. CERTIFICATION PROCEDURES.
a. GENERAL.
(1) Qualified welders shall be certified for each position and metal group listed in paragraphs 4.b and 4.c of
this work package.
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Page 5
N-701-0008 N-701-0010
Process: GTAW Process: SMAW
Positions: 2G, 3G, 3F Positions: 1G, 2F
Mtl Grps: I, II, III, IV Mtl Grp: I
• 6 pcs - 1.5” x 6” x 0.063” per Mtl Grp • 4 pcs - 2” x 6” x 0.250” (1G)
• 24 pcs total
Process: TB
Position: Vertical
Mtl Grp: (WP 005 00, Figure 7)
NOTE
Initial/Recertification weld specimens must pass ALL the required Metal Groups
and/or required positions. Failure in either one (group or position) constitutes
non-certification and course failure.
(2) To achieve certified status, new welders/torch brazers shall successfully complete naval welding
training school courses numbered N-701-0007 and N-701-0009 as listed in Table 1. After successful completion
of initial training/torch brazing training, the candidate shall then return to their duty station for on-the-job training
(OJT).
NOTE
(3) The responsibility remains with the Maintenance Officer to ensure that welding school graduates are
proficient prior to performing independent welding repair. Component OJT will be documented in the Welder’s Log
(Figure 1) with pertinent technical directives, i.e., maintenance instruction manuals (MIM), airframe changes
(AFC), power plant bulletins (PPB), fleet support team (FST) engineering documents, work packages or on-site
written authorization from a cognizant engineer.
(4) Successful completion of Component OJT may be documented using Figure 1 (Sheet 3).
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1. NAME 2. ORGANIZATION
NOTE
Military and civilian welders or welding operators at the Intermediate level shall
be certified every year to the same requirements as an original certification.
(1) To maintain certification, all military and civilian welders at the Intermediate Level must weld at least
one ferrous and one non-ferrous specimen every 30 days. They may be coupons or actual component repairs.
(2) This requirement does not apply to COMFRC Depot Level civilian welders.
(1) Certification requirements for COMFRC DEPOT Level civilian welds shall be per local process
specifications.
(1) This section covers most welding conditions that will be experienced by military aircraft, missile welders,
and support equipment.
(2) For welding operations not contained herein, contact your local support COMFRC DEPOT.
6. PROFICIENCY DOCUMENTATION.
a. INTERMEDIATE LEVEL. In order to maintain certification, all military and civilian welders at the
Intermediate Level must demonstrate proficiency by welding at least one ferrous and one non-ferrous specimen
every 30 days; the demonstration may be coupons or actual component repairs.
(1) The welder must document proficiency in the Welder’s Log (Figure 1) either by practice welds or by
actual component welding. The Welder’s Log shall be completed per Figure 1 (Sheet 2).
(2) The work-center supervisor shall verify the Welder’s Log every 30 days for compliance.
(3) If the work-center supervisor is the welder, then Quality Assurance is responsible for verifying the
Welder’s Log every 30 days.
(4) If a welder is unable to, or does not document one ferrous and one non-ferrous component or practice
weld for a period of 90 days, the welder must recertify in accordance with paragraphs MAIL-IN’
RECERTIFICATION PROCEDURE or WELD SCHOOL RECERTIFICATION PROCEDURE.
NOTE
c. DEPOT LEVEL. Proficiency documentation for COMFRC DEPOT level civilian welders shall be per local
process specifications.
NOTE
Initial/Recertification weld specimens must pass ALL the required Metal Groups
and/or required positions. Failure in either one (group or position) constitutes
non-certification and course failure.
a. A certified welder shall recertify when one of the following conditions apply:
(2) The welder fails to maintain the Welder’s Log as described in PROFICIENCY DOCUMENTATION.
(3) There is specific reason to question the ability of a welder or welding operator to meet the requirements
for certification in a given welding process. Specific reasons may include poor quality welds, visual acuity, health,
and behavior.
(4) If the welder fails to maintain certification after one year, he/she will attend course N-701-0008/0010, as
applicable, and complete all four of the basic weld groups.
(5) If the welder is not assign to a welding billet for 3 years or more, he/she will attend the N-701-0007/N-
701-0009 as applicable.
NOTE
a. The welder must posses a current welding certification in the appropriate category.
b. The activity Maintenance Officer, after ensuring the welder is eligible for recertification, shall request, by
best methods, the required test specimens in advance (at least 3 months prior to expiration) from the nearest
welding school (refer to Table 1), providing the following information:
• Welder’s Name.
• Certification expiration date.
• Categories required for certification.
• Examination and evaluation facility of last certification.
• Complete and accurate physical return mailing address (including commercial and DSN
phone numbers and the welder’s valid email address).
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NOTE
All test plates received by the evaluation facility shall be in the as-welded
condition. Any wire brushing, grinding or other cosmetic operations will be cause
for specimen rejection, except for SMAW and GMAW which may be wire brushed
by hand.
c. The receiving welding school shall furnish, if requested, a complete Weld Certification Package (See
paragraph CERTIFICATION PROCEDURES and Table 3) to the requestor’s activity and is based on the
recertification course number.
d. Welding fixtures, such as those shown in Figure 3, are recommended for training and recertification and
may be locally manufactured per drawings listed in Table 4.
e. The Maintenance Officer or the designated representative shall ensure that the welder identified on the
specimen welds each specimen in the correct position/orientation. All recertification welding shall be performed in
the welder’s normal duty shop, except the Maintenance Officer may designate other locations as necessary.
f. Return complete Weld Certification Package specimens and signed DD 2757 to the receiving weld school or
at one of the examination facilities listed in Table 2.
g. Upon receipt of the completed Weld Certification Package specimens and within 10 working days, the
receiving welding instructor at the examination facility will complete Forms 2757 and 2758 and process the
specimens through NDI and Materials Engineering Division.
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NOTE
NOTE
Recertification. Welders must pass ALL the required Metal Group Specimens
and required positions. Failure in either group or position constitutes non-
certification.
(1) If a Metal Group Specimen (Original) fails to meet minimum requirements the welder shall have one (1)
additional recertification examination (Re-examine Weld Package) of that Metal Group Specimen for re-testing.
(2) A Re-examine Weld Package consists of a double set of the Metal Group Specimen, per position, and
accompanying DD Form 2757.
(3) Only one (1) specimen from the Re-examine Weld Package, per the Metal Group Specimen and
position, needs to prove satisfactory.
(4) If BOTH specimens from the Re-examine Weld Package failed, the welder shall require further training
by attending the recertification course N-701-0008/0010, as applicable.
h. The receiving welding instructor forwards completed DD Forms 2757 and 2758 to the Service Training
Coordinator. The Service Training Coordinator will report results to the welder’s activity. Overseas activities and
deployed ships will be notified by message and follow up with appropriate documentation.
NOTE
a. Intermediate Maintenance Activity (IMA) Welders may train, test, and recertify by attending the applicable
recertification courses listed in Table 1 and/or the Catalog of Naval Training Courses (CANTRAC), NAVEDTRA
10500.
NOTE
b. IMA welders (military and civilian), may have received training outside of the welding schools listed in Table
1 and may obtain an initial certification by successfully completing the recertification course listed in Table 1.
c. IMA welders must certify to the standards of this work package at one of the welding schools listed in Table
1. Individuals detailed on permanent change of station (PCS) orders should be routed via one of the depots for
recertification.
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d. Recertification courses listed in Table 1 and the CANTRAC provides refresher training, testing, and
certification for IMA welders to NA 01-1A-34 for GTAW, SMAW and GMAW. Refresher training, testing, and
certification for IMA torch brazers to NA 01-1A-34 may be accomplished through the course listed in Table 1 and
the CANTRAC.
DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
None
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See SUPP E Page 3
NOTE
This entire Work Package Series contains MANDATORY information. Deviations
are not permitted unless authorized by competent or cognizant authorities.
a. The USAF has specific, established procedures and requirements that differ from the Navy and the Army.
NOTE
Air Force Military Units that are unable to perform the required test may send
either the welder to OC-ALC, 76 MXW/PMXG/OB/Welding Training Facility, Bldg
3001 Post K-83, Tinker AFB, OK 73145 or the completed test welds to: OC-ALC,
76 MXW/MXSG/MXDTAE, Physical Science Laboratory, Bldg 3001 Post T-69,
Tinker AFB, OK 73145; provided appropriate funding is established
b. Levels of Certification. Civilian welders assigned to ALCs may be divided into a position/material certified
welder, Level I, or Level II welders. Each type of certification is described below:
(1) Position/Material Certified Welder. This individual is qualified to specific processes or positions for a
given material group. Usually this welder is performing a specific task.
(2) Qualification of the WPS (for certification) will be accomplished by the cognizant engineer using the
requirements of AWS D17.1. See SUPP D
(3) Level I. Level I is attained by qualifying to two or more basic positions within a base metal group.
Usually 1G (flat) and 2F (horizontal) positions are required to meet Level I. Each ALC will determine what
positions and base metal groups are required to achieve this level of certification.
(4) Level II. Level II is attained by qualifying to the 6G position within a base metal group. An individual
does not have to be Level I certified prior to achieving Level II certification. Each ALC will determine what base
metal groups are required to achieve this level of certification.
(a) Work Package 005 00, Figure 4, provides information for base materials and stock numbers for
certification using tubes.
See SUPP D
c. Active Duty, Reserve, and Air National Guard will qualify to the 6G-position. (Note limitation on thin
materials WP 005 00 Table 1 note 1). The MAJCOM Fabrication Superintendent or designation shall establish
which base metal groups are required for certification. Base Metal groups may vary by operating location.
2. RECERTIFICATION INTERVALS.
• ALC civilians (5 years).
• Field units(5 years).
• Recertification is required when a welder has not welded for a period of 180 days.
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a. Design drawings for weld test fixtures are listed in Table 1. Local modifications are permissible upon
cognizant engineering written specification. Braze test coupon design detailed in WP 005 00 Figure 7 is optional.
Alternative test coupon design is permissible upon cognizant engineering’s written specification.
a. Field units and ALC civilians will use the DOD Form 2757 (refer to WP 005 00, Figure 2).
(1) DOD Form 2758 is an optional form, which may be used in addition to the DOD Form 2757 but not
replace the DOD Form 2757.
b. Each required signature on DOD form 2757 (blocks 13, 20a and 21a) shall include the official’s printed
name in addition to the signature.
a. Weld certification specimens may be examined by properly equipped and trained unit Nondestructive
Inspection (NDI) laboratories or servicing ALCs.
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6. OBSERVING OFFICIAL.
a. The observing official does not necessarily need to be a qualified welder but shall have demonstrated
understanding of welding essential variables and the performance qualification process. The Observing Official
must be appointed in writing.
b. The observing official is responsible for ensuring that section I of DOD Form 2757 (refer to WP 005 00,
Figure 2) accurately reflects the welder’s identifying information and the welding parameters used for the test weld
specimen.
c. Upon completion of the subject weld, the observing official will sign (and print) block 13 acknowledging that
the welding procedures were performed in accordance with the specific WPS and this technical order.
7. EXAMINING OFFICIAL.
a. The examining official is responsible for all visual, radiographic, pressure and metallographic tests required
for the applicable WPS.
b. The examining official may delegate actual weld inspection to qualified individuals for each required
evaluation. Qualification requirements of inspection personnel shall be covered in the appropriate written
instructions.
c. The examining official will enter SAT, UNSAT or NA appropriately in blocks 14 - 17 of section II of the DOD
Form 2757 for each test.
d. Upon completion of the weld specimen evaluations, the examining official will complete the remaining
information in block 18 and sign (and print) block 18, acknowledging that the tests were performed in accordance
with this technical order.
(1) If the evaluation is performed by someone other than the Examining Official then that individual will
enter SAT, UNSAT or NA appropriately in blocks 14 - 17 of section II of the DOD Form 2757 for each test.
(2) Upon completion of the weld specimen evaluations, the designated individual will complete the
remaining information in blocks 18 and sign (and print) block 18, acknowledging that the tests were performed in
accordance with this technical order.
e. For each metal group successfully completed, the examining official may enter appropriate information on
the DOD Form 2758 and date/sign the authorized engineering lab signature line.
f. A copy of DOD Form 2757 will be kept on file as directed by their local policy for not less than 5 years with
the original DOD Form 2757.
8. WELDER’S SUPERVISOR.
a. The welder’s supervisor will review DOD Form 2757 and (if necessary) DOD Form 2758.
b. Upon completion of the weld specimen evaluations, the welder’s supervisor will complete blocks 19 and 20,
initial the qualified or not qualified block as applicable, and sign (and print) block 20a., acknowledging that the
tests were performed in accordance with this technical order.
c. The welding supervisor shall verify that no personnel actions are pending that could disqualify the welder
from certification.
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d. If the welding tests were successful and DOD form 2758 is desired, the supervisor will date and sign the
DOD Form 2758 on the weld instructor signature line and forward a complete package to the certifying official for
final review.
e. If the test welds were unsuccessful, the supervisor will interview the welder to develop and recommend
appropriate training/administrative actions.
f. The welder’s supervisor is responsible for maintaining the completed DOD Form 2757 in the welder’s
training, personnel, or other readily accessible file. DOD Form 2758 may be carried by the welder or kept in a
readily accessible file.
g. The welder’s supervisor will ensure a current copy of DOD Form 2757 and/or DOD Form 2758
accompanies the welder on any deployments
9. CERTIFYING OFFICIAL.
a. The certifying official is responsible for reviewing the welder’s complete package and assuring that DOD
form 2757 is complete and that all facilities related to the weld test and evaluation are capable of compliance with
this specification.
(1) The Certifying Official does not necessarily need to be a qualified welder but will represent the depot
facility or the unit’s MXG/Equivalent or designated representative.
b. The certifying official will sign block 21a. and date block 21b. of the DOD Form 2757 and sign the welding
inspector line (if necessary) for the certifying activity on the DOD Form 2758.
c. For initial certification, unit commanders may consider formal presentation of the DOD Form 2758 to the
metals technology technician in recognition of their accomplishment.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
None
Alphabetical Index
None
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NOTE
This entire Work Package Series contains MANDATORY information. Deviations
are not permitted unless authorized by competent or cognizant authorities.
a. General.
(1) Army aviation has specific, established procedures and requirements that differ from the USN and
USAF and are as follows:
(2) The Army aviation welders utilize both Navy, Air force, and Army schools and requirements. Army
aviation welders certify in accordance with this section of this manual.
b. Certification Procedures.
(1) Use the forms described in Work Package 005 00, Figure 2 to document the certification process for
each welder.
(2) Work Package 005 00, Figure 2, is the standard form issued by the designated welding certification
laboratory that authorizes the individual certification.
(3) Work Package 005 00, Figure 3 represents the personnel certification card issued to all Army, Navy and
Air Force aviation certified welders.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
WELD EVALUATION
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
Evaluation........................................................................................................................................................ 2
General.......................................................................................................................................................... 2
Radiographic Inspection for the Purpose of Welder Certification ................................................................... 6
Film Evaluation.............................................................................................................................................. 13
General.......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Inspection Equipment and Materials............................................................................................................. 8
Inspection Setup ........................................................................................................................................... 8
Interpretation of Indications........................................................................................................................... 15
Part Preparation ............................................................................................................................................ 8
Visual Examination.......................................................................................................................................... 2
Fillet Welds.................................................................................................................................................... 6
Groove or Tube Welds .................................................................................................................................. 5
None
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NOTE
This entire Work Package Series contains MANDATORY information. Deviations
are not permitted unless authorized by competent or cognizant authorities.
1. EVALUATION.
2. GENERAL.
a. This section provides methods, procedures, and acceptance criteria for evaluation of welding qualification
test welds.
b. The test weld shall be subjected to the examination and testing methods as indicated in Table 1.
c. If the base metal of a test weld is a substitution for specific base metals given in the Welding Procedure
Specifications (WPS), written authority to use that metal substitution from cognizant material/metallurgical or
welding engineer is required.
d. Required Examination and Testing by WPS (from WP 005 00, Table 3).
3. VISUAL EXAMINATION.
a. The length of weld to be examined shall be the entire length of the weld joint. Visual examination shall be at
a minimum magnification of 3X for WPS 1 through 7, 9, 11 through 38; but magnification is not required for WPS
8 and 10.
NOTE
Cleaning between passes is permissible to ensure weld quality.
b. All welds will be evaluated in the as-welded condition. Grinding, filing, and other cosmetic modification of the
final weld will be cause for specimen rejection.
c. Hand wire brush is permitted only for the SMAW and GMAW processes to remove welding smut. Power
wire brushing is prohibited for all processes and metal groups.
Incomplete Fusion None None None None None None None None
NAVAIR 01-1A-34
SURFACE
8t the size of 8t the size of 8t the size of 8t the size of 8t the size of 8t the size of 8t the size of 8t the size of
the Larger the Larger the Larger the Larger the Larger the Larger the Larger the Larger
Spacing (MIN)
adjacent adjacent adjacent adjacent adjacent adjacent adjacent adjacent
imperfection imperfection imperfection imperfection imperfection imperfection imperfection imperfection
Acc. Length 3 in
(MAX) 1t or 0.12 in. 0.016 0.020 0.032 0.040 0.050 0.063 0.120 0.120
Whichever is Less
005 04
Page 3
Table 2. Material thickness (calculated) (cont)
SUBSURFACE / INCLUSIONS
T.C. 9-238
0.33t or 0.060 in. 0.005 0.007 0.011 0.013 0.017 0.021 0.041 0.060
Whichever is Less
NAVAIR 01-1A-34
4t the size of 4t the size of 4t the size of 4t the size of 4t the size of 4t the size of 4t the size of 4t the size of
the larger the larger the larger the larger the larger the larger the larger the larger
Spacing (MIN)
adjacent adjacent adjacent adjacent adjacent adjacent adjacent adjacent
imperfection imperfection imperfection imperfection imperfection imperfection imperfection imperfection
Accu. Length 3 in
(MAX) 1.33t or 0.24 0.021 0.027 0.043 0.053 0.067 0.084 0.166 0.240
in, Whichever is Less
UNDERCUT
For Full Length of 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
Weld - MAX Depth.
Individual Defect - 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.009 0.018
MAX Depth
For Full Length of 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
Weld - MAX Depth.
Individual Defect - 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.009 0.018
MAX Depth
Page 4
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a. Groove welds which have any of the following defects, are unacceptable:
(2) Incomplete joint penetration (i.e., there shall be a measurable root and face reinforcement apparent).
(6) Mismatch at any location in excess of 33% of the base metal thickness.
(7) Reinforcement weld face or the weld root in excess of that shown in Table 3. Refer to Figure 1 for
locations.
b. After radiographic inspection, section all tubes longitudinally to inspect penetration. This requirement does
not apply to sheet metal weld specimens.
5. Fillet Welds.
a. Fillet welds, which have any of the following defects, are unacceptable, except as shown in figure 2 and
Figure 3:
(2) Incomplete joint penetration (i.e., there shall be a measurable root and face reinforcement apparent).
(6) Melt-through (burn-through) is evaluated on fillet welds in sheet equal to or less than 0.063 inch in
thickness. The weld metal opposite the weld bead and extending more than "t" beyond the sheet/tube surface at
any cross-section is unacceptable.
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Legend:
L1 = Measured incomplete fusion at the root in the vertical member.
L2 = Measure incomplete fusion at the root in the horizontal member.
S1 = Measured leg size in the vertical member.
S2 = Measured leg in the horizontal member.
General Notes:
When thickness (T1 or T2) of any member is ≤0.063 in., L1 shall be ≤0.1 X S1 and/or L2 shall be
≤0.1 x S2.
NOTE
7. GENERAL. Radiographic inspection shall be performed in accordance with ASTM E1742, NA 01-1A-16 and
T.O. 33B-1-1, as appropriate with each Service requirements. See SUPP D
WARNING
RADIATION HAZARD
X-Ray Radiation is harmful to personnel. Ensure compliance with all applicable
Service Specific safety precautions set forth in S0420-AA-RAD-010, T.O. 33B-1-
1, or T.M. 1-1500-335-23, as applicable.
c. Shims equaling total thickness of weld buildup placed on one (1) wall of tube.
e. Lead cover plates are needed if multiple shots are to appear on one sheet of film. Recommend two plates,
each 8” x 8” x 0.25”.
f. Eastman Kodak Co. Industrex Type M-8 Ready Pack and Lead Pack Film, or equivalent. Sheets of film 5” x
7” are preferred.
(1) Mark 1.0” tube circumference for double wall inspection in two shots, each centered 90° from the
previous (see Figure 4). Butt joint sheets are shot in single shot.
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(2) Use lead identification materials to identify each film to be traceable to the welder’s name, date welded,
joint type, base metal, inspector’s name, date inspected.
(3) Arrange tube head, welded sample, film, Penetrameter, and shims per Figure 5.
(4) For the 1.0” tube, having both shots on one sheet of film is preferred. Smaller and separate sheets of
film may be used. The welded tube shall be rotated 90° between shots. When using a single sheet of film for both
shots, lead plates shall be used to cover the film, so only the area directly under the welded tube is exposed.
(5) The settings shown in Table 4 for tubes are recommended. Deviation from these settings may be
necessary to obtain the required film density and image of the Penetrameter hole.
(1) Use lead identification materials to identify each film to be traceable to the welder’s name, date welded,
joint type, base metal, inspector’s name, date inspected, or equivalent identification marking.
(2) Arrange tube head at a 90-degree angle from welded sample, film, Penetrameter, and shims.
(3) For the sheet groove welds, multiple similar weld samples may be shot simultaneously (Refer to Figure
6) as long as source distance and angle remain the same. The welded sheet groove shall be 90° from tube head.
(4) The settings shown in Tables 4 and 5 for sheet are recommended. Deviation from these settings may
be necessary to obtain the required film density and image of the Penetrameter hole.
b. Film density in the Penetrameter image and the weld fusion zone shall be 2.0 – 3.0. Density measurements
of the Penetrameter image shall be taken around the T-hole closest to the weld.
c. Compare weld defects identified on the film to radiographic requirements. The typical image will appear as
shown in Figure 7.
d. MARKING. Identify defects on the film, which are cause for rejection.
e. RECORDS. If certification is approved, radiographs shall be maintained until replaced by the next
certification cycle. If certification is disapproved, radiographs shall be maintained until individual passes
certification or one (1) year, whichever comes first. See SUPP E
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a. Weld length.
(1) The center four-inch length of weld in sheets of equal to or less than 0.063 inch thickness.
(2) Center six-inch length of welds in sheet more than 0.063 inch in thickness.
b. A linear indication is defined as one whose maximum dimension is more than three times its minimum
dimension.
c. Nonlinear indications with major and minor dimensions shall be evaluated as an equivalent circle with
estimated average diameter. This estimated diameter shall be the size used in determining the acceptability of the
indication and area corresponding to the estimated diameter shall be used in calculating the area of an indication.
e. In a test weld with a base metal thickness of equal to or less than 0.063”, disregard all indications of less
than 0.002 inch size. In a test weld with a base metal thickness of more than 0.063”, disregard all indications of
less than 0.005”, or 0.02T in size, whichever is greater.
f. Unacceptable Indications. Test welds, whose radiograph of the inspected length shows any of the following
indications, are unacceptable:
• Any type of crack.
• Incomplete joint penetration, except as indicated in Table 2.
• Internal linear indications in excess of those shown in Table 2.
• Porosity in excess of that shown in Table 2.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
PREWELD OPERATIONS
Reference Material
None
Alphabetical Index
None
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NOTE
1. PURPOSE.
a. Prior to all welding operations the base metal, whether new wrought or cast metal or existing components
must have the surface cleaned. A clean surface ensures that contaminants do not exist and become part of the
weld metal forming porosity and inclusions, or prevent the wetting of the weld metal to the base metal.
b. Depending on the technical manual information, cleaning is not always written in a clean or concise manner
and it is incumbent upon the welder to ensure the base metal is cleaned. Verify that the intended weld zones and
adjacent surfaces are free of contaminants which could become part of the weld.
(1) Verify that high metal is fully removed from deburring by wiping a lint-free cloth of the surface without
'catching' the cloth on the weld zone.
(2) Verify cleanliness after wiping with approved solvents, preferably acetone, until the lint-free cloth no
longer shows evidence of dirt or smut.
c. Welding requires a higher degree of cleanliness and as such, most technical manuals do not address the
specific needs for pre-weld cleaning. This work package series describes various cleaning methods and
engineering concurrence maybe necessary for application.
d. Each base metal group requires different cleaning methods and may not be interchanged without approval.
Refer to the component technical manual for specifics of cleaning the base metal prior to welding.
a. Blasting. Generally used for the removal of paints and primers an should be considered as a non-
aggressive surface preparation methods, except when aluminum oxide or glass bead is employed.
b. Solvents. Used for the removal of grease, oils, fingerprints, such as acetone.
c. Acids. A mild surface preparation which is intended to remove oxidation from the metal. Welding should
occur at a predetermined time before the oxides have reformed on the metal surface.
d. Mechanical. The most aggressive method and the most common method. This method should be employed
after all other surface preparation methods have been employed and the surface has not sufficiently been cleaned
of paints, primers, and oxidation.
3. JOINT PREPARATION
a. After cleaning the weld surfaces, whether for initial fabrication or for repairs of cracks, the preparation of the
weld joint requires the same scrutiny of cleanliness. Weld cracks, in particular, still harbor residual debris of paint,
primer, and oxidation, or hydrocarbons.
b. Complete removal of cracks is desired in most cases and employing the correct or appropriate tools, the
intent is for weld surfaces which are as clean as the adjacent surfaces; free of deleterious debris hindering weld
penetration and flow.
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c. All weld joint tools, such as rotary burrs, sanding disks, or wire brushes shall be identified for each metal
group and not used for other metal groups.
For example:
Wire brushes or carbide rotary burr/bits used for carbon and alloy steels shall
never be used on surfaces of titanium, aluminum or stainless steel. The cross
contamination may introduce particles which promote corrosion.
a. This work package series is intended to provide general information and purpose about cleaning and weld
joint preparation. Consult with the component technical manual for specific information regarding approved
preparation methods.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
General............................................................................................................................................................ 2
Preweld Base Metal Cleaning Specifics ....................................................................................................... 2
Preweld Filler Metal Cleaning Specifics........................................................................................................ 3
Generic Cleaning Methods.............................................................................................................................. 3
Degreasing.................................................................................................................................................... 3
Dry Abrasive (Grit) Blasting........................................................................................................................... 4
Dry Abrasive (Shell) Blasting ........................................................................................................................ 5
Steam Cleaning............................................................................................................................................. 3
Wet Abrasive (Grit) Blasting, Type 1............................................................................................................. 5
Generic Cleaning of Metal Groups.................................................................................................................. 6
Cleaning Carbon Steel .................................................................................................................................. 6
Cleaning of Aluminum and Magnesium (Al / Mg) ......................................................................................... 7
Cleaning of Stainless Steel, Nickel and Cobalt Alloys .................................................................................. 7
Cleaning of Titanium Alloys........................................................................................................................... 8
Generic Mechanical Cleaning Methods .......................................................................................................... 10
Mechanical Removal..................................................................................................................................... 10
Solvent Wiping .............................................................................................................................................. 10
None
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NOTE
NOTE
1. GENERAL.
a. Ensuring a quality weld, the most important and probably the most overlooked aspect of welding is the pre-
weld cleaning methods. The general rule-of-thumb will dictate that base metal shall be cleaned at least 1/2 inch
from the intended weld zone. These surfaces must be completely cleansed of all hydrocarbon and other
contaminants, such as cutting fluids, grease, oil, waxes and primers, by suitable solvents.
• Stainless steel wire brushes that have not been used for any other purpose;
• Blasting with non-ferrous sand or grit;
• Machining and grinding using a suitable tool and chloride-free cutting fluid; and
• Pickling with acid solutions, depending on base metal.
b. All surfaces to be welded and surfaces that may affect quality of the resulting weld (ex. Welding filler
materials and fixtures) shall be free from slag, surface oxides, scale, protective finishes, oils, grease, dirt, or other
contaminants.
c. Chemical methods (ex. Alkaline cleaning, solvent wipe, or etching) or Mechanical methods (ex. Wire
brushing, scraping, abrasive blasting, or machining) shall be used before welding, as needed.
d. Previously cleaned surfaces shall be protected from contamination. If contamination is suspected, the
surface shall be cleaned again.
e. All workspaces, fixtures, backing bars or chill rings shall be cleaned and free of contaminants that may
come in contact with the part being welded. Backing bars or chill rings shall be cleaned based on the base metal
type and wiped with acetone prior to affixing or mounting to the weld zone.
a. Joints. Thorough cleaning of joints and filler metal immediately before welding is imperative, or weld
contamination can occur. Previously cleaned or machined surfaces should be wiped with a non-chlorinated
solvent, such as acetone. Acetone is flammable and require good ventilation; therefore, proper precautions
should be taken.
b. Chlorinated solvents should never be used for cleaning; their residues may lead to cracking in the weld and
heat-affected zone.
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c. Once the weld joint has been cleaned, it should be kept free of contamination, including fingerprints, until
welding begins. Wrapping the joint in clean, dry, lint-free cloth or paper and handling the parts with white gloves
are good practices.
a. Filler Metal. Welding filler metal rod should be clean and bright. To insure cleanliness, the filler metal rod
should be wiped immediately before use with a clean cloth saturated with a nonchlorinated solvent such as
acetone and then thoroughly dried with a clean, lint-free cloth.
b. Acetone is flammable and requires good ventilation; therefore, proper precautions should be taken.
c. Welding filler metal rod once removed from its container should not be returned to the container without
being cleaned again. The container should be properly marked.
a. The following cleaning methods are proven generic cleaning methods and may or may not be applicable for
cleaning in all instance.
b. refer to the component repair manual for the properly prescribed cleaning methods.
c. If the component repair manual does not sufficiently prescribe a preweld cleaning method, secure
concurrence from the proper engineering support group prior to application.
CAUTION
Do not degrease titanium or titanium parts, bearings, rubber or plastic parts
which can be attacked by organic solvents.
5. DEGREASING. Degreasing is a cleaning method designed to remove oil, grease and preservative compounds
from metal. The part is immersed in the solution so that the grease, oil and preservative compounds are carried
away. Consult with NAVAIR 01-1A-509 general series manual for additional information related to cleaning of
components or base metals prior to welding.
6. STEAM CLEANING. Steam cleaning is a superficial cleaning process that is used primarily when it is not
desirable to re-move paint and surface coatings from ferrous and nonferrous jet engine parts. To clean properly
with steam it is necessary to add a cleaning compound. Do not steam clean oil impregnated parts.
NOTE
Contact the local safety and health entity for permission and safety procedures.
a. Preparation of Compounds.
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WARNING
Wear rubber gloves, an apron and face shield while steam cleaning. When using a liquid or
powder, follow manufacturer’s instructions.
NOTE
For best results, the steam valve should be opened only enough to produce a wet spray with high
impact upon the surface being cleaned.
b. Procedure. Set the steam valve to the strength and force required for the cleaning job at hand. Hold the
steam gun about 12 inches from the part and at about a 45-degree angle to the surface being cleaned. After
steam cleaning, parts should be given a final rinse with clear water to remove any residue of cleaning compound,
and be thoroughly dried. When rust protection is needed, it should be applied immediately after drying.
7. DRY ABRASIVE (GRIT) BLASTING. Dry abrasive blast can be used for the removal of heat scale, carbon
deposits, corrosion and rust on critical parts where slow cutting action is desired, and for paint and thermal
sprayed coating surface preparations, where limited cutting action is desired.
a. Material and Equipment. A standard type of Dry Blast Cabinet and shop compressed air supply is all the
equipment required.
NOTE
The type and size of the abrasive may vary for different parts. Refer to the
applicable manual to determine the type and size of the abrasive material
required for that part.
b. Procedure.
WARNING
Grit blast equipment used for titanium or magnesium should be cleaned regularly
to prevent accumulation of metal dust which could create a fire hazard.
CAUTION
Dry abrasive blasting shall never be used to clean titanium or magnesium parts
or alloys of either material, unless specifically directed by the maintenance
manual. Avoid excessive blasting. Perform the cleaning operation so that the
blast will not dwell in one spot. The blast shall be directed at an angle so as to
sweep across the surface, not perpendicular to it.
(1) Mask all plated or machined surfaces and other areas to protect them from abrasive blast and cover all
parts, pockets, cavities, hoses, and tubes to prevent entry of abrasive which may be difficult to detect and remove
after cleaning.
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(2) Grit-blast parts only to the extent necessary to obtain a uniformly clean surface on all exposed areas.
Unless otherwise specified in the applicable engine manual, use 120 or 220 mesh aluminum oxide grit. The
recommended air pressure is 25-90 psi with the nozzle held at a distance of 5-8 inches from the part.
(3) Blow all residual grit from the part, using clean, dry, compressed air.
(4) After blasting, visually inspect the part thoroughly to insure that no abrasive material is trapped in
cavities.
a. Dry abrasive blasting, using crushed shells as the abrasive medium, is an effective method of cleaning light
scale or carbon deposits, corrosion and rust from parts where slow cutting action is desired.
NOTE
The type and size of abrasive may be different for some parts. Type and size will
be specified in the maintenance or overhaul manual.
(a) Use a mixture of 50% crushed walnut shells and 50% rice hulls, unless otherwise specified in the
applicable maintenance or overhaul manual.
(b) A standard type of dry blast cabinet with a gun nozzle size of 1/4 inch should be used.
(2) Procedure.
(a) Mask all parts that are to be grit-blasted to protect plated or coated finishes or machined surfaces
and to keep abrasives from entering cavities, pockets, tubes, hoses or manifolds from which grit may be difficult to
detect and remove after blasting.
(b) Clean all exposed surfaces of the parts, using a mixture of 50 percent crushed walnut shells and 50
percent rice hulls. Mixtures are by volume in accordance with the following recommendations:
• Recommended distance of gun from part is 10-12 inches. Keep the gun at least 8 inches away
from part.
• Air pressure: 80-100 psi.
(c) Perform the cleaning operation so that the grit blast does not dwell in one spot. The most effective
method is to direct the blast stream at an angle across the surface being cleaned.
a. General. Wet abrasive blast is an effective method of removing heat scale, carbon deposits, rust, and
temporary markings from metal parts, and for producing a uniform satin finish on parts having simple or complex
shapes. This type of blasting does not remove metal rapidly; hence surfaces can be refinished without changing
dimensions significantly. Mating surfaces after wet abrasive blasting are less likely to shift during assembly.
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NOTE
The type and size of abrasive may be different for some parts. Type and size will
be specified in the applicable engine manual.
b. Procedure.
(1) Mask all identification markings and other areas as required. No other masking is necessary.
CAUTION
Do not permit the blast stream to dwell in one spot; this will cause excessive
removal of metal. Direct the blast to sweep across the surface at an angle, not
perpendicular to it. If turbine disks and spacers are blasted, direct the blast
radially outward across the surface to avoid blasting the dovetails.
(2) Using grits of 500 mesh or larger may cause plugging of small holes and internal passages found in
such parts as turbine buckets and vanes. Once parts are plugged, it is practically impossible to clean them out.
(3) Wet blast the exposed surface of parts using the slurry mixture. Use an air pressure of approximately
60-90 psi for applying the wet abrasive.
(4) Immediately following the abrasive blasting, pressure-rinse the parts with hot water, making sure that no
abrasive is trapped in any cavities. Dry, using clean, dry, shop air.
(5) Visually inspect to determine adequacy of cleaning and uniformity of surface finish.
NOTE
a. Prior to cleaning carbon and alloy steels for welding, ensure the weld surfaces are thoroughly cleaned of
bulk compounds and loose oxides.
• Degrease weld zone or the complete part using approved alkaline detergent.
• Brush weld zone thoroughly using a stainless steel wire or nylon bristle brush as needed.
• Rinse thoroughly with fresh water.
• Dry using clean, oil-free, compressed air.
• Apply CPC as needed.
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NOTE
a. Proper cleaning is often an important factor that controls the final results of a welding operation. This is
especially true when welding with oxyacetylene, oxy-hydrogen or other types of gas and spot welding (resistance
welding).
CAUTION
Check with the local health and safety entity for permission and procedures to
use these toxic/hazardous materials.
b. The degreasing operation will remove the oil/ grease and dirt but it has no effect on the oxide film. To
remove the oxide film, parts should be cleaned on both sides of the area to be welded with a synthetic scouring
pad. Parts shall be immersed for twenty (20) minutes in a corrosion removing compound MIL-C-10578, Ty II Metal
Conditioner (phosphoric acid based) until surface shows no water break and then rinsed with tap water.
c. Welding shall be accomplished immediately after deoxidizing and no later than 12 hours after the
deoxidizing operation.
d. The chemical cleaning operation shall be precisely timed since over or under application time will increase
the contact resistance and any chemical that will remove the oxide will also attack the aluminum.
NOTE
a. Cleaning may be necessary before welding and during welding (interpass) and is usually essential after
welding in order to ensure maximum corrosion resistance.
b. Pre-weld cleaning involves dressing the cut edge and removing all contaminants such as oil, paint, grease,
crayon marks, adhesive tapes, etc. The area on both sides of weld should be cleaned before welding by brushing
with a clean stainless steel brush and wiped with a solvent moistened cloth.
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NOTE
a. The sensitivity of titanium and titanium alloys to embrittlement, impose limitations on the joining processes
that may be used. Small amounts of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, or hydrogen impair ductility and toughness of
titanium and titanium alloy. Consequently, joining processes and procedures that minimize joint contamination
must be used. Dirt, dust, grease, fingerprints, and a wide variety of other contaminants can also lead to
embrittlement and porosity when the titanium or filler metal is not properly cleaned prior to welding.
b. All weldments of titanium and titanium alloys shall be cleaned prior to welding. The following is an outline of
the cleaning procedure.
WARNING
The following cleaning solutions are extremely hazardous. Use the proper hand,
face, arm and body protection devices that will protect against organic solvents,
caustic and acidic solutions. Refer to the local Safety and Health Office for
guidelines.
c. TITANIUM CLEANING. Figure 1 outlines the cleaning procedures for titanium. Table 1 is a list of required
chemicals for this operation. The procedures include:
(1) Degreasing. Do not use halogenated solvents to degrease titanium. Halogens (chlorine, fluorine) can
cause embrittlement.
(2) Detergent Clean. Clean the solvent residue using a mild soap solution (1 oz./gal.) in cold water.
(3) Scale Conditioning. Immerse in a cold solution of alkaline de-ruster at 8 to 12 oz./gallon for 10 to 60
minutes.
(5) De-scale. Immerse in a solution of 30% nitric acid and 1% hydrofluoric acid for 1/2 to 1-1/2 minutes.
(8) Scale Conditioning. Immerse in a hot (230°F) solution of 50% sodium hydroxide and 1% copper sulfate
for 30 to 60 minutes. Repeat steps (4) through (7).
d. All titanium and titanium alloys, shall be placed in clean polyethylene bags LP-378, MIL-P-22191, or MIL-B-
121 Grade ”A” (Barrier paper) immediately after cleaning.
e. Parts being removed from sealed containers, after cleaning and for welding shall be handled with clean (lint
free) white gloves. Gloves used for handling titanium shall not be used for handling tools and other equipment.
(1) If parts have been in storage (sealed) more than seven days re-cleaning may be required.
(2) Parts that have been sheared shall have the sheared edges mechanically cleaned prior to the cleaning
operation of TITANIUM CLEANING.
f. Immediately prior to loading fixtures (open air or chamber) weldments shall have the faying edges wiped
(degreased) with a clean isopropyl alcohol moist cloth (lint free) or other approved solvent.
g. Tooling that comes in contact with parts, in the weld zone shall be free of oxides, and cleaned by wiping
with a cloth (lint free) moistened with isopropyl alcohol prior to use.
NOTE
Do not over apply the mechanical cleaning. Application should be controlled and
applied only until the surface is clean of oxide.
a. Mechanical removal of oxides shall be confined to the immediate weld area; application to other surfaces of
the metal shall be avoided.
b. Abrasive mats, Specification A–A–58054, Type 1, Grade AAA (very fine) are permitted.
c. Stainless steel brushes (hand or rotary), stainless steel wool and some abrasives can be used to remove
oxides from unclad aluminum. The strand diameter of the wire brush utilized shall not be over 0.005 inch.
d. Rotary tools, such as, carbide burr/bits shall be used to remove high metal, preparing surfaces, or dressing
cracks prior to welding. The carbide burr/bits shall not be used for other metal groups and shall be designated for
the metal group used.
a. The preferred method for wiping surfaces prior to welding shall be with locally approved acetone.
b. As an alternative, methyl alcohol may be used when specified by engineering technical instruction.
c. The use of other solvents may be used provided that sufficient engineering instructions are included in the
welding instructions and that the solvent is compatible with the base metal.
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WELDING PREPARATION
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
None
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NOTE
a. Inspection Before Welding. It is important that the ends of a crack be found so that the crack will be
completely welded. If the crack is not completely welded, it may grow after welding. Proceed as follows:
(2) Mark the ends of the crack, using chalk, so that the marking will not be removed by degreasing.
b. Preparing Defects For Welding. When preparing a part for welding, it is extremely important that all
contaminants are removed from the repair area. Contaminants not removed can cause a crack to form in the weld
after the part is returned to service. Prepare the part as follows:
(1) Degrease the part and dry the part, using filtered compressed air.
(2) The defects must be prepared by grinding or rotary filing, etching the exposed surface, and re-
inspecting the area using NDI methods before welding. Remove all paint, scale, and carbon deposits from both
front and back surfaces of the weld area, using a stainless steel rotary brush or 80-320 grit abrasive roll, disk, or
sheet. Remove all anodic or other chemical protective coating from front or back surfaces of aluminum parts
within 1/2 inch of the weld area, using 160-180 grit abrasive roll, disk or sheet.
CAUTION
Use approved pure dye markers for marking engine hardware. Using non-
approved markers can leave harmful elements on the parts. These elements can
cause intergranular attack. If a part has been inadvertently marked with an
unauthorized material, remove all traces of the material.
d. Using a stainless steel rotary brush, abrasive roll, or either dryblast or wet-blast process, clean the area to
be repaired; clean both sides of part if possible. DO NOT use glass beads with the wet-blast process. If grit-blast
is used, the surface shall be polished with the rotary stainless to remove all grit-blast residue on the surface.
e. Using a bright light and a 10-power magnifying glass, find the end of the crack.
g. If a crack extends into a rivet hole, remove the rivet before welding. (The repair-weld must be ground flush
and the hole re-drilled or reamed before replacing the rivet.)
h. Using an electric or air hand-grinder and suitable carbide rotary grinding bits and stones (Figure 1),
completely grind out the crack as shown in Figure 2.
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(1) Select a grinding bit or stone based on the width of the crack to be ground out. Keep the groove as
narrow as possible.
(2) If the crack does not go through the material, grind it out completely. Remove stock from both edges of
the crack to the minimum depth and width that exposes sound metal, and to a length approximately 1/8 inch
beyond each end of crack.
(3) If the crack goes through the material whose thickness is less than 0.045 inch, grind it out, removing
about half of the material thickness.
(4) If the crack goes through the material that is 0.045-0.090 inch thick, grind it out on one side, removing
about 75% of the material thickness. Weld this side; then grind out the remainder of the crack on other side of
part.
(5) If the crack is more than 0.090 inch thick, grind it out to within 0.030 inch of opposite surface.
(6) If there is more than one layer of material, grind out the crack completely, even if this requires grinding
into the next layer.
(7) Grind 1/8 inch beyond the end of all cracks, if possible.
i. If the part has not been blasted, remove the surface oxides, using fine abrasive cloth or soft abrasive wheel.
(2) Clean the surface within 1/4 to 1/2 inch of the crack to remove oxides.
WARNING
Do not inhale vapors from solvents. Do not use solvents near open flame or
sparks.
m. Where welding is done from both sides, the root shall be ground or rotary filed to sound metal.
n. Polish all filler wire with an abrasive mat and wipe clean.
o. Filler materials for various metals are described in Work Package 003 05, WELDING ELECTRODE.
Specific filler metal selections are located within the respective WP 007 subsections and the filler metal tables are
to be used only as a guide and are not intended to replace requirements specified by drawings, technical orders
or other engineering data.
p. Amperages may vary with thickness and type of material to be repair-welded. Table 1 lists variances due to
thickness and type of current used.
CATEGORY II CATEGORY IV
(DC, STRAIGHT POLARITY) (DC, STRAIGHT POLARITY)
(TITANIUM)
2. FIXTURES PREPARATION.
a. Any part of the workspace, fixture, and chill ring that come in contact with the weld or welded component
must be cleaned prior to welding.
b. Wire bush and using clean, dry, compressed air, remove all debris and wipe surfaces with acetone and let
air dry.
a. Alignment of Butt Joints. Unless otherwise specified on the drawing, when manual welding, cross section
alignment of sheet, plate or tubing surfaces adjacent to the butt weld joint shall be within 0.010 inch or 10% of the
thickness of the material in the joint or whichever is less.
b. Alignment of Mating Parts. Mating-parts shall join together so that the gaps between them, due to the
irregularity of mating surfaces or edges, shall not exceed 25% of the thinner part, or 1/16 inch or whichever is
less. Faying edges that have shear marks shall be draw filed. Clean parts after draw filing.
c. BACK-UP BARS. Back-up bars (chilling or otherwise) shall be made of copper, (deoxidized) aluminum, or
stainless steel machined so that no part of the back-up bars come in contact with the molten weld puddle, drop-
thru reinforcement, or bead reinforcement.
d. Tack welds may be used to hold the mating parts prior to completing the weld operation, but shall be of
minimum size and shall be free of defects.
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Reference Material
None
Alphabetical Index
None
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NOTE
This Work Package contains GUIDANCE information to supplement higher order
technical document or instructions.
1. GENERAL.
a. This work package is designed to provide the welder with a source of welding technique and information for
making a satisfactory weld.
b. Each material groups, I-VII and “Other” are described with general information pertaining to the weldability
of each metal alloy. The information provided is intended to supplement current technical instructions with in-
depth knowledge and suggested welding techniques for producing a quality weld.
a. This Work Package Series comprises general welding information to supplement the welder's experience
and knowledge.
b. Work Package 007 00 discusses general welding knowledge and various weldability descriptions of the
seven base metal groups most welders will encounter.
3. WELDING TECHNIQUES.
a. The tables in this work package may provide some general information to assist in establishing the
necessary techniques for depositing a proper weld. The information provided is not all inclusive and depending on
repair or fabrication conditions, other methods or techniques may be employed. Refer to applicable technical
documentation for additional information.
4. TUNGSTEN GEOMETRY.
a. Preparation of tungsten electrode geometries should have the following characteristics and the component
technical may provide more specific information.
b. Electrode tips shall be ground longitudinally and concentrically with diamond wheels only and with the
following included angle range:
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(1) For amperages below 100 amps (low current), an electrode tip should be in the 10° to 25° included
angle range.
(2) For amperages above 100 amps (high current), an electrode tip should be in the 25° to 45° included
angle range.
c. The tip/flat preparation can influence the different arc shapes and weld penetration capabilities. Table 1
provides guidance on selecting the tip/flats based on electrode diameter.
(1) In general, the smoothness of the ground electrode should exhibit fine ground lines with approximately
a 20 RMS finish.
(2) High polish or near-mirror like finishes are permitted and would exhibit a 6-8 RMS finish.
a. Carbon steel and steel alloys listed in WP 007 01 list some common weldable metals encountered during
the fabrication or repair of Support Equipment.
a. STAINLESS STEEL.
(1) Primary use of stainless steel is in the form of Austenitic Stainless steel which by definition, has a
minimum of 16% chromium in the base metal. Additional elements, such as, nickel, is to stabilize the iron and
contribute to the corrosion resistance properties.
(2) Welding austenitic stainless steels using other than welding grade (L) filler metal requires process
control of welding time and heat.
For example: Base metal SS304 (CRES 304) is joined to same and should be
welded with a filler metal grade of 308L. The “L” grade filler metals are
compositionally adjusted to control chromium depletion at the grain boundaries;
Reducing sensitization of precipitating chromium carbides.
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(1) The precipitation-hardening stainless steels are iron-nickel-chromium alloys containing one or more
precipitation hardening elements such as aluminum, titanium, copper, niobium, and molybdenum. The
precipitation hardening is achieved by a relatively simple aging treatment of the fabricated part.
(2) The two main characteristics of all precipitation-hardening stainless steels are high strength and high
corrosion resistance. High strength is, unfortunately, achieved at the expense of toughness. The corrosion
resistance of precipitation-hardening stainless steels is comparable to that of the standard AISI 304 and AISI 316
austenitic alloys. The aging treatments are designed to optimize strength, corrosion resistance, and toughness.
To improve toughness, the amount of carbon is kept low.
a. Filler metal compositions for Welding-heat-resisting alloys should be compatible with that of the base metal
and of such ductility as to provide maximum freedom from cracking when considering the dilution ratio of filler to
base metal.
b. Nickel alloy filler metals are designated by various designation systems however the alloys are usually
identified according to their trade names, such as, C-263 or PK-33.
c. Nickel alloys are designated by various designation systems however the alloys are usually identified
according to their trade names.
• These alloys contain about 30% of copper, which form solid solution with nickel.
• The accepted trade name of Nickel-Copper Alloys is Monel.
• Nickel-Copper Alloy, containing aluminum and titanium as additional alloying elements (Monel K-
500), is heat-treatable and may be strengthened by precipitation hardening.
• The major alloying elements of these alloys (15-22% of chromium and up to 46% of iron) form solid
solution with nickel.
• The alloys may be hardened by cold work.
• The non-heat-treatable Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys are identified according to their trade names
Inconel, Incoloy and Hastelloy.
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• These alloys may be strengthened by precipitation hardening due to presence of additional alloying
elements: aluminum, titanium, silicon.
• Nimonic, Inconel X-750, Udimet, Waspaloy, Rene, Astroloy are some of the trade names of heat-
treatable Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys.
a. Aluminum and its alloys can be joined by more methods than any other metal, but aluminum has several
chemical and physical properties that need to be understood when using the various joining processes.
b. The specific properties that affect welding are its oxide characteristics, its thermal, electrical, and
nonmagnetic characteristics, lack of color change when heated, and wide range of mechanical properties and
melting temperatures that result from alloying with other metals.
c. Oxide. Aluminum oxide melts at about 3722°F which is much higher than the melting point of the base alloy.
If the oxide is not removed or displaced, the result is incomplete fusion. In some joining processes, chlorides and
fluorides are used in order to remove the oxide contain. Chlorides and fluorides must be removed after the joining
operation to avoid a possible corrosion problem in service.
d. Hydrogen Solubility. Hydrogen dissolves very rapidly in molten aluminum. However, hydrogen has almost
no solubility in solid aluminum and it has been determined to be the primary cause of porosity in aluminum welds.
High temperatures of the weld pool allow a large amount of hydrogen to be absorbed, and as the pool solidifies,
the solubility of hydrogen is greatly reduced. Hydrogen that exceeds the effective solubility limit forms gas
porosity, if it does not escape from the solidifying weld.
e. Electrical Conductivity. For arc welding, it is important that aluminum alloys possess high electrical
conductivity -- pure aluminum has 62% that of pure copper. High electrical conductivity permits the use of long
contact tubes guns, because resistance heating of the electrode does not occur, as is experienced with ferrous
electrodes.
f. Thermal Characteristics. The thermal conductivity of aluminum is about 6 times that of steel. Although the
melting temperature of aluminum alloys is substantially bellow that of ferrous alloys, higher heat inputs are
required to weld aluminum because of its high specific heat.
g. High thermal conductivity makes aluminum very sensitive to fluctuations in heat input by the welding
process.
a. Magnesium is the lightest structural metal. It is approximately two-thirds as heavy as aluminum and one-
fourth as heavy as steel. Magnesium alloys containing small amounts of aluminum, manganese, zinc, zirconium,
etc., have strengths equaling that of mild steels. They can be rolled into plate, shapes, and strip.
b. Magnesium can be cast, forged, fabricated, and machined. As a structural metal it is used in aircraft. It is
used by the materials-moving industry for parts of machinery and for hand-power tools due to its strength to
weight ratio.
c. Magnesium can be welded by many of the arc and resistance welding processes, as well as by the oxy-fuel
gas welding process, and it can be brazed. Magnesium possesses properties that make welding it different than
the welding of steels. Many of these are the same as for aluminum. These are:
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d. The normal metallurgical factors that apply to other metals apply to magnesium as well. Magnesium is a
very active metal and the rate of oxidation increases as the temperature is increased. The melting point of
magnesium is very close to that of aluminum, but the melting point of the oxide is very high. In view of this, the
oxide coating must be removed.
e. Magnesium has high thermal heat conductivity and a high coefficient of thermal expansion. The thermal
conductivity is not as high as aluminum but the coefficient of thermal expansion is very nearly the same. The
absence of color change is not too important with respect to the arc welding processes.
a. Welding titanium requires an understanding of the atmosphere surrounding titanium and the prevention of
oxidation during the welding process. Titanium can and will absorb oxygen and hydrogen at a fast rate which
influences the hardness or brittleness of the weld bead and heat affected zone.
b. The following fusion-welding processes are used for joining titanium and titanium alloys:
c. Fluxes cannot be used with these processes because they combine with titanium to cause brittleness and
may reduce corrosion resistance. The welding processes that use fluxes are electroslag welding, submerged arc
welding, and flux-cored arc welding. These processes have been used on a limited basis. However, they are not
considered to be economical because they require high-cost, fluoride-base fluxes.
d. Gas-tungsten arc welding is the most widely used process for joining titanium and titanium alloys except for
parts with thick sections. Square-groove butt joints can be welded without filler metal in base metals up to 1/8 inch
thick. For thicker base metals, the joint should be grooved, and filler metal is required. The heated weld metal in
the weld zone must be shielded from the atmosphere to prevent contamination with oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon,
which will degrade the weldment ductility.
e. Gas-metal arc welding is used to join titanium and titanium alloys more than 1/8 inch. It is applied using
pulsed current or the spray mode and is less costly than GTAW, especially when the base metal thickness is
greater than 1/2 inch.
f. Plasma arc welding is also applicable to joining titanium and titanium alloys. It is faster than GTAW and can
be used on thicker sections, such as one-pass welding of plate up to 1/2 inch thick, using keyhole techniques.
g. Resistance welding is used to join titanium and titanium alloy sheet by either spot welds or continuous seam
welds. The process is also used for welding titanium sheet to dissimilar metals, that is, cladding titanium to carbon
or stainless steel plate.
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a. The high-alloy content cobalt-bearing alloys affords excellent resistance to corrosion, oxidation, and
elevated temperature retention of hot hardness up to a maximum of 1200°F (650°C). These alloys are not subject
to metallurgical transformations and therefore do not lose their properties if the base metal is subsequently heat
treated.
b. Cobalt alloy materials are sensitive to cracking in the weld deposits and, pre-heat and interpass
temperatures as well as cooling rate must be closely controlled.
a. Other metals covered by this general series manual are for the rare instances the welder may be called
upon to perform welding on base metals not commonly associated with aviation materials.
a. If a pre-weld, in-process, or post-weld thermal treatment is provided in the tables of this work package, the
temperatures and/or times provided must be followed to ensure a properly deposited weld.
b. Some technical manuals or other engineering documentation may alter the requirements written herein and
in those instances, the technical documentation takes precedence.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
None
Alphabetical Index
None
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NOTE
1. SAFETY.
WARNING
Do not breathe fumes and gases. Keep your head out of the fumes.
Use enough ventilation or exhaust at the arc or both to keep fumes and gases
from your breathing zone and general area.
2. MATERIAL TYPES.
a. Carbon steel and steel alloys are generally weldable depending on the carbon content. Table 1 describes
four different groups of carbon steels and the weldability. Cast Iron is generally defined above 1.0% carbon
content of the base metal.
b. As the carbon content increases, whether carbon steel or alloy steel, the need for preheat, interpass, or post
heat operations becomes more important.
c. Prior to welding carbon, determine the carbon content and whether any preheat, interpass or post weld heat
treatments are required.
(1) Arc welding produces greater hardness in the heat affected zone than oxyacetylene welding for the
same type of welding operation, and the hardened zone is more concentrated. In general the greater the
hardness produced in arc welds, the more likely is the weld to crack when the molten metal solidifies.
(2) Arc welds on plate containing 0.35 percent carbon or higher show a greater rate of increase in hardness
than in steels containing a lesser amount of carbon. In alloy steels, certain elements are added to increase the
strength, but these also increase the hardness produced by the carbon. Readily weldable grades of plate are
those with a low carbon content since the welding process on these will not induce excessive hardness.
(3) In plain carbon steels having 0.25 percent carbon or less, welds made by either arc or gas welding do
not cause any noticeable degree of change in hardness, ductility, or tensile strength.
NOTE
Filler metals shall be in accordance with the technical repair instructions of the
component. This section is for guidance only.
(1) SMAW electrodes with low hydrogen coatings, such as E7018 and E8018-C3, must be kept very dry
since hydrogen induced cracking can easily occur, especially in steels that are 80,000 psi and higher yield
strengths.
(2) Use only electrodes removed from hermetically sealed containers, which provide excellent protection
against moisture pickup.
(3) Do not open the hermetically sealed containers until the electrode is needed for use.
(4) When the cans are opened, electrodes that will not be immediately used should be placed in a cabinet
at 250°F to 300°F (120°C to 150°C).
(5) Electrodes should be supplied to welders in quantities that can be consumed within time limits that are
dependent on the electrode type and strength level. For example, standard E7018 electrodes can be safely be
exposed to the atmosphere for 4 hours whereas standard E11018 electrodes are restricted to only ½ hour.
(1) Austenitic Stainless Steel for SMAW must be kept dry. Typically, the first problem that will be noticed
with welding with such electrodes that have been contaminated with moisture will be weld porosity. Other
operational characteristics may also be affected.
(1) SMAW electrodes such as E6010 and E7014 are not low hydrogen, and yet it is important that these
electrodes also be properly stored. Unlike the low hydrogen electrodes that always must be kept dry, some of the
non-low hydrogen electrodes need some moisture in the coatings in order to perform properly. If these electrodes
are too dry, they may not function properly. Alternative, excessively moist electrodes may cause other problems.
The following procedures should be followed:
(a) Store these non low hydrogen electrodes from the freshly opened containers in heated cabinets at
100°F to 120°F (40°C to 50°C).
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(1) Besides a welding torch with a proper tip size, a filler metal of the required composition and a proper
flux are important to the success of any brazing operation.
(2) The choice of the filler metal depends on the types of metals to be joined. Copper-silicon (silicon-
bronze) rods are used for brazing copper and copper alloys. Copper-tin (phosphor-bronze) rods are used for
brazing similar copper alloys and for brazing steel and cast iron. Other compositions are used for brazing specific
metals.
(3) Fluxes are used to prevent oxidation of the filler metal and the base metal surface, and to promote the
free flowing of the filler metal. They should be chemically active and fluid at the brazing temperature. After the
joint members have been fitted and thoroughly cleaned, an even coating of flux should be brushed over the
adjacent surfaces of the joint, taking care that no spots are left uncovered. The proper flux is a good temperature
indicator for torch brazing because the joint should be heated until the flux remains fluid when the torch flame is
momentarily removed.
e. Table 2 lists the characteristics of various types of carbon and alloy steels pertaining to electrode
suggestion, specification; any preheat or post heat treatments. This table is intended for guidance and specific or
additional welding instructions may be obtained from the cognizant engineering group.
(1) Specifications listed are legacy documents. Specific information regarding later specifications can be
obtained from the cognizant engineering group.
4. SHIELDING GAS.
a. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) generates its own protective shielding gas through the decomposition
of the electrode coating or flux.
b. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) shielding gas depends on the type of wire transfer required by the weld
procedure. The main types of transfer are the Short Arc, Spray, and the Cored wire.
d. Typical shielding gases either used singularly or in combination are listed in Table 3. Always consult with
the T/M/S Technical Manual for specific applications.
Table 3. Common Shielding Gases for Gas Metal ARC Welding Carbon and Alloy Steels
Metal Transfer Mode Shielding Gas Mixture
Short Arc 98Ar-2CO2
75Ar-25CO2
88Ar-12CO2
50Ar-50CO2
100 CO2
Spray 95Ar-5O2
92Ar-8CO2
98Ar-2O2
e. Shielding Gas. Argon may be used for all thicknesses and set the flow rate at 10 to 20 ft3/h.
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f. Weld Backing Gas. Protect the root side of all complete penetration welds by using the proper tooling to
close off the backside of the weld while purging the atmosphere from argon dam..
g. Sluggish weld pools which cannot be controlled or discoloration indicates too much heat input, or a “star
crack” indicates improper gas coverage because the weld pool is solidifying too quickly.
h. Carbide precipitation on the backside of the weld is commonly called “sugaring” because of the appearance
and indicates poor backing gas coverage.
i. Extended Postflow. When welding alloy metals, set the gas postflow to 5 to 10 seconds longer than normal
and keep the torch in position until the weld cools. Prior to using the filler rod again, trim the end to prevent
contamination.
5. TUNGSTEN.
a. Refer to WP 004 01 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING for general information about tungsten selection and
WP 007 00 WELDING – GENERAL INFORMATION for general information about tungsten geometry
preparation.
b. When Gas tungsten Arc welding carbon steels the tungsten electrode should be 1.5% Lanthanum.
c. Tungsten Extension. Keep the tungsten extension (stickout) as short as possible, ideally 3 16 in. or less on
butt joints. This helps ensure that the welding arc stays within the shielding gas envelope. Thicker material or fillet
welds may require extensions of 3 8 to 1 2 in.
d. Gas Lens. To create a smoother, more stable flow of shielding gas and superior shielding gas envelope,
always use a gas lens. Use the largest cup practical for the application.
6. TOOLS.
NOTE
All cleaning tools including wire brushes and carbide grinding tools should be
clean and free of debris or other metal fragments
a. Stainless steel or Carbon steel wire brushes, powered or manual, are preferred to remove light rust from the
surfaces prior to welding. Brushes should be identified for use on carbon steel and kept segregated from other
alloys, such as, titanium and aluminum applications.
7. CLEANING.
a. In general, carbon steel components should be cleaned by the following methods, unless the component
technical manual specifies otherwise:
• Degrease using approved alkaline detergent
• Brush using a stainless steel wire brush or nylon bristle brush as needed
• Rinse thoroughly with fresh water
• Dry using oil-free compressed air
• Apply CPC as needed
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8. JOINT DESIGN.
a. The V groove joint is the proper design used for braze welding with copper base or bronze welding rods, but
it is not suitable for braze joints where the filler metal is distributed in the joint by capillary attraction.
WARNING
Dry cleaning solvent and mineral spirits paint thinner are highly flammable. Do
not clean parts near an open flame or in a smoking area. Dry cleaning solvent
and mineral spirits paint thinner evaporate quickly and have a defatting effect on
the skin. When used without protective gloves, these chemicals may cause
irritation or cracking of the skin. Cleaning operations should be performed only in
well ventilated areas.
The edges to be joined should be thoroughly cleaned of oxides by grinding or brushing. Surface dirt and
grease should be washed away for a distance not less than one inch from each side of the joint with a grease
solvent such as dry cleaning solvent or mineral spirits paint thinner. In brazing, galvanized coatings need not be
removed. A flux paste applied for a distance of two inches on each side of the joint will prevent the galvanized
coating from peeling or burning off. Parts to be joined should be aligned correctly and tack welded or clamped in
the proper position.
a. Welding Sheet Metal. For welding purposes the term ”sheet metal” is restricted to thicknesses of metals up
to and including 1/8 inch.
b. Welds in sheet metal up to 1/16 inch thick can be made satisfactorily by flanging the edges at the joint. The
flanges must be at least equal to the thickness of the metal. The edges should be aligned with the flanges in a
vertical position and then tack welded every 5 or 6 inches. Heavy angles or bars should be clamped on each side
of the joint to prevent distortion or buckling. The raised edges are equally melted by the welding flame. This
produces a weld nearly flush with the sheet metal surface. By controlling the welding speed and the flame motion,
good fusion to the underside of the sheet can be obtained without burning through. A plain square butt joint can
also be made on sheet metal up to l/l6 inch thick by using a rust-resisting copper-coated low carbon filler rod 1/16
inch in diameter. The method of aligning the joint and tacking the edges is the same as that used for welding
flanged edge joints.
c. Where it is necessary to make an inside edge or corner weld there is danger of burning through the sheet
unless special care is taken to control the welding heat. Such welds can be made satisfactorily in sheet metal up
to1/16 inch thick by following the procedures below:
d. Heat the end of a 1/8 inch low carbon welding rod until approximately 1/2 inch of the rod is molten.
e. Hold the rod so that the molten end is above the joint to be welded.
f. By sweeping the flame across the molten end of the rod the metal can be removed and deposited on the
seam. The quantity of molten weld metal is relatively large as compared with the light gage sheet and its heat is
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sufficient to preheat the sheet metal. By passing the flame quickly back and forth the filler metal is distributed
along the joint and the additional heat supplied by the flame will produce complete fusion. This method of welding
can be used for making difficult repairs on automobile bodies, metal containers, and similar applications.
g. For sheet metal 1/16 to 1/8 inch thick a butt joint, with a space of approximately 1/8 inch between the edges,
should be prepared. A 1/8 inch diameter copper-coated low carbon filler rod should be used. Sheet metal welding
with a filler rod on butt joints should be done by the forehand method of welding.
a. In general no difficulties are encountered in welding low carbon steels properly made low carbon steel welds
will equal or exceed the base metal in strength.
NOTE
Rods from 5/16 to 3/8 inch are available for heavy welding. However, heavy
welds can be made with the 3/16 or 1/4 inch rods by properly controlling the
puddle and melting rate of the rod.
b. Copper coated low carbon rods should be used for welding low carbon steel. The rod sizes for various plate
thicknesses are as follows:
c. The joints may be prepared by flame cutting or machining. The type of preparation figure 21 (WP004 04) will
be determined by the plate thickness and the welding position.
e. The flame should be adjusted to neutral. Either the forehand or backhand welding method may be used,
depending on the thickness of the plates being welded.
a. General. The term ”steel” may be applied to many ferrous metals which differ greatly in both chemical and
physical properties. In general they may be divided into plain carbon and alloy groups. By following the proper
procedures most steels can be successfully welded. However, parts fabricated by welding generally contain less
than 0.30 percent carbon. Heat increases the carbon combining power of steel and care must be taken during all
welding processes to avoid carbon pick-up.
b. Welding process. Steel heated with an oxyacetylene flame becomes fluid between 2,450°F and 2,750°F
(1,343°C and 1,510°C), depending on its composition. It passes through a soft range between the solid and liquid
state. This soft range enables the operator to control the weld. To produce a weld with good fusion the welding
rod should be placed in the molten puddle; then the rod and base metal should be melted together so that they
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will solidify to form a solid joint. Care should be taken to avoid heating a large portion of the joint, because this will
dissipate the heat and may cause some of the weld metal to adhere to but not fuse with the sides of the welded
joint. The flame should be so directed against the sides and bottom of the welded joint that complete penetration
of the lower section of the joint is obtained. Weld metal should be added in sufficient quantities to fill the joint
without leaving any undercut or overlap. Do not overheat because this will burn the weld metal and weaken the
finished joint.
c. Impurities. Oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen act to produce defective weld metal because they tend to increase
porosity, blowholes, oxides, and slag inclusions. When oxygen combines with steel to form iron oxides at high
temperatures, care should be taken to ensure that all the oxides formed are removed by proper manipulation of
the rod and torch flame. An oxidizing flame causes the steel to foam and give off sparks. The oxides formed are
distributed through the metal and cause a brittle, porous weld. Oxides that form on the surface of the finished
weld can be removed by wire brushing after cooling. A carburizing flame adds carbon to the molten steel and
causes boiling of the metal. Steel welds made with strongly carburizing flames are hard and brittle. Nitrogen from
the atmosphere will combine with molten steel to form nitrides of iron, which impair its strength and ductility if
included in sufficient quantities. By controlling the melting rate of the base metal and welding rod, the size of the
puddle, the speed of welding, and the flame adjustment, the inclusion of impurities from the above sources may
be held to a minimum.
a. In plates up to 3/16 inch in thickness, joints are prepared with a space between the edges equal to the plate
thickness. This allows the flame and welding rod to penetrate to the root of the joint. Proper allowance should be
made for expansion and contraction in order to eliminate warping of the plates or cracking of the weld. Figures 21
and 22 (WP004 04) show edge preparation for different thicknesses of metal.
b. The edges of heavy section steel plates (more than 3/16 inch thick) should be beveled figure 21 (WP004
04) to obtain full penetration of the weld metal. Using the forehand method of welding.
NOTE
Welding of plates 1/2 to 3/4 inch thick is not recommended for oxyacetylene
welding.
c. Plates 1/2 to 3/4 inch thick should be prepared for a U type joint figure 21 (WP 004 04) in all cases. The
back hand method is generally used in welding these plates.
d. The edges of plates 3/4 inch or thicker are usually prepared by using the double V or double U type joint
figure 21 (WP 004 04) when welding can be done from both sides of the plate. A single V or single U joint is used
for all plate thicknesses when welding is done from one side of the plate.
a. A well balanced neutral flame is used for welding most steels. To be sure that the flame is not oxidizing it is
sometimes used with a slight acetylene feather. A very slight excess of acetylene may be used for welding alloys
with a high carbon, chromium, or nickel content. However, increased welding speeds are possible by using a
slightly reducing flame. Avoid excessive gas pressure because it gives a harsh flame, and makes molten metal
control difficult.
b. The tip size and volume of flame used should be sufficient to reduce the metal to a fully molten state and to
produce complete joint penetration. Care should be taken to avoid the formation of molten metal drip beads from
the bottom of the joint. The flame should bring the joint edges to the fusion point ahead of the puddle as the weld
progresses.
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a. These steels may be welded satisfactorily by all methods and processes. The oxyacetylene flame is
generally preferred for welding thin walled tubing and light gage sheet metal. For materials greater than 3/32 inch
thick the electric arc is preferred because the heat zone will be narrower; and as a result the base metal will be
less affected by the heat stresses. This is a special advantage where the part is too large to be heat treated to
relieve welding stresses.
b. The welding technique with the oxyacetylene flame is about the same as that required for carbon steels.
The area surrounding the weld should be preheated between 300°F and 800° F(149°C and 427°C), depending on
the thickness of the metal. This is necessary because a sudden application of flame without preliminary heating
might cause the formation of cracks in the heated area. The flame should be directed at the metal at such an
angle that preheating takes place ahead of the weld.
c. A copper-coated low carbon welding rod is used for general welding of this metal with the oxyacetylene
flame. Chrome-molybdenum or high strength rods may be used for joints requiring high strength. The strength of
parts welded with these rods can be increased by heat treatment.
d. A neutral or slightly carburizing flame must always be used. An oxidizing flame burns and weakens the
steel. A weld made with this flame may crack on cooling unless contraction is unrestrained. A highly carburizing
flame makes the metal brittle and will cause cracking on cooling. The volume of flame should be just large enough
to melt the base metal and to obtain good fusion.
e. Overheating the metal will set up severe stresses and cause excessive grain growth. This condition
produces low strength in the weld and the adjacent base metal.
f. The weld should be protected from the air as much as possible to avoid scaling and rapid cooling. When
available, a jet of hydrogen directed on the metal from the side opposite the weld will reduce scaling caused by
oxidation, and will add strength to the finished part by eliminating air hardening around the weld.
g. When jigs or fixtures are used they should be designed to allow a maximum amount of movement to avoid
distortion or cracking due to contraction as the metal cools.
17. PREHEATING.
a. For welding plates under 1-inch thick, preheating above 50° F (10° C) is not required except to remove
surface moisture from the base metal. Tables 4 and 5 contains suggested preheating temperatures.
Table 4. Suggested Preheat and Interpass Temperature for Various Alloy Bar Steels
Table 4. Suggested Preheat and Interpass Temperature for Various Alloy Bar Steels (Cont)
a. Low Carbon Steels. The low carbon steels include those with a carbon content up to 0.30 percent (figure 1).
These low carbon steels do not harden appreciably when welded and therefore do not require preheating or
postheating except in special cases, such as when heavy sections are to be welded.
a. In metal-arc welding the bare, thin coated or heavy coated shielded arc types of electrodes may be used.
These electrodes are of low carbon type (0.10 to 0.14 percent).
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b. Low carbon sheet or plate materials that have been exposed to low temperatures should be preheated
slightly (to room temperature) before welding.
c. In welding sheet metal up to 1/8 inch in thickness, the plain square butt joint type of edge preparation may
be used. When long seams are to be welded in this material, the edges should be spaced to allow for shrinkage
because the deposited metal tends to pull the plates together. This shrinkage is less severe in arc welding than in
gas welding and spacing of approximately 1/8 inch per foot of seam will suffice.
d. The back step or skip welding technique should be used for short seams that are fixed in place, in order to
prevent warpage or distortion and minimize residual stresses (figure 2).
e. Heavy plates should be beveled to provide an included angle up to 60 degrees, depending on the thickness.
The parts should be tack welded in place at short intervals along the seam and the first or root bead should be
made with an electrode small enough in diameter to obtain good penetration and fusion at the base of the joint. A
1/8 or 5/32 inch electrode is suitable for this purpose. This first bead should be thoroughly cleaned by chipping
and wire brushing before additional layers of weld metal are deposited. The additional passes of filler metal
should be made with a 5/32 or 3/16 inch electrode. These passes should be made with a weaving motion for
plates in flat, horizontal, or vertical positions. For overhead welding, best results are obtained by using string
beads throughout the weld.
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f. In welding heavy sections that have been beveled from both sides, the weave beads should be deposited
alternately on one side and then the other to reduce the amount of distortion in the welded structure. Each bead
should be cleaned thoroughly to remove all scale, oxides, and slag before additional metal is deposited. The
motion of the electrode should be controlled so as to make the bead uniform in thickness and to prevent
undercutting and overlap at the edges of the weld. All slag and oxides should be removed from the surface of the
completed weld to prevent rusting.
a. General. Medium carbon steels include those that contain from 0.30 to 0.55 percent carbon. These steels
are usually preheated to between 300° and 500°F (149° and 260°C) before welding.
b. Electrodes of the low carbon, heavy coated, straight or reverse polarity type, similar to those used for metal
arc welding of low carbon steels, are satisfactory for welding steels in this group. The preheating temperatures will
vary, depending on the thickness of the plates and their carbon content.
c. After welding, the entire joint should be heated to between 1,000° and 1,200°F (538° and 649°C) and slowly
cooled to relieve stresses in the base metal adjacent to the weld.
d. Welding Techniques
(1) The plates should be prepared for welding in a manner similar to that used for low carbon steels.
When welding with low carbon steel electrodes, the welding heat should be carefully controlled to avoid
overheating of the weld metal and excessive penetration into the side walls of the joint. This control is
accomplished by directing the electrode more toward the previously deposited filler metal adjacent to the side
walls than toward the side walls directly. By using this procedure, the weld metal is caused to wash up against the
side of the joint and fuse with it without deep or excessive penetration.
(2) High welding heats will cause large areas of the base metal in the fusion zone adjacent to the welds
to become hard and brittle. The area of these hard zones in the base metal can be kept at a minimum by making
the weld with a series of small string or weave beads, which will limit the heat input. Each bead or layer of weld
metal will refine the grain in the weld immediately beneath it and will anneal and lessen the hardness produced in
the base metal by the previous bead.
(3) When possible, the finished joint should be heat treated after welding. Stress relieving is normally
used when joining mild steel; high carbon alloys should be annealed.
(4) In welding medium carbon steels with stainless steel electrodes, the metal should be deposited in
string beads to prevent cracking of the weld metal in the fusion zone. When depositing weld metal in the upper
layers of welds made on heavy sections, the weaving motion of the electrode should under no circumstances
exceed three electrode diameters.
(5) Each successive bead of weld should be chipped, brushed, and cleaned prior to the laying of
another bead.
a. General. High carbon steels include those having a carbon content exceeding 0.55 percent. Because of the
high carbon content and the heat treatment usually given to these steels, their basic properties are to some
degree impaired by arc welding.
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b. Preheating 500° to 800°F (260° to 427°C) before welding and stress relieving by heating from 1,200° to
1,450°F (649° to 788°C) with slow cooling should be used to avoid hardness and brittleness in the fusion zone.
Either mild steel or stainless steel electrodes can be used with these steels.
c. Welding Technique.
(1) The welding heat should be adjusted to provide good fusion at the side walls and root of the joint
without excessive penetration. Control of the welding heat can be accomplished by depositing the weld metal in
small string beads. Excessive puddling of the metal should be avoided, because this will cause carbon to be
picked up from the base metal which, in turn, will make the weld metal hard and brittle. Fusion between the filler
metal and the side walls should be confined to a narrow zone. Use the surface fusion procedure prescribed for
medium carbon steels.
(2) The same procedure for edge preparation, cleaning of the welds, and sequence of welding beads as
prescribed for low and medium carbon steels applies to high carbon steels.
(3) Small high carbon steel parts are sometimes repaired by building up worn surfaces. When this is done,
the piece should be annealed or softened by heating to a red heat and cooling slowly. Then the piece should be
welded or built up with medium carbon or high strength electrodes and heat treated after welding to restore its
original properties.
a. General. Steels in this group have a carbon content ranging from 0.83 to 1.55 percent. They are rarely
welded by arc welding, because of the excessive hardness produced in the fusion zone of the base metal. If arc
welding must be done, either mild steel or stainless steel electrodes can be used.
b. Welding Technique.
(1) If the parts to be welded are small, they should be annealed or softened before welding. The edges
should then be preheated up to 1,000°F (538°C) depending on the carbon content and thickness of the plate, and
the welding should be done with either a mild steel or high strength electrode.
(2) High carbon electrodes should not be used for welding tool steels. The carbon pickup up from the base
metal by the filler metal will cause the weld to become glass hard, whereas the mild steel electrode weld metal
can absorb additional carbon without becoming excessively hard. The welded part should then be heat treated to
restore its original properties.
(3) In welding with stainless steel electrodes, the edges of the plates should be preheated to prevent the
formation of hard zones in the base metal. The weld metal should be deposited in small string beads to keep the
heat input down to a minimum. In general, the application procedure is the same as that required for medium and
high carbon steels.
a. Many varieties of alloy steels have been developed to obtain high strength, high hardness, corrosion
resistance, and other special properties. Most of these steels depend on a special heat treatment process in order
to develop the desired characteristic in the finished state.
b. Many of these steels can be welded with a heavy coated electrode of the shielded arc type whose
composition is similar to that of the base metal. Low carbon electrodes can also be used with some steels and
stainless steel electrodes are effective where preheating is not practicable or is undesirable.
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c. Heat treated steels should be preheated, if possible, in order to minimize the formation of hard zones or
layers in the base metal adjacent to the weld. The molten metal should not be overheated and for this reason, the
welding heat should be controlled by depositing the weld metal in narrow string beads. In many cases, the
procedure outlined for medium carbon steels and high carbon steels including the principles of surface fusion, can
be used in the welding of alloy steels.
24. METAL-ARC WELDING HIGH YIELD STRENGTH, LOW ALLOY STRUCTURAL STEELS.
a. General. High yield strength, low alloy structural steels are special steels that are tempered to obtain
extreme toughness and durability. The special alloys and general makeup of these steels require special
treatment to obtain satisfactory weldments.
b. Welding Technique. Reliable welding of high yield strength, low alloy structural steels can be performed by
using the following guidelines:
c. Correct Electrodes. Hydrogen is the number one enemy of sound welds in alloy steels, therefore, use only
LOW HYDROGEN electrodes to prevent underbead cracking. Underbead cracking is caused by hydrogen picked
up in the electrode coating, released into the arc and absorbed by the molten metal.
d. Moisture control of electrodes. If the electrodes are in an airtight container, immediately upon opening the
container place the electrodes in a ventilated holding oven set at 250° to 300°F (121° to 149°C). In the event that
the electrodes are not in an airtight container, put them in a ventilated baking oven and bake for 1/4 to 1 hour at
800°F (427°C). While they are still warm, place electrodes in the holding oven until used. Electrodes must be kept
dry to eliminate absorption of hydrogen.
e. Low Hydrogen Electrode Selection. Electrodes are identified by classification numbers which are always
marked on the electrode containers. For low hydrogen coatings the last two numbers of the classification should
be 15, 16, or 18. Electrodes of 5/32 and 1/8 inch in diameter are the most commonly used since they are more
adaptable to all types of welding on this type of steel. Table 6 is a list of electrodes used to weld high yield
strength, low alloy steels.
f. Selecting Wire-Flux and Wire-Gas Combinations. Wire electrodes for submerged arc and gas-shielded arc
welding are not classified according to strength. Welding wire and wire-flux combinations used for steels to be
stress relieved should contain no more than 0.05 percent vanadium. Weld metal with more than 0.05 percent
vanadium may become brittle if stress relieved. When using either the submerged arc or gas metal-arc welding
processes to weld high yield strength, low alloy structural steels to lower strength steels, the wire-flux and wire-
gas combination should be the same as that recommended for the lower strength steels.
g. Welding Process. For satisfactory welds use good welding practices, as defined in this section, along with
the following procedures:
(2) Restrict weave to partial weave pattern. Best results are obtained by a slight circular motion of the
electrode with the weave area never exceeding two electrode diameters.
(5) Peening of the weld is sometimes recommended to relieve stresses while cooling larger pieces.
(6) Fillet welds should be smooth and correctly contoured. Avoid toe cracks and undercutting. Electrodes
used for fillet welds should be lower strength than those used for butt welding. Air-hammer peening of fillet welds
can help to prevent cracks, especially if the welds are to be stress relieved. A soft steel wire pedestal can help to
absorb shrinkage forces. Butter welding in the toe area before actual fillet welding strengthens the area where a
toe crack may start. A bead is laid in the toe area, then ground off prior to the actual fillet welding. This butter weld
bead must be located so that the toe passes of the fillet will be laid directly over it during actual fillet welding.
Because of the additional material involved in fillet welding the cooling rate is increased and heat inputs may be
extended about 25 percent.
a. Carbon steels, in most cases do not require additional post weld heat treatments, unless for distortion
control. The post weld heat treatments listed in Table 2, are for reference and may not be suitable in all instances.
Consult with the appropriate cognizant engineering group for specific and additional information.
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
Cleaning .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Heat Treatments / Stress Relief...................................................................................................................... 8
Joint Design .................................................................................................................................................... 7
Material Types................................................................................................................................................. 2
Safety .............................................................................................................................................................. 2
Shielding Gas.................................................................................................................................................. 2
Stainless Steel Finishing ................................................................................................................................. 8
Tools................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Tungsten ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
Weld Filler Metals............................................................................................................................................ 2
Weld Technique .............................................................................................................................................. 7
None
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NOTE
1. SAFETY.
WARNING
Stainless steel alloys contain chromium and nickel as the major alloying
constituents. All grinding, sanding and welding shall be in accordance with local
industrial hygienist requirements.
2. MATERIAL TYPES.
a. Acceptable Stainless steel alloys, Austenitic and Martensitic (Group II) is found in Work Package series 003
and should be consulted prior to welding.
b. Alloys not listed may be welded provided sufficient engineering concurrence is attained.
c. Specific welding instructions may be provided and take precedence over this general series manual.
NOTE
Where permissible, the use of austenitic stainless steel filler metal will help in
preventing brittle welds. A ductile weld bead is deposited, but, of course, the
hardening of the metal in the HAZ will not be eliminated.
a. Weld filler metals shall be in accordance with the component technical manual or WP 003 04 and Table 1,
FILLER METAL SELECTION of this work package.
4. SHIELDING GAS.
a. Protecting the Root Side of the Weld from Oxidation. The root side of the weld must be protected against
oxidation especially in gas-shielded arc welding. Protection with shielding gas is commonly applied. Back-gouging
(grinding) of the root and welding from the reverse side of the joint can also be used when permitted by design.
b. Recommended shielding and backing gases for welding stainless steels are listed in Table 2. Specific
shielding and backing gases may be provided by technical instructions.
c. Additional information regarding shielding gases may be found in work package 004.
5. TUNGSTEN.
a. Refer to WP 004 01 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING for general information about tungsten selection and
WP 007 00 WELDING – GENERAL INFORMATION for general information about tungsten geometry
preparation.
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6. TOOLS.
a. All tools used on or with stainless steel alloys shall be free of any source of carbon, including contaminated
grinding wheels, carbon steel fixtures, chains, and wire brushes. Carbon will contaminate stainless steel and
detrimentally affect the materials corrosion resistance.
b. Stainless steel has a very thin and stable oxide film rich in chrome. This film reforms rapidly by reaction with
the atmosphere if damaged. If stainless steel is not adequately protected from the atmosphere during welding or
is subject to very heavy grinding operations, a very thick oxide layer will form. This thick oxide layer, distinguished
by its blue tint, will have a chrome depleted layer under it, which will impair corrosion resistance.
c. Both the oxide film and depleted layer must be removed, either mechanically (grinding with a fine grit is
recommended, wire brushing and shot blasting will have less effect), or chemically cleaned. Once cleaned, the
surface can be chemically passivated to enhance corrosion resistance, (passivation reduces the anodic reaction
involved in the corrosion process).
7. CLEANING.
a. Welds and the surrounding area should be thoroughly cleaned to avoid impairment of corrosion resistance.
b. Weld spatter, flux, or scale may become focal points for corrosive attack if not properly removed, especially
in aggressive environments.
c. The residue from welding should be removed before heat treatment for stress relief or annealing. The
discoloration by heat, or heat tint, is not necessarily harmful, but should be removed if the weldment is to serve a
decorative purpose. This can be accomplished mechanically by using a mild abrasive cleaner, chemically with a
phosphoric acid base cleaner, or electrochemically with commercially available weld-cleaning kits.
8. JOINT DESIGN.
a. Edges cut by plasma arc should be smooth and free from gutters or notches and shall have oxides
removed. All other edges should be deburred.
b. Carbon arc gouging is not recommended for cutting of stainless steels under any circumstances. All spatter
is to be removed and the surface of the parent metal dressed smooth.
d. If the members being joined are thicker than about 1/8 or 3/16 inch, it is necessary to bevel the edges in
order to assure full penetration welds.
9. WELD TECHNIQUE.
a. Stringer beads are recommended in preference to weaving in order to keep the heat input to an acceptable
level. Where weaving is necessary both the weave width and side dwell time should be kept to a minimum.
Interpass temperatures generally should not exceed 150ºC except in the case of martensitic alloys.
b. Breaking the arc in an abrupt manner can result in slag inclusions and shrinkage cracks. Craters should be
filled by using a circular motion at the end of the weld followed by a gradual lengthening of the arc to the point of
extinguishing it.
(2) In some cases, preheating could be harmful in causing increased carbide precipitation or greater
warpage.
d. Preheat of Martensitic Stainless Steel should be based on the following guide and specific details may be
written in the component technical manual:
(1) Below 0.10%C — Generally no preheating or heat treating after welding required.
(3) 0.20 to 0.50%C — Preheat to 500F, weld, and heat treat after welding.
(4) Over 0.50%C — Preheat to 500F, weld with high heat input, and heat treat after welding.
There are four basic grinding, blending and finishing steps to produce excellent stainless steel finishes after
welding.
a. The first step is to level the weld with a fiber disc, grade 60 or finer, on a right angle grinder. Using a finer
grade makes it easier to remove the grind lines later. Take care to minimize the grind area, which can reduce time
in subsequent steps. Remember that parallel scratches will be easier to blend during finishing, so always try to
align the grind line scratches with the grain line direction of the metal.
b. Set the directional grain pattern with a pneumatic wheel and a grade 120 coated abrasive belt. Feathering
on and off the work surface helps to reduce the occurrence of undercuts.
c. To generate a #4 finish, change the belt on the pneumatic wheel to an A-medium surface conditioning
abrasive. For a #3 finish, use an A-coarse abrasive instead. An optimum running speed for a 5-in. diameter
pneumatic wheel is 1000 rpm. Use a long stroke and try to ease off pressure at both ends of the stroke. A few
slow passes should restore the finish.
d. The final finishing step is to blend the transition lines using an abrasive hand pad. To make the finished area
look its best, apply a stainless steel cleaner to remove debris, streaks and resist fingerprints.
a. Austenitic stainless steels generally do not require post weld heat treatment but may have stress operations
when specified by its application.
(1) Stress Relief Annealing: Cold worked parts should be stress relieved at 750°F for 1/2 to 2 hours.
(1) Anneal at 1500F or higher followed by controlled cooling to 1100F at a rate of 50 degrees per hour and
then air cooling.
(2) Heat to 1350-1400F and follow with controlled cooling to 1100F at a rate of 50 degrees per hour and
then air cooling.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
General............................................................................................................................................................ 2
Safety .............................................................................................................................................................. 2
Material Types................................................................................................................................................. 2
Weld Filler Materials........................................................................................................................................ 4
Shielding Gas.................................................................................................................................................. 9
Tungsten ......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Tools................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Cleaning .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Joint Design .................................................................................................................................................... 10
Weld Technique .............................................................................................................................................. 10
Heat Treatments ............................................................................................................................................. 11
Post-Weld Heat Treatment Cracking .............................................................................................................. 12
Stress Corrosion Cracking .............................................................................................................................. 12
None
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NOTE
1. GENERAL.
CAUTION
a. Nickel alloys can be joined reliably by all types of welding processes or methods, with the exception of forge
welding and oxyacetylene welding. The wrought nickel alloys can be welded under conditions similar to those
used to weld austenitic stainless steels. Cast nickel alloys, particularly those with a high silicon content, present
difficulties in welding.
b. The most widely employed processes for welding the non-age-hardenable (solid-solution-strengthened)
wrought nickel alloys are gas-tungsten arc welding (GTAW), gas-metal arc welding (GMAW), and shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW). Although the GTAW process is preferred for welding the precipitation-hardenable alloys,
both the GMAW and SMAW processes are also used.
c. The process of precipitation hardening, also called age hardening, is widely used to add strength to metal
alloy materials following specific heat treat sequences prior to welding and after welding.
d. Additional information about the cleaning, joint design, welding, filler metal selection, and post weld thermal
heat treatments of Nickel Alloys may be found in AWS G2.1, Guide for the Joining of Wrought Nickel-Based
Alloys detail
2. SAFETY.
WARNING
Do not breathe fumes and gases. Keep your head out of the fumes. Use enough
ventilation or exhaust at the arc or both to keep fumes and gases from your
breathing zone and general area. If ventilation is questionable, use air sampling
to determine the need for corrective measures. Keep exposure as low as
possible.
3. MATERIAL TYPES.
a. Nickel alloys are the primary materials for gas turbine engines and are required to meet a wide range of
temperature and stress application requirements. These alloys exhibit a combination of creep resistance, creep
rupture strength, yield and tensile strength over a wide temperature range, resistance to environmental attack
(including oxidation, nitridation, sulphidation and carburization), fatigue and thermal fatigue resistance,
metallurgical stability and useful thermal expansion characteristics.
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b. These properties are exhibited by a series of solid-solution strengthened and precipitation-hardened nickel,
iron and cobalt alloys. The properties needed to meet the turbine engine requirements have been achieved by
specific alloy additions, by heat treatment and by thermal mechanical processing. A thorough understanding of
the metallurgy and metallurgical processing of these materials is imperative in order to successfully fusion weld
them.
c. This same basic understanding is required for repair of a component with the added dimension of the
potential effects of thermal cycling and environmental exposure the component will have endured in service. This
article will explore the potential problems in joining and repair welding these materials.
d. Solid Solution Alloys. Solid solution alloys are pure nickel, Ni-Cu alloys and the simpler Fe-Ni-Cr alloys.
These alloys are readily fusion welded, normally in the annealed condition. As the heat affected zone (HAZ) does
not harden, heat treatment is not usually required after welding.
e. Precipitation Hardening Alloys. Precipitation hardening alloys include Ni-Cu-Al-Ti, Ni-Cr-Al-Ti and Ni-Cr-Fe-
Nb-Al-Ti. These alloys may susceptible to post-weld heat treatment cracking.
f. Table 1 lists some common Nickel, Iron, and Cobalt based alloys and WP 003 04 lists additional alloys and
their respective commercial and military specifications.
a. Nickel alloys are commonly identified by Trade Names and when selecting a filler metal for welding, the filler
metal should have the same trade marked name.
b. AWS A5.14 or A5.11 provides more information regarding the designations and applications of nickel
welding wire and should be consulted when selecting nickel alloy filler metals.
c. Table 2 provides a quick reference to common aviation nickel-based alloys with corresponding filler metal
specifications for Filler Wire and Covered Electrodes.
NONE
Hastelloy X Hastelloy X AMS 5798 Alloy can be welded by
AWS A5.14 most common welding
ERNiCrMo-2 methods. Fusion welding
UNS N06002 of cold worked material
MSRR 9500/216 will result in a weld
AMS 5799 strength equal to that of
AWS A5.11 annealed metal. Fusion
ENiCrMo-2 welding may be accom-
UNS W86002 plished by metallic arc,
inert gas shielded arc,
submerged melt and
sigma methods. Welding
should be done in a flat
position as fluidity as the
alloy makes position
welding difficult. Welds in
this alloy retain good
ductility. Resistance
welding requires special
control; long dwell times
with water cooling are
recommended to avoid
coring or crystal segrega-
tion and to develop a full
nugget. For seam
welding an intermittent
drive is recommended to
prevent cracking and
excessive distortion.
RENE 41 RENE 41 Hastelloy AMS 5800 Alloy can be fusion
MIL-R-5031 welded if copper and gas
CL 12 backing with a tight hold
MSRR 9500/241 down is used. Start and
AWS A5.14 finish should be made on
ERNiMo-3 metal tabs of the same
UNS N10004 thickness using inert gas
UNS N07041 atmosphere of 2 parts
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5. SHIELDING GAS.
a. Primary shielding gas shall be Argon with a purity of 99.996% equivalent to AWS A5.32.
b. Backup gas shall be used on base metal thicknesses up to 3/16-inch. Maximum 10 CFH.
6. TUNGSTEN.
a. Refer to WP 004 01 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING for general information about tungsten selection and
WP 007 00 WELDING – GENERAL INFORMATION for general information about tungsten geometry
preparation.
7. TOOLS.
a. Nickel and nickel alloys should be cleaned with a stainless steel wire brush. All cleaning tools including wire
brushes and carbide grinding tools should be clean and free of debris or other metal fragments. Stainless steel
brushes should be marked for the alloy use and kept isolated from other metal contact.
8. CLEANING.
a. Refer to Work Package 006 01 SURFACE PREPARATION FOR WELDING for specifics related to solvent
cleaning Nickel and Nickel based alloys.
b. Common sources of the contaminating elements sulfur and phosphorus are marking crayons, paints,
temperature indication markers, cutting fluids, oil and grease. Oil- or grease-base contaminants must be removed
by solvent cleaning. Acceptable methods include immersion in, swabbing with or spraying with alkaline, emulsion,
solvent or detergent cleaners or a combination of these; by vapor degreasing; by steam, with or without a cleaner;
or by high-pressure water jetting.
• swab the weld area (at least 2 inches on each side of the weld) with acetone. Use only clean acetone
(uncontaminated with acid, alkali, oil or other foreign material) and clean lint-free cloths
• check to assure complete cleaning. A residue or smut on the drying cloth can indicate incomplete
cleaning.
d. Weld surfaces may need an additional level of cleanliness to remove the final layers of oxidation and a
nickel etchant is advised.
9. JOINT DESIGN.
a. Nickel alloys have a high thermal conductivity and purity that makes welding penetration lower than
Stainless Steel.
b. Due to the sluggish nature of the weld puddle the weld joint design should be opened slightly larger than for
stainless steel.
c. Bevel the weld joint when the thickness of the base metal exceeds 0.03 inch, otherwise, a square groove is
satisfactory.
a. Nickel alloys are normally welded in the solution-treated condition. Precipitation-hardenable (PH) alloys
should be annealed before welding if they have undergone any operations that introduce high residual stresses.
b. Minimizing Weld Defects. The defects and metallurgical difficulties encountered in the arc welding of nickel
include:
• Porosity
• Susceptibility to high-temperature embrittlement by sulfur and other contaminants
• Cracking in the weld bead, caused by high heat input and excessive welding speeds
• Stress-corrosion cracking in service.
(1) Porosity. Oxygen carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or hydrogen can cause porosity in welds. In the SMAW
process porosity can be minimized by using electrodes that contain deoxidizing or nitride forming elements, such
as aluminum and titanium. These elements have a strong affinity for oxygen and nitrogen and form stable
compounds with them. Presence of deoxidizers in either type of electrode serves to reduce porosity. In addition,
porosity is much less likely to occur in chromium-bearing nickel alloys than in non-chromium-bearing alloys.
(a) In the GMAW and GTAW processes, porosity can be avoided by preventing the access of air to the
molten weld metal. Gas backing on the underside of the weld is sometimes used. In the GTAW process the use of
argon with up to 10% H2 as a shielding gas helps to prevent porosity.
(b) Bubbles of hydrogen that form in the weld pool gather the diffusing hydrogen. Too much hydrogen
(>15%) in the shielding gas can result in the hydrogen porosity.
(2) Cracking. Hot shortness of welds can result from contamination by sulfur, lead, phosphorus, cadmium,
zinc, tin, silver, boron, bismuth, or any other low-melting-point elements, which form intergranular films and cause
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severe liquid-metal embrittlement at elevated temperatures. Many of these elements are found in soldering and
brazing filler metals.
(3) Hot cracking of the weld metal usually results from such contamination. Cracking in heat-affected zone
is often caused by intergranular penetration of contaminants from the base-metal surface. Sulfur, which is present
in most cutting oils used for machining, is a common cause of cracking in nickel alloys.
(a) Weld metal cracking also can be caused by heat input that is too high, as a result of high welding
current and low welding speed. Welding speeds have a large effect on the solidification pattern of the weld.
(b) High welding speeds create a tear-drop molten weld pool, which leads to uncompetitive grain
solidification at the center of the weld. At the weld centerline, residual elements will collect and cause centerline
hot cracking or lower transverse tensile properties.
(c) In addition, cracking may result from undue restraint. When conditions of the high restraint are
present, as in circumferential welds that are self-restraining, all bead surfaces should be slightly convex. Although
convex beads are virtually immune to centerline splitting, concave beads are particularly susceptible to centerline
cracking. In addition, excessive width-to-depth or depth-to-width ratios can result in cracking may be internal (that
is surface cracking).
(4) Stress Corrosion Cracking. Nickel and nickel alloys do not experience any metallurgical changes, either
in the weld metal or in the HAZ, that affects normal corrosion resistance. When the alloys are intended to contact
substances such as concentrated caustic soda, fluorosilicates, and some mercury salts, however, the welds may
need to be stress relieved to avoid stress corrosion cracking. Nickel alloys have good resistance to dilute alkali
and chloride solutions. Because resistance to stress-corrosion cracking increases with nickel content, the stress
relieving of welds in the high-nickel-content alloys is not usually needed.
(a) Effect of slag on weld metal. Because fabricated nickel alloys are ordinarily used in high-temperature
service and in aqueous corrosive environments, all slag should be removed from finished weldments.
(b) If slag is not removed in these type of application, then crevices and accelerated corrosion can
result. Slag inclusions between weld beads reduce the strength of the weld. Fluorides in the slag can react with
moisture or elements in the environment to create highly corrosive compounds.
(5) Heat input during the welding operations should be held to a moderately low level in order to obtain the
highest possible joint efficiency and minimize the extent of the HAZ. For multiple-bead or multiple-layer welds,
many narrow stringer beads should be used, rather than a few large, heavy beads. Any oxides that form during
welding should be removed by abrasive blasting or grinding. If such films are not removed as they accumulate on
multiple-pass welds, then they can become thick enough to inhibit weld fusion and produce unacceptable laminar
type oxide stringers along the weld axis.
a. Before welding these alloys, a full-solution anneal is usually performed. After welding, the appropriate aging
heat treatment is performed. To further improve alloy properties, a full anneal after welding, followed by a
postweld heat treatment, can be incorporated in the welding procedure.
b. Re-solution and precipitation (aging) treatment should immediately follow welding as required.
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a. This is also known as strain-age or reheat cracking. It is likely to occur during post-weld ageing of
precipitation hardening alloys but can be minimized by pre-weld heat treatment. Solution annealing is commonly
used but over-ageing gives the most resistant condition. Alloy 718 alloy was specifically developed to be resistant
to this type of cracking.
a. Welding does not normally make most nickel alloys susceptible to weld metal or HAZ corrosion. However,
when the material will be in contact with caustic soda, fluosilicates or HF acid, stress corrosion cracking is
possible.
b. After welding, the component or weld area must be given a stress-relieving heat treatment to prevent stress
corrosion cracking.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
Cleaning .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
General............................................................................................................................................................ 2
Heat Treatment / Stress Reliefs...................................................................................................................... 6
Joint Design .................................................................................................................................................... 4
Material Types................................................................................................................................................. 2
Safety .............................................................................................................................................................. 2
Shielding Gas.................................................................................................................................................. 2
Tools................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Tungsten ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
Weld Filler Materials........................................................................................................................................ 2
Weld Technique .............................................................................................................................................. 6
None
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Page 2
NOTE
1. SAFETY.
2. GENERAL.
a. Aluminum and aluminum alloys can be satisfactorily welded by GTAW and GMAW welding processes. The
principal advantage of using arc-welding processes is that a highly concentrated heating zone is obtained with the
arc and, for this reason, excessive expansion and distortion of the metal are prevented.
b. The prevention or minimization of porosity greatly depends on the attention to detail of base metal
cleanliness, increased groove angle of the joint design and preparation, and the proper shielding gas coverage,
including backup shielding gas coverage.
3. MATERIAL TYPES.
a. Acceptable Aluminum Alloys (Group IV) is found in Work Package series 003 and should be consulted prior
to welding.
b. Alloys not listed may be welded provided sufficient engineering concurrence is attained.
c. Specific welding instructions may be provided and take precedence over this general series manual.
a. Table 1 lists some examples of weld filler metals, for Gas Tungsten Arc welding of various aluminum alloys
and is not all inclusive.
b. Refer to AWS A5.10, Specification for Bare Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods,
which contains a comprehensive table of filler metal choices.
5. SHIELDING GAS.
a. Usually, 100 percent argon gas is preferred for aluminum GTAW, but when working with thicker materials,
such as 1/2 inch or greater, add helium in the range of 25 to 50 percent. Helium makes the arc hotter and
provides for more penetration.
6. TUNGSTEN.
a. Refer to WP 004 01 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING for general information about tungsten selection and
WP 007 00 WELDING – GENERAL INFORMATION for general information about tungsten geometry
preparation.
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Page 3
b. Preparing the tungsten for welding aluminum differs from the other alloys because of the Alternating Current
(AC) and the way the tungsten is heated during the AC cycle.
c. For best results, start with a blunt tip and a large diameter electrode for a small diameter tungsten electrode
will eventually produce tungsten spits in the weld bead creating a defect. Figure 1 describes the “balling” of the
tungsten for welding aluminum.
7. TOOLS.
a. Handheld, toothbrush-type stainless steel wire brushes are preferred for use prior to welding.
b. Carbide rotary burrs are recommended for removing heavier scale or oxidation of aluminum and should
have sharp cutting edges. Worn or chipped rotary tools should be replaced and not used for preparing aluminum
prior to welding.
8. CLEANING.
a. Specific cleaning may be required per engineering or component technical instructions and should be
followed.
b. Aluminum must be clean to remove sources of hydrogen such as lubricants or hydrated oxides, or, in the
case of the shielding gas, the presence of hydrogen in the form of moisture which may be from the gas or
aspiration from defective gas lines or couplings.
(1) Because of the high solubility of hydrogen and aluminum, gas bubble formation increases and forms
gas pores which remain in the weld metal upon solidification.
(2) Once a gas bubble forms in the molten weld, natural buoyancy may expel the gas and the welding
position and parameters may alter the amount of porosity found in a weld bead.
9. JOINT DESIGN.
a. In general, the design of welded joints for aluminum is quite consistent with that for steel joints. However,
because of the higher fluidity of aluminum under the welding arc, some important general principles should be
kept in mind. In the lighter gages of aluminum sheet, less groove spacing is advantageous when weld dilution is
not a factor.
(1) The controlling criterion is joint preparation. A special design V-groove that is applicable to aluminum is
shown in Figure 2. This type of joint is excellent where welding can be done from one side only and where a
smooth, penetrating bead is desired. The effectiveness of this particular design depends upon surface tension
and should be applied on all material thicknesses over 1/8 inch. The bottom of the special V-groove must be wide
enough to contain the root pass completely. This necessitates adding a relatively large amount of filler alloy to fill
the groove, but it results in excellent control of penetration and sound root pass welds. This edge preparation can
be employed for welding in all positions with elimination of difficulties due to burn through or over penetration in
the overhead and horizontal welding positions. It is applicable to all weldable base alloys and all filler alloys.
(2) Before welding, the surface of the aluminum should be carefully cleaned and if the casting is heavy, the
crack should be tooled out to form a V-groove.
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a. Preheating Aluminum
(1) In gas shielded arc welding of aluminum alloys, preheating parts to be welded is normally done only
when the temperature of the parts is below 32°F or when the mass of the parts is such that the heat is conducted
away from the joint faster than the welding process can supply it.
(2) Preheating may be advantageous for GTAW with alternating current of parts thicker than about 3/16
inch and GMAW of parts thicker than about 1 inch. Gas tungsten arc welding with DCEP is limited to thin material,
and preheating is not necessary with this process.
(3) Thick parts also should not be preheated when GTAW using DCEN, because of the high heat input
provided to the work.
(4) Preheating can also reduce production costs because the joint area reaches welding temperature
faster, thus permitting higher welding speeds.
(5) Various methods can be used to preheat the entire part or assembly to be welded, or only the area
adjacent to the weld can be heated by use of a gas torch. In mechanized welding, local preheating and drying can
be done by gas or tungsten arc torches installed ahead of the welding electrode.
(6) The preheating temperature depends on the job. Often 150°F is sufficient to ensure adequate
penetration on weld starts, without readjustment of the current as welding progresses.
(7) Preheating temperature for wrought aluminum alloys seldom exceeds 300°F, because the desirable
properties of certain aluminum alloys and tempers may be adversely affected at higher temperatures.
(8) Aluminum-magnesium alloys containing 4.0 to 5.5% Mg (5083, 5086, and 5456) should not be
preheated to more than 200°F, because their resistance to stress corrosion cracking is reduced.
(9) Large or intricate castings may be preheated to minimize thermal stresses and to facilitate attainment of
the welding temperature.
(10) After welding, such castings should be cooled slowly to minimize the danger of cracking. Castings that
are to be used in the heat treated condition should be welded before heat treatment or should be reheat treated
after welding.
(11) Preheating and the heat of welding may affect the corrosion resistance of some alloys unless welding
is followed by heat treatment.
a. Aluminum castings that have been heat treated should not be welded unless facilities for reheating after
welding are available.
b. Large castings or those of an intricate design should be preheated slowly and uniformly in a suitable furnace
to between 500° and 700°F (260° and 371°C). Small castings or those with thin sections may be preheated with a
torch.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
Cleaning .......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Heat Treats/ Stress Relief ............................................................................................................................... 9
Joint Design .................................................................................................................................................... 6
Magnesium Surface Treatments..................................................................................................................... 10
Material Types................................................................................................................................................. 2
Safety .............................................................................................................................................................. 2
Shielding Gas.................................................................................................................................................. 5
Tools................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Tungsten ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Weld Filler Materials........................................................................................................................................ 2
Weld Technique .............................................................................................................................................. 7
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Magnesium ...................................................................................................... 7
Spot Welding Magnesium ............................................................................................................................ 7
Cleaning For Spot Welding .......................................................................................................................... 8
Machine Settings.......................................................................................................................................... 8
Pressure ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
None
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NOTE
1. SAFETY.
WARNING
2. MATERIAL TYPES.
a. Refer to Work Package 003 04, BASE METALS GROUPS, for a list of weldable magnesium alloys (Group
V).
b. For magnesium alloys not listed, contact the appropriate cognizant engineering authority for additional
information regarding welding operations.
a. Welding filler metals for magnesium should be obtained or cross-referenced with AWS A5.19, Specification
for Magnesium Welding Electrodes and Rods.
b. Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 list the acceptable combinations of joining wrought or cast magnesium alloys.
ZH62A
CAST ALLOYS AZ63A AZ81A AZ91C AZ92A EZ33A HK31A HZ32A KIA QE22A ZE41A
ZK51A
AZ63A 1
AZ81A X 1
AZ91C X 1 1
AZ92A X 1 1 1
EZ33A X 1 1 1 2
HK31A X 1 1 1 2 2
HZ32A X 1 1 1 2 2 2
KIA X 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
QE22A X 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2
ZE41A X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
ZH62A X X X X X X X X X X X
ZK51A X X X X X X X X X X X
CODE
1 = Use AZ92A or AZ61A rod - AZ92A preferred. AZ61A cheaper, generally satisfactory, but subject to weld cracking.
2 = Use EZ33A rod, particularly when two alloys for elevated temperature use are to be welded. Use AZ92A or AZ61A when elevated
and room temperature alloy are welded together.
X = Welding not recommended.
Table 4. Welding Filler Metal for Magnesium Alloys
ZH62A
ZK51A
AZ31B ZK60A
ALLOY AZ31C AZ61A AZ63A AZ80A AZ81A AZ91C AZ92A EZ33A HK31A HM21A HM31A K1A QE22A ZE41A ZK21A ZK61A
AZ31B
T.C. 9-238
AZ31C A
AZ61A
A A
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AZ63A
x x B
AZ80A
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A A x A
AZ81A
1 1 x 1 B
AZ91C
1 1 x 1 1 B
AZ92A
1 1 x 1 1 1 2
EZ33A
1 1 x 1 1 1 1 3
HK31A
1 1 x 1 1 1 1 3 3
HM21A
1 1 x 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3
HM31A
1 1 x 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3
HZ32A
1 1 x 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3
K1A
1 1 x 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3
QE22A
1 x 3 3 3 3 3 3
ZE41A
x 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
ZK21A
A A x A 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 A
ZH62A
ZK51A
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 3
ZK60A
ZK61A
Code:
A - AZ92A or AZ61A 1 - AZ92A - Use AZ92A or AZ61A when elevated and room temperature alloy are
B - AZ101A or AZ92A welded together
X = Welding not recommended. 2 – AZ101A
3 – EZ33A - EZ33A rod used when two alloys for elevated temperature use are
to be welded
007 05
Page 4
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Page 5
4. SHIELDING GAS.
a. Shielding gases for welding thin sections of magnesium is generally with 100% Argon. The addition of
Helium or 100% Helium may be used when welding relatively thicker sections of magnesium. Refer to specific
welding instructions when welding thicker magnesium.
b. Table 6 lists the recommended shielding gases for magnesium. When welding with 100% Helium, the
Flowmeter should adjusted for twice the flow rate than prescribed for aluminum of the same thickness.
5. TUNGSTEN.
a. Refer to WP 004 01 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING for general information about tungsten selection and
WP 007 00 WELDING – GENERAL INFORMATION for general information about tungsten geometry
preparation.
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Page 6
6. TOOLS.
WARNING
Use caution when blending magnesium, as fine metal particles will burn quickly
and violently. Abrasive tools shall not be allowed to ride on the metal without
cutting, as frictional heat can ignite any fine metal that is scraped off. The tool
shall be backed off as soon as the cut is finished. Cutting tools shall be kept
sharp and ground with sufficient rake clearance to minimize rubbing on the end
and sides of the tool. Keep work area clean and do not permit flammable
materials, open flames or sparks in area. Operator clothing shall be flame-
retardant, easily removable, and kept clean and dust-free. Clothing shall be
smooth and have no pockets or cuffs, allowing dust to be brushed off readily. A
Class D fire extinguisher or sand with a shovel or scoop to extinguish fires shall
be within easy reach in labeled, covered containers.
a. Blending magnesium involves tools that are sharp, clean and specifically identified for magnesium.
b. Control of iron, nickel, and copper must be adhered with to prevent isolated cathodic cases of corrosion,
especially unprotected magnesium.
c. The use of high purity alumina sanding disks may be used with caution, preventing the accumulation of
magnesium particles.
d. GROUND CLAMPS. The ground cable clamps should be firmly clamped to the workpeice on an area
surface that is completely cleaned to bright metal.
7. CLEANING.
a. All oils, grease, and other hydrocarbons must be removed prior to welding. Refer to Work Package 006 01
SURFACE PREPARATION FOR WELDING for additional cleaning recommendations.
b. The intended weld zone must be cleaned of anodize or oxidation by either mechanical or chemical methods.
The tool used for preparing the weld zone in addition to scraping and stainless steel wire brushing is the most
common methods.
c. Scraping the edges provides the best surfaces for welding and should be used whenever possible.
8. JOINT DESIGN.
a. Joints designs for aluminum may be used when welding magnesium. The included angle of a bevel groove
is normally increased for a similar design with carbon steel. The increase in angle is for the wettability of the
magnesium to adequately fuse the weld bead with the base metal.
b. When preparing a crack in magnesium, care should adhered with that a wide groove angle, such as that
from a rotary carbide burr, will allow wetting the adjacent surfaces to prevent overlapping of the weld bead. Too
large of a prepared groove may introduce undercutting.
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Page 7
9. WELD TECHNIQUE.
a. Magnesium, although melts at a temperature close to aluminum, requires less amperages than welding
aluminum alloys of similar thicknesses.
b. The recommended preheat and interpass temperatures for various common aviation magnesium alloys are
listed in Table 7. Specific instruction obtained from the cognizant engineering instructions may differ from Table 7
and in case of a conflict between Table 7 and engineering instructions, engineering instructions shall take
precedence.
b. Bead face contour should be slightly convex or flat. If the bead face becomes slightly concave after
considerable welding time, it means the work heat level is too high. Overheating the magnesium reduces base
metal strength, especially with high tensile-type magnesium. This may occur when the weld deposition is too large
for a given work piece.
c. Excessive brittleness of the heat-affected-zones (HAZ) and welds is caused by NOT preheating the weld
joint or the weld beads are too small. Small weld beads cool quickly when deposited on heavier magnesium parts.
a. Magnesium can be joined by spot, seam, or flash welding but spot welding is the most widely used. Spot
welding is used mostly on assemblies subject to low stresses and on those not subjected to vibration. The
welding of dissimilar alloys by the spot welding process should be avoided, especially if they are alloys with
markedly different properties.
b. Welding Current. Either alternating current or direct current can be used for spot welding magnesium. High
currents and short weld duration are required, and both alternating current and direct current spot welders have
sufficient capacity and provide the control of current that is necessary in the application of this process.
c. Alternating current machines. The alternating current spot welding machines equipped with electronic
synchronous timers, heat control, and phase shifting devices to control weld timing and current are suitable for the
welding of magnesium. Three types of machines are used; single-phase, three-phase, and dry-disk rectifier type.
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d. Direct current machines. The electrostatic condenser discharge type is the most widely used direct current
machine for magnesium welding. The line demand for this type of equipment may be as high as 500 kva when
welding sheets approximately 0.125 inch thick. Electromagnetic machines are also used. They require lower
pressure applied by the electrodes during welding than the electrostatic equipment.
e. Electrodes. Electrodes for spot welding magnesium should be made of high-conductivity copper alloys
conforming to Resistance Welder Manufacturer’s Association specifications. Hard-rolled copper can be used
where special offset electrodes are desired. Electrodes should be water cooled but never to the point where
condensation will take place. Intermittent water flow, supplied only when the weld is made, assists in the
maintenance of a constant tip temperature. The most common tips are dome-ended with tip radii of curvature
ranging from 2 to 8 inches, depending on sheet thickness. Four degree flat tips are frequently used. Flat tips with
diameters from 3/8 to 1-1/4 inches are used on the side of the work where the surface is to be essentially free of
marks. Contact surfaces of the electrodes must be kept clean and smooth.
a. Magnesium sheets for spot welding should be purchased with an oil coating rather than a chrome pickle
finish. Pickled surfaces are hard to clean for spot welding, because of the surface etch. Satisfactory cleaning can
be accomplished by either chemical or mechanical methods.
b. Mechanical cleaning is used where the number of parts to be cleaned does not justify a chemical cleaning
setup. Stainless steel wool, stainless steel wire brushes, or aluminum oxide cloth are used for this purpose.
Ordinary steel wool and wire brushes leave metallic particles and should not be used, because the magnetic field
created in the tip will attract these particles.
c. Chemical cleaning is recommended for high production. It is economical and provides consistently low
surface resistance, resulting in more uniform welds and approximately double the number of spot welds between
tip cleanings. The allowable time between cleaning and welding is also much longer. Chemically cleaned parts
can be welded up to 100 hours after cleaning, while mechanically cleaned parts should be welded at once.
a. Spot welding is a machine operation requiring accurate current, timing, and welding force and therefore, the
adjustment of the welding machine to the proper setting is the most important step in the production of strong
consistent welds.
14. PRESSURE.
a. Welding pressures are usually established first, using the lower current or capacitance and voltage values
recommended. High pressure provides greater latitude in the currents that can be used for the production of
sound welds but may be limited by excessive sheet separation or the size of the electrodes. After approximating
the pressure, the proper weld time, voltage, and weld current or capacitance should be determined to obtain
welds of the desired size and strength. If the maximum weld size is too small or cracking is encountered, it may
be necessary to increase the pressure and current, or possibly the weld time.
b. After all the settings are fixed, the hold time may need adjustment to make certain that pressure is
maintained on the weld until solidification is complete. Insufficient hold time will result in porous welds and is
normally indicated by a cracking sound during the contraction of the weld. Trial welds should be made in material
of the same gage, alloy, hardness, and surface preparation as the metal to be welded. Test welds between strips
crossed at right angles are useful for determining proper welding conditions, because they can be easily twisted
apart.
a. Stress relief is recommended if the component will be exposed to corrosion. Suggested stress relief
temperatures are listed in Table 9.
b. Post weld heat treatment recommendations are listed in Table 10 for common aviation alloys.
a. After all welding and thermal heat treatments, the surface exposed during weld preparation should be locally
treated with a chromate conversion coating to protect from corrosion.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
None
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NOTE
1. SAFETY.
a. The possibility of spontaneous ignition of titanium and titanium alloys is extremely remote. Like magnesium
and aluminum, the occurrence of fires is usually encountered where accumulation of grinding dust or machining
chips exist.
b. Refer to Work Pack 002 SAFETY for specific and service specific safety information regarding titanium and
titanium alloys.
2. MATERIAL TYPES.
a. Titanium is used as high-strength, weight critical applications and is more stringent costly to process for
welding. Most titanium can be fusion welded and properly made weld in the as-welded condition are ductile and in
most environments, corrosion resistant.
b. The equipment use for welding titanium are similar to that required for welding stainless steel and nickel
alloys. The most important aspect of welding titanium is the need for greater attention to detail for cleaning and
the use of auxiliary shielding gas, including larger gas cups of gas tungsten arc welding and backup gas.
c. Above 800°F, titanium forms additional oxide layer and above 1200°F, the oxides are absorbed, increasing
the oxide layer.
d. Titanium requires complete exclusion from the effects of air surrounding the face and root of the weld
puddle. This oxygen reaction will created an embrittled weld and Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) if precautions are not
imposed prior to welding.
e. Titanium may be used in the commercially pure composition, commonly referred to as CP (Commercially
Pure) titanium. Alloying with 6% aluminum and 4% vanadium refers to a common alloy known as Ti-6Al-4V. Other
material compositions are available and may be weldable and appropriate welding instructions provided by
engineering or other technical documentation should provide the details of welding.
f. For a general list of titanium alloys, refer to Work Package 003 04 BASE METAL GROUPS for more
information.
a. Common titanium filler metal for joining titanium are listed in Table 1 unless specified on applicable
engineering drawing.
b. Filler wire that has been contaminated by long exposure to shop atmosphere or has come in contact with
oil, grease, dirt or other foreign matter, should be cleaned in accordance with applicable engineering directives
per Work Package 006 01 SURFACE PREPARATION FOR WELDING.
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(1) Filler metal shall be considered contaminated if a residue is formed on a clean white cloth (lint free) that
has been tightly held and drawn over a sample piece of wire. If the test proves negative and contamination is still
suspected a section of wire shall be metallurgically inspected at a magnification of 50X or greater.
(2) Die drawing compound in crevices or folds shall be grounds for rejection or further processing and
testing. See Figure 1 for possible types of titanium welding wire defects.
c. Filler wire shall be stored in moisture proof containers. Filler wire removed from moisture proof containers
for production use shall not be returned to storage containers unless cleaned in accordance with the procedure
outlined Work Package 006 01 SURFACE PREPARATION FOR WELDING.
4. TOOLS.
5. SHIELDING GAS.
a. Argon is the preferred shielding gas and shall be used in combination with helium only when authorized by
Engineering Instructions.
b. Evidence of properly purged lines, chamber, torch and equipment is a bright metallic color on a weld test
coupon. The weld metal colors for titanium, listed in table 2, in increasing order of contamination are: bright silver,
light straw, dark straw, light blue, dark blue, gray blue, gray and white loose powder. The two acceptable colors
for titanium welds, and weld affected zones are bright silver and light straw. All other colors are not acceptable
and are cause for rejection of the weldment. Figure 2 shows the variance of oxygen content in PPM and the
effects of oxidation of titanium alloys.
c. Welding shall be accomplished in a draft free area to prevent dispersion of the shielding gas and
contamination of the weld bead. The area shall be dust and lint free.
d. Welds not welded in a chamber shall remain shielded on all heat affected sides of the joint until the
temperature of the welded part drops below 600°F.
e. During open air manual welding operation the filler rod shall remain in the protective cover of the shielding
gas. Should the filler rod be contaminated by removal from the shielding gas, at least one half inch shall be
trimmed from the oxidized end.
f. Primary shielding of the molten weld puddle is provided by proper selection of the welding torch using a
standard water-cooled welding torch equipped with large (3/4 or 1-inch) ceramic cups and gas lenses. The large
cup is necessary to provide adequate shielding for the entire molten weld puddle. The gas lens provides uniform,
nonturbulent inert gas flow, focuses and balances the flow of gases and it can be used without a gas cup, or with
one to improve gas coverage.
g. Secondary shielding is most commonly provided by trailing shields. The function of the trailing shield is to
protect the solidified titanium weld metal and associated heat-affected zones until temperature reaches 800
degrees F or lower.
(1) Trailing shields are generally custom-made to fit a particular torch and a particular welding operation. A
schematic of a trailing shield, useful for flat sheet or plate welding of titanium, is shown in Figure 3.
(2) Design of the trailing shield should be compact and allow for uniform distribution of inert gas within the
device. The possible need for water-cooling should also be considered, particularly for large shields.
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(3) Porous bronze diffusers have provided even and nonturbulent flow of inert gas from the shield to the
weld. Makeshift shielding devices are often employed very effectively with titanium welds under shop or field
conditions. These include use of plastic to completely enclose the workpiece and flood it with inert gas. Likewise,
aluminum or stainless steel foil "tents", taped over welds and flooded with inert gas, are used as backup shields.
(4) When such techniques are used, it is important that all air, which will contaminate welds, be purged
from the system. An inert gas purge equal to ten times the volume of the air removed is a good rule-of-thumb for
irregular spaces. A moderate rate of inert gas should be maintained until the weld is completed.
h. Shielding gas with a moisture content above 10ppm H2O should have purifiers or driers installed inline
between the argon source and the welding torch.
6. TUNGSTEN.
a. Refer to WP 004 01 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING for general information about tungsten selection and
WP 007 00 WELDING – GENERAL INFORMATION for general information about tungsten geometry
preparation.
b. Non-consumable electrode tips shall be ground to a sharp point, with a taper three to six diameters long.
c. Prior to regrinding, non-consumable electrodes that have been contaminated 1/4 to 3/8 inch shall be
broached from the contaminated end.
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7. CLEANING.
a. Titanium requires a greater level of cleanliness and atmospheric protection than other base metals and care
must be taken to protect the clean surfaces.
b. Handle cleaned titanium parts wearing clean lint-free gloves and avoid surface contamination from
fingerprints, unfiltered shop air, oil, grease and any contact with carbon-iron alloys, such as, fixtures, work
benches.
c. Work Package 006 01 SURFACE PREPARATION FOR WELDING provides specific instructions for pre-
weld cleaning of titanium.
8. JOINT DESIGN.
a. Fabrication. Joint designs described in AWS D17.1, Specification for Fusion Welding for Aerospace
Applications, should be followed when fabricating titanium components.
b. Repair. Work Package 006 02 WELDING PREPARATION provides guidance for preparing the base metal
defects for weld repair.
9. BACK-UP BARS.
a. Back-up bars (chilling or otherwise) shall be made of copper, (deoxidized) aluminum, or stainless steel
machined so that no part of the back-up bars come in contact with the molten weld puddle, drop-thru
reinforcement, or bead reinforcement.
b. Tack welds may be used to hold the mating parts prior to completing the weld operation, but shall be of
minimum size and shall be free of defects.
a. Welding chambers should be used while welding titanium alloys and provide shielding gas envelopment
protecting the weld bead from detrimental effects from oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. The welding chamber is
also known as a glove box and should be of sufficient size to hold the part and provide adequate room to
maneuver the part or the welding torch.
b. The effectiveness of welding chamber gas purity with the primary argon shielding should be evaluated prior
to production welding. An arc struck on a scrap piece of titanium with the torch held still and with shielding gas
only on the torch and the shielding gas should be continued after a molten puddle forms and the arc is
extinguished, until the weld cools. A properly prepared welding chamber should produce an uncontaminated weld
bead, i.e., properly shielded, welds will be bright and silvery in appearance.
a. Preheat and interpass temperatures are required when the parts are below 32°F. Preheat may be used to
drive off moisture and reduce distortion. The preferred equipment for preheating titanium are furnaces, heat
lamps, resistance elements, induction heating, and other devices with pyrometric control. The maximum preheat
and interpass temperature shall not exceed 250°F. The use of oxy-acetylene torch heat is not permitted.
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b. Interpass cleaning should only be performed after a visual inspection and acceptance of the surface
requirements, as suggested by table 2. Further description and general acceptance criteria may be found in AWS
D17.1, Specification for Fusion Welding for Aerospace Applications.
c. Refer to the component repair document for specific surface oxide removal and acceptance criteria.
a. For welding titanium and titanium alloys, joint fit-up should be better than for welding other metals, because
of the possibility of entrapping air in the joint. The root opening shall be 0.25T (T = thickness) of the thinnest metal
in the joint or 0.63 in., whichever is less.
b. If titanium welding is to be accomplished outside the welding chamber (open air), joints must be carefully
designed so that both the top and the underside of the weld will be shielded with an inert gas.
a. Spot and seam welding procedures for titanium and titanium alloys are very similar to those used on other
metals. Welds can be made over a wide range of conditions and special shielding is not required. The short
welding times and proximity of the surfaces being joined prevent embrittlement of the welds by contamination
from the air.
b. The spot and seam welding conditions which have the greatest effect on weld quality are welding current
and time. With variations in these conditions, the diameter, strength, penetration, and indentation of the spot
welds change appreciably. Electrode tip radius and electrode force also have some effect on these properties. For
all applications, welding conditions should be established depending on the thicknesses being welded and the
properties desired.
c. Most experience in spot welding is available from tests on commercially pure titanium. In these tests, the
welding conditions have varied considerably, and it is difficult to determine if there are optimum spot welding
conditions for various sheet gages. One of the major problems encountered is excessive weld penetration.
However, penetration can be controlled by selecting suitable welding current and time.
d. Experience with some of the high strength alpha-beta (α—β) alloys has shown that post-weld heat
treatments are beneficial to spot and seam weld ductility, but procedures have not been developed to heat treat
these welds in the machines.
e. Resistance welding commercial specification AWS D17.2, Specification for Resistance Welding for
Aerospace Applications, should be followed for spot and seam welds in commercially pure titanium. Suitable
minimum edge distances and spot spacing are listed in table 3. These are the same spot spacing’s and edge
distances specified for spot welds in steel.
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a. Stress Relieving. All titanium and titanium alloys shall be stress relieved after weld unless otherwise
specified by an engineering directive. See table 4 for the time and temperature for proper stress relief.
DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Cobalt Alloy, Corrosion and Heat-Resistant, Covered Welding Electrodes 51.5Co - 20Cr - 10Ni -........... AMS 5797
15W - UNS W73605
Cobalt Alloy, Corrosion and Heat-Resistant, Welding Wire 39Co - 22Cr - 22Ni - 14.5W - 0.07La - .......... AMS 5801
UNS R30188
Cobalt Alloy, Corrosion and Heat Resistant, Welding Wire 52Co - 20Cr - 10Ni - 15W -............................ AMS 5796
UNS R30605
Cobalt Alloy, Corrosion and Heat-Resistant, Welding Wire 54Co - 25.5Cr - 10.5Ni - 7.5W - ................... AMS 5789
UNS R30031
Gas Tungsten ARC Welding Process........................................................................................................ WP 004 01
Rolls Royce Specification ................................................................................................................... MSRR 9500/25
Specification for Bare Electrodes and Rods for Surfacing........................................................................ AWS A5.21
Specification for Surfacing Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding ................................................... AWS A5.13
Specification for Welding Shielding Gases ..................................................................................................AWS 5.32
Welding - General Information ................................................................................................................... WP 007 00
Alphabetical Index
Subject Page No.
Cleaning .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Joint Design .................................................................................................................................................... 3
Heat Treatments / Stress Relief...................................................................................................................... 4
Material Types................................................................................................................................................. 2
Safety .............................................................................................................................................................. 2
Shielding Gas.................................................................................................................................................. 2
Tools................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Tungsten ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Weld Filler Metals............................................................................................................................................ 2
Weld Technique .............................................................................................................................................. 3
None
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NOTE
1. SAFETY.
WARNING
Exposure to solid cobalt in current state should not cause any ill health effects.
However, if cutting or welding the inhalation of metal particulates may cause
chills, fever, sweating, nausea, and cough (symptoms of metal fume fever). Metal
fume fever symptoms typically begin within 4 to 12 hours after the initial exposure
and lasts for approximately 24 hours without causing permanent damage. Other
effects may include nose and throat irritation, metallic taste, difficulty breathing,
wheezing, coughing, weight loss, excessive urination, diarrhea, pulmonary
damage, nasopharyngitis, laryngitis and chest pain.
2. MATERIAL TYPES.
a. Cobalt alloys are primarily composed of cobalt and other alloys and designed for high temperature
application, i.e., flame impingement.
a. Common Cobalt filler metals are listed in Table 1 including the specification and corresponding UNS
number. When selecting or ordering Cobalt filler metal use this table as a guide and refer to the requirements
provided by the component technical manual or other technical directives.
FILLER
MATERIAL SPECIFICATION REMARKS
METAL
AWS A5.13
Stellite 6 ECoCr-A UNS R30006
AWS A5.21
AWS A5.13
Stellite 21 ECoCr-E UNS W73012
AWS A5.21
Stellite 31 AMS 5789
Stellite 31 UNS R30031
(X-40) MSRR 9500/25
HS188 HS 188 AMS 5801 UNS R30188
L605 L605 AMS 5796 (Bare)
UNS R30605
Haynes 25 Haynes 25 AMS 5797 (Coated)
4. SHIELDING GAS.
a. Primary shielding gas shall be Argon with a purity of 99.996% equivalent to AWS A5.32 Specification for
Welding Shielding Gases.
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b. Backup gas shall be used on base metal thicknesses up to 0.186 inch. Maximum 10 CFH.
5. TUNGSTEN.
a. Refer to WP 004 01 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING for general information about tungsten selection and
WP 007 00 WELDING – GENERAL INFORMATION for general information about tungsten geometry
preparation.
6. TOOLS.
a. Cobalt and cobalt alloys should be cleaned with a stainless steel wire brush. All cleaning tools including wire
brushes and carbide grinding tools should be clean and free of debris or other metal fragments. Stainless steel
brushes should be marked for the alloy use and kept isolated from other metal contact.
CAUTION
Do not put copper in direct contact with cobalt alloys, as any zinc in the copper
may cause issues in high-temperature applications. In these instances, nickel-
plate the chill bars.
b. Chill blocks should be used in conjunction argon backup shielding to protect the underside.
c. Protect cobalt completely from copper and copper based alloy contamination. The slightest amount of
copper will result in liquid-metal embrittlement and fixtures used with cobalt should be plated with nickel or
chromium.
7. CLEANING.
a. Contamination by greases, oils, cutting oils, crayon marks, corrosion products, lead, sulfur, and other low
melting point elements, paint, scale, dye penetrant solutions, and other foreign matter should be completely
removed because they can cause severe cracking problems.
b. All thermal or mechanical cutting methods are acceptable for preparation, provided that all the surfaces are
then ground or polished before to clean and bright metal condition including a 1 inch band from both sides and
faces of the joint.
c. Stainless steel wire brushing with clean brushes is normally adequate for interpass cleaning of weldments.
The grinding of start and stop craters is recommended for all fusion welding processes.
8. JOINT DESIGN.
a. Joint designs for welding cobalt alloys should be similar to the designs of stainless steel.
9. WELD TECHNIQUE.
a. Normally, cobalt alloys possess welding characteristics similar to nickel alloys and is easier to weld than
stainless steel alloys.
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b. Preheat and interpass temperatures should not exceed 200°F and should be employed to remove moisture
from the weld zone prior to welding.
NOTE
Welding cobalt is a low heat input method and care should be taken to minimize
the amount of heat absorbed into the cobalt alloy.
c. Low heat input is tantamount to preventing centerline cracking of the cobalt weld bead and to minimize the
accumulation of residual stresses adjacent to the weld zone. Use sufficient heat to melt and retain the weld
puddle without allowing the weld puddle to enlarge.
a. Cobalt and cobalt alloys do not require post weld heat treat operations and may be used as-is. However, if
cobalt was used as a hard face material, such as Stellite 6B, the base metal substrate may require additional
thermal processing.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
None
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NOTE
1. SAFETY.
2. MATERIAL TYPES.
a. Cast iron is an alloy composed primarily of Iron, Carbon, and Silicon in addition to other elements such as
Nickel, Chromium, Copper and with high amounts of carbon forms Fe³C or graphite upon solidification.
Depending of which elements make up the cast iron, depends on the precautions and welding techniques.
(1) Gray Iron. A cast iron with excess carbon, possessing excellent machinability and damping properties.
The composition comprises of 2 – 4 percent carbon, 1 -3 percent silicon and 1 percent manganese with a tensile
strength of 40,000 psi. Not grades of Gray Iron are weldable.
(2) White Iron. A brittle cast iron formed from rapid cooling such as from oil or water quenching or from
rapid cooling from welding. The intermetallic structure reduces the ductility and weldability and increases
hardness and abrasion resistance. The elemental composition comprises of 2.5-3.8 percent carbon, 0.2 – 2.8
silicon, up to 5.5 percent nickel or up to 35 percent chromium with tensile strengths ranging from 20,000 psi to
90,000 psi.
(3) Malleable Iron. With heat treatment, white iron may be transformed in ductile iron (malleable iron). The
elemental composition comprises of 2.0 -2.8 percent carbon, 1.0-1.7 percent silicon and tensile strengths range
from 45,000 psi to 90,000 psi and elongation properties are possible up 20 percent.
(4) Compacted Graphite. A newer cast iron with properties between those gray and ductile iron. This cast
iron has better machinability and damping characteristics and has improved ductility over gray iron.
c. For more information refer to AWS D11.2, Guide for Welding Iron Castings.
a. Table 1 list suggested filler metals for weld repair of cast iron and the recommended shielding gas, if
applicable.
b. Refer to the respective AWS specification to determine the applicability of the welding electrodes and rods.
4. SHIELDING GAS.
a. Normally, most work is performed with the Oxy-Acetylene welding process and Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW), Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) may be used, depending on the amount of repair the component
requires for repair.
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b. Shielding gas for GMAW usually consists of 75Ar/25CO2 for use with ER 70S-2 or ER 70S-6 filler metal, per
AWS A5.18, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes and Rods for gas Shielded Arc Welding. Other Cast Iron
filler metals may be used as determined by AWS A5.14, ENi-1, Specification for Nickel and Nickel-Alloy Bare
Welding Electrodes and Rods.
c. Specific weld filler metals for cast iron may be used as described by AWS A5.15, Specification for Welding
Electrodes and Rods for Cast Iron.
(SMAW)
ER 70S-3
ER 70S-6
5. CLEANING.
a. For sounds welds, the base metal must be clean, all cracks or defects completely removed before welding.
This requirement also applies to repairing shrinkage defects and inclusions.
b. All coatings, sand, rust, paint, oil and grease, moisture, dirt and other materials must be removed before
welding is to begin.
c. Baking cast irons in temperatures between 700-900º F will remove absorbed oil and grease.
d. Removing sand, silt, or other debris may be performed by welding a bead and grinding the weld bead away
until the casting surface is sealed and free of defects. This may take several attempts and a single attempt with
this method may not work.
6. JOINT DESIGN.
a. Thin cast iron may have the repair groove made with a single-V or a single-U groove. Superficial repairs
using steel filler metals, such as, E6010 electrodes are acceptable. However, machining of cast iron repaired with
steel electrodes may harden the surface sufficiently high to make machining difficult to impossible.
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b. Thick cast iron, approximately 1/2 inch or more should have grooves ground into the casting surface to
alleviate stress. As the cast iron cross-section increase, it is desirable to prepare the joint using a double U-
groove or double V-groove and weld the joint closed from both sides.
7. WELD TECHNIQUE.
a. General. Gray cast iron has low ductility and therefore will not expand or stretch to any considerable extent
before breaking or cracking. Because of this characteristic, preheating is necessary when cast iron is welded by
the oxyacetylene welding process. It can, however, be welded with the metal-arc process without preheating if
the welding heat is carefully controlled. This can be accomplished by welding only short lengths of the joint at a
time and allowing these sections to cool. By this procedure, the heat of welding is confined to a small area and
the danger of cracking the casting is eliminated. Large castings with complicated sections, such as motor blocks,
can be welded without dismantling or preheating. Special electrodes designed for this purpose are usually
desirable.
b. Edge Preparation. The edges of the joint should be chipped out or ground to form a 60 degree angle or
bevel. The V should extend to approximately 1/8 inch from the bottom of the crack. A small hole should be drilled
at each end of the crack to prevent it from spreading. All grease, dirt, and other foreign substances should be
removed by washing with a suitable cleaning material.
c. Welding Technique.
(1) Cast iron can be welded with a coated steel electrode, but this method should be used as an
emergency measure only. When using a steel electrode, the contraction of the steel weld metal, the carbon
picked up from the cast iron by the weld metal, and the hardness of the weld metal caused by rapid cooling must
be considered. Steel shrinks more than cast iron when cooled from a molten to a solid state and, when a steel
electrode is used, this uneven shrinkage will cause strains at the joint after welding. When a large quantity of filler
metal is applied to the joint, the cast iron may crack just back of the line of fusion unless preventive steps are
taken. To overcome these difficulties, the prepared joint should be welded by depositing the weld metal in short
string beads, 3/4 to 1 inch long, made intermittently and, in some cases, by the backstep and skip procedure. To
avoid hard spots, the arc should be struck in the V and not on the surface of the base metal. Each short length of
weld metal applied to the joint should be lightly peened while hot with a small ball peen hammer and allowed to
cool before additional weld metal is applied. The peening action forges the metal and relieves the cooling strains.
(2) The electrodes used should be 1/8 inch in diameter so as to prevent excessive welding heat, the
welding should be done with reverse polarity, and the weaving of the electrode should be held to a minimum.
Each weld metal deposit should be thoroughly cleaned before additional metal is added.
(3) Cast iron electrodes are used where subsequent machining of the welded joint is required. Stainless
steel electrodes are used when machining of the weld is not required. The procedure for making welds with these
electrodes is the same as that outlined for welding with mild steel electrodes. Stainless steel electrodes provide
excellent fusion between the filler and base metals but great care must be taken to avoid cracking in the weld,
because stainless steel expands and contracts approximately 50 percent more than mild steel in equal changes
of temperature.
d. Studding. Cracks in large castings are sometimes repaired by “studding” (Figure 1). In this process, the
fracture is removed by grinding a V groove, holes are drilled and tapped at an angle on each side of the groove,
and studs are screwed into these holes for a distance equal to the diameter of the studs, with the upper ends
projecting approximately 1/4 inch above the cast iron surface. The studs should be seal welded in place by one
or two beads around each stud and then tied together by weld metal beads. Welds should be made in short
lengths and each length peened while hot to prevent high stresses or cracking upon cooling. Each bead should
be allowed to cool and be thoroughly cleaned before additional metal is deposited. If the studding method cannot
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be applied, the edges of the joint should be chipped out or machined with a round-nosed tool to form a U groove
into which the weld metal should be deposited.
e. Metal-Arc Brazing of Cast Iron. Cast iron can be brazed with heavy coated, reverse polarity bronze
electrodes. The joints made by this method should be prepared in a manner similar to that used for oxyacetylene
brazing of cast iron. The strength of the joint depends on the quality of the bond between the filler metal and the
cast iron base metal.
f. Carbon-Arc Welding of Cast Iron. Iron castings may be welded with a carbon arc, a cast iron rod, and a cast
iron welding flux. The joint should be preheated by moving the carbon electrodes along the surface, thereby
preventing too rapid cooling after welding. The molten-puddle of metal can be worked with the carbon electrode
so as to move any slag or oxides that are formed to the surface. Welds made with the carbon arc cool more
slowly and are not as hard as those made with the metal arc and a cast iron electrode. The welds are
machinable.
a. PREHEATING. Cast iron should be preheated to a dull red heat (1,472°F(800°C)) before welding to
equalize expansion and contraction stresses. Heating of the entire casting is desirable, except for thin sections
which are completely restrained. This preheating can be performed with an acetylene torch, a furnace heated by
charcoal, oil or gas burners, or other available sources of heat. If the preheating is not uniform the finished weld
will be warped and cracks may appear on the surface or in the weld metal. Preheating also helps to soften the
casting because the carbon in the weld metal will separate as graphite. When the preheated metal is allowed to
cool slowly the finished weld will have a minimum of cooling stresses, internal strains, and can be machined
without difficulty. Slow cooling is achieved by covering the entire casting with suitable high temperature insulating
material. If the casting is not cooled slowly after welding the weld area will be transformed into white cast iron.
White cast iron is very brittle, difficult to machine, and may crack when the assembled part is used.
b. PREPARATION FOR WELDING. Scale, cutting slag, grease, and dirt must be completely removed from
the parts to be welded by grinding, wire brushing, sand- blasting, etc. Cracks in casting should be chipped out
with a cold chisel to form a 90 degree V and should extend to approximately 1/8 inch from the bottom of the crack.
A 120 degree V is sometimes desirable when the weld is made from one side only. A hole drilled at the extreme
end or ends of a crack will prevent it from spreading during welding.
c. WELDING ROD. The welding rod is cast iron with a melting point as low as practical. It must be free of
nonmetallic inclusions and low in phosphorus and sulfur content.
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d. FLUX. Flux must be used in welding cast iron to remove the slag that forms on the cast iron puddle. The
flux acts to clean the metal, remove slag inclusions, prevent porosity, and provide a sound weld. Fluxed welding
rods are obtainable but usually the flux is applied by dipping the hot rod into the flux and transferring it to the
molten puddle as required to overcome momentary difficulties.
e. Welding Method.
(1) The torch should be adjusted to give a neutral flame (WP 004 04). The flame should be pointed toward
the finished weld (backhand welding) and the inner cone tip should be approximately 1/8 to 1/4 inch away from
the molten puddle. A slight weaving motion should be used to melt down the sides and penetrate to the bottom of
the V.
(2) In general the same precautions should be taken as in welding steel. The end of the welding rod should
be heated, dipped into the flux, placed in the weld metal puddle, and gradually melted. The rod should not be held
above the weld and melted drop by drop. Care should be taken that the sides of the bevel are completely melted
and that the weld metal does not come in contact with cold base metal. The rod should be used to puddle out any
slag, dirt, or blow- holes that may occur during welding.
(3) Care should be taken not to overheat the metal and thus cause the puddle to run away or burn through.
The rod should be dipped into the flux often enough to insure fluidity of the weld metal. The preferred technique is
to deposit the weld in layers not exceeding 1/8 inch thick, and to build the weld slightly above the level of the base
metal to provide some reinforcement.
(4) Allowances should be made for expansion during heating and contraction while cooling, and the parts to
be welded should be aligned in such a manner that the welded pieces assume the desired shape.
(5) Cast iron welding should be carried on as rapidly as possible. When the weld has been completed the
entire piece should be reheated at a uniform rate (1,100°F to 1,500°F(593°C to 816°C)), and held at this
temperature for 1 hour per inch of thickness; then cooled at a rate not to exceed 50°F(10°C) per hour. This
process will relieve stresses and strains caused by welding. Cooling may be accomplished in the stress relieving
furnace, or by covering the reheated piece with heat insulating material.
f. Localized preheating of large castings. When a section of a large casting to be welded is so located that the
weld can be made without upsetting the entire casting, local preheating may be used. in welding large castings,
sections of which vary in thickness, the preheating should be controlled so as not to overheat and warp the lighter
sections.
NOTE
(1) Welds in cast iron castings, such as cylinder blocks, must be free from pores, minute cracks, and other
defects that will cause leakage. In order to ensure watertightness a sealing coat made of powdered sulfur and fine
graphite powder may be used. This material is prepared by melting four to five parts of sulfur and adding one part
of graphite. The graphite is thoroughly mixed with the melted sulfur. If the mixture should ignite it can be
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extinguished by smothering with REFRAISAL cloth or equivalent. The material is cast into long bars by pouring
the mixture into the v of an angle iron section lined with cloth. The cast bar is removed when cold and the
REFRAISAL cloth is removed before the sealing material is applied to the weld.
(2) Welds made on cast iron castings should be coated with this sealing material while the weld is still hot.
The end of the cast bar is rubbed onto the hot weld. A small portion will melt and form a thin film on the weld. This
application will penetrate into the small pores and cracks providing an effective seal when cool. All surface scale,
slag, and other foreign material must be brushed from the weld before the sealing material is applied. This sealing
material can be applied to cold welds by careful heating of the weld with the oxyacetylene torch.
(1) Hard spots in a cast iron weld, often complained of by machinists finishing up a casting which has been
welded, are caused by chilling portions of the weld by plunging a cold rod into the puddle of molten metal, or by
allowing a part of the weld to suddenly become cool by removing the torch from it, or by failure to protect the hot
weld from cool air drafts. The result is a greater percentage of combined carbon and less of graphite, hence
small parts of the casting are hard white iron instead of soft gray iron.
(2) Hard spots may also be caused by the chilling effect of the metal surrounding the weld. The casting
adjacent to the weld must be kept hot so that there will be no chilling action along the border of the weld between
the weld metal and the metal of the casting; otherwise, there may be a hard area along this boundary which will
cause trouble in machining and finishing the surface of the casting. If proper care is taken during cooling of the
casting and if it is thoroughly protected during welding, there is no reason for having hard spots in any part of the
weld or adjacent metal.
The flame should be slightly oxidizing, which will permit better bonding between the bronze and the base
metal and suppress zinc fumes. The proper oxidizing flame is obtained by adjusting to neutral and then closing
the acetylene valve slowly until the inner cone has been reduced in length by about one-tenth. In some cases the
proper oxidizing flame is obtained after the operation is started by adjusting the acetylene valve until fuming
ceases.
11. TINNING.
Tinning is the spreading out of a thin layer of molten fluxed weld metal ahead of the main deposit to form a
coating which provides a strong bond between the base metal and bronze. This tinning is due to the action of the
flame and the flux. It will take place only when the base metal is at the right temperature. If the base metal is not
hot enough the bronze will not flow; if too hot the molten bronze will boil, fume excessively, and will form droplets
on the edges of the base metal. Proper tinning will be similar in appearance to water spreading over a clean
moist surface, whereas improper tinning has the appearance of water on a greasy surface.
A liberal amount of flux should be used, especially when the speed of brazing is rapid. This can be done
by heating several inches of the end of the bronze rod and dipping or rolling it in a container of flux. Where
brazing progresses more slowly, as in the repair of heavy castings, it is sufficient to dip the hot end of the rod into
the flux, and add to the puddle as required.
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Begin brazing by heating a small area just enough to cause the metal from the fluxed filler rod to spread out
evenly and produce a tinning coat a short distance ahead of the main deposit. The inner cone of the slightly
oxidizing flame should be kept 1/8 inch away from the surface of the metal. Usually the flame is pointed ahead of
the completed bead at an angle of about 45 degrees, with the puddle under and slightly behind the flame. The
torch angle may vary, depending on the position of the joint (overhead or vertical) and the thickness of the bead
being made. The motion of the rod and torch will depend on the size of the puddle being carried, the nature of the
joint or surfaces brazed, and the speed of brazing.
When brazing heavy sections it may be necessary to deposit the filler metal in layers. In such cases the
base metal must be thoroughly tinned when the first layer is deposited and care should be taken to ensure good
fusion between layers.
Never reheat the bead after it has solidified without adding more fluxed filler metal. Otherwise the
deposited filler metal becomes porous and of low strength. Brazing should be done in one pass or layer
whenever possible.
Brazing, especially on castings, must be protected from drafts to permit slow cooling. This can be done by
burying it in a box of lime or fine sand. No stress should be put on a bonded joint until it has cooled completely,
because brass has a relatively low strength when hot.
The finished bead should be cleaned with a wire brush to remove any excess flux from the surface of the
metal.
Gray cast iron can be brazed with very little or no preheating. For this reason, broken castings that would
otherwise need to be dismantled and preheated can be brazed in place. A nonferrous filler metal such as naval
brass (60 percent copper, 39.25 percent zinc, 0.75 percent tin) is satisfactory for this purpose. This melting point
of the nonferrous filler metal is several hundred degrees lower than the cast iron; consequently the work can be
accomplished with a lower heat input, the deposition of metal is greater and the brazing can be accomplished
faster. Because of the lower heat required for brazing, the thermal stresses developed are less severe and stress
relief heat treatment is usually not required.
The preparation of large castings for brazing is much like that required for welding with cast iron rods. The
joint to be brazed must be clean and the part must be sufficiently warm to prevent chilling of filler metal before
sufficient penetration and bonding are obtained. When possible the joint should be brazed from both sides to
ensure uniform strength throughout the weld. In heavy sections the edges should be beveled to form a 60 to 90
degree V.
Malleable iron castings are usually repaired by brazing because the heat required for fusion welding will
destroy the properties of malleable iron. Because of the special heat treatment required to develop malleability, it
would be impossible to restore completely these properties by simply annealing. Where special heat treatment
can be performed, welding with a cast iron filler rod and remalleabilizing are feasible.
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a. The final stress level of a welded casting is effected by the rate at which the casting is permitted to cool. To
minimize the residual stresses, the cast iron should be allowed to cool slowly by:
c. In general, the normal process for cooling a casting to soak the cast material at temperature between 950°F
– 1250°F for one hour per inch thickness and then follow-up with a cooling rate of 100°F per hour until the casting
is at room temperature.
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
Cleaning .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Copper Brazing ............................................................................................................................................ 4
Copper Welding ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Gas and Shielding Gas ................................................................................................................................ 3
Joint Design ................................................................................................................................................. 3
Material Types.............................................................................................................................................. 2
Safety ........................................................................................................................................................... 2
Tools............................................................................................................................................................. 3
Tungsten ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
Weld Filler Materials..................................................................................................................................... 2
Weld Technique ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Lead Welding .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Cleaning ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
Gas and Shielding Gas ................................................................................................................................ 5
Joint Design ................................................................................................................................................. 6
Material Types.............................................................................................................................................. 5
Safety ........................................................................................................................................................... 5
Tools............................................................................................................................................................. 5
Weld Filler Materials..................................................................................................................................... 5
Welding Technique ...................................................................................................................................... 6
None
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NOTE
1. COPPER WELDING
2. SAFETY.
WARNING
Grinding, melting, welding, cutting, or any other operations that reduce the
particle size of the material will change the hazard classification of the product. If
the particle size or oxidation state of this product is reduced, refer to the
applicable regulatory standards for appropriate protection measures.
3. MATERIAL TYPES.
WARNING
The information provided herein is not suitable for work involving Beryllium-
Copper alloys (UNS C17000, C17200, or C17500) and is beyond the scope and
intention of this general series manual. Consult with engineering before welding
on Be-Cu alloys.
a. The welding instructions of this work package pertains to the Copper Alloys listed in Table 1 and other
copper alloys may be welded except as noted in the warning. Consult with cognizant engineering authority for
additional information.
a. Copper may be welded with or without filler metal using the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding process.
b. Recommended weld filler material is ERCu per AWS A5.7, Specification for Copper and Copper-Based
Bare Welding Rods and Electrodes.
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(1) ERCu filler metals are made of deoxidized copper, but also may contain one or more of the following
elements: phosphorus, silicon, tin, manganese, and silver. Phosphorus and silicon are added primarily as
deoxidizers. The other elements add either to the ease of welding or to the properties of the final weldment.
(2) ERCu filler metals generally are used for the welding of deoxidized and electrolytic tough pitch (ETP)
copper. Reactions with hydrogen in oxygen-free copper, and the segregation of copper oxide in tough pitch
copper may detract from joint efficiency.
(3) ERCu welding electrodes and rods may be used to weld these base metals when the highest quality is
not required.
a. Argon gas is generally used for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding copper for thicknesses under 1/8-inch and a
mixture of Argon and Helium (75Ar-25He) or 100% Helium for increasing thickness to 1/2 inch.
6. TUNGSTEN.
a. Refer to WP 004 01 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING for general information about tungsten selection and
WP 007 00 WELDING – GENERAL INFORMATION for general information about tungsten geometry
preparation.
b. Proper preparation of tungsten electrodes is usually a 60-degree included angle with the tip of the point
truncated to approximately 1/3 the diameter of the electrode.
7. TOOLS.
a. Clean, sharp rotary carbide tools may be used to prepare the surfaces of copper prior to welding. Scraping
copper with clean, hardened tools is the preferred method for preparing copper for welding.
b. Stainless steel wire brushes with small diameter strands, specifically identified and used for copper alloys is
recommended. Power wire brushes may be used if the necessary.
8. CLEANING.
a. Copper base metal should be free from moisture and all other contaminants, including surface oxides.
9. JOINT DESIGN.
a. Backing rings or strips made from carbon, graphite, or ceramic may be used when butt welding copper
plates.
b. In welding thin sheets the forehand welding method is preferred, while the backhand method is preferred for
thicknesses of 1/4 inch or more. For sheets up to 1/8 inch thick a plain butt joint with squared edges is preferred.
For thicknesses greater than 1/8 inch the edges should be beveled for an included angle of 60 to 90 degrees, in
order to obtain penetration without spreading fusion over a wide area.
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NOTE
a. Copper has a high thermal conductivity; consequently the heat required for welding is approximately twice
that required for steel of similar thickness. To offset this loss of heat a tip one or two sizes larger than that
required for steel is recommended. When welding large sections of heavy thicknesses, supplementary heating
with a charcoal fire, a separate heating unit, or another torch is advisable. This makes a weld that is less porous
that one made by preheating and welding with the same torch.
b. Copper may be welded with a slightly oxidizing flame because the molten metal is protected by the oxide
which is formed by the flame. If a flux is used to protect the molten metal the flame should be neutral.
d. In welding copper sheets the heat is conducted away from the welding zone so rapidly that it is difficult to
bring the temperature up to the fusion point. It is often necessary to raise the temperature level of the sheet in a
large area, 6 inches to a foot away from the weld, nearly to red heat before a welding torch of the usual size is
effective in welding the edges. The weld should be started at some point away from the end of the joint and
welded back to the end with filler metal being added. Then, after returning to the starting point, the weld should be
started and made in the opposite direction to the other end of the seam. During the operation the torch should be
held at approximately a 60 degree angle to the base metal.
d. It is advisable to back up the seam on the underside with carbon blocks or thin sheet metal to prevent
uneven penetration. These materials should be channeled or undercut to permit complete fusion to the base of
the joint. The metal on each side of the weld should be covered with fire resistant material to prevent radiation of
heat into the atmosphere, allowing the molten metal in the weld to solidify and cool slowly.
e. The welding speed should be uniform and the end of the filler rod should be kept in the molten puddle.
During the entire welding operation the molten metal must be protected by the outer flame envelope. If the metal
fails to flow freely during the operation the rod should be raised and the base metal heated to a red heat along the
seam. The weld should be started again and continued until the seam weld is completed.
a. Both oxygen bearing and oxygen free copper can be brazed to produce a joint with satisfactory properties.
The full strength of an annealed copper brazed joint will be developed with a lap joint
b. The flame used should be slightly carburizing. All of the silver brazing alloys can be used with the proper
fluxes. With the copper-phosphorous or copper-phosphorous-silver alloys a brazed joint can be made without a
flux, although the use of flux will result in a joint of better appearance.
a. The welding of lead is similar to welding of other metals except that no flux is required and processes other
than gas welding are not in general use.
b. The safety aspect of welding lead cannot be overstated and all PPE, engineering controls, and
environmental, safety, and industrial hygienists controls and restriction must be complied with prior undertaking
any lead welding operations.
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13. SAFETY.
WARNING
The welding and cutting of lead-bearing alloys or metals whose surfaces have
been painted with lead-based paint can generate lead oxide fumes. Inhalation
and ingestion of lead oxide fumes and other lead compounds will cause lead
poisoning. Symptoms include metallic taste in the mouth, loss of appetite,
nausea, abdominal cramps, and insomnia. In time, anemia and general
weakness, chiefly in the muscles of the wrists, develop. Lead adversely affects
the brain, central nervous system, circulatory system, reproductive system,
kidneys, and muscles.
a. All alloys of lead may be welded using the oxy-acetylene welding process.
a. Welding Rods. The filler rods should be of the same composition as the lead to be welded. They range in
size from 1/8 to 3/4 inch in diameter. The smaller sizes are used for lightweight lead and the larger sizes for
heavier lead.
a. Three combinations of gases are commonly used for lead welding. These are oxyacetylene, oxy-
hydrogen, and oxygen-natural gas. The oxyacetylene and oxy-hydrogen processes are satisfactory for all
positions. The oxygen-natural gas is not used for overhead welding. A low gas pressure ranging from 1 1/2 to 5
psi is generally used, depending on the type of weld to be made.
b. Three combinations of gases are commonly used for lead welding. These are oxyacetylene, oxy-
hydrogen, and oxygen-natural gas. The oxyacetylene and oxy-hydrogen processes are satisfactory for all
positions. The oxygen-natural gas is not used for overhead welding. A low gas pressure ranging from 1 1/2 to 5
psi is generally used, depending on the type of weld to be made.
17. TOOLS.
a. Torch. The welding torch is relatively small in size, with the oxygen and flammable gas valves located at the
forward end of the handle so that they may be conveniently adjusted by the thumb of the holding hand. Torch tips
range in drill size from 78 to 68. The smaller tips are for 6-pound lead (i.e. 6 pounds per sq. ft.), the larger tips for
heavier lead.
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19. CLEANING.
WARNING
a. Care must be taken when handling, cutting, and cleaning lead alloys prior to welding.
a. Types of Joints. Butt, lap, and edge joints are the types most commonly used in lead welding. Either the
butt or lap joint is used on flat position welding. On vertical and overhead position welding the lap joint is used.
The edge or flange joint is used only under special conditions.
a. The flame must be neutral. A reducing flame will leave soot on the joint and an oxidizing flame will produce
oxides on the molten lead and will produce coalescence. A soft, bushy flame is most desirable for welding in a
horizontal position. A more pointed flame is generally used in the vertical and overhead positions.
b. The flow of molten lead is controlled by the flame, which is usually handled with a semicircular or V-shaped
motion. This accounts for the herringbone appearance of the lead weld. The direction of the weld depends on
the type of joint and the position of the weld.
(1) The welding of vertical position lap joints is started at the bottom of the joint. A welding rod is not
generally used. In flat position welding lap joints are preferred. The torch is moved in a semicircular path toward
the lap and then away. Filler metal is used but not on the first pass.
(2) Overhead position welding is very difficult. For that position a lap joint and a flame as sharp as possible
are used. The molten beads must be small and the welding operation must be completed quickly.
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None
Alphabetical Index
None
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NOTE
In the event of conflict between this general series work package and specific
repair instructions supported by competent or cognizant entities, the specific
repair instructions takes precedence.
NOTE
1. PURPOSE.
a. Provide the welder with information and guidance for after welding operations. Not all techniques provided
are applicable to every weld job, but having the basic information about post welding operations ensures that the
welds are going to perform as prescribed.
a. Post weld thermal treatments may be necessary depending on the alloy or the content of the alloy. This
work package provides guidance about which specifications control the thermal heat treatment when the technical
requirements are not provided from the OEM.
b. The use of thermal heat treatments are not required and the applicability of these thermal heat treatments
must be considered on a case by case basis or as specified in the original equipment manufacturers repair
instructions, such as technical manuals (TM) or technical orders (TO)
a. Post weld contouring may be required by specific repair instructions and those instruction must be followed.
b. The instructions discussed in WP 008 02 are intended for guidance only and provides information on the
purposes of post weld contouring.
c. The use of post weld contouring are not required and the applicability of post weld contouring must be
considered on a case by case basis.
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DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Heat Treatment Austenitic Corrosion-Resistant Steel Parts.................................................................... AMS 2759/4
Heat Treatment Cast Nickel Alloy and Cobalt Alloy Parts .......................................................................... AMS 2773
Heat Treatment Martensitic Corrosion-Resistant Steel Parts .................................................................. AMS 2759/5
Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloy Castings .............................................................................................. AMS 2771
Heat Treatment of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Parts Minimum Tensile Strength Below 220 ksi ......... AMS 2759/1
Heat Treatment of Low-Alloy Steel Parts Minimum Tensile Strength 220 ksi and Higher ...................... AMS 2759/2
Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloy Castings............................................................................................ AMS 2768
Heat treatment of Steel Parts, General Requirements ............................................................................... AMS 2759
Heat Treatment of Titanium Alloy Parts ...................................................................................................... AMS 2801
Heat Treatment of Wrought Aluminum Alloy Parts ..................................................................................... AMS 2770
Heat Treatment Precipitation-Hardening Corrosion Resistant and Maraging Steel Parts....................... AMS 2759/3
Heat Treatment Wrought Nickel Alloy and Cobalt Alloy Parts .................................................................... AMS 2774
Welding, Brazing, and Soldering Volume 6 ........................................................................................ASM Handbook
Alphabetical Index
General............................................................................................................................................................ 2
Cleaning .......................................................................................................................................................... 2
General Post Weld Heat Instructions.............................................................................................................. 2
Post Heating of Steel (Group I)....................................................................................................................... 3
Post Heating of Stainless Steel Alloys ............................................................................................................ 4
Post Heating of Nickel Alloys (Group III) and Cobalt Alloys (Group VII) ........................................................ 4
Post Heating of Aluminum Alloys (Group IV) .................................................................................................. 4
Post Heating of Magnesium Alloys (Group V) ................................................................................................ 4
Post Heating of Titanium Alloys (Group VI) .................................................................................................... 4
Shot Peening................................................................................................................................................... 5
None
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NOTE
1. PURPOSE.
b. Provides guidance on cleaning as a post weld heat treat method which will prevent contamination of base
metals and potential base metal cracking.
c. Suggests alternative post weld thermal heat treatments based on base metal groups.
2. CLEANING.
CAUTION
a. Cleaning of base metals shall be performed to prevent contaminating the parts during post weld thermal
treatments.
b. Refer to component technical manual for suggested cleaning methods or work package series 006 for
additional suggestions and information.
NOTE
For conflicts between the OEM specified post weld thermal heat treatments and
this manual, the OEM technical instructions takes precedence.
a. The general heat treat specifications for the processing of Steel Parts are:
(2) AMS 2759/1, Heat Treatment of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Parts Minimum Tensile Strength Below
220 ksi
(3) AMS 2759/2, Heat Treatment of Low-Alloy Steel Parts Minimum Tensile Strength 220 ksi and Higher
b. The requirement for post weld heat treatment of steels shall be performed per the component technical
manual or other technical directive.
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c. Generally, post heating is specified for the steels that contain more than about 0.35% C, although there can
be many exceptions.
d. Stress relieving usually is required and may be mandatory for weldments of all steels with carbon contents
above 0.025% carbon (C), especially if the weldment is to be put into service without being quenched and
tempered. If a weldment is to be quenched and tempered, stress relieving can usually be omitted. Dimensional
stability and notch toughness usually determine the need for stress relief.
e. In preferred practice, the heating for stress relieving, or for the austenitizing that precedes quenching,
should begin before the weldment cools to a temperature below the interpass temperature. However, this
procedure is not always practical, and in some applications the weldment remains at room temperature for an
indefinite time before being stress relieved. Drafts of air impinging on the weldment while it is cooling to room
temperature should be avoided.
f. For complete, or almost complete, stress relief, the weldment should be heated to 1100°F to 1250°F and held
for one hour per inch of maximum base-metal thickness. If heating in this range is impractical, partial stress relief
can be attained by heating at a lower temperature (for instance, 900°F) for several hours.
a. The general heat treat specifications for the processing of Stainless Steel Parts are:
(2) AMS 2759/3 Heat Treatment Precipitation-Hardening Corrosion Resistant and Maraging Steel Parts.
b. The requirement for post weld heat treatment of stainless steels shall be performed per the component
technical manual or other technical directive.
6. POSTHEATING OF NICKEL ALLOYS (GROUP III) AND COBALT ALLOYS (GROUP VII).
a. The general heat treat specifications for the processing of Nickel and Cobalt Parts are:
(1) AMS 2773, Heat Treatment Cast Nickel Alloy and Cobalt Alloy Parts
(2) AMS 2774, Heat Treatment Wrought Nickel Alloy and Cobalt Alloy Parts
b. The requirement for post weld heat treatment of nickel and cobalt alloys shall be performed per the
component technical manual or other technical directive.
a. The general heat treat specifications for the processing of Aluminum Alloy Parts are:
b. The requirement for post weld heat treatment of aluminum alloys shall be performed per the component
technical manual or other technical directive.
a. The general heat treat specifications for the processing of Magnesium Alloys are
b. All stress relief of magnesium weldments shall be done in a furnace. Gas torch heating is prohibited.
Temperature and time shall be as specified in table 1. Parts shall be cooled in still air.
TEMPERATURE
FORM ALLOY CONDITION DEGREES TIME (MINIMUM)
“O” (Annealed) 500° + l0° 15 minutes
All All “F” (As Fabricated)
“H” (Strain Hardened) 350° + l0°F 60 minutes
d. The requirement for post weld heat treatment of magnesium alloys shall be performed per the component
technical manual or other technical directive.
a. The general heat treat specifications for the processing of Titanium Parts are:
b. The requirement for post weld heat treatment of titanium alloys shall be performed per the component
technical manual or other technical directive.
NOTE
a. The heat-affected areas adjacent to a weld are nearly always in tension, which can decrease the fatigue life
of the welded assembly. Shot-peening, by inducing a compressive stress in the surface can substantially
increase the fatigue life of welded assemblies.
b. Even on static applications such as pressure vessels, tanks and piping, the peening of welds has been
found very beneficial.
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c. In shot-peening, the surface of the finished part is bombarded with round steel shot in special machines
under full-controlled conditions. Every piece of shot acts as a tiny peening hammer. When the surface has been
peened all over by the multitude of impacts, the resultant residually stressed surface layer, which is in
compression, prevents the formation of cracks.
d. It is well known that a crack will not propagate into a compressed layer. As nearly all fatigue and stress
corrosion failures originate at the surface of a part, the layer of compressive stress induced by shot-peening
produce the tremendous increase in life which many industries have learned to use in their designs. The
maximum compressive residual stress produced at or near the surface is at least as great as half the ultimate
tensile strength of the material.
e. Shot-peening is used to eliminate failures of existing designs, or to allow the use of higher stress levels,
which, in turn, permit weight reduction for new designs.
f. The object of controlled shot-peening is to produce a compressively stressed surface layer in which the
amount of stress, the uniformity of the stress, and the depth of the layer can be held constant from piece to piece.
As it is practically impossible to inspect the stress distribution on a finished part, the full control of all aspects of
the process becomes imperative. The basic variables of stress, depth, and coverage are obtained in practice by
the use of the right combinations of shot, exposure time, choice of air pressure or wheel speed, nozzle size,
distance of nozzle from part, and angle between shot stream and peened surface. It is extremely important that
the relative motion between shot stream and part be mechanized for uniformity and reproducibility.
g. Flap peening, a variant of shot peening is an acceptable alternative, when authorized by technical
instructions.
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Reference Material
Specification for Fusion Welding For Aerospace Applications ................................................................ AWS D17.1
Alphabetical Index
Purpose ........................................................................................................................................................... 2
As-Welded..................................................................................................................................................... 2
Fatigue Consideration ................................................................................................................................... 3
Fillet Welds.................................................................................................................................................... 5
Grinding and Dressing .................................................................................................................................. 7
Groove Welds ............................................................................................................................................... 5
Start and Stops ............................................................................................................................................. 2
Thinning of Base Metals................................................................................................................................ 5
None
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NOTE
1. PURPOSE.
a. This work package provides the background and techniques for post weld contouring and is provided for
guidance only.
b. In addition, this work package describes the technical aspects of the importance of contouring welds or
leaving the weld in the as-welded condition.
c. Provide guidance to the welders for post weld improvement techniques for dressing or contouring welds
using angle grinders and die grinders fitted with rotary burrs.
a. Welds which were improperly started or stopped may have insufficient weld metal available for solidification
and result in a star shaped crater crack. If the crater cracks are not dressed to remove the defect, potentially
further cracking may take place given the right conditions.
b. The crater cracks or starts and stops should be dressed into a diamond shaped taper (Figure 1) from the
weld bead into the base metal. Do not dress the cracker crack into the shape of concavity or with a scalloped
shape.
c. Stop start should blend smoothly into the next weld bead and the previous weld bead.
d. Stop starts should not be positioned at the end of weld beads with fabricated stiffeners or gussets and
should wrap around the stiffener or gusset as shown in Figure 2.
3. AS-WELDED.
a. As-welded condition is normally applied to welds where the final surface irregularities will not hinder the
function of the weld; usually applied to support equipment where fatigue is not a consideration or contouring the
weld is impractical because of time or cost.
b. The preferred method for addressing an as-welded weldment is using wire brushes.
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c. Stainless steel wire brushes with 0.005 inch diameter strands should be assigned to each metal group and
should never be crossed used, that is, never use a wire brush used on carbon steel to brush a titanium weldment.
d. Wire brushing is generally used to remove slag, smut, and discoloration of the weld and adjacent to the
weld.
4. FATIGUE CONSIDERATION.
a. Slight imperfections that occur during welding may have significant impact to the overall performance of the
welded structure, whether an engine component, welded tubing in a nacelle, or exhaust ducts on aircraft. The
criteria set forth in welding specifications or component technical manuals are defined to permit certain size
discontinuities as allowable to the weld to be certified fit-for-service and shall be heeded at all costs.
b. In an as-welded joint, which will not have a sufficient design life, some method of improving the fatigue
performance needs to be found. There are a number of options available. The first and perhaps simplest is to
move the weld from the area of highest stress range, the next is to thicken up the component or increase the weld
size.
c. Shot peening can also be used to introduce compressive stresses at weld toes with equally good results.
Compressive stresses can be induced in a component by overstressing where local plastic deformation at stress
raisers induces a compressive stress when the load is released. This technique needs to be approached with
some care as it may cause permanent deformation and/or any defects to extend in an unstable manner resulting
in failure.
d. Alternatively, improving fatigue properties at the toe of the weld, Figure 3, may be utilized by the careful use
of a disc grinder to dress the weld toe, but for best results the weld toe should be machined with a fine rotary burr
as shown in Figures 4 and 5. Great care needs to be exercised to ensure that the operator does not remove too
much metal and reduce the component below its minimum design thickness and that the machining marks are
parallel to the axis of the main stress. The dressing should remove no base metal.
For example:
Class A welds, defined by AWS D17.1, may allow some contouring into the base
metal which should not exceed 0.002 inch for the length of the weld; with a single
defect (length of the weld) at 7% of the base metal thickness.
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e. All contouring should be sufficient to give a smooth blend and remove the toe intrusion. Ideally the dressing
should remove no more than 1/64 inch depth of material, sufficient to give a smooth blend and remove the toe
intrusion.
a. Thinning of the base metal usually occurs when the welder tries to dress a weld, whether a groove weld or a
fillet weld, to ensure a smooth transition at the toe-of-the-weld.
b. Thinning usually results in failures adjacent to the weld bead and the shrinkage stress of the weld bead are
sufficient to cause cracking.
6. FILLET WELDS.
a. Fillet welds generally do not require additional metal processing and any processing should be per
equipment technical instruction.
b. Grinding fillet welds can improve fatigue by producing a smooth transition between weld fillet and base
metal.
c. Using a rotary burr and concentrating on the removal of undercut (within limits) by producing a smooth
transition between weld and base metal.
d. Grooves must not be introduced transverse to the applied stress or loads. All dressing marks should be
parallel to the applied stress or load as shown in Figure 6.
7. GROOVE WELDS.
NOTE
(2) Finish grinding marks that run parallel to the weld bead or loads if applicable, as shown in Figure 7.
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b. Removing reinforcement on both sides of the weld bead improves fatigue, if fatigue is an issue.
c. Weld reinforcement that is providing a smooth transition between reinforcement and base metal improves
performance as shown in Figure 8.
d. Rough grinding with an angle grinder can be used to remove excess metal and finish grinding should be
performed placing the grinding marks running parallel to the weld bead or load direction.
e. Alternatively, a rotary burr can be used to locally remove undercut (within limits) and provide a smooth
transition between weld reinforcement and base metal.
a. Grinding and dressing is to be carried out with iron-free brushes, abrasives, etc. and should not be so heavy
as to discolor and overheat the metal.
c. Wheels should be dressed regularly to prevent them becoming loaded thereby producing objectionable
scratches.
DEPOT MAINTENANCE
Reference Material
Alphabetical Index
None
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NOTE
This work package contains GUIDANCE information to supplement higher order
technical document or instructions.
1. GENERAL.
a. Weld visual examination is an important part of a welder’s responsibility for the welder has the most control
over the outcome of the welding process. Upon completion of welding, a thorough examination of the weld is
necessary to ensure that deleterious conditions are not remaining with the weld bead. This includes examining for
adjacent weld bead defects, such as, undercut and underfill.
b. Visual examination here is defined as examination using the naked eye, alone or in conjunction with various
magnifying devices, without changing, altering, or destroying the materials involved.
c. Acceptance criteria shall be per relevant technical instructions and not per this general series manual. The
intent of this work package is to provide guidelines to the welder what constitutes an acceptable weld and an
unacceptable weld.
2. EXAMINATION OF WELDS.
a. The welder shall physically inspect the completed weld for quality attributes, such as, uniformity,
undercutting, and cracking, using 10 power magnification.
b. Welds shall blend into adjacent metal in gradual smooth curves. Under no conditions shall thickness of
parent metal be reduced.
NOTE
Ensure that weld beads on gas/air paths are held to minimum height and are
properly faired by blending to avoid flow disturbance. Failure to observe this
precaution can result in engine operational difficulties.
c. Welds shall be sound, clean, and free from foreign material and internal and external defects that would
adversely affect strength of weld.
NOTE
When welding near a hole, the metal between edge of hole and weld area may
melt causing a condition called Melt Back. This is due to lack of metal to absorb
heat of welding and can result in a V-shaped area at edge of hole. When this
occurs, add weld material and restore the hole and surrounding area to original
configuration.
d. Tack welds shall not be injurious to parent metal and shall not affect quality of final weld. Tack welds shall
be completely contained within the final weld, unless otherwise specified.
e. Welds shall be free from excessive surface burning, spitting, and expulsion of metal, unless permitted.
f. Welds specified by like symbols on an illustration and on a given combination of type and thickness of
material shall have a substantially uniform appearance.
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3. INSPECTION PROCEDURE.
a. The finished weld should be inspected for undercut, overlap, surface checks, cracks, or other defects.
b. The degree of penetration and side wall fusion, extent of reinforcement, and size and position of the welds
are important factors in the determination as to whether a welding job should be accepted or rejected because
they all reflect the quality of the weld.
a. Welder induced.
(2) Porosity
(4) Inclusions
b. Material induced.
(2) Delamination/Lamination
(4) Porosity
c. Other
(1) Cracks
5. VISUAL EXAMINATION.
a. One of the most important aspects of welding is the examination of the final product. At this point the
welder ensures that all preparations and welding techniques have produced a weld that is satisfactory for service.
NOTE
All weld acceptance criteria shall be in accordance with the applicable service
repair manuals.
b. The contents of this work package is intended to inform the welder of the conditions a weld may encounter
when examining a weld upon completion of work. Acceptance criteria for any weld is controlled by the component
technical directive.
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6. DISCONTINUITY.
a. Definition. An interruption of a desired weld profile or the insufficient weld metal such that the strength of the
weld is compromised by its intended mechanical, metallurgical, or physical properties. A discontinuity could be the
result of a defect but not necessarily a defect.
7. TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES.
• Porosity (surface or sub-surface)
• Inclusions, metallic or nonmetallic
• Underfill
• Incomplete Fusion
• Incomplete Joint Penetration
• Overlap
• Undercut
• Lamination/Delamination
• Seams and Laps
• Lamellar tearing
• Crack
• Arc strike
NOTE
Porosity which gathers or collects linearly may be considered as detrimental as a
crack and may be rejected by NDI-RT.
a. Cause. Porosity results from gas trapped in the weld metal and not out gassing or releasing the
atmosphere during solidification. The gas may be the shielding gas purposefully used to protect weld or from the
break-down of the flux evolving gases to shield the molten weld metal from the atmosphere.
b. Prevention. Proper welding technique avoids gas formation and entrapment. Distribution of porosity can
determine the type of fault, such as, clustered porosity is usually associated with starts and stops from improper
arc initiation or termination. Uniformly distributed porosity or scattered porosity usually is related to improper
cleaning or poor weld technique.
NOTE
Inclusions can cause loss of structural integrity and must be avoided.
a. Cause. Inclusions are solids, as opposed to gas, that are entrapped within the weld puddle which could not
float to the surface of the weld puddle and solidified. Inclusions are the generally the result of faulty welding
technique or improper cleaning. Metallic inclusions are associated with tungsten flaking off during welding.
Improper cleaning can leave sharp changes in geometry leaving non-metallic inclusions at the edges of the weld
allowing irregular shaped slag or oxides to become trapped in between weld passes.
b. Prevention. Ensure each weld pass is properly cleaned using approved methods for non-metallic
inclusions. Metallic inclusions, such as, tungsten must be removed prior to continue welding. Change the tungsten
if splitting is observed.
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10. UNDERFILL.
a. Cause. Underfill can occur if insufficient weld metal is applied to the weld pass and the resulting weld pass
is below the adjacent plane of the base metal.
b. Prevention. Ensure sufficient weld metal is added during the welding operation.
a. Cause. Incomplete fusion is the result of the liquid weld metal to wet or melt the adjacent base metal and is
usually the result of not applying heat equally the weld joint. Sometimes incomplete fusion will result from the
presence of an oxide hindering the weld joint from receiving sufficient arc heat.
b. Prevention. Ensure a clean, oxide free surface prior to welding or directing the arc welding heat equally to
the weld joint.
a. Cause. Incomplete joint penetration may result from inadequate joint design hindering the welding arc and
heat from penetrating into the joint or if the weld metal does not completely melt through the weld joint.
b. Prevention. Ensure the weld joint is properly configured for the appropriate welding process. Aluminum and
nickel alloys require a wider or larger opening than carbon or stainless steel. Verify that sufficient amperage is
applied to increase joint penetration.
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13. OVERLAP.
a. Cause. Overlap is a severe weld defect resulting from the toe of the weld rolling over onto the base metal
without fusion. Some potential causes include oxides on the adjacent surface, incorrectly directly the arc welding
heat or too low of welding travel speed.
b. Prevention. Proper cleaning of the weld area, adjusting the travel speed, flattening out the weld bead by
ensuring the liquid weld pool is equally wetting adjacent surfaces.
14. UNDERCUT.
a. Cause. Melting the base metal on either side of the weld bead without sufficient welding heat or
inappropriate electrode manipulation.
b. Prevention. A discontinuity as severe as a crack, the sharp change in geometry acts as a stress riser,
intensifying parallel to the weld bead. This defect can be eliminated through careful selection of an appropriate
weld settings for the thickness or orientation of the weld joint. Additionally, the orientation and control of the
welding electrode along the weld joint.
a. The formation of a crack from the localized stresses which exceed the tensile strength of the base metal.
The stresses may be the result of notches, high residual stresses, hydrogen embrittlement with respect to the
base metal. Cracks in the weld metal, depending on orientation, may be the result of contamination of the weld
joint or poor weld bead placement increasing the residual stresses of the weld metal and the base metal. Cracks
may be referred to 'Hot' cracks or 'cold' cracks.
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(1) Hot cracks will develop at high temperatures and form preferentially upon cooling.
(2) Cold cracks form after the weld metal is solidified and are commonly cause from excessive hydrogen in
a susceptible microstructure.
(3) Longitudinal cracks align with the toe of the weld and the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ). Longitudinal
cracks may also be associated with centerline cracking of weld metal contamination from carbon, oils, or low
melting point elements.
DELAYED CRACKS.
• Commonly caused by presence of hydrogen in a crack-susceptible microstructure subjected
to stress.
b. Prevention. Preheat or fast cooling problem. Also caused by shrinkage stresses in high constraint areas.
a. Cause. Perpendicular to the weld bead and remain primarily in the weld and can be found to extend into
the HAZ and the base metal.
a. Cause. Formed by improper termination of the weld pass and are considered hot cracks as they are formed
upon solidification of the weld metal.
b. Prevention. Ensure sufficient weld metal is present when terminating the arc. The resulting crater crack is
generally shallow and minimal grinding will eliminate the crack.
a. Cause. A longitudinal crack forming in the throat of a fillet or groove weld. Transverse Stresses, probably
from shrinkage. Indicates inadequate filler metal selection or welding procedure. May be due to crater crack
propagation.
b. Prevention. Use correct filler metal. Grind starts and stops to remove crater cracks.
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a. Cause. Grow from the weld toe into the HAZ or base metal when residual stresses are high from excessive
weld reinforcement or concavity. Start perpendicular to metal surface and tend to follow the curve of the weld
metal and HAZ.
b. Prevention. Minimize or eliminate excessive weld metal reinforcement and ensure sufficient weld metal
cross-section is not less than adjacent base metal. Immediately upon completion of welding and if permitted, use
a rotary burr and small diameter bit and lightly dress the toe of the weld.
a. Cause. When three simultaneous conditions occur (1) hydrogen, (2) high strength steel (~RHc30 or higher)
and (3) high residual stress. Usually short in length and can occur transverse or longitudinal in the HAZ.
b. Prevention. Ensure weld procedure is followed when a soaking preheat is required prior to welding. Use
new or recently baked welding electrodes (low hydrogen). Allow time for post weld soaking at least at the preheat
temperature.
b. Prevention. In aluminum, may be seen in the HAZ when excessive High-Frequency etching occurs.
a. Cause. Unintentional melting or heating outside the intended weld deposit. Usually caused by the welding
arc but can be produced by improper secured work connection during welding. The resulting arc strike is a small
re-melted area that can be a source of undercutting, hardening, or localized cracking. A most serious discontinuity
when applied to quench and tempered steel.
b. Prevention. Ensure full control of the welding electrode is making contact within the intended weld zone.
26. DEFECTS.
a. Each weld shall be inspected visually for defects, and by one or more of the following methods.
• Fluorescent Penetrant inspection (including liquid penetrant inspection).
• Radiographic inspection -Weld deposit quality requirements.
b. When the applicable engineering drawing calls for radiographic inspection, the welds shall be inspected in
accordance with service specific Non-destructive technical manuals (T.O. 33B-1-1 / NA 01-1A-16 / TM 1-1500-
335-23). Weldments containing defects of the following types and proportions are not acceptable.
• Cracks of any size in the weld metal or adjacent to the weld.
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• Inclusions (including tungsten), unfused areas and/or lack of weld joint preparation.
• Single porosity cavities measuring 10% of the thickness of the thinnest material in the joint or 0.020
whichever is the lesser. Inter-connected porosity shall be considered as a single cavity.
Measurement of all porosity cavities shall be based on their largest dimension.
a. Three or more single porosity cavities in alignment, any one of which measures 10% of ”T” of the thinner
material or 0.001 inch, whichever is the lesser, in any lineal inch or less of weld.
b. Scattered porosity, when the sum of the dimensions of all the cavities in any 50T length of weld equals 0.5T
or greater.
NOTE
Weld deposits which will receive subsequent forming operations shall be
radiographically inspected prior to and after the forming operation.
a. Subsurface defects (radiographic inspection). Welds containing any of the following subsurface defects shall
be unacceptable when radiographic inspection is specified in the engineering drawing.
• Cracks in the welds or base metal.
• Lack of fusion between multi-pass welds or between weld and base metal.
• Incomplete penetration.
• Inclusions such as slag (other than chamber welding) oxides or tungsten.
• Porosity, gas holes and cavities.
TO 00-25-252D
SUPPLEMENT
TECHNICAL MANUAL
INTERMEDIATE AND DEPOT
LEVEL MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS
This publication supplements TO 00-25-252, dated 1 September 2009. Reference to this supplement will be made on the title page of the basic
manual by personnel responsible for maintaining the manual in current status.
COMMANDERS ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR BRINGING THIS SUPPLEMENT TO THE ATTENTION OF ALL AFFECTED PERSONNEL.
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A - Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. PA Case Number 10-12090. Submit recommended
changes or problems with this Technical Order to 406 SCMS/GULAC, Robins AFB, GA 31098. Questions concerning technical content shall be
referred to 403 SCMS/GUEEA.
15 APRIL 2011
1. WP 005 02, page 3, Table 1 of the basic manual is amended as follows:
NOTE
There are two page 3s in WP 005 02. The first page 3 should be page 2. This will be corrected by
the Navy upon the next update.
2. WP 005 02, first page 3, paragraph 1.b.(2) of the basic manual is amended to read as follows:
(2) Qualification of the WPS (for certification) will be accomplished by the cognizant engineer using the
requirements of ANSI/AWS D17.1:2001.
3. WP 005 02, first page 3, paragraph 1.c of the basic manual is amended to read as follows:
c. Active Duty, Reserve, and Air National Guard will qualify to the 6G-position. (Note limitation on thin materials
WP 005 00, Table 1, note 1.) The MAJCOM Fabrication Superintendent or designation shall establish which
base metal groups are required for certification. Base metal groups may vary by operating location.
1
TO 00-25-252D
4. WP 005 04, page 8, paragraph 7 of the basic manual is amended to read as follows:
THE END
2
TO 00-25-252E
SUPPLEMENT
TECHNICAL MANUAL
INTERMEDIATE AND DEPOT
LEVEL MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS
This publication supplements TO 00-25-252, dated 1 September 2009. Reference to this supplement will be made on the title page of the basic
manual by personnel responsible for maintaining the manual in current status.
COMMANDERS ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR BRINGING THIS SUPPLEMENT TO THE ATTENTION OF ALL AFFECTED PERSONNEL.
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A - Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. PA Case Number 10-12090. Submit recommended
changes or problems with this Technical Order to 406 SCMS/GUEE, Robins AFB, GA 31098. Questions concerning technical content shall be
referred to 404 SCMS/GUEEA.
6 JULY 2013
1. WP 003 01, second page 2 should be numbered page 3.
3. WP 005 04, page 10, paragraph 11, below step e, of the basic manual is amended to add the following NOTE:
NOTE
Refer to WORK PACKAGE 005 00 for General Welding Certification Requirements.
THE END
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