Pan American Modernism Avant-Garde Art I PDF

P A N A M E R I C A N M O D E R N I S M
AVANT-GARDE ART IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE UNITED STATES EL ARTE DE VANGUARDIA EN AMÉRICA LATINA Y LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS
UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI LOWE ART MUSEUM

PA N A M E R I C A N M O D E R N I S M
AVA N T - G A R D E A R T I N L A T I N A M E R I C A A N D T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S
E L A RT E D E VA N G U A R D I A E N A M É R I C A L AT I N A Y L O S E S TA D O S U N I D O S
Nathan J. Timpano
CONTRIBUTORS:
Heather Diack
Edward J. Sullivan
EDITED BY:
Patricia García-Vélez Hanna

Published on the occasion of the exhibition, Pan American
Modernism: Avant-Garde Art in Latin America and the
Funding for the exhibition and catalogue was made possible
through Beaux Arts, Friends of Art, and the membership of TABLE OF CONTENTS
United States, June 22 through October 13, 2013. the Lowe Art Museum, with additional support from the
Linnie E. Dalbeck Memorial Foundation Trust.
Organized by Nathan J. Timpano, Ph.D.
Additional programmatic support is provided through the FOREWORD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
©2013 The Lowe Art Museum, University of Miami.
Department of Cultural Affairs, the Miami-Dade Mayor and Brian A. Dursum
No part of this publication may be reprinted or reproduced
Board of County Commissioners, support from Beaux Arts,
in any form, by any means, electronic or mechanical,
Friends of Art, and the general membership of the Lowe
including photocopying, or by any storage or retrieval ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Art Museum.
system, without the written permission of the Lowe Art Nathan J. Timpano
Museum, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013946399 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

ISBN: 978-0-9894684-0-4 Nathan J. Timpano
Designed by Chris Rogers, Yazi PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: DIALOGUES, COMMONALITIES, DISCONNECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Catalogue photography by Daniel Portnoy Nathan J. Timpano
Spanish translation by The Language Corner
Printed by NuPress of Miami, Inc. GEOMETRY AND GESTURE: NOTES ON ABSTRACTIONS IN THE AMERICAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Edward J. Sullivan
Notes:
In dimensions, height precedes width and depth. BODY OF EVIDENCE: THE MODERNISMS OF MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Heather Diack
CATALOGUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Part 1: Dialogues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
COVER (Catalogue No. 71):
Part 2: Commonalities & Disconnects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
KENNETH NOLAND
b. 1924, Asheville, North Carolina
CONTRIBUTORS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
d. 2010, Port Clyde, Maine
Untitled, 1968 MUSEUM STAFF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
screen print on linen
16 3⁄4 x 47 1⁄2 in. (42.5 x 120.7 cm)
REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Martin B. Grossman, 85.0131
Cover Art © Estate of Kenneth Noland/Licensed by
VAGA, New York, NY
FOREWORD
Drawn from the Lowe Art Museum’s permanent collection, the exhibition, Pan American Modernism: Avant-Garde Art in Latin America and the
United States, features seventy-five paintings, sculptures, photographs, and works on paper produced between 1919 and 1979. Commemorating
the Lowe’s longstanding commitment to collecting and exhibiting art from Latin America, the original concept for the exhibition was to include
works exclusively from this region.
Rather than focusing our attention entirely on one area of the hemispheric region, the decision was made to “cast the net” more broadly and
organize an exhibition that would demonstrate artistic developments in the hemisphere as a whole. Dr. Nathan Timpano, the exhibition’s curator,
enthusiastically embraced the overarching concept of the exhibition selecting works that clearly demonstrate the rich diversity of artistic expression
that emerged throughout the continents, and the sometimes surprising crosscurrents that informed the featured artists.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr. Timpano, for agreeing, two years ago, to undertake this exhibition project. While primarily
designed as a major exhibition of modern art of the Americas, he developed the early organizational process as a pedagogical tool for students
at the University of Miami. As a teaching museum, I was especially pleased with the integrated academic components to the project. I would also
like to thank Dr. Heather Diack, Assistant Professor of Art History, for her wonderful contribution to the catalogue and Dr. Edward J. Sullivan, Helen
Gould Sheppard Professor of the History of Art, Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, and a long-time friend of the Lowe Art Museum, for his
contribution to the exhibition catalogue.
Brian A. Dursum
Director and Chief Curator
6 PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: AVANT-GARDE ART IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE UNITED STATES 1
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A number of individuals contributed to the fruition of Pan American Modernism: Avant-Garde Art in Latin America and the United States. I wish to
principally thank Brian A. Dursum and Kara Schneiderman at the Lowe Art Museum for providing me with the opportunity to curate this important
exhibition, and for their countless support and assistance in organizing the show and its accompanying catalogue.
Special thanks are due to Edward J. Sullivan (New York University) and Heather Diack (University of Miami) for their thought-provoking and timely
essays on various aspects of Pan American modernism. Our incomparable editor, Patricia Hanna (former Director, CIFO) further strengthened the
overall quality of the Pan American Modernism catalogue and its contents.
I want to express my gratitude to a number of undergraduate students at the University of Miami who contributed to the catalogue entries included
in this book. They include: Gabriella Abdelnour, Harriet Ashton, Diego Da Silva, Cory Dunn, Sarah Fischer, Kari Hecker, Sophie Isacowitz, Amanda
Lemos, Katie Mato, Adys Mendizábal, Yoruba Mitchell, Albert Monreal, Natascha Rincón, Gainya St. Clair, Anaïs Sánchez, Ryan Simone, Jessica
Tellería, Nikita van Dijk, Fabiola Vélez, and Fiona Yakubu.
Thanks are due to Julie Berlin, Natasha Cuervo, Alessia Lewitt, Raymond Mathews and Darren Price (Lowe Art Museum), Daniel Portnoy (Daniel
Portnoy Photography), and Chris Rogers (Yazi design), who contributed significantly to various aspects of the exhibition and catalogue, including
the promotion, design, preparation and implementation of this project. Irene Bergmann and Jodi Sypher (Lowe Art Museum) were additionally
instrumental in organizing educational programming and special events related to Pan American Modernism.
Major funding for this exhibition and catalogue is made possible through the generosity of Beaux Arts, Friends of Art, and the membership of
the Lowe Art Museum, with additional support from the Linnie E. Dalbeck Memorial Foundation Trust. Additional funding is provided through
the Miami-Dade County Department of Cultural Affairs, the Cultural Affairs Council, the Mayor and the Miami-Dade County Board of County
Commissioners.
Without the substantial support – be that financial, intellectual, or collegial – of these individuals and organizations, Pan American Modernism
would be an unrealized endeavor. Thankfully, this is not the case.
Nathan J. Timpano
Guest Curator and Assistant Professor of Art History
University of Miami
INTRODUCTION
During the summer of 2011, Brian A. Dursum, Director and Chief “Latin American Art,” in spite of the fact that works placed in this
Curator at the Lowe Art Museum, approached me about organizing singular category originate in various countries and through disparate,
a major exhibition for the Lowe centered on the theme of Pan multivalent artistic traditions. Moreover, rather than perpetuating a
American modernism. The proposed show, which would draw upon U.S.-centric hegemony – which tends to diminish and polarize works
on objects in the Lowe’s permanent collection, would likewise provide of art produced by artists from Latin America in relation to U.S.-based
the opportunity to explore dialogues, commonalities and disconnects artists – Pan American Modernism analyzes how pan-American artistic
that exist between various artists working throughout North, Central exchange processes, rather than stylistic transmission, construct a fuller
and South America during the early to mid-twentieth century. Since understanding of modernism as an intercontinental phenomenon
opening its doors in 1952, the Lowe has importantly showcased works across the Americas.
by artists from Latin America during every decade of its existence,
though it has been an entire decade since the museum has organized This exhibition opens at an appropriate time at the Lowe Art Museum.
a survey of Latin American modern art. The present exhibition not 2013 marks the 500th anniversary of an important moment in the
only examines avant-garde art in Latin America, but additionally history of European expansionism, colonialism, Caribbean travel,
investigates such artistic articulations in relation to U.S. modernism and the state: Juan Ponce de León’s arrival on the east coast of
and postmodernism for the first time in the history of the Lowe Art Florida in 1513. Even though his numerous journeys to La Florida
Museum. (“the flowery,” or “flowery land” in Spanish) were initially driven
by exploratory motives, and later on by colonialist agendas, Ponce
Pan American Modernism: Avant-Garde Art in Latin America and the de León’s voyages throughout the Caribbean region (one of which
United States is therefore the culmination of this initial impetus to took him and his crew from Puerto Rico to present-day Key Biscayne)
explore a discourse centered on art produced across two continents highlight a common aspect of Spanish colonialism: the realization that
during a sixty year period (1919–1979). This exhibition and the travel facilitated the spread of ideas, language and culture, regardless
accompanying catalogue importantly asks viewers to question the of the impetus to do so. Apart from the erroneous claim that Ponce
traditional manner in which curators have dealt with objects in U.S. de León actually “discovered” Florida – as the land had already been
collections that typically fall under the rather generalized rubric inhabited by American Indian populations for thousands of years –
this moment in history does, nevertheless, present an early example catalogue are very much a part of my current teaching interests and the exhibition by Ivan Cardoso’s documentary/art film H.O. (1979), American Language?.” Counterpoints – or opportunities to explore
of Pan American cultural exchange. The quincentenary of European have developed, in part, as a pedagogical tool for students at the which highlights works by Hélio Oiticica and his contemporaries. moments when established artists broke with more dominant style(s)
exploration in the Sunshine State has likewise prompted a litany of University of Miami. Undergraduates in my spring 2012 Latin American That having been stated, it is necessary to equally call attention associated with the “status quo” – are offered in the modules on
cultural heritage events for the statewide initiative known as “Viva Modernism and Modern Art courses were involved in researching and to the fact that numerous American countries are not included Mexican Muralism and Abstract Expressionism. Part II: Commonalities
Florida 500,” and Pan American Modernism is very much a part of writing catalogue entries. Additionally, former and future students in in this study of modernism. These omissions were not, however, & Disconnects presents a single module: “The Legacy of Geometric
this festival year. these courses will have the opportunity to study works included in the governed by cultural or stylistic hegemonies; but rather, by choices Abstraction: Constructivist Art, Minimalism, Op Art,” which explores
exhibition from a firsthand perspective – a keystone to the study of art based on either curatorial aptness, or more likely, by the absence of these various “isms” in South America and the United States between
Miami’s art scene has enjoyed considerable growth in recent years, history. As a university art museum, the Lowe has served as an optimal works by artists from these American countries in the permanent the late 1930s and late 1970s.
due in part to the international visibility of Art Basel Miami Beach and environment for this project, and given that the University of Miami collection of the museum. Within the context of the exhibition,
the slow but steady revitalization of Miami’s Wynwood District. Major was envisioned from its start in 1925 as a Pan American university that each of the countries that are included in Pan American Modernism My hope is that Pan American Modernism ultimately provides an
private collections, such as the Margulies Collection at the Warehouse, would service students across North, Central and South America, it is understandably represents an artist’s nationality, and yet it is opportunity for faculty, students, and staff at the University of Miami,
the Ella Fontanals-Cisneros Collection at the Cisneros Fontanals Art equally fitting that Pan American Modernism originates at the Lowe. important to note that such distinctions enjoyed considerable fluidity as well as visitors to the Lowe Art Museum, to contemplate the
Foundation (CIFO), the de la Cruz Collection Contemporary Art Space, as a result of travel and expatriation throughout the sixty years that varied relationships that exist between artists, artworks, styles, and
and the Rubell Family Collection / Contemporary Arts Foundation This exhibition showcases a range of objects not currently on view encompass works in this exhibition. Travel prompted the exchange of discourses that developed throughout the Americas in the early to
(RFC/CAF), have generously offered works by postmodern and at the Lowe, as well as works that have rarely been seen by faculty, ideas and created dialogues between artists and styles, and in turn, mid-twentieth century.
contemporary artists from Latin America and the United States for students, or the general public over the sixty years of the Lowe’s helps to negate the notion that European or U.S. artists were the only
public consumption, contemplation and scrutiny, and in the process, existence. Pan American Modernism highlights seventy-five objects individuals “transmitting” artistic styles throughout the Americas Nathan J. Timpano
have helped to solidify art from Latin America as a major facet of from the museum’s permanent collection, including paintings, during this period. Guest Curator and Assistant Professor of Art History
Miami’s art scene. sculpture, works on paper, photography, and mixed media pieces. University of Miami
This catalogue and, to a lesser extent, the exhibition are organized
Since joining the art history faculty within the Department of Art Artists from 13 countries are featured in the exhibition. Countries into two sections. Part I: Dialogues consists of multiple sub-sections, or
and Art History at the University of Miami in the fall of 2010, I have include Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Guatemala, Mexico, modules, including “Mexican Muralism and its Legacy,” “The Female
developed undergraduate and graduate courses on avant-garde and Nicaragua, Peru, Puerto Rico, the United States, Uruguay, and Muse: Class, Gender, Race,” “Modernist Photography: Pan American
neo-avant-garde art in Latin America. The current exhibition and Venezuela. The remaining country – Brazil – is represented solely in Exchanges,” and “Abstract Expressionism and its Legacy: A Pan
6 PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: AVANT-GARDE ART IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE UNITED STATES PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: AVANT-GARDE ART IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE UNITED STATES 7
PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: “So, while there is indeed a sense in which we have entered a postmodern,
postcolonial, and post-western-centred period of history, there is another
DIALOGUES, COMMONALITIES, DISCONNECTS sense in which we still have yet to catch up with modernism.” — David Craven 1
“In the case of Latin American artistic movements, …omission…is largely

MODERNISMO PANAMERICANO: due to the biased decharacterization coming from the market and exhibition
DIÁLOGOS, PUNTOS DE CONTACTO, INCONEXIONES boom of the 1980s and 1990s in the United States.” — Mari Carmen Ramírez 2
In many ways, Pan American Modernism: Avant-Garde Art in Latin America

and the United States developed as an informal reaction to David Craven’s
Nathan J. Timpano theorization of modern and postmodern art in Latin America, as well as Mari
Carmen Ramírez’s observations on the disproportionate attention given to
U.S. artistic movements of the twentieth century in relation to avant-garde
movements in Latin America. As analyzed by Craven, the term “modernism,”
“Por tanto, a pesar de que en cierto sentido hemos ingresado a un período

de historia posmoderno, poscolonial y poseurocéntrico, también es cierto que
debemos aún llegar al modernismo.” — David Craven 1
“En lo relativo a los movimientos artísticos latinoamericanos, …las

omisiones… se deben en gran medida a la descaracterización tendenciosa
que llega del mercado y al boom de las muestras de arte de los años 1980 y
1990 en los Estados Unidos.” — Mari Carmen Ramírez 2
En cierta manera, Pan American Modernism: Avant-Garde Art in Latin

America and the United States (Modernismo panamericano: la vanguardia
en Latinoamérica y Estados Unidos) se desarrolló como una reacción informal
a las teorías de David Craven sobre el arte moderno y posmoderno en
Latinoamérica, y como respuesta a las observaciones de Mari Carmen Ramírez
8 PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: DIALOGUES, COMMONALITIES, DISCONNECTS 9

or modernismo, was first utilized in relation to the arts by the This examination of modernity/postmodernity in the postcolonial era in processes. In accordance with this latter notion, even the term “Latin were held in U.S. collections. In his introductory essay for the show’s
Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío in the 1880s, rather than the French Latin America has subsequently been the topic of numerous intellectual America” becomes somewhat problematic, as we resort to utilizing catalogue, Shapiro writes:
poet Charles Baudelaire, who Craven aptly suggests employed the discourses, books, articles and exhibitions since the 1990s, particularly a generalized term that can never entirely encompass the localized
term modernité solely in response to the economic modernization in the United States, and yet a number of pertinent questions still differences that exist among the various nations of North, Central and What then is “Latin American” about these new paintings
of Europe in the 1860s.3 It would seem, then, that a discussion of remain today. First and foremost, are scholars able to move beyond South America, as well as the Caribbean. For example, the name of other than the nationality of the artists? Most Americans
the history of artistic modernism is a particularly American (read the “old” dichotomies that have long classified Latin America’s push this country – the United States – implies shared and common interests think of Latin American art as having a single identity. It
here as “relating to the Americas,” rather than to the United States) towards hegemonic equality, particularly in the twenty-first century? that seemingly bind our states together, and yet there exists (among would be a mistake, however, to assume that this art is or
concept. George Yúdice has similarly examined the claim that the Moreover, has the present discourse moved beyond a “center” versus these very same states) countless un-united ideals and conceptions of at any time was homogeneous.6
“precedent of postmodernity” could be situated in Latin America, “periphery” binary, or are we still tied to such constructs? And finally, what it means to be a U.S. citizen residing in this nation.
as opposed to the United States – a debate which suggests that the have we, as Craven offers, truly entered a postmodern, postcolonial, Evident in Shapiro’s statement is the understanding that Latin
neo-essentialism of postmodernity might mirror the heterogeneity and post-western-centered period of (art) history? Attempting The need to address these questions, however, was a nascent line of America, at least in 1959, was generally considered a single, unified
of Latin American nations and cultures.4 In linking modernity with to answer these very queries is where language ultimately fails us, inquiry when Joseph Randall Shapiro organized the 1959 exhibition concept within the collective U.S. consciousness, if not in scholarly
postmodernity, Gerardo Mosquera has further theorized that as words – often utilized as instruments of power – perhaps can The United States Collects Pan American Art, which opened at the discourses focused on the “other” Americas and their relationship
Latin America – when viewed from a Western (that is, Euro-North never truly capture the subtle nuances involved in the multicultural Art Institute of Chicago. Unlike Pan American Modernism, Shapiro’s to the United States. Shapiro seems to propose that geographic
American) perspective – may even have reached postmodernity conceptualizations that are postmodernism, postcolonialism, and 1959 exhibition did not include works by U.S. artists, opting instead proximity may be the only link between these artists and artistic
without ever having arrived at modernity.5 a post-western-centered examination of Pan American artistic to represent works from Canada and countries in Latin America that traditions, yet he invariably utilizes the term “American” to denote
sobre la atención desproporcionada dispensada a los movimientos la posmodernidad, Gerardo Mosquera ha ido más allá para teorizar (del arte) posmoderno, poscolonial y poseurocéntrico? Al intentar La necesidad de resolver estas cuestiones fue una perspectiva de
artísticos estadounidenses del siglo XX en relación a los movimientos que Latinoamérica, vista desde una perspectiva occidental (es decir responder estos interrogantes es donde la lengua resulta infructuosa indagación que emergió cuando Joseph Randall Shapiro organizó la
vanguardistas de Latinoamérica. Del modo en que lo analiza Craven, eurocentrista y norteamericana), puede incluso haber alcanzado la ya que las palabras, que a menudo se utilizan como instrumentos muestra The United States Collects Pan American Art (Los Estados
fue el poeta nicaragüense Rubén Darío quien utilizó por primera vez posmodernidad sin haber llegado a la modernidad.5 de poder, quizás nunca puedan de verdad captar las sutilezas que Unidos colecciona arte panamericano), que se inauguró en el
el término modernismo, en vez del poeta francés Charles Baudelaire, conllevan las conceptualizaciones multiculturales que implican el Art Institute of Chicago en 1959. A diferencia de Pan American
quien Craven indica con acierto que empleó el término modernité Este estudio de la modernidad/posmodernidad en la era poscolonial de estudio de los procesos artísticos posmodernos, poscoloniales y Modernism (Modernismo panamericano), la exhibición de Shapiro
solo en respuesta a la modernización económica europea de los Latinoamérica ha sido posteriormente el tema de numerosos discursos poseurocéntricos panamericanos. De acuerdo con esta noción, incluso no incluyó obras de artistas estadounidenses, y en su lugar optó
años 1860.3 Parecería, entonces, que cualquier discusión sobre la intelectuales, libros, artículos y muestras de arte desde los años 1990, el término “Latinoamérica” se vuelve de algún modo problemático, por presentar trabajos de Canadá y de países latinoamericanos
historia del modernismo en las artes es un concepto específicamente en particular en los Estados Unidos; no obstante, aún quedan una ya que recurrimos a un término general que nunca podrá abarcar pertenecientes a colecciones estadounidenses. En su ensayo
americano (entiéndase América como “las cuatro Américas” en lugar cantidad de interrogantes pertinentes a la fecha. En primer lugar, ¿son las diferencias localizada que existen entre las diversas naciones de introductorio al catálogo de la muestra, Shapiro se pregunta:
de solo a los Estados Unidos). De forma similar, George Yúdice ha capaces los académicos de dejar atrás las “viejas” dicotomías que América del Norte, América Central, América del Sur y América Insular.
examinado la afirmación de que “el precedente del posmodernismo” durante tanto tiempo han clasificado la presión de Latinoamérica hacia Por ejemplo, el nombre de este país, Estados Unidos, implica intereses ¿Qué es “latinoamericano” de estas pinturas más
se podría situar en Latinoamérica en lugar de en los Estados Unidos, la igualdad hegemónica, en particular en el siglo XXI? Asimismo, ¿el comunes y compartidos que parecen vincular nuestros estados; sin que la nacionalidad de los artistas? La mayoría de los
lo que implica un debate que sugiere que el neoesencialismo de la discurso actual se ha alejado del binario “centro” versus “periferia”, o embargo, existe (entre estos mismos estados) innumerables ideales estadounidenses piensa que el arte latinoamericano posee
posmodernidad podría ser un reflejo de la heterogeneidad de las aún nos encontramos atados a estos constructos? Por último, ¿hemos y concepciones no unificadas de lo que significa ser un ciudadano una identidad única. Sin embargo, sería un error dar por
naciones y culturas latinoamericanas.4 Al vincular la modernidad con de veras ingresado (como indica Craven) a un período de historia estadounidense que reside en esta nación. sentado que este arte es, o alguna vez fue, homogéneo.6
10 MODERNISMO PANAMERICANO: DIÁLOGOS, PUNTOS DE CONTACTO, INCONEXIONES PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: DIALOGUES, COMMONALITIES, DISCONNECTS 11
individuals from the U.S. alone, thus situating Latin America in a the exhibition did so by focusing solely on works produced in Latin Flores have previously argued, nothing more than “a jazzed-up BINARIES OF IDENTITY?
binary with the United States and Canada, as demonstrated in The America as a means of investigating these “other” modernisms remake of an old standard” – that is, U.S. “dominion” over less
United States Collects Pan American Art. apart from U.S. or European counterparts. powerful American nations.8 Interestingly enough, this distrust In line with Traba’s assertions, the Uruguayan constructivist artist
of the cultural and artistic impact of a U.S.-centric globalization Joaquín Torres-García, and the Chilean-born U.S. conceptual artist
Mari Carmen Ramírez’s examination of the bias shown to non- My point here is not to criticize Inverted Utopias, as it was, and and the effects that such cultural imperialism would have on the Alfredo Jaar, have each explored the semantics of “Americanism”
U.S. American art in this country highlights a paradox in the remains today, one of the most significant explorations of modern visual arts in Latin America was already being discussed in the in their modernist works, respectively. Torres-García’s seminal piece
current literature given that the intellectual formulation of artistic and postmodern art from Latin America. Rather, my aim with the 1970s by the influential Argentine-Colombian art critic Marta América invertida (Inverted America, 1943; illustration 1) has been
modernism was initially realized in Central America (Nicaragua), not present exhibition is to steer my audience away from a discourse Traba, who suggested that terms like “Latin American” and the subject of recent scholarship, including the exhibition catalogue
the United States or Europe. In her seminal 2004 exhibition Inverted centered on oppositional binaries, and instead explore the “American” were nothing more than vague labels assigned to for Inverted Utopias.10 In this image, Torres-García – who was the
Utopias: Avant-Garde Art in Latin America, which showcased a positivistic and tangible artistic exchange processes that transpired objects and individuals within an emerging global art market.9 originator of Constructive Universalism, as well as the founder of the
substantial survey of pan-Latin American art at the Museum of across the Americas – including the United States – from the As previously mentioned, one of the goals of the current Sociedad de las Artes del Uruguay (Society of Arts of Uruguay) and
Fine Arts, Houston, Ramírez offered that such an examination early to mid-twentieth century. This notwithstanding, accepting exhibition is to examine the use of such vague terminology, the Taller del Sur (Studio of the South) – toys with presuppositions
was overdue since avant-garde movements in Latin America (as this exhibition does) the notion that Pan Americanism might particularly since a number of artists, including Joaquín Torres- of geographic and cartographic “truths,” namely the historical (and
had yet to be given “a pertinent reading at the museological or be a fruitful tool to explore the dialogues, commonalities, and García and Alfredo Jaar, were also challenging these notions current) placement of South America in relation to North America on
academic level” in U.S. institutions.7 And while Inverted Utopias disconnects that exist between avant-garde art produced in the throughout the twentieth century. maps. Very much in dialogue with the history of European exploration
certainly helped, in Ramírez’s words, to “halt this vicious cycle,” Americas, may yet be, as George Yúdice, Jean Franco, and Juan in South America (and the resultant colonial period), Inverted America
Shapiro destaca en su declaración que, al menos en 1959, se veía a muestra de 2004, Inverted Utopias: Avant-Garde Art in Latin más bien guiar a mi público más allá de un discurso centrado y los efectos que tal imperialismo cultural podría tener sobre las
Latinoamérica como un concepto singular y unificado en el imaginario America (Utopías invertidas: la vanguardia en Latinoamérica), que en binarios opuestos para que pueda, en cambio, explorar los artes visuales latinoameticanas; Traba sugería que términos como
colectivo estadounidense cuando no en los discursos académicos realizó un recorrido sustancial del arte panamericano en el Museum procesos de intercambio positivistas y tangibles que ocurrieron “latinoamericano” y “americano” no eran más que rótulos amplios
centrados en las “otras” Américas y su relación con Estados Unidos. of Fine Arts de Houston, Ramírez indicó que hacía tiempo que era en toda América (incluyendo los Estados Unidos) desde principios que se asignaban a objetos e individuos en un mercado artístico
Shapiro parece proponer que la proximidad geográfica puede ser necesario un estudio de este tipo debido a que las vanguardias y mediados del siglo XX. No obstante, aceptar (como lo hace global emergente.9 Como ya se ha mencionado, uno de los objetivos
el único vínculo entre estos artistas y estas tradiciones artísticas; latinoamericanas debían aún recibir una “lectura pertinente a nivel esta muestra) la noción de que el panamericanismo pueda ser de esta muestra es examinar la utilización de tal terminología amplia,
sin embargo, utiliza el término “americano” para referirse a los museológico o académico” en instituciones estadounidenses.7 una herramienta fructífera para explorar los diálogos, puntos en particular ya que un número de artistas, incluyendo a Joaquín
individuos de los EE. UU. y de este modo sitúa a Latinoamérica en A pesar de que Inverted Utopias sin dudas contribuyó, según de contacto y inconexiones que existen entre las vanguardias Torres-García y Alfredo Jaar, también desafiaron estas nociones
un binario con los Estados Unidos y Canadá, como se demuestra en explica Ramírez, a “detener este círculo vicioso”, la muestra lo hizo producidas en América puede de todas maneras no ser más durante el siglo XX.
el título de la muestra The United States Collects Pan American Art. centrándose en las obras producidas en Latinoamérica solo como que, como sostienen George Yúdice, Jean Franco y Juan Flores,
medio para estudiar estos “otros” modernismos localizados más allá solo “una versión renovada de estándares viejos”, es decir, del ¿BINARIOS DE IDENTIDAD?
Los estudios de Mari Carmen Ramírez sobre el sesgo demostrado hacia de de sus contrapartes estadounidenses o europeos. “dominio” estadounidense sobre las naciones menos poderosas
el arte no estadounidense en este país subrayan una paradoja en la de América.8 Resulta interesante señalar que la influyente En consonancia con las afirmaciones de Traba, el artista constructivista
literatura actual dado que la formulación intelectual del modernismo Mi deseo no es criticar Inverted Utopias ya que fue, y continúa crítica de arte argentino colombiana Marta Traba ya discutía uruguayo Joaquín Torres-García y el artista conceptual estadounidense
artístico se llevó a cabo en un comienzo en Centroamérica (en siendo, una de las exploraciones más significativas del arte moderno en los años 1970 esta desconfianza por el impacto cultural y nacido en Chile Alfredo Jaar han cada uno explorado la semántica
Nicaragua), y no en los Estados Unidos o Europa. En su trascendente y posmoderno de Latinoamérica. Mi propósito con esta muestra es artístico de una globalización que girara en torno a los EE. UU. del “americanismo” en sus obras modernistas. La trascendente obra
Illustration 1 calls attention to the idea that maps have long been constructed theoretical perspective, this was an important maneuver for the Illustration 2
JOAQUÍN TORRES-GARCÍA and utilized as hegemonic tools to essentially “place” Latin America artist, as it allowed Torres-García to argue that the School of ALFREDO JAAR
b. 1874, Montevideo, Uruguay “below” the North. Given that South America is situated “below” the South was not tied to European or U.S. artistic movements b. 1956, Santiago, Chile
d. 1949, Montevideo, Uruguay North America in terms of latitudinal demarcations, Torres-García’s out of necessity or cultural hegemony; from a humorous Lives and works in New York,
New York
América invertida work is moreover a play on the cultural metaphors inherent in the perspective, Torres-García’s inverted map might be seen to
(Inverted America), 1943 semantics and semiology of maps. rescue South Americans from having to look “upside down” A Logo for America, 1987
ink on paper neon sign
7 1⁄2 x 8 1⁄4 in. (19 x 21 cm)
to see their North. Ultimately, Torres-García’s words remind us © 1987 Alfredo Jaar
Museo Torres García, In his 1935 manifesto La escuela del Sur (The School of the South), that terms such as “North” and “South” are nothing more Courtesy of the Artist, NY
Montevideo, Uruguay Torres-García initially argued that he chose this particular title than linguistic attempts to understand the world around us,
© Museo Torres García “because, in fact, our North looks South. For us, there must not sometimes in hierarchical ways, and often in terms of (arbitrary)
be a North, except in opposition to our South.”11 By inverting the geographic boundaries, divisions, and constructs.
South to the North, Torres-García’s Inverted America conceptually
proposes that by looking “North” – that is, toward South America’s Alfredo Jaar’s A Logo for America (1987, illustration 2) similarly
nearest pole, the South Pole – Uruguayan artists might embrace confronts the semantics involved in defining Pan Americanism. In
their “North,” while simultaneously distancing themselves from Jaar’s work, a series of animated images and texts were broadcast
the other North (that is, Europe, North America, etc.). From a on a Spectacolor light board affixed to the side of a building in
de Torres-García América invertida (1943) [ilustración 1], ha sido En su manifiesto del año 1935, La escuela del Sur, Torres-García de Torres-García nos recuerdan que palabras como “Norte” y funde a una silueta de los Estados Unidos; a continuación aparecen
objeto de recientes estudios académicos, incluyendo el catálogo de en principio sostenía que escogió este título en particular “porque, “Sur” no son más que intentos lingüísticos por comprender las palabras ESTO NO ES AMÉRICA sobre la silueta de los Estados
la muestra Inverted Utopias.10 En esta imagen, Torres-García (quien de hecho, nuestro Norte mira hacia el Sur. Para nosotros, no hay el mundo a nuestro alrededor, en ocasiones de maneras Unidos; la silueta y el texto desaparecen, y aparece la bandera de EE.
fue el iniciador del Universalismo Constructivo además del fundador Norte excepto en oposición a nuestro Sur”.11 Al invertir el Sur jerárquicas y a menudo en términos de límites geográficos, UU.; luego los colores tradicionales de la bandera se disuelven en sus
de la Sociedad de las Artes del Uruguay y del Taller del Sur) juega hacia el Norte, la obra América invertida de Torres-García propone, divisiones y constructos (arbitrarios). colores complementarios (verde, negro, anaranjado); las palabras ESTA
con las presuposiciones de “verdades” geográficas y cartográficas, desde lo conceptual, que al mirar hacia el “Norte” (es decir NO ES LA BANDERA DE AMÉRICA aparecen sobre la bandera verde de
es decir, con la ubicación histórica (y actual) de Sudamérica en hacia el polo más cercano a Sudamérica, el Polo Sur) los artistas La obra A Logo for America (Logotipo para América,1987) los EE. UU.; la bandera desaparece y la palabra AMÉRICA aparece en
relación con Norteamérica en los mapas. En dialogo con la historia uruguayos podrían acoger su “Norte” a la vez que se distanciarían [ilustración 2], de Alfredo Jaar, confronta de manera similar la la pantalla. La “R” de AMÉRICA cambia a varias formas geométricas
de la exploración europea en Sudamérica (y su consiguiente período del otro Norte (es decir, de Europa, Norteamérica, etc.). Desde una semántica de la definición de panamericanismo. En el trabajo de hasta que por fin se transforma en un contorno de América del Norte,
colonial), América invertida hace notar la idea de que los mapas pueden perspectiva teórica, esta maniobra fue importante para Torres- Jaar, se transmitieron una serie de imágenes y textos animados del Sur y Central. Este “mapa” de las Américas comienza a girar en
haberse construído y utilizado desde hace años como herramientas García ya que le permitió sostener que La escuela del Sur no en un cartel luminoso Spectacolor sobre el costado de un edificio medio del cartel luminoso mientras la palabra AMÉRICA, que se repite
hegemónicas para, en esencia, “ubicar” a Latinoamérica “debajo” del tuviera lazos que la unieran con movimientos artísticos europeos o de Times Square, en Nueva York. Me gustaría detenerme para a lo largo de la pantalla, comienza a moverse verticalmente a ambos
Norte. Dado que Sudamérica está situada “debajo” de Norteamérica estadounidenses más allá de la necesidad o la hegemonía cultural; describir la secuencia de palabras e imágenes que construyen A lados de la imagen de las Américas que está girando; la pantalla funde
en términos latitudinales, el trabajo de Torres-García además juega desde una perspectiva humorística, el mapa invertido del artista Logo for America ya que las ilustraciones presentadas aquí no a negro y la palabra AMÉRICA con el “mapa” de América del Norte,
con las metáforas culturales inherentes a la semántica y semiología podría librar a los sudamericanos de la necesidad de mirar “patas pueden transmitir la complejidad, ni la totalidad, de la instalación del Sur y Central vuelve a aparecer. Por último, el cartel funde a negro
de los mapas. para arriba” para ver su Norte. En última instancia, las palabras de Jaar. La obra comienza con un “mapa” de Estados Unidos que y el nombre del artista se revela en luces blancas.
New York City’s Time Square. I want to spend some time describing the spinning image of the Americas; the screen fades to black and painting, the title This is Not a Pipe, which is painted onto the canvas respective works, is equally observable in the discourse surrounding
the sequence of words and images that construct A Logo for the word AMERICA with the “map” of North, Central and South in French below an image of a pipe, reminds the viewer that she/he modernism and the ever-questionable, ever-changing definition of
America, as the accompanying images cannot convey the intricacies, America reappears. Finally, the board fades to black and the artist’s is not looking at an actual pipe, but rather, a painted representation postmodernism. Two decades ago, when Latin American cultural
or entirety, of Jaar’s installation. The work opens with a “map” of name is revealed in white lights. of a pipe. If we apply a similar semiotic reading to Jaar’s A Logo for studies, literary studies, and art history enjoyed a considerable revival
the United States, which then fades to an outline of the United America, then we conclude that we are not viewing a corrected map across the globe, numerous individuals were understandably invested
States; next, the words THIS IS NOT AMERICA appear superimposed It is important to consider how the specificity of Jaar’s piece in New of “America,” but rather, a representation of a representation of in bringing these “marginal” modernisms to the fore. It is interesting
over the outline of the United States; the outline and text disappear, York City suggests that the work’s message was intended to reach the Americas. This conceptual reading aside, Jaar certainly intended then, that when Latin American modernism and postmodernism are
and the U.S. flag appears; next, the traditional colors of the U.S. residents of the United States in the 1980s that unquestioningly his piece to spark a conversation on the semantics of the term discussed in academic circles, these terms often refer to avant-garde
flag dissolve into their color compliments (green, black, orange); the assumed that the term “America” exclusively referred to the United “America” when considered from a U.S.-centric perspective. When literary movements, rather than those that transpired in the visual
words THIS IS NOT AMERICA’S FLAG appear over the green U.S. States. In her analysis of Jaar’s piece, Jacqueline Barnitz suggests that viewed together, Torres-García’s Inverted America and Jaar’s A Logo arts.13 My choice of terms in the present exhibition might therefore
flag; the flag disappears and the word AMERICA appears on the the map of North, Central and South America can therefore be read for America collectively complicate the viewer’s understanding of appear quizzical, as Pan American Modernism may imply (to some)
screen. The “R” in AMERICA then morphs into various geometric as a “corrected map of ‘America’,” insofar as all of the Americas are what it means to be an American, while expanding the possibilities an examination of the literary avant-gardes – which it does not offer
shapes, before it finally transforms into an outline of North, Central represented in this image.12 Barnitz also proposes that a conceptual for what this term can – and does – represent. – given my interest in the history and usage of the term modernism/
and South America. This “map” of the Americas starts to pinwheel link exists between Jaar’s work and René Magritte’s painting La modernismo in a Latin American context. The repeated use of “Pan
in the middle of the light board, while the word AMERICA, which is trahison des images (Ceci n’est pas une pipe) (The Treachery of The problem of terminology, as it applies to North and South America, American” throughout the exhibition equally risks highlighting the
repeated across the screen, starts to move vertically on either side of Images [This is Not a Pipe]) of 1928-1929. In Magritte’s surrealist or Latin America and the United States in Torres-García’s and Jaar’s contestable notion that Pan Americanism is nothing more than an
Es importante considerar cómo la especificidad de la pieza de Jaar una lectura semiótica similar a A Logo for America de Jaar, llegamos estudios culturales latinoamericanos, los estudios literarios y la los Estados Unidos (visto como el “centro” de esta Panamérica) de
en la ciudad de Nueva York sugiere que el mensaje de la obra estaba a la conclusión de que no estamos viendo un mapa corregido de historia del arte gozaban de un renacimiento considerable en todo el imponer su arte y cultura sobre los países americanos que residen en
dirigido a los residentes de los Estados Unidos en los años 1980, “América” sino la representación de una representación de las mundo, numerosos individuos se encontraban comprensiblemente la “periferia” de este centro. Sin embargo, me justifico en la agenda
quienes sin dudarlo daban por sentado que la palabra “América” se Américas. Dejando esta lectura conceptual aparte, sin dudas Jaar dedicados a traer a estos modernismos “marginales”a primer curatorial que da sustento a este proyecto.
refería de manera exclusiva a los Estados Unidos. En su análisis de deseaba que esta obra despertara una discusión sobre la semántica plano. Por lo tanto, resulta interesante que cuando se discuten
la obra de Jaar, Jacqueline Barnitz sugiere que el mapa de América del término “América” si se la observa desde una perspectiva los modernismos y posmodernismos latinoamericanos en círculos Al proponer (con una cierta despreocupación) que traslademos el
del Norte, del Sur y Central puede entonces leerse como un “mapa centrada en los EE. UU. Juntas, América invertida de Torres-García y académicos, estos términos a menudo se refieran a movimientos presente discurso a una arena post posmoderna, o incluso a una
corregido de ‘América’ “ en tanto y en cuanto las Américas se ven A Logo for America de Jaar complejizan la idea del espectador sobre literarios vanguardistas en lugar de a aquellos que ocurrieron en las antipostmoderna, espero que las obras de esta muestra les permitan
representadas en esta imagen.12 Barnitz también propone que lo que significa ser americano a la vez que expanden las posibilidades artes visuales.13 Mi elección de términos en la presente muestra a los espectadores esquivar los binarios que colman la literatura
existe un vínculo conceptual entre el trabajo de Jaar y la pintura de lo que el término puede representar (y que de hecho lo hace). puede entonces parecer enigmática ya que (para algunos) Pan actual: binarios tales como “centro” versus “periferia”; “colonizador
de René Magritte La trahison des images (Cecin’est pas une pipe) American Modernism puede significar un estudio de las vanguardias cultural” versus “otro”; “privilegiado” versus “excluído”; “Occidente”
(La traición de las imágenes [Esto no es una pipa]) de 1928-1929. El problema de la terminología y como se aplica a Norte y Sudamérica, literarias (lo que esta muestra no ofrece) dado mi interés por la historia versus “No occidente”, y en cambio investigar los vanguardismos
En la pintura surrealista de Magritte, el título Esto no es una pipa, o Latinoamérica y los Estados Unidos en las obras respectivas de y el uso del término modernismo en un contexto latinoamericano. americanos más allá de estos constructos dicotómicos. Creo que
que se pinta en francés sobre el lienzo debajo de la imagen de una Torres-García y Jaar, se observa de igual manera en el discurso que La utilización repetida de “panamericano” en toda esta exhibición también es importante desafiar (por más que resulte paradójico) la
pipa, le recuerda al espectador que no está mirando una pipa de rodea al modernismo y la siempre cuestionable y siempre cambiante corre de igual modo el riesgo de subrayar la noción discutible de idea de que los movimientos artísticos de los EE. UU. mantuvieron
verdad sino una representación pintada de una pipa. Si aplicamos definición de posmodernismo. Hace dos décadas, cuando los que el panamericanismo no es más que un intento por parte de un dominio inequívoco y uniforme sobre los movimientos que
attempt on the part of the United States (seen as the “center” of Perhaps such an objective is impossible, or naïve, yet when one Art, Minimalism, Op Art.” With regard to this latter module, it is Kenneth Noland, Julian Stanczak, and Frank Stella, as well as the
this Pan America) to impose its art and culture on American countries considers that a number of the artists that fill the walls and pages important to note that many of the artists, who shared a common Venezuelan artist Carlos Cruz-Diez.14 Interestingly enough, works by
residing on the “periphery” of this center. And yet, I feel justified in of this exhibition and catalogue were not grappling with these interest in the tenets of geometric abstraction (even when visually the Venezuelan painter Jesús Rafael Soto (see cat. nos. 70 & 74),
the curatorial agenda that informs this project. binaries, but were instead interested in creating and promoting their confronting such disparate styles as minimalism, optical or “retinal” which compare favorably to works by Cruz-Diez, were not included
art and the art of others, then this task certainly seems plausible. The art, and kinetic art), had previously been shown together in 1965 in The Responsive Eye. Pan American Modernism not only reunites
By proposing—somewhat glibly—that we move the present narratives explored in Pan American Modernism hopefully attest to when William C. Seitz organized The Responsive Eye exhibition works by various artists in the MoMA show in order to analyze their
discourse into a post-postmodern arena, or even an anti-postmodern this endeavor. at The Museum of Modern Art. The MoMA show was principally commonalities and disconnects, but additionally presents works by
arena, my hope is that works in the exhibition will allow viewers an exploration of the importance of color, media, and form in Soto and the Colombian artist Eduardo Ramírez Villamizar, both
to circumvent the binaries that pervade the current literature – PAN AMERICAN EXCHANGES nonobjective paintings created throughout Europe, the United of whom were part of the optical and kinetic art movements, and
binaries like “center” versus “periphery”; “cultural colonizer” States and Latin America, but Seitz’s exhibition equally examined furthermore interested in the modernist language of geometric
versus “other”; “insider” versus “outsider”; “West” versus “Not In his essay “Geometry and Gesture: Notes on Abstractions in the the manner in which contemporary, post-painterly abstraction had abstraction. Torres-García and Pierre Daura, who had collectively
West” – and instead investigate American avant-gardism apart Americas,” which follows in this volume, Edward J. Sullivan offers developed in response to the New York School’s particular brand of formed the Parisian anti-surrealist group Cercle et Carré (Circle and
from these dichotomous constructs. I think it is also important astute observations on the connections that exist between artists Abstract Expressionism. Square), equally favored geometric abstraction and constructivism,
to challenge, however paradoxically, the idea that U.S. artistic and objects in the “Abstract Expressionism and its Legacy: A Pan as evidenced by the iconography of their respective works (cat. nos.
movements unequivocally and uniformly held dominion over those American Language?” module, as well as the final module of the Individuals represented in both The Responsive Eye and Pan American 63-65). A final image titled Circus (cat. no. 75) by the U.S. artist
that transpired in Latin America throughout the twentieth century. exhibition, “The Legacy of Geometric Abstraction: Constructivist Modernism include U.S. artists Richard J. Anuszkiewicz, Gene Davis, Gordon Matta-Clark (son of the Chilean surrealist artist Roberto
ocurrieron en toda Latinoamérica a lo largo del siglo XX. Quizás módulo “Abstract Expressionism and its Legacy: A Pan American la manera en la que la abstracción contemporánea pospictoricista se arte cinético y op-art además de estar interesados en el lenguaje
este objetivo sea imposible, o ingenuo; sin embargo, cuando uno Language?” (El expresionismo abstracto y su legado: ¿un lenguaje había desarrollado en respuesta al tipo de expresionismo particular modernista de la abstracción geométrica. Joaquín Torres-García y
considera que muchos de los artistas que cubren las paredes de esta panamericano?), al igual que en el módulo final de la muestra “The de la New York School. Pierre Daura, que habían formado colectivamente el grupo parisino
muestra y llenan las páginas de este catálogo no lidiaban con estos Legacy of Geometric Abstraction: Constructivist Art, Minimalism, antisurrealista Cercle et Carré (Círculo y Cuadrado), favorecían del
binarios sino que se interesaban por crear y promover su arte y la de Op Art” (El legado de la abstracción geométrica: arte constructivo, Los individuos representados tanto en The Responsive Eye como mismo modo la abstracción y el constructivismo, como se evidencia
otros, entonces esta tarea sin dudas parece razonable. Espero que minimalimo, op art”. Con respecto a este último módulo, es en Pan American Modernism incluyen artistas estadounidenses en las iconografías de sus trabajos respectivos (no. cat. 63-65).
las narrativas exploradas en Pan American Modernism den cuenta importante señalar que muchos de los artistas, quienes compartían como Richard J. Anuszkiewicz, Gene Davis, Kenneth Noland, Una imagen final titulada Circus (Circo) (no. cat. 75), del artista
este esfuerzo. un interés común por principios de la abstracción geométrica (aun Julian Stanczak y Frank Stella, además de al artista venezolano estadounidense Gordon Matta-Clark (hijo del artista chileno Roberto
cuando desde lo visual confrontaban estilos tan dispares como el Carlos Cruz-Diez.14 Resulta interesante observar que las obras del Matta), completa el módulo “The Legacy of Geometric Abstraction”
INTERCAMBIOS PANAMERICANOS minimalismo, el op-art o arte “retinal” y el arte cinético), ya habían pintor venezolano Jesús Rafael Soto (ver no. cat. 70 y 74), que se (El legado de la abstracción geométrica). A diferencia de las obras
expuesto juntos en 1965 cuando William C. Seitz organizó la muestra comparan de manera favorable con los trabajos de Cruz-Diez, no se de Cruz-Diez, Noland, Soto y Stella, el collage fotográfico de Matta-
En su ensayo “Geometry and Gesture: Notes on Abstractions in The Responsive Eye (El ojo receptivo) en el Museum of Modern Art vieron incluídos en The Responsive Eye. Pan American Modernism Clark transmite un sentido de figuración de manera contrastante
the Americas” (Gesto y geometría: apuntes sobre la abstracción de Nueva York. La exposición del MoMA fue principalmente una no solo reúne las obras de varios artistas de la muestra del MoMA ya que en la pieza se distinguen “fragmentos” de edificios; sin
en América) que se encuentra más adelante en este volumen, exploración sobre la importancia del color, el medio y la forma en para analizar sus puntos de contacto e inconexiones, sino que embargo, la naturaleza deconstructivista del trabajo vincula desde
Edward J. Sullivan ofrece algunas observaciones astutas acerca pinturas no figurativas creadas en toda Europa, Estados Unidos y además presenta obras de Soto y del artista colombiano Eduardo lo teórico la obra de Matta-Clark con articulaciones anteriores de
de las conexiones que existen entre los artistas y los objetos en el Latinoamérica, pero la muestra de Seitz examinaba de igual modo Ramírez Villamizar, quienes formaron parte de los movimientos de constructivismo y abstracción geométrica más que la fotografía
Matta) completes “The Legacy of Geometric Abstraction” module. In her essay “Body of Evidence: The Modernisms of Manuel Mexican Revolution era, as well as non-muralists like Frida Kahlo, Notions of modernist “primitivism,” or “otherness,” furthermore
Unlike works by Cruz-Diez, Noland, Soto and Stella, Matta-Clark’s Álvarez Bravo,” Heather Diack explores a number of important who Lola frequently photographed in the 1940s.15 develops as a common theme amongst a number of these works,
photographic collage contrastingly conveys a sense of figuration, in images created by this Mexican photographer in the 1920s including the Afrocubanismo of the subject in Enríquez’s Mulata
so far as “fragments” of buildings are discernible in the piece; and through the 1950s. In addition to offering thorough and critical One of these images of Kahlo (cat. no. 7) forms part of the “Female (cat. no. 3), the African sculpture depicted in Man Ray’s Noire et
yet, the deconstructivist nature of the work theoretically links Matta- analyses of works by Álvarez Bravo included in the “Mexican Muse” module, which examines the widespread modernist interest blanche (cat. no. 8), and the visage of Lam’s femme cheval, or horse-
Clark’s work to earlier articulations of Constructivism and geometric Muralism” and “Modernist Photography” modules, Diack equally in female subjects – a trope long explored throughout the history of headed woman, which is reflected on the surface of the mirror in
abstraction, rather than the “pure” photography explored by many discusses his oeuvre in relation to images by U.S. photographers art. Unlike a number of the other modules, this particular section the artist’s 1943 drawing.
of the artists in the “Modernist Photography” module. Like Matta- Edward Weston, Man Ray, and Walker Evans, whose works can proposes that commonalities among disparate works could be
Clark’s Circus, Carl Andre’s Yucatan (cat. no. 62), which completes also be found in this exhibition and catalogue. Álvarez Bravo explored through subject matter, rather than stylistic, conceptual, In terms of Pan American artistic exchanges, a number of
the photography module, presents theoretical challenges to the met Weston through the Italian actress and photographer Tina or cultural constructs. Various works by Cuban avant-gardists, such relationships between these artists speak to the importance of
medium, while confronting the need for a distinction between “low” Modotti, who, along with Weston, was living and working in as Eduardo Abela, Carlos Enríquez (de Gomez), Antonio Gattorno, travel, the interest in sharing ideas about art and culture, and the
and “high” art forms. Andre, who was close friends with Stella, Mexico in the 1920s. Álvarez Bravo’s first wife, Lola Álvarez Bravo, Wifredo Lam, and Amelia Peláez, take the female body as subject, personal connections that brought artists from the Americas into
was likewise a proponent of minimalism, and Yucatan interestingly was also a photographer that worked alongside her husband until be that through the visual language of naturalistic, surrealist, or contact with one another during the twentieth century. For example,
highlights the interplay between minimalism, conceptual art, their separation in 1934. Like Manuel, Lola was affiliated with cubistic forms. Wifredo Lam’s Untitled ink drawing (cat. no. 6) Enríquez was briefly married to the U.S. artist Alice Neel, who he
concrete poetry, geometric abstraction, and new media (such as the artists associated with the Mexican muralism movement, such as reveals a woman gazing at her reflection in a handheld mirror, a met in Philadelphia during his studies there in the 1920s; in turn,
Xerox machine as artistic device). Diego Rivera (see cat. no. 21), who were working during the post- theme equally evident in Lola Álvarez Bravo’s photograph of Kahlo. Neel spent time in Havana following their marriage in 1925, which,
“pura” explorada por muchos de los artistas en el módulo “Modernist y hasta los años 50. Además de ofrecer análisis completos y críticos Una de estas imágenes de Kahlo (no. cat. 7) forma parte del módulo obras, incluyendo el afrocubanismo del tema en Mulata de Enríquez
Photography” (Fotografía modernista). Al igual que Circus (Circo) de las obras de Álvarez Bravo incluídas en los módulos “Mexican “Female Muse” (Musa femenina), que examina el interés modernista (no. cat. 3), la escultura africana fotografiada por Man Ray en Noire
de Matta-Clark, Yucatan (Yucatán) (no. cat. 62), de Carl Andre, Muralism” (Muralismo mexicano) y “Modernist Photography” tan extendido en los sujetos femeninos, un tropo explorado por años et blanche (no. cat. 8), y el rostro de femme cheval (o mujer con
que completa el módulo de fotografía, presenta desafíos técnicos (Fotografía modernista), Diack también discute su obra en relación a lo largo de la historia del arte. A diferencia de otros módulos, esta cabeza de caballo) de Lam, que se refleja en el espejo en el dibujo
para el medio a la vez que confronta la necesidad de distinción con imágenes de los fotógrafos estadounidenses Edward Weston, sección en particular propone que se pueden explorar los puntos del artista de 1943.
entre formas artísticas “bajas” y “altas”. Andre, quien era amigo Man Ray y Walker Evans, cuyos trabajos también se pueden encontrar de contacto entre trabajos dispares a través del tema en lugar de
íntimo de Stella, era de igual modo un defensor del minimalismo, y en esta muestra y catálogo. Álvarez Bravo conoció a Weston a través a través de los constructos estilísticos, conceptuales o culturales. En términos de intercambios panamericanos, una cantidad de
resulta interesante destacar que Yucatan (Yucatán) subraya el juego de la actriz y fotógrafa italiana Tina Modotti, quien vivía y trabajaba Varias obras de vanguardistas cubanos como Eduardo Abela, Carlos relaciones entre estos artistas hablan de la importancia de los
entre minimalismo, arte conceptual, poesía concreta, abstracción junto a Weston en México en los años 1920. La primera esposa de Enríquez (de Gomez), Antonio Gattorno, Wifredo Lam y Amelia viajes, el interés por compartir ideas acerca del arte y la cultura y las
geométrica y los nuevos medios (tales como la máquina Xerox como Álvarez Bravo, Lola Álvarez Bravo, también era fotógrafa y trabajó Peláez toman el cuerpo femenino como tema a través del lenguaje conexiones personales que pusieron a estos artistas americanos en
artefacto artístico). junto a su esposo hasta que se separaron en 1934. Al igual que visual de las formas ya sean naturalistas, surrealistas o cubistas. El contacto unos con otros durante el siglo XX. Por ejemplo, Enríquez
Manuel, Lola se relacionaba con artistas asociados al movimiento dibujo de tinta en papel Untitled (Sin título), de Wifredo Lam (no. estuvo casado por un breve lapso con la artista estadounidense Alice
En su ensayo “Body of Evidence: The Modernisms of Manuel muralista mexicano tales como Diego Rivera (ver no. cat. 21) que cat. 6), revela una mujer que mira su reflejo en un espejo de mano, Neel, a quien conoció en Filadelfia cuando estudiaba allí en los años
Álvarez Bravo” (Cuerpo del delito: los modernismos de Manuel trabajaban durante el período posterior a la Revolución Mexicana, un tema por igual evidente en la fotografía que realizara Lola Álvarez 1920; a su vez, Neel pasó algún tiempo en La Habana luego de
Álvarez Bravo), Heather Diack explora un número de imágenes de además de con artistas que no eran muralistas como Frida Kahlo, a Bravo de Kahlo. Ciertas nociones del “primitivismo” (u “otredad”) casada en 1925, lo que, de acuerdo con Pamela Allara, tuvo un gran
importancia creadas por este fotógrafo mexicano en los años 1920 quien Lola fotografió con frecuencia en los años 1940.15 modernista se desarrollan como tema común en un número de estas efecto en el “arte con sentido social” de Neel.16 Esta unión marital
according to Pamela Allara, had a profound affect on Neel’s “socially by communist or revolutionary ideals, and Shahn’s, which was driven works by Matta, Motherwell, Manuel Álvarez Bravo, and Carlos (whether in the local or global sense of this collective pronoun) have
concerned art.”16 This marital and artistic union between a Cuban by his Leftist political leanings as a social democrat.18 Mérida (see cat. nos. 44, 45, 52 & 24).21 The Dyn Circle, which was either transcended into a utopic understanding of Pan Americanism,
and U.S. artist was present in a number of other relationships recently the focus of a 2012-2013 exhibition at the Getty Research or slipped back into retrograde ways of thinking about Latin
throughout the modern/postmodern era, including Ana Mendieta’s Other surprising connections exist between artists included in Pan Institute, provides a further thread connecting artists in the current American avant-gardism in relation to U.S. modernism. Instead, this
tumultuous marriage to Carl Andre. A further anecdote concerning American Modernism, some superficial, and others particularly show, given that the journal’s founder – the Austrian-Mexican artist exhibition and catalogue strive to discuss the many dialogues – both
Pan American artistic interactions reveals that in 1932 the Rockefeller substantial. Wifredo Lam, who is typically associated with European and writer Wolfgang Paalen – studied art under Hans Hofmann (see linguistic and stylistic – that transpired between artists residing in
family commissioned Diego Rivera to create a mural (Man at the artists like Pablo Picasso and the Parisian Surrealists, briefly spent cat. no. 34) before each of these men immigrated to the Americas the Americas between 1919 and 1979, in order to explore tangible
Crossroads) at Rockefeller Center in New York City – a painting that time discussing art with the U.S. abstract expressionists Jackson (Hofmann to the United States, and Paalen to Mexico). These and relationships that were forged through the vibrant exchange of ideas
was famously destroyed in 1934 when Rivera refused to remove an Pollock and Lee Krasner (see cat. no. 38) during a trip to their Long other anecdotes concerning Pan American artistic exchanges are concerning the commonalities and disconnects that exist between
image of the Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin from the mural. While Island home in 1947.19 The U.S. artist Robert Motherwell, who was more fully explored in the illustrated catalogue that follows the first art and culture.
the fresco was still in progress, however, the U.S. social realist artist equally associated with Pollock and Krasner during the 1940s and part of this book, and, as a final reminder, have served as the very
Ben Shahn assisted Rivera with portions of the large-scale painting.17 1950s, was also close friends with the Chilean artist Roberto Matta, impetus for the present exhibition.
Accordingly, images by Rivera and Shahn (cat. nos. 21 & 22) hang who traveled with Motherwell to Mexico in the 1940s.20 Motherwell
side by side in Pan American Modernism as an opportunity to reflect later served as an editor and contributor to the short-lived, but Pan American Modernism is not, however, an attempt to offer
upon this relationship, but to also consider the differences that exist influential Mexican avant-garde art journal Dyn, which promoted definitive answers, to put forth a single narrative on the development
between Rivera’s “brand” of social realism, which was often driven works by numerous artists between 1942 and 1944, including of modern art in the Americas, or to conclusively state that we
y artística entre cubano y estadonidense también se dio en una comunistas o revolucionarios, y el de Shahn, que se veía animado que tuvo gran influencia en el medio; el periódico promovió la obra arte moderno en América, o declarar de manera concluyente que
cantidad de otras parejas durante toda la era moderna/posmoderna, por sus inclinaciones políticas izquierdistas de social demócrata.18 de numerosos artistas entre 1942 y 1944, incluyendo los trabajos nosotros (ya sea entendido el pronombre plural en sentido local o
incluyendo el tumultuoso matrimonio de Ana Mendieta y Carl Andre. de Matta, Motherwell, Manuel Álvarez Bravo, y Carlos Mérida internacional) hemos o bien alcanzado una comprensión utópica
Otra anécdota relativa a las interacciones artísticas panamericanas Existen otras conexiones sorprendentes entre los artistas que se (ver no. cat. 44, 45, 52 y 24).21 El Círculo Dyn, foco reciente de del panamericanismo o retrocedido a formas retrógradas de pensar
revela que en 1932 la familia Rockefeller le comisionó a Diego incluyen en Pan American Modernism: algunas resultan superficiales, la muestra del Getty Research Institute en 2012-2013, ofrece otros las vanguardias latinoamericanas en relación con el modernismo
Rivera que creara un mural, Man at the Crossroads (Hombre en la pero otras son particularmente sustanciales. Wifredo Lam, a quien vínculos de conexión entre los artistas de la presente exposición ya estadounidense. En cambio, esta muestra y catálogo intentan
encrucijada) en el Rockefeller Center de la ciudad de Nueva York, en general se asocia con artistas europeos como Pablo Picasso y los que su fundador, el artista y escritor austríaco mexicano Wolfgang discutir los numerosos diálogos (lingüísticos y estilísticos) que
pintura que fue celebremente destruída en 1934 cuando Rivera se surrealistas parisinos, pasó un período corto analizando arte con los Paalen estudió arte con Hans Hofmann (ver no. cat. 34) antes de ocurrieron entre artistas que vivían en América entre 1919 y 1979
rehusó a retirar una imagen del líder soviético Vladimir Lenin del expresionistas abstractos Jackson Pollock y Lee Krasner (ver no. cat. que ambos emigraran a América (Hofmann a Estados Unidos y con el objeto de explorar las relaciones tangibles que se forjaron a
mural. Sin embargo, mientras el fresco estaba aún en proceso, el 38) durante un viaje a la casa que estos tenían en Long Island en Paalen a México). Estas y otras anécdotas relativas a los intercambios través del animado intercambio de ideas en cuanto a los puntos de
artista realista social Ben Shahn ayudó a Rivera en algunas porciones 1947.19 El artista estadounidense Robert Motherwell, quien también artísticos panamericanos se encuentran exploradas en mayor detalle contacto y las inconexiones que existen entre el arte y la cultura.
de la inmensa pintura.17 Por lo tanto, imágenes de Rivera y Shahn estaba vinculado con Pollock y Krasner en los años 1940 y 1950, en el catálogo ilustrado que sigue la primera parte de este libro y,
(no. cat. 21 y 22) se ubican lado a lado en Pan American Modernism era también amigo del artista chileno Roberto Matta, quien viajó como recordatorio final, han impulsado la presente muestra.
para tener la oportunidad de reflexionar sobre esta relación, pero con Motherwell a México en los años 1940.20 Motherwell luego
también para considerar las diferencias que existen entre el “tipo” se desempeñó como editor y colaborador del periódico de arte No obstante, Pan American Modernism no intenta ofrecer respuestas
de realismo social de Rivera, que a menudo fue impulsado por ideales vanguardista Dyn, que solo se publicó durante un período breve pero definitivas, proponer una narrativa única sobre el desarrollo del
GEOMETRY AND GESTURE: INTRODUCTION
NOTES ON ABSTRACTIONS IN THE AMERICAS Abstract art, in all its varied forms, is having a major come-back in American
and European museums and is attracting renewed attention from the general
public. Judging from the recent efforts of New York’s Museum of Modern
Art, we observe a serious commitment to the subject. In 2010-2011 MoMA
GESTO Y GEOMETRÍA: mounted a major show entitled Abstract Expressionist New York (drawn from
APUNTES SOBRE LA ABSTRACCIÓN EN LAS AMÉRICAS its own immense holdings in this area) and in 2011-2012, De Kooning: A
Retrospective allowed us a ‘close up and personal’ look at the work of this
great pioneer of American abstraction. As this essay was being written (in
winter, 2012-2013) a major exhibition entitled Inventing Abstraction: 1910-
1925 was seen at MoMA. Investigating the roots of non-objective art in
Edward J. Sullivan Europe and the United States (with particular attention being paid to the
contributions of Russian, German, Dutch, Italian and Central European artists
as well as to some of the North Americans associated with the Synchromist
movement), this exhibition and its valuable catalogue allowed us invaluable
INTRODUCCIÓN
En toda su variedad de formas, el arte abstracto experimenta, en la actualidad,

un resurgimiento en los museos europeos y estadounidenses y atrae una
atención renovada del público. A juzgar por los esfuerzos recientes del Museum
of Modern Art de Nueva York (MoMA), se observa un serio compromiso con
el tema. En 2010-2011, el MoMA organizó una muestra importante titulada
Abstract Expressionist New York (Expresionismo abstracto en Nueva York) de su
inmensa colección en el área y en 2011-2012 hizo lo propio con De Kooning: A
Retrospective (De Kooning: Una retrospectiva), que nos permitió observar “de
cerca” la obra de este gran pionero de la abtracción estadounidense. Mientras
se escribía este ensayo (invierno de 2012-2013), se presentaba una muestra de
trascendencia con el título Inventing Abstraction: 1910-1925 (Inventando la
abstracción: 1910-1925) en el mismo Museo de Arte Moderno. Al investigar las
raíces de este arte no figurativo en Europa y los Estados Unidos (con atención
especial a las contribuciones de los artistas rusos, alemanes, holandeses, italianos
24 GEOMETRY AND GESTURE: NOTES ON ABSTRACTIONS IN THE AMERICAS 25

insights into the genesis of not only a form of art but a mode of university museum which has the mission not only to collect and a landmark in rehabilitating the career of the virtual founder in Latin “signs of identity.” At times their “American DNA,” as it were, is
visual and cultural expression that had (and still has) profound display art for the edification and interest of the general public but America of forms of art based on the principles of geometry.24 Some present in the way that artists suggest sources from specific design
consequences in all parts of the world.22 for the education of students in all fields in which the visual arts can years later, in 2004, Ramírez and many of her colleagues discussed motifs or patterns of architectural form (I deal with this here in my
illuminate their processes of learning. the multitude of forms of abstract visual languages in the essays remarks on what I call “Mythological Abstractions”). At other times
The Lowe Art Museum’s Pan American Modernism: Avant-Garde that accompanied the monumental exhibition Inverted Utopias: such distinct-ness is more difficult to determine. After all, abstraction
Art in Latin America and the United States exhibition is another It is noteworthy that Pan American Modernism poses to its viewers Avant-Garde Art in Latin America shown at the Museum of Fine has become so common and a natural way for us to accept visual
demonstration of a cultural institution’s search for meanings within the question “is abstraction a Pan American language,” this is Arts, Houston.25 Many of the catalogue essays dealt either directly information, since its earliest beginnings around 1910, that it’s
the parameters of its own collection. While abstract art forms only precisely the query that has been implicit within a number of recent or obliquely with the existence (or lack thereof) of a [Latin] American difficult to isolate the genesis of individual ways of abstracting
a portion of its contents, this exhibition is notable for bringing to international exhibitions of abstract art from the Americas. The sensibility to abstraction. This is, of course, a fundamental issue and observed reality or suggesting evanescent things. Artists from the
the fore a number of works (many of them seldom seen in the decade of the 1990s and into the present has witnessed a much one that has provoked my own ruminations on this subject. Americas, as well as from everywhere else, inevitably absorb, share
galleries) by artists from virtually all parts of the Americas who have broader interest in abstraction produced in the nations south of and re-invent many of the sources to which they have been exposed
experimented with a variety of ways of creating images which do not the U.S. border and in the Caribbean than ever before. To cite only The essay that follows (which outlines certain thematic and – often without even being conscious of their origins.
have observed reality (including the human form) as their point of a few major projects organized around the theme of abstract art methodological approaches that I hope to take in a larger study of
departure. Pan American Modernism also serves another important we might remember the seminal exhibition El Taller Torres-García.23 this subject) does not attempt to solve this complex problem but In the past decade further exhibitions of Latin American abstract art
purpose. It allows the public a glimpse at the patterns of collecting Organized by curator Mari Carmen Ramírez for the The Archer M. to suggest some ways in which we could consider various forms of have helped to push forward the conversation about its significance into
of one of the region’s most significant art spaces – in this case, a Huntington Art Gallery (and an international tour), this project was abstraction done by artists throughout the Americas to have certain realms unexplored until now. Among many such projects, the various
y centroeuropeos, además de algunos norteamericanos asociados con que no han utilizado la realidad objetiva (incluso la forma humana) Desde la década de 1990 se ha observado un interés inédito mucho los ensayos del catálogo trataron de manera directa o tangencial la
el movimiento de Sincromismo), con su valioso catálogo, esta muestra como punto de partida de su obra. Pan American Modernism más amplio en el arte abstracto producido en las naciones al sur de existencia (o ausencia) de una sensibilidad [latino] americana a la
nos otorgó perspectivas invaluables en lo relativo al génesis no solo (Modernismo panamericano) tiene además otro propósito. Le los Estados Unidos y en el Caribe. Para citar algunos de los proyectos abstracción. Se trata, por supuesto, de un tema fundamental que
de una forma de arte sino de un modo de expresión visual y cultural permite al público echar una mirada a los patrones de coleccionismo más importantes que giraron en torno al tema de la abstracción me ha preocupado en los últimos años.
que tuvo (y aún tiene) consecuencias profundas en todo el mundo.22 de uno de los espacios artísticos más significativos de la región: en vale recordar la trascendente muestra El Taller Torres-García.23 Mari
este caso un museo universitario cuya misión no es solo adquirir y Carmen Ramírez fue la curadora de esta exposición de 1992 en El presente ensayo, que representa un bosquejo de ciertos enfoques
La exposición del Lowe Art Museum Pan American Modernism: exhibir arte para satisfacer el interés y las necesidades de cultura el museo de arte de la Universidad de Texas (y para su posterior temáticos y metodológicos sobre los que espero ahondar en un
Avant-Garde Art in Latin America and the United States (Modernismo del público sino también para la educación de los estudiantes en itinerancia internacional): un proyecto que marcó un hito que volvió estudio mayor sobre el tema, no intenta resolver este complejo
panamericano: la vanguardia en Latinoamérica y los Estados Unidos) todos los campos en los que las artes visuales pueden iluminar sus a poner en escena la carrera del virtual fundador en Latinoamérica problema. Mi deseo es de sugerir algunas maneras en las que
es otro ejemplo de la búsqueda de significados de una institución procesos de aprendizaje. de las formas artísticas basadas en los principios de la geometría.24 podríamos considerar las varias formas de abstracción realizadas
cultural dentro de los parámetros de su propia colección. A pesar de Unos años después, en 2004, Ramírez y muchos de sus colegas por artistas en toda América para que podamos comprender ciertas
que el arte abstracto representa solo una porción de su contenido, Vale mencionar que Pan American Modernism les presenta a retomaron los temas de la multiplicidad de formas que adquieren “marcas de identidad”. En ocasiones, su “ADN americano” (por
esta muestra es notable por poner una cantidad de obras en primer los visitantes el interrogante “¿es la abstracción un lenguaje los lenguajes visuales abstractos en los ensayos que acompañaron llamarlo así) se encuentra presente en el modo en que los artistas
plano (muchas de las cuales vistas con poca frecuencia en las galerías panamericano?”. Precisamente esta es la pregunta que se ha la muestra monumental Inverted Utopias. Avant-Garde Art in Latin sugieren fuentes de motivos de diseño o sugerencias arquitectónicas
del museo) pertenecientes a artistas de toda América, artistas que mantenido implícita en una cantidad de muestras internacionales de America (Utopías invertidas: arte de vanguardia en Latinoamérica), específicas (discuto en este trabajo este punto en lo que denomino
han experimentado con una variedad de maneras de crear imágenes arte abstracto llevadas a cabo en los últimos tiempos en toda América. organizada para el Museum of Fine Arts de Houston.25 Muchos de “abstracciones mitológicas”). En otras ocasiones, tal distinción es
26 GESTO Y GEOMETRÍA: APUNTES SOBRE LA ABSTRACCIÓN EN LAS AMÉRICAS GEOMETRY AND GESTURE: NOTES ON ABSTRACTIONS IN THE AMERICAS 27
exhibitions of the collection of Patricia Phelps de Cisneros are inevitable concentrated on those who privileged a geometric or constructivist show of Latin American constructivist-derived art was mounted to it developed in Latin America and the Caribbean, as well as the
points of departure. This exemplary assembly, developed over several approach. Houston’s Museum of Fine Art’s retrospective of Carlos great acclaim in Madrid in 2011. America Fría (Cold America) was dialogues it sustained with parallel phenomena in the U.S. and
decades by one of the most perspicacious collectors of modernist Cruz-Diez and that of Jesús Rafael Soto at the Grey Art Gallery of a landmark in the analysis of the role of hard-edged abstract art Europe. Following the spirit of the present exhibition that looks at
art, is principally devoted to geometric abstraction beginning in the New York University are outstanding recent examples.28 throughout the continent.30 the museum’s permanent collection along trans-national lines, it
1930s. Its great masterpieces of Venezuelan, Brazilian, Argentinean is imperative to consider these phenomena within a hemispheric
and Uruguayan art have been shown in such university museums as Beyond the confines of the U.S., many exhibitions and curatorial The Lowe’s exhibition should be seen in the context of these and context. Such a view is a much more fruitful way to understand
Harvard’s Fogg Museum, the Blanton Museum of Art at the University projects in Latin America have asked similar questions regarding the many other projects in which the questions provoked and the how abstract art develops and circulates throughout most of the
of Texas at Austin and the Grey Art Gallery of New York University.26 role of abstract art within their cultures. The 1998 São Paulo Biennial, ensuing scholarly dialogues initiated are as significant as the actual twentieth century and well into our own times. In an era (beginning
The Newark Museum’s 2009 exhibition entitled The Constructivist for instance, famously juxtaposed many works by artists as diverse works on the walls. in the 1920s) of increasing ability to travel as well as the possibilities
Spirit: Abstract Art in South and North America, 1920s-50s went as Piet Mondrian, Kasimir Malevich, Yves Klein, Robert Ryman and of seeing what artists in other parts of the world were doing via
further than the exhibitions from the Cisneros collection in extending others with South Americans, Armando Reverón, Antonio Dias, Hélio In this essay I would like to make some observations on only a few magazine and other forms of publications, it seems less than logical
the comparatist method of analysis to art produced in the 1920s to Oiticica and many others in a way the proved to be eye-opening to of the most salient aspects of abstraction throughout the Americas, to adhere to an outmoded model that examines only the art of one
the 1950s in both North and South America.27 all who had the privilege of seeing it or reading its catalogue.29 in accordance with the exhibition’s module entitled “Abstract country, region or even continent. We might begin the discussion
Expressionism and its Legacy: A Pan American Language?” with a brief look at the work of a seminal abstractionist from Latin
There have also been important monographic exhibitions in U.S. European museums have paid somewhat less attention to the In addition, I will suggest some other pathways and perhaps America, even though his art represents a period well before the
museums of abstract artists from Latin America. Most of them have phenomena of Pan American abstraction. However, a recent suggest some heretofore un-named categories for abstract art as starting point of the present exhibition.
más difícil de determinar. Después de todo, la abstracción se ha de las coleccionistas de arte moderno más perpicaces, se dedica mayoría se ha concentrado en aquellos que le han dado privilegio Los museos europeos le han prestado relativa menor atención al
vuelto una manera tan cotidiana y natural de aceptar información principalmente a la abstracción geométrica que comenzó en los a un enfoque geométrico o constructivista. La retrospectiva que el fenómeno de la abstracción panamericana. Sin embargo, en 2011
visual (desde sus comienzos en la década de 1910) que resulta difícil años 1930. Sus grandes obras maestras de artistas venezolanos, Museum of Fine Arts de Houston realizó sobre Carlos Cruz-Diez y la se montó en Madrid una exposición de arte latinoamericano basada
aislar el génesis de las formas individuales de abstraer la realidad brasileños, argentinos y uruguayos se han exhibido en museos de Jesús Rafael Soto en la Grey Art Gallery de la New York University en el constructivismo. Gozó de una excelente acojida por parte del
observada o sugerir las cosas evanescentes. Los artistas americanos, universitarios tales como el Fogg Museum de Harvard, el Blanton son ejemplos recientes sobresalientes.28 público. América fría marcó un hito en el análisis del papel del arte
como los de cualquier otro sitio, inevitablemente absorben, Art Museum de la University of Texas en Austin y la Grey Art Gallery abstracto geométrico en todo el continente.30
comparten y reinventan muchas de las fuentes a las que se han de la New York University.26 La muestra del 2009 en el Newark Más allá de las fronteras de los EE. UU., diversas exhibiciones
expuesto, a menudo sin siquiera ser concientes de los orígenes de Museum titulada The Constructivist Spirit: Abstract Art in South and y proyectos museísticos se han hecho preguntas similares en Se debería considerar la muestra del Lowe en el contexto de estos y
estas. North America, 1920s-50s (El espíritu constructivista: arte abstracto Latinoamérica en lo relativo al papel del arte abstracto en sus muchos otros proyectos en los que los interrogantes que se provocan
de Sud y Norteamérica, años 1920-1950) avanzó aun más allá de culturas. Por ejemplo, la bienal de São Paulo de 1998 llegó a y los consiguientes diálogos académicos que surgen resultan tan
En la última década, otras exposiciones de arte abstracto las muestras de la colección de Cisneros al extender el método yuxtaponer y comparar de manera estupenda diversas obras de signiticativos como el arte expuesto.
latinoamericano han contribuído a profundizar el diálogo acerca comparatista de análisis del arte producido en las décadas de 1920 artistas tan disímiles como Piet Mondrian, Kasimir Malevich, Yves
de su significado en terrenos hasta ahora sin explorar. Entre estos a 1950 tanto en América del Norte como en América del Sur.27 Klein y Robert Ryman entre otros, con las de sudamericanos como En este ensayo, quisiera presentar ciertas propuestas y observaciones
numerosos proyectos, no se puede comenzar sin mencionar las Armando Reverón, Antonio Dias, Hélio Oiticica y muchos más, lo sobre algunos de los aspectos más sobresalientes de la abstracción
muestras de la colección de Patricia Phelps de Cisneros. Esta Ha habido importantes muestras monográficas en museos que se convirtió en una revelación para todos aquellos que tuvieron en toda América de acuerdo con el módulo de la muestra
colección ejemplar, desarrollada durante varias décadas por una estadounidenses de artistas abstractos de Latinoamérica. La el privilegio de ver la muestra o leer su catálogo.29 titulado “Abstract Expressionism and its Legacy. A Pan-American

EMILIO PETTORUTI AND DYNAMIC ABSTRACTION be placed into a pan-American perspective if we consider them in the yield compelling insights into the way American artists began to Illustration 1
light of the work of other pioneers of non-objective form associated formulate their own strategies of expressing pure form. EMILIO PETTORUTI
The only works from Latin America in MoMA’s Inventing Abstraction with dynamic force and movement. The most cogent comparison b. 1892, La Plata, Argentina
exhibition were two drawings by the Argentine artist Emilio Pettoruti with North American art is with the work of Arthur Dove. Beginning At the Museum of Modern Art’s Inventing Abstraction show d. 1971, Paris, France
(1892-1971) dated 1914 and 1915.31 As his surname suggests in around 1910, just after his first European journey (where he had the Pettoruti drawings were presented within the context Luci nel paesaggio II
Pettoruti was of Italian origin and it was in Italy that he benefited been impressed with the futurists’ experiments with space) Dove of Italian Futurism. They formed an integral link between the (Light in the Landscape II), 1915
charcoal on paper
from lengthy contact with members of the Italian Futurists (Umberto began making paintings and drawings of similar proportions to theoretical writings of Filippo Tommasso Marinetti and the visual 21 1⁄2 x 18 1⁄8 in. (54.6 x 46 cm)
Boccioni, Carlo Carrá and others) whom he encountered during his those of Pettoruti, and with parallel suggestions of outward-moving representations of dynamism by Giacomo Balla, Gino Severini or Museum of Modern Art,
stay as a young artist in Florence and Milan. Pettoruti’s exposure to dynamism (illustration 2). Although rarely discussed together in Luigi Russolo and others. These drawings precede, by at least Purchased with funds provided by
cubism during his European years which lasted from 1913 to 1924 also considerations of early American modernism and abstraction, these two decades, the more fully developed emergence of abstract art Nelly Arrieta de Blaquier and by
the Latin American and Caribbean
figured into the creation of his unique early drawings in charcoal and two pioneers of non-objective form share a distinct sensibility and in Latin America. On one hand I am tempted, as shown above, to Fund in honor of Edward Sullivan,
pencil, which may be considered the earliest totally-abstract works method of expressing their analyses of shapes, space, and energy. link them to a hemispheric zeitgeist by comparing them with the 1405.2007
by an artist from Latin America. These drawings are characterized by While Dove (whose work in the abstract manner was championed work of a handful of North American artists (Dove, and slightly © Fundación Pettoruti
dynamic forms defined by vibrant outward-reaching lines of force or and exhibited by Alfred Stieglitz) and Pettoruti never met, and were later, Georgia O’Keeffe) who were doing analogous experiments
in some examples suggest a vortex of whirling circles indicating an perhaps unaware of each other’s work, a closer comparison of the in their art. However, we are also reminded of the conundrum
inwardly-directed spiraling force (illustration 1). These drawings may achievements of the early parts of their careers would certainly of geography, aesthetic affinities as well as chronology in our
Language?” (El expresionismo abstracto y su legado: ¿un lenguaje comenzar la discusión echando una breve mirada al trabajo de un primeros dibujos singulares a carbón y en lápiz, que pueden Illustration 2
panamericano?). Asimismo, propongo otros caminos y quizás ciertas artista abstraccionista trascendente de Latinoamérica, si bien su arte considerarse las primeras obras totalmente abstractas realizadas ARTHUR DOVE
categorías inéditas del arte abstracto tal y como se desarrolló en representa un período anterior al comienzo de esta muestra. por un artista de Latinoamérica. Estos dibujos se caracterizan por b. 1880, Canandaigua, New York
Latinoamérica y el Caribe, además de los diálogos que este ha formas dinámicas definidas por enérgicas líneas centrífugas o, d. 1946, Huntington, New York
mantenido con fenómenos paralelos en los Estados Unidos y Europa. EMILIO PETTORUTI Y LA ABSTRACCIÓN DINÁMICA en algunos ejemplos, por un torbellino de círculos arremolinados Sails, 1911-1912
Siguiendo el espíritu de la exhibición actual que estudia la colección que indican una fuerza espiral centrípeta (ilustración 1). Estos pastel on composition board
mounted on wood panel
permanente del museo desde un punta de vista transnacional, Los únicos dos trabajos de Latinoamérica en la muestra Inventing dibujos se pueden ubicar en una perspectiva panamericana si los 17 7⁄8 x 21 1⁄2 in. (45.4 x 54.6 cm)
resulta urgente considerar estos fenómenos dentro del contexto Abstraction (Inventando la abstracción) del MoMA fueron dos consideramos a la luz de la obra de otros pioneros de las formas Terra Foundation for American
del hemisferio. Esta mirada es una forma mucho más fructífera de dibujos del artista argentino Emilio Pettoruti (1892-1971) que datan no figurativas asociadas con la fuerza dinámica y el movimiento. Art, Chicago, Daniel J. Terra
comprender el modo en el que el arte abstracto se desarrolla y circula de 1914 y 1915.31 Como lo sugiere su apellido, Pettoruti tenía La comparación más convincente con el arte norteamericano Collection, 1993.10
© The Estate of Arthur G. Dove,
durante casi todo el siglo XX y aun en la actualidad. En una era (que origen italiano y fue en Italia que aprovechó su amplio contacto con se puede realizar con la obra de Arthur Dove. Desde alrededor Courtesy Terry Dintenfass, Inc.
comienza en los años 1920) donde se ha facilitado cada vez más la miembros del movimiento Futurista italiano (como Umberto Boccioni de 1910, luego de sus viajes por Europa, donde había quedado Photography ©Terra Foundation
posibilidad de viajar y de ver lo que los artistas de otros lugares del y Carlo Carrá entre otros), a quienes conoció durante su estancia impactado por los experimentos de los futuristas con el espacio, for American Art, Chicago
mundo hacían a través de revistas y otros tipos de publicaciones, en Florencia y Milán cuando era un joven artista. La exposición de Dove comenzó a pintar y dibujar utilizando proporciones similares
parece ilógico apoyar un modelo anticuado que examine solo el Pettoruti al cubismo durante sus años en Europa, que se prolongaron a las de Pettoruti y con una idea paralela de dinamismo centrífugo
arte de un país, una región o incluso, un continente. Podríamos de 1913 a 1924, también tuvo su influencia en la creación de sus (ilustración 2). Aunque rara vez se los ha pensado juntos cuando
attempts to link Pettoruti’s work with a sensibility that is specifically vocabulary of signs. Such elements as the sun in the upper left, the In fact, it is not an exaggeration to state that much of the art Illustration 3
“Latin American.” This is complicated even further by the fact minimally-described face or the several phallic/spear-shaped forms throughout Latin America based on geometric principals had its JOAQUÍN TORRES-GARCÍA
that when Pettoruti returned to Buenos Aires his art became both pertain to a set of visual archetypes that appealed to and were utilized roots in one way or another in the stimulus of Torres-García. b. 1874, Montevideo, Uruguay
figurative and in many cases reflected subject matter directly related by civilizations throughout time and geographical location to define d. 1949, Montevideo, Uruguay
to his Argentine surroundings.32 their history, myths, and beliefs. Like many artists of the mid-twentieth Torres-García had spent his formative years in Europe Ciudad constructiva con hombre
century in the U.S. and Latin America (including the little known but where his contact with the work of Piet Mondrian and other universal (Constructive City with
Universal Man), 1942
CONSTRUCTED FORMS extremely important group of U.S. artists called the Indian Space founding fathers of geometric abstraction were critical for the
oil on board
Painters, headed by Steve Wheeler), Gottlieb was highly impressed by development of his own aesthetic. This was enhanced in many 31 7⁄16 x 40 in. (79.9 x 101.5 cm)
Although the majority of abstract works on exhibition in Pan American native American imagery and incorporated it into his “Pictographs.” ways by his deep engagement with the art of pre-Hispanic Solomon R. Guggenheim
Modernism are not, strictly speaking, based on the rigid proportions These pictures segment forms to create patterns reminiscent of the America (patterned textiles, ceramics etc.) which he first viewed Museum, New York, Partial gift,
Mr. and Mrs. James Rudel
of geometry, many of them possess an underlying sub-structure that organization of space in indigenous textiles or ceramics of a wide in Paris collections, principally at the Musée de l’Homme, the
derives from their artist’s interest in the segmentation of space and variety of indigenous cultures in both North and South America. anthropological museum that pre-dated today’s ethnographic
the analysis of form through the simplification of their component A parallel attraction to indigenous arts (painting, sculpture, and collections in the Musée du Quai Branly. Torres-García developed
units. This is especially true in the 1947 work by U.S. artist Adolph architecture) was an important factor for Uruguayan artist Joaquín his famous philosophy of Constructive Universalism that utilized
Gottlieb. New York Night Scene presents us with an abstract pattern Torres-García (1874-1949) whose impact throughout South America his knowledge of universal visual paradigms as well as world
of quasi-totemic shapes and forms derived from a universal visual in the middle years of the twentieth century and after was definitive. philosophical tenets from wide-reaching sources. Although
se discute los comienzos del modernismo y la abstracción, estos Severini y Luigi Russolo entre otros. Estos dibujos anteceden, en al FORMAS CONSTRUÍDAS Illustration 4
dos pioneros de formas no figurativas comparten una sensibilidad menos dos décadas, la aparición más acabada del arte abstracto en JOSÉ GURVICH
distintiva y una manera de expresar sus análisis de formas, espacios Latinoamérica. Por un lado me siento tentado, como se ha indicado, Aunque la mayoría de las obras abstractas expuestas en Pan b. 1927, Jieznas, Lithuania
y energía. Mientras Dove, cuyo trabajo abstracto fue defendido a vincularlos con un zeitgeist en el hemisferio al compararlos con American Modernism no están basadas, en un sentido estricto, Lived and worked in Montevideo,
Uruguay
y expuesto por Alfred Stieglitz, y Pettoruti nunca se conocieron, la obra de un puñado de artistas norteamericanos (como Dove, y en las proporciones rígidas de la geometría, muchas cuentan con d. 1974, New York, New York
y quizás no conocían la obra del otro, comparar sus logros en la un tanto después, Georgia O’Keeffe), quienes llevaban a cabo una estructura subyacente que deriva del interés del artista por la
Constructivist Blue Grid, ca. 1957
primera parte de sus carreras sin dudas brindaría una perspectiva experimentos análogos en su arte. Sin embargo, también somos segmentación del espacio y el análisis de la forma a través de la oil on board
contundente sobre el modo en el que los artistas americanos recordados del enigma de la geografía, de las afinidades estéticas y simplificación de las unidades que lo componen. Esto resulta en 33 7⁄8 x 42 1⁄8 in. (86 x 107 cm)
comenzaron a formular sus propias estrategias para expresar las de la cronología en nuestros intentos por vincular la obra de Pettoruti especial evidente en la obra de 1947 del artista estadounidense Private Collection, San Antonio, TX
formas puras. con una sensibilidad que resulta específicamente “latinoamericana”. Adolph Gottlieb. New York Night Scene (Escena nocturna de Nueva
Este hecho se complica aun más por el hecho de que cuando York) nos presenta un patrón abstracto de formas cuasi totémicas
En la muestra Inventing Abstraction los dibujos de Pettoruti se Pettoruti regresó a Buenos Aires, su arte se hizo figurativo y en derivadas de un vocabulario universal de signos. Elementos como
presentaron en el contexto del Futurismo italiano. Formaban un muchos casos reflejó los temas relacionados directamente con su el sol en la esquina superior izquierda, el rostro mínimamente
vínculo integral con los escritos de Filippo Tommasso Marinetti y entorno argentino.32 descripto o las varias formas de lanza / fálicas corresponden a
las representaciones visuales de dinamismo de Giacomo Balla, Gino arquetipos visuales que resultaron atractivos y fueron utilizados
some of his literally thousands of paintings, drawings, prints, wood Lithuanian-born painter and sculptor José Gurvich (1927-1974), constructions. However, their concerns with geometry that forms Illustration 5
sculptures and other forms of construction were indeed abstract, the created fascinatingly hybridized forms that referenced his teacher’s the substructure of their aesthetic would have been unthinkable MARCELO BONEVARDI
majority of them could be classified as semi-abstract. In such images art but added elements from his Eastern European visual heritage. without their having interiorized the lessons of Torres-García.33 b. 1929, Buenos Aires, Argentina
as portraits or city-scapes he continued to employ the ideals of Gurvich was fascinated by Jewish mysticism, even though he was d. 1994, Córdoba, Argentina
proportion and geometric analysis that were derived from his studies not himself an overtly, deeply religious man, and some of his art Experimenting with pure abstract construction in his many large- Reclama grande (Large Decoy),
of cubism, the example of Mondrian and the De Stijl followers of reflects a unique hybridization of geometric shapes informed by scale pieces in wood and other found objects, Argentine artist 1976
Rhoplex acyrlic medium, dry
pure geometric non-objectivity, combined with his attraction to non- an interest in pre-Hispanic pattern with subject matter related to Marcelo Bonevardi (1929-1994) went well beyond the parameters pigments, Dex-O-Tex cement
Western pictorial elements (illustration 3). kabalistic traditions (illustration 4). set by Torres-García, even though his art, like that of so many of on burlap and wood with wood
his colleagues, was deeply steeped in the essential visual languages objects
Torres-García initiated several schools and artists groups in It is important to stress the enduring legacy of the constructivist art of developed by him (illustration 5). Bonevardi added new dimensions 90 x 4 in. (228.6 x 10.2 cm)
Blanton Museum of Art, The
Montevideo (the Taller Torres-García and the Escuela del Sur), where Torres-García well into the later years of the twentieth century (and to the totemic forms in Torres-García’s art. Bonevardi’s paintings University of Texas at Austin,
he returned after his long European sojourn in 1934 and remained with artists who might not always have directly acknowledged their and constructed objects often resemble emblems of an unknown Barbara Duncan Fund, 1976
until his death in 1949. His students (those who had worked directly debt to the Uruguayan master). The members of such innovative civilization or symbols with obscure yet potent meanings. Photograph by Rick Hall
with him as well as the hundreds more who had been inspired by and experimental artists groups as the Argentine and Uruguayan © 1976 Marcelo Bonevardi
him) took his example into many far-reaching directions. Some participants in Madí or Arte Concreto Invención rejected, in their work of A number of artists from Latin America who have attracted
of the artists who studied with Torres-García directly, such as the the mid-1940s and beyond, any hint of figuration in their canvases and widespread attention throughout the Americas and Europe in
por civilizaciones en distintos momentos y lugares para definir su Torres-García había pasado sus años formativos en Europa, donde análisis geométrico que derivaban de sus estudios del cubismo, Illustration 6
historia, mitos y creencias. Como muchos artistas de mediados del su contacto con la obra de Piet Mondrian y otros fundadores de la del ejemplo de Mondrian y de los seguidores De Stijl de la pura JESÚS RAFAEL SOTO
siglo XX en los Estados Unidos y Latinoamérica (incluyendo el grupo de abstracción geométrica resultaron críticos para el desarrollo de su geométrica no objetiva, que se combinaban con su atracción por b. 1923, Ciudad Bolívar, Venezuela
artistas estadounidenses poco conocido pero de importancia singular propia estética. Esta se vio acentuada de muchas maneras por su elementos pictóricos no occidentales (ilustración 3). d. 2005, Paris, France
liderado por Steve Wheeler y denominado los Indian Space Painters), profundo compromiso con el arte prehispánico (textiles con diseños, Olive and Black, 1966
Gottlieb se vio muy afectado por las imágenes indígenas americanas cerámicas, etc.) que tuvo oportunidad de ver por primera vez en Torres-García fundó varias escuelas e inició grupos de artistas en metal strips suspended in front
of two plywood panels painted
y las incorporó en sus “Pictographs” (Pictografías). Estas pinturas colecciones en París, en especial en el Musée de l’Homme, el museo Montevideo (la Asociación de Arte Constructivo y el Taller Torres- with synthetic polymer paint and
segmentan las formas y crean patrones que recuerdan la organización antropológico que precedió a las colecciones etnográficas del actual García), donde regresó luego de su extendida estancia europea mounted on composition board
del espacio en textiles y cerámicas autóctonos de una variedad de Musée du Quai Branly. Torres-García desarrolló su famosa filosofía del y donde permaneció hasta su muerte en 1949. Sus alumnos 61 1⁄2 x 42 1⁄4 x 12 1⁄2 in.
culturas indias tanto de Norte como de Sudamérica. Una atracción Universalismo constructivo que utilizaba sus conocimientos acerca de (aquellos que habían trabajado de manera directa con él como (156.1 x 107.1 x 31.7 cm)
Inter-American Fund, The Museum
similar hacia las artes indígenas (pintura, esculturan y arquitectura) fue paradigmas visuales universales y de principios filosóficos mundiales así también los cientos que se vieron inspirados por su obra) of Modern Art, New York, NY, U.S.A.
un factor de importancia para el artista uruguayo Joaquín Torres-García de variadas fuentes. Aunque algunos de sus literalmente miles de tomaron su ejemplo en diversas direcciones de amplio alcance. © 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS),
(1874-1949), cuyo impacto a lo largo de Sudamérica desde mediados pinturas, dibujos, grabados, esculturas en madera y otras formas de Algunos de los artistas que estudiaron directamente con Torres- New York / ADAGP, Paris
del siglo XX fue definitorio. De hecho, no es exagerado indicar que construcción eran de hecho abstractos, la mayoría de ellos se podría García, como el pintor y escultor lituano José Gurvich (1927- Digital Image © The Museum of
Modern Art / Licensed by SCALA /
mucho del arte latinoamericano que se basa en principios geométricos clasificar como semiabstractos. En imágenes tales como retratos o 1974), crearon formas híbridas que hacían referencia al arte de Art Resource, NY
tuvo su origen de una u otra forma en el estímulo de Torres-García. paisajes urbanos, continuó utilizando los ideales de proporción y su maestro a la vez que le agregaban elementos desde lo visual
the last decade may also trace their beginnings of their interest in a number of younger scholars from both South and North America, The contemporary language of hard-edged abstraction in Illustration 7
geometric form and manipulation of constructed space to the art of the achievements of a wide variety of post 1960s adherents to the Colombia has been developed to its most refined point by Fanny EDUARDO RAMÍREZ
Torres-García. Brazilians Lygia Clark and Hélio Oiticica (subjects of principals of geometry have been examined and are slowly making Sanín (b. 1938). Trained in New York (where she has resided VILLAMIZAR
major upcoming exhibitions in U.S. institutions34) or the Venezuelan inroads into the often hard-to-penetrate canon of “important” for several decades) and Mexico, her early work was squarely b. 1923, Pamplona, Colombia
d. 2004, Bogotá, Colombia
constructivist and kinetic artists like Cruz-Diez and Soto (whose contemporary art. The Colombian art historian Ana Franco has within the abstract expressionist mode.36 Some of Sanín’s first
experiments in kineticism both captured the spirit of modernity of written eloquently on the work of Édgar Negret (1920-2012) and works were done in the spirit of those of her compatriot Lola Composición mecánica
(Mechanical Composition), 1957
the 1950s oil-rich society and were coveted by the political and social Eduardo Ramírez Villamizar (1922-2004).35 Ramírez’s dynamic Fernández (b. 1926) whose 1964 abstraction Petróleo 4am oil on canvas
elites of the 60s and 70s) would probably not associate themselves sculptures and enigmatic paintings (illustration 7) as well as the (cat. no. 41) is in the current exhibition.37 However, Sanín’s 39 1⁄2 x 79 in. (100 x 200 cm)
with constructivist art of the 1930s and 40s in Uruguay and Argentina monumental constructivist-based pieces by Negret speak both the most characteristic production represents a vision to which she OAS AMA | Art Museum of
(illustration 6). Nonetheless, the artistic transformations of the visual language of international geometric abstraction (related to that has remained faithful for decades (illustration 8). Her paintings the Americas Collection
landscape of the Spanish and Portuguese-speaking Americas that of their contemporaries and friends such as Ellsworth Kelly, Jack and hundreds of drawings in watercolor and acrylic reflect a
took place prior to the second half of the century undoubtedly set Youngerman and Louise Nevelson) but inflected by reminiscences constant, obsessive striving for technical perfection, the widest
the stage for a wide variety of options for abstraction later on. of the places where they were born. This is especially true in the possible forms of experimentation in color combined with
case of Negret who first encountered three-dimensional form in veiled recollections of monumental shapes, often suggested by
Geometric art has retained its hold on artists throughout the the colonial churches he frequented as a boy in the Andean city pyramidal archetypes.
Americas well into the twenty-first century. Thanks to the efforts of of Popayán.
de su herencia cultural de Europa del Este. Gurvich estaba fascinado estética habría sido impensable sin antes haber incorporado las pueden también hallar marcas de la obra de Torres-García en su Illustration 8
por el misticismo judío, si bien no era un hombre que demostrara lecciones de Torres-García.33 interés por la forma geométrica y la manipulación del espacio FANNY SANÍN
una profunda religiosidad, y algunas de sus obras reflejan una construído. Los brasileños Lygia Clark y Hélio Oiticica (quienes b. 1938, Bogotá, Colombia
hibridación única de formas geométricas basada en un interés por Al experimentar con la construcción abstracta pura en muchas de pronto tendrán muestras de importancia en instituciones de Lives and works in New York,
New York
los patrones prehispánicos con temas relacionados a las tradiciones sus piezas a gran escala en madera y en otros objetos encontrados, EE. UU.34) o artistas constructivistas y cinéticos venezolanos
cabalísticas (ilustración 4). el artista argentino Marcelo Bonevardi (1929-1994) llegó más allá de como Carlos Cruz-Diéz y Jesús Rafael Soto (cuyos experimentos Composition No. 2, 2009
acrylic and pencil on paper
los parámetros de Torres-García, aunque su arte, como la de tantos de con la quinética captaron el espíritu de la modernidad de la 35 x 27 in. (88.9 x 68.58 cm)
Es importante subrayar el legado perdurable del arte constructivista sus colegas, se encontraba profundamente sumido en los lenguajes sociedad petrolera de los años 1950 y resultaron codiciados Frederico Sève Gallery
de Torres-García que se extendió hasta finales del siglo XX (y con visuales esenciales que él desarrolló (ilustración 5). Bonevardi agregó por las élites políticas y sociales de los años 1960 y 1970) © 2009 Fanny Sanín
artistas que quizás no siempre reconocieron su deuda con el maestro nuevas dimensiones a las formas totémicas de la producción visual tal vez no desearían asociarse con el arte constructivista de
uruguayo de manera directa). Los miembros de estos grupos artísticos de Torres-García. Las pinturas y los objetos construídos por Bonevardi los años 1930 y 1940 de Uruguay y Argentina (ilustración 6).
innovadores y experimentales como los participantes argentinos y a menudo se asemejan a emblemas de una civilización desconocida Sin embargo, las transformaciones artísticas en el panorama
uruguayos de Madí o Arte Concreto Invención rechazaban en su o símbolos con significados oscuros y a la vez potentes. visual de los países latinoamericanos que tuvieron lugar antes
obra de mediados de los años 1940 en adelante cualquier atisbo de la segunda mitad del siglo sin dudas abrieron luego el
de figuración en sus lienzos y construcciones. Sin embargo, su En un número de artistas latinoamericanos que han concitado camino para una amplia variedad de opciones en lo relativo
preocupación por la geometría que forma la subestructura de su gran atención en toda América y Europa en la última década se a la abstracción.

An exquisite sense of color as well as controlled, stable forms MYTHOLOGICAL ABSTRACTIONS instances, such as in the untitled ink on paper composition in Illustration 9
often characterizes the work of Japanese-born Brazilian artist this exhibition from 1964 (see cat. no. 40) in which he seems to TOMIE OHTAKE
Tomie Ohtake (b. 1913). Although her art is far from the controlled Within the context of the present exhibition, the Guatemalan artist ruminate on the solidity and monumentality of timeless ancient b. 1913, Kyoto, Japan
geometry of many of the artists cited above, she nonetheless infuses Rodolfo Abularach (b. 1933) is one of many artists who has practiced structures from the country of his birth. Although by no means Lives and works in São Paulo, Brazil
her compositions with a sense of permanence and contemplation a form of abstraction rooted, at least in part, within the panorama of should we assign specific “mythological” or archaizing content Number 9, 1975
doubtlessly derived from forms of art that permeated the Brazilian myth and the pervasive presence (in his native country) of structures to this and related pieces by Abularach, I am convinced that his acrylic on canvas
39 1⁄2 x 39 1⁄2 in. (100 x 100 cm)
art scene after mid-century when many painters and artists of and signs from the ancient past. One of the forgers of a new artistic art lies within the territory occupied by certain major figures of OAS AMA | Art Museum of the
other media came to Brazil from Japan (illustration 9). While these ground in Central America in the mid-twentieth century Abularach American abstraction who in the 1950s and 60s created non- Americas Collection
Japanese Brazilian artists (who included, among others, the gestural has, nonetheless, received relatively little attention outside his native objective works with an overlay of both evanescent spiritual © 1975 Tomie Ohtake
abstractionist Flavio Shiró) did not represent a homogeneous group country. He emerged from a traditional training in Guatemala City content and a strong suggestion of rootedness in the past. In
they helped create vibrant links with the new post-World War II to extend his frame of reference to New York in 1960 (where he has his travels around Guatemala, Abularach could hardly have been
art scene in both Tokyo and Kyoto, thus internationalizing even spent his mature career). Studies at the Art Students League and his unimpressed by that nation’s outstanding architectural heritage
more a Brazilian art world that has traditionally been one of the contacts with his New York contemporaries opened his eyes to new of the Maya and other indigenous groups. Such structures as the
most open sites in the hemisphere to new trends and experimental possibilities and his art changed in the direction of the experimental. great pyramids as well as the more modest yet equally substantial
forms of visual expression. Although best known for his many surrealist-related studies of the monuments that comprise the grand complex known as Tikal
human eye in both paint and charcoal drawing, there are many come to our minds as we view this work.
El arte geométrico se ha mantenido vivo en el interés de los artistas formas tridimensionales en las iglesias coloniales a las que frecuentaba y reminiscencias veladas de formas monumentales, a menudo Guerra Mundial de Tokio y Kioto, para de este modo internacionalizar
de toda América ya entrado el siglo XXI. Gracias a los esfuerzos de de niño en la ciudad andina de Popayán. sugeridas por arquetipos piramidales. aun más el mundo artístico brasileño (tradicionalmente uno de los
un número de académicos jóvenes de Norte y Sudamérica, se han más abiertos del hemisferio) y abrirlo a nuevas tendencias y formas
examinado los logros de una amplia variedad de adherentes a los Fanny Sanín (nacida en 1938) ha llevado el lenguaje contemporáneo Un sentido exquisito de color además de formas estables y experimentales de expresión visual.
principios de la geometría del período posterior a los años 1960 y poco de la abstracción geométrica en Colombia a su mayor refinamiento. controladas a menudo caracterizan la obra de la artista brasileña
a poco se realizan avances hacia el canon del arte contemporáneo Formada en Londres, México y Nueva York, donde reside desde de origen japonés Tomie Ohtake (nacida en 1913). Aunque su ABSTRACCIONES MITOLÓGICAS
“importante” al que tantas veces es difícil ingresar. La historiadora de hace varias décadas, su trabajo temprano correspondía al arte se aleja bastante de la geometría controlada de muchos de
arte colombiano Ana Franco ha escrito con elocuencia sobre la obra expresionismo abstracto.36 Algunas de las primeras obras de los artistas antes citados, la artista le infunde a sus composiciones En el contexto de la esta exhibición, el artista guatemalteco Rodolfo
de Édgar Negret (1920-2012) y Eduardo Ramírez Villamizar (1922- Sanín fueron realizadas siguiendo el estilo de su compatriota Lola un sentido de permanencia y contemplación que sin dudas deriva Abularach (nacido en 1933) es uno de los muchos artistas que ha
2004).35 Las esculturas dinámicas y las pinturas enigmáticas de Ramírez Fernández (nacida en 1926) cuya obra abstracta de 1964 Petróleo de formas de arte que atravesaban la escena artística brasileña practicado una de las formas de abstracción enraizada (al menos en
(ilustración 7) junto con las monumentales piezas constructivistas de 4 a.m. (cat. no. 41) forma parte de la presente muestra.37 Sin durante la segunda mitad del siglo cuando muchos pintores y parte) en el panorama del mito y la presencia constante en su país
Negret presentan el lenguaje de la abstracción geométrica internacional embargo, la producción más característica de Sanín representa una artistas de otros medios llegaron desde Japón a Brasil (ilustración natal de estructuras y signos del pasado antiguo. No obstante el
(conectada con la de contemporáneos y amigos suyos tales como visión a la que se ha mantenido fiel durante décadas (ilustración 8). 9). A pesar de que estos artistas japonés-brasileños (que incluían hecho de ser uno de los forjadores de nuevos horizontes artísticos
Ellsworth Kelly, Jack Youngerman y Louise Nevelson) pero lo hacen Sus pinturas y cientos de dibujos en acuarela y acrílico reflejan un entre otros al abstraccionsita de la pintura gestual Flavio Shiró) en Centroamérica a mediados de siglo, Abularach ha recibido
marcadas por los recuerdos de los lugares en los que nacieron. Esto es esfuerzo constante y obsesivo por alcanzar la perfección técnica, no representaban un grupo homogéneo, contribuyeron a crear relativamente poca atención crítica fuera de su tierra. Más allá de su
en especial cierto en el caso de Negret, quien encontró por primera vez las formas posibles más amplias de experimentación con el color vínculos dinámicos con la escena artística posterior a la Segunda formación tradicional en la ciudad de Guatemala, luego extendió su
One of Abularach older contemporaries, the Peruvian artist stylistically and thematically consistent throughout his long years in Paris and elsewhere, many of whom were participants in the Illustration 10
Fernando de Szyszlo (b. 1925) has made an even more overt career as Peru’s most well-known modern classic painter.39 While he has surrealist movement. He re-established relations with some of FERNANDO DE SZYSZLO
and political statement in his references to ancient structures and undoubtedly created a visual vocabulary that could be described them, including the Austrian Wolfgang Paalen and Alice Rahon b. 1925, Lima, Peru
places in a visual language that incorporates gestural abstraction as upholding a (perhaps by now faded) national identification with when they fled Europe during World War II for Mexico. Both Cajamarca, 1959
and coloristic experimentation. The art historian Natalia Majluf has ancient civilizations, he nonetheless is among the most distinguished Paalen and Rahon were principally abstract artists and their visual oil on canvas
commented that “de Szyszlo can truly be called the true founder [of representatives of a group of abstract artists from Latin America who experiments had a certain impact on Gerszo, who only began 50 x 36 in. (127 x 91.4 cm)
OAS AMA | Art Museum of the
abstraction] in Peru and the catalyst for the emergence of an entire seek to evoke lost glories and diminished memories of a celebrated painting full time after the1960s. Americas Collection
social group searching for a renovation of modern art.”38 Szyszlos’ edenic existence prior to the contact with western civilizations from © 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS),
first exhibition in which works of total abstraction appeared occurred across the ocean. Gerszo became known for his canvases in which a strong New York / APSAV, Lima
in 1951. Since that time he has made references to the ancient suggestion of ancient structures was present (illustration 11).
history and civilizations of the Inca in virtually all of his compositions, Another of these grand figures of mythological abstraction is It was most often the built environments of the pre-Hispanic
many of which are done in series. Szyszlo’s sense of color is one the Mexican painter Gunther Gerszo (1915-2000).40 The son of peoples of the Americas that left their mark on him, but travels
of the salient facets of his oeuvre; utilizing a highly personal form Hungarian and German immigrants to Mexico, Gerszo’s career was to Greece allowed reminiscences of classical antiquity to make
of deep, brooding tones juxtaposed with shocking jewel-like colors enormously varied and included a lengthy stint as a designer of theatre their appearance as well. Gerszo’s compositions generally have
to intimate the atmosphere of lost things emerging, dream-like, and film sets both in Mexico and the U.S. Widely traveled, Gerszo a strong architectonic, even geometric sub-structure, but in no
from our subconscious (illustration 10). Syzszlo’s art has remained made the acquaintance of a large group of artists and intellectuals case are they representative of a specific moment or place. They
marco de referencia a Nueva York en 1960, donde ha transcurrido espiritual evanescente como de fuertes referencias a las raíces del renovación artística”.38 La primera muestra de de Szyszlo en la que Illustration 11
su carrera madura. Sus estudios en elArt Students League y sus pasado. A lo largo de sus viajes por Guatemala, resulta difícil pensar se expusieron obras de abstracción total se llevó a cabo en 1951. GUNTHER GERZSO
contactos con contemporáneos de Nueva York le abrieron nuevas que Abularach no se viera afectado por el riquísimo patrimonio Desde entonces, ha hecho referencias a la historia y civilización b. 1915, Mexico City, Mexico
posibilidades y su arte dio un giro hacia lo experimental. arquitectónico maya y de otros grupos indígenas. Cuando vemos antigua inca en virtualmente todas sus composiciones, mucha de d. 2000, Mexico City, Mexico
su obra, nos vienen a la mente estructuras como las grandes las que realizó en series. El sentido de color de de Szyszlo es una de Dos personajes (Two Characters),
Aunque se conoce más por sus numerosos estudios surrealistas pirámides o los monumentos más modestos y aun así sustanciales las facetas sobresalientes de su obra debido a la utilización de tonos 1956
oil on canvas
del ojo humano tanto en pintura como en dibujos a carbón, que comprenden el gran complejo conocido como Tikal. taciturnos y profundos de una naturaleza muy personal yuxtapuestos 36 5⁄8 x 26 3⁄4 in. (93 x 67.9 cm)
existen muchos ejemplos, como la obra sin título en tinta sobre con colores impactantes y vivaces para crear la atmósfera de cosas Santa Barbara Museum of Art,
papel de 1964 (cat. no. 40) expuesta en esta muestra en la que El peruano Fernando de Szyszlo (nacido en 1925), uno de los perdidas que surgen, como entre sueños, de nuestro subconciente Gift of Charles A. Storke
parece reflexionar sobre la solidez y monumentalidad de antiguas contemporáneos de más edad que Abularach, ha realizado una (ilustración 10). El arte de de Szyzszlo se ha mantenido constante © John Michael Gerzso
estructuras atemporales de su tierra natal. Aunque de ningún modo declaración profesional y política aun más abierta con sus referencias desde lo estilístico y temático a lo largo de todos sus años como el
se le debería asignar ningún contenido “mitológico” o arcaizante a estructuras y lugares antiguos a través de un lenguage visual que pintor clásico moderno más conocido de Perú.39 A pesar de que
específico a esta u otras piezas de Abularach, creo que su obra se incorpora la pintura gestual y la experimentación con el color. La sin dudas creó un vocabulario visual que podría describirse como
ubica dentro del territorio ocupado por algunas de las figuras más historiadora de arte Natalia Majluf ha comentado que “de Szyszlo defensor de una identificación nacional (quizás ahora descolorida)
importantes de la abstracción americana quienes en los años 1950 y puede considerarse el verdadero fundador [de la abstracción] en Perú con las civilizaciones, se encuentra entre los representantes más
1960 crearon obras no figurativas revestidas tanto de un contenido y catalizador del surgimiento de todo un grupo social que busca una distinguidos de un grupo de artistas abstractos de Latinoamérica
are, rather, abstractions in which the artist (not unlike Fanny Sanín, route than ours,” indicating the hegemony of not only muralism lush studies of color in abstract washes across the canvas. Lilia Illustration 12
discussed above) evinces his dreams of long-forgotten essences but the so-called “Mexican School” of artists whose subjects were Carrillo (1930-1974) was perhaps the most exceptional gestural LILIA CARRILLO
of places that never really existed but lived more in the collective principally the landscape and everyday life of urban and rural abstract painter of her time. Although her career was sadly short b. 1930, Mexico City, Mexico
imagination than any other concrete venue. dwellers of the country. The Ruptura had, in fact, no unifying style. (she died at age 44) she produced a prodigious body of work that d. 1974, Mexico City, Mexico
Nonetheless, the majority of artists associated with it practiced some often suggests oneiric spaces created with diaphanous application Seradis, 1963
RUPTURAS form of abstract painting, sculpture and graphic art. This ranged of contrasting colors that played one against the other (illustration oil on canvas
39 1⁄4 x 47 1⁄8 in. (99.7 x 119.7 cm)
from the free-form gestural work of Manuel Felguérez to the more 12). There are similarities to the abstract painting of the émigré Gift of Esso Inter-America, Inc.,
Gunter Gerszo is nominally connected with a specific movement geometrically-oriented series by Spanish-born artist Vicente Rojo. artist Wolfgang Paalen, mentioned as pertaining to the group of 70.024.027
in Mexican art that developed after c. 1950 that has been called foreigners who had established surrealism in Mexico.41 In fact, © 1963 Lilia Carrillo
La Ruptura (the Rupture). This is a very loosely defined faction of Many artists of La Ruptura had studied abroad after the end of World Carrillo was indeed inspired by the “smoky” quality of Paalen’s
artists who, in general, felt alienated from the dogmatism of the late War II. Their art offered a dramatic and contemporary antidote to paintings (many of which were literally done incorporating smoke
manifestations of muralism and what they perceived as its strangle the surrealist-related imagery of such famous figures as Frida Kahlo, from a candle). Nonetheless, it was Carrillo’s deeply personal
hold on creativity in their country. It should be remembered that Leonora Carrington, María Izquierdo or Remedios Varo, all of whom synthesis and abstraction of the art she most admired during her
David Alfaro Siqueiros, the youngest of the so-called tres grandes or were still painting in 1950. As was true of the surrealist painters of the years in Paris in the early 1950s (including that of Matisse and
three most powerful mural artists (the other two were Diego Rivera 1930s and 1940s, some of the most outstanding figures of the Ruptura Picasso) that accounted for her rejection of the figuration which
and José Clemente Orozco) famously stated that “there is no other were women. Cordelia Urueta (1908-1995) became famous for her she had been trained to do as a student and the development
que busca evocar las glorias pasadas y los recuerdos empequeñecidos afectaron en cierta forma a Gerszo, quien se dedicó unicamente a RUPTURAS los artistas asociados con ella practicaban algún tipo de pintura,
de una celebrada existencia edénica anterior al contacto con las pintar después de los años 1960. escultura o arte gráfico abstracto. Estos iban desde la abstracción
civilizaciones occidentales del otro lado del océano. Nominalmente, Gunther Gerszo estaba conectado con un gestual libre de Manuel Felguérez a las series más orientadas hacia
Gerszo se hizo conocido por sus lienzos en los que se hacían fuertes movimiento artístico mexicano específico que se desarrolló lo geométrico del artista español Vicente Rojo.
Otra de las grandes figuras de la abstracción mitológica es el pintor referencias a estructuras antiguas (ilustración 11). Muy a menudo después de 1950 denominado La Ruptura. Esta era una facción
mexicano Gunther Gerszo (1915-2000).40 Hijo de inmigrantes eran los entornos construídos por los pueblos prehispánicos de de artistas definida de manera vaga, artistas que en general se Muchos de los artistas de La Ruptura habían estudiado en el extranjero
húngaros y alemanes que llegaron a México, la carrera de Gerszo América los que dejaban una marca en él, pero sus viajes a Grecia le sentían alejados del dogmatismo de las manifestaciones últimas luego de terminada la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Su arte ofrecía un
resultó tremendamente variada e incluyó un largo período como permitieron también otorgarles referencias de la antigüedad clásica del muralismo y que percibían que este asfixiaba la creatividad antídoto dramático y contemporáneo a las imágenes surrealistas de
diseñador de escenografías de teatro y cine en México y los Estados a sus obras. Las composiciones de Gerszo en general poseen una de su país. Se debe recordar que David Alfaro Siqueiros, el más figuras reconocidas como Frida Kahlo, Leonora Carrington, María
Unidos. Gerszo, quien era un viajero ávido, conoció a un gran grupo fuerte subestructura arquitectónica y hasta geométrica, pero en joven de los tres grandes muralistas (los otros dos eran Diego Izquierdo o Remedios Varo, quienes todavía estaban pintando en
de artistas e intelectuales, muchos de los cuales participaban en el ningún caso son representativas de un momento o lugar específico. Rivera y José Clemente Orozco), pronunció la frase célebre “no 1950. Del mismo modo que sucedió con los pintores surrealistas
movimiento surrealista en París y otros sitios. Volvió a establecer Se trata más bien de abstracciones en las que el artista (de manera hay otro camino que el nuestro” al indicar la hegemonía no solo de los años 1930 y 1940, algunas de las figuras más destacadas
relaciones con algunos de ellos, incluyendo a los austríacos similar a Fanny Sanín como se consideró anteriormente) presenta sus del muralismo sino además de la “Escuela mexicana” de artistas de La Ruptura eran mujeres. Cordelia Urueta (1908-1995) se hizo
Wolfgang Paalen y Alice Rahon, cuando huyeron de Europa a México sueños de aquello que considera esencial de lugares olvidados de cuyos temas eran principalmente los paisajes y la vida cotidiana famosa por sus suntuosos estudios de color en maretas abstractas
durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Tanto Paalen como Rahon hace tiempo que nunca existieron en la realidad pero que habitaban de los habitantes urbanos y rurales del país. De hecho La Ruptura desplegadas sobre el lienzo. Lilia Carrillo (1930-1974) fue quizás
eran principalmente artistas abstractos y sus experimentos visuales el imaginario colectivo en lugar de un sitio concreto. no tenía ningún estilo unificador. Sin embargo, la mayoría de la pintora abstracta gestual más excepcional de su época. Aunque
of one of the most distinguished and distinctive bodies of gestural Although a detailed examination of approaches to abstraction in significant Brazilian abstract artists group from the 1950s). The Illustration 13
abstract work in mid-century Latin America.42 the anglophone, francophone, and Dutch-speaking islands would work in the Lowe Art Museum’s collection is entitled Subsuelo OLGA ALBIZU
obviously enhance our vision of the multiple meanings of abstract (Subsoil) (cat. no 36) and it indeed defines a variety of levels, b. 1924, Ponce, Puerto Rico
THE SPECIAL CASE OF THE CARIBBEAN art in the Caribbean, I will confine myself to some representative suggesting, particularly in its lower portion, a telluric sense of d. 2005, New York, New York
examples from the Spanish-speaking islands: Cuba, the Dominican rocky substances (see cat. no. 36). Other images by Hernández 900-50-80, 1978
The last series of comments, in this admittedly idiosyncratic choice Republic and Puerto Rico. Cruz from the 1960s, including his extensive series called Paisajes oil on canvas
58 x 66 in. (147.3 x 167.6 cm)
of “American abstractions,” concerns the Caribbean. In the section (Landscapes) also attest to his intense interest in structured form Museo de Arte de Puerto Rico
devoted to abstraction in the Pan American Modernism exhibition, The Pan American Modernism exhibition contains an important and rich texture. Collection
Caribbean artists hold pride of place; Cuba and Puerto Rico are work in oil and collage by Luis Hernández Cruz (b. 1936), one of © 1978 Olga Albizu
present with at least nine works. Why do I refer to the ‘special case’ the major exponents of abstract art in Puerto Rico. There are, in fact, Intimately related to Hernández Cruz’s work is that by Olga
of the region? Taking the title from an important essay written in a number of points of contact between the art of Hernández Cruz Albizu (1924-2005), another leading (but much less well known)
1988 by Puerto Rican scholar Marimar Benítez who underscored the and some of the painters discussed above, especially Fernando de abstractionist from Puerto Rico. Crecimiento (Growth) (cat. no. 35),
anomalies of Puerto Rican art within a larger Latin American context,43 Szyszlo, whose penetrating color the Puerto Rican artist very much an oil-on-canvas from around 1960 also suggests movement and
I wish to suggest the uniqueness of all approaches to abstract form admired. Hernández Cruz was one of the most active abstractionists germination. A clear hint of burgeoning life about to surge through
in Caribbean art, given the long-standing dominance in the region on the island, serving as a co-founder in the late 1970s of the the confines of the canvas is present here as in many other works
of representational art, especially landscape and genre compositions. artists group known as Frente (the same name, incidentally, as a by Albizu. Nonetheless this painting (which displays the artist’s
su carrera fue desgraciadamente corta (ya que falleció a los 44 EL CASO ESPECIAL DEL CARIBE Aunque un estudio detallado de los acercamientos de las islas (el mismo nombre que utilizó, de hecho, un significativo grupo de
años), produjo una obra cuantiosa en la que a menudo se sugieren anglófonas, francófonas y neerlandesas hacia la abstracción artistas brasileños de los años 1950). La obra en la colección del Lowe
espacios oníricos creados a partir de la aplicación diáfana de colores La última serie de comentarios de esta selección sin dudas idiosincrática significaría ampliar nuestra visión de los significados múltiples Art Museum se titula Subsoil (Subsuelo) (cat. no. 36), que de veras
contrastantes que se enfrentan entre sí (ilustración 12). Existen de “abstracciones americanas” corresponde al Caribe. En la sección del arte abstracto en el Caribe, me restringiré a algunos ejemplos define una variedad de niveles al sugerir, en particular en su parte
similitudes en su obra con la de la pintura abstracta del artista dedicada a la abstracción en la muestra Pan American Modernism, representativos de las islas hispanoparlantes: Cuba, la República inferior, una sensación telúrica de sustancias rocosas (cat. no. 36).
emigrado Wolfgang Paalen que, como se mencionó, pertenecía los artistas caribeños ocupan un lugar privilegiado: Cuba y Puerto Dominicana y Puerto Rico. Otras imágenes de Hernández Cruz de los años 1960, incluyendo su
al grupo de extranjeros que habían fundado el surrealismo en Rico se encuentran presentes con al menos nueve obras. ¿Por qué extensa serie denominada Paisajes también da cuenta de su fuerte
México.41 De hecho, Carillo se inspiraba en cierto toque “nebuloso” hablar de un “caso especial” de la región? Tomando el título de Pan American Modernism cuenta con obras en óleo y collage interés por la forma estructurada y las texturas ricas.
de las pinturas de Paalen (mucho del cual se realizaba literalmente un ensayo de importancia escrito en 1988 por la investigadora de Luis Hernández Cruz (nacido en 1936), uno de los mayores
incorporando humo de una vela). Sin embargo, es la profunda puertorriqueña Marimar Benítez, quien enfatizó las anomalías del exponentes del arte abstracto en Puerto Rico. Existen, sin embargo, Íntimamente relacionada con la obra de Hernández Cruz, Olga Albizu
síntesis personal y la abstracción del arte que más admiró durante arte puertorriqueño dentro del gran contexto latinoamericano,43 un gran número de puntos de contacto entre el arte de Hernández (1924-2005) es otra de las abstraccionistas principales de Puerto Rico
sus años en París a principios de los años 1950 (incluyendo el deseo sugerir el carácter único de las aproximaciones a la forma Cruz y el de algunos de los pintores ya discutidos, en especial de (si bien mucho menos conocida). Crecimiento (cat. no. 35), un óleo
de Matisse y Picasso) lo que explica el rechazo de Carrillo por la abstracta en el arte caribeño dada la larga dominación del arte Fernando de Szyszlo, cuyo trabajo con colores penetrantes era sobre lienzo se alrededor de 1960 también sugiere movimiento y
figuración que como estudiante le habían enseñado y el desarrollo figurativo en la región, en especial en las composiciones de paisaje bien admirado por el puertorriqueño. Hernández Cruz fue uno germinación. Un claro indicio de vida floreciente a punto de estallar
de una de las obras más distinguidas y distintivas de arte abstracto y género. de los abstraccionistas más activos de la isla y fue cofundador a en los márgenes del lienzo se observa aquí, como en muchos otros
gestual en Latinoamérica de mediados de siglo.42 fines de los años 1970 del grupo de artistas conocido como Frente trabajos de Albizu. Sin embargo, esta pintura, en la que la artista
characteristic intensity of color with its vibrant contrasts of searing develop his abstract manner there). Albizu and Vicente continued Ruiz (b. 1931) studied in Puerto Rico and received her MFA from Illustration 14
yellow, deep oranges and rich blacks) also contains a specific structure as their contact and both of them were active in Manhattan in the New York University in 1956. While in New York, she had ample ESTEBAN VICENTE
well as what Hans Hofmann (whose painting Nightfall of 1958 is also in 60s where Albizu’s work demonstrated her continued admiration opportunity to observe the latest trends in abstract art and she b. 1903, Turégano, Spain
the present exhibition) would call the effect of “push and pull” (cat. no. for both her teacher’s work as well as for that of Hofmann who incorporated many of these lessons into her painting. Since the d. 2001, Bridgehampton, New York
34). The eye is lead into the depths of the canvas and is then propelled was known as the great pedagogue of the Abstract Expressionist 1960s her art has dealt with dynamic forms, rhythms and strong Number 3, 1958
outward as it observes the totality of the image (illustration 13). movement44 (illustration 14). Albizu is principally remembered for color alternations, evidencing the intense contrasts of tone and oil on canvas
48 1⁄8 x 60 1⁄8 in. (122.2 x 152.7 cm)
the many record album covers she designed in the 1960s and 70s, the defining nature of light in a tropical climate (illustration 15). Whitney Museum of American Art,
There is, in fact, a direct correlation between Albizu and Hofmann but her painting is currently receiving a re-evaluation and should Ruiz was celebrated with a major retrospective exhibition at the New York; purchase, and gift of
in the person of Albizu’s Spanish-born teacher at the University become much better known in the future when her seminal role in Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Puerto Rico (MAC) in San Dr. and Mrs. John Alfred Cook, by
of Puerto Rico, Esteban Vicente. Vicente (1903-2001) figures Caribbean abstraction will become clearer.45 Juan in 2007 which attested to her place of importance in the exchange
© The Harriet and Esteban Vicente
prominently in the story of the first generation of New York abstract history of contemporary Puerto Rican art.46 Foundation
expressionists (he was its only Spanish-born member). In the 1950s There are many more recent (and significant) advances in the Digital Image © Whitney Museum
he was in close contact with Hofmann and worked for a time in expressionist forms of abstract art in Puerto Rico and it is important Dominican artist Ada Balcácer (b. 1930) demonstrates a shared of American Art
his studio. He had also spent two formative years in Puerto Rico in to signal the ongoing role of another individual whose activities as a sensibility with that of Ruiz in that her abstract paintings deal
1945 and 1946 (the year Albizu, his pupil, received her Bachelor teacher (at the Universidad Interamericana in San Germán) have also principally with light and the extremes of Caribbean color and
of Arts degree) where he taught at the university (and started to served as a beacon of inspiration for many younger artists. Noemí the effects of the tropical sun’s glare (which, in effect, often
despliega su característica intensidad de colores con contrastes vivos formativos en Puerto Rico, en 1945 y 1946 (el año en que Albizu, subrayar el papel contínuo de otra persona cuya labor docente Illustration 15
de amarillo abrasador, anaranjados intensos y negros exquisitos, su estudiante, recibió su diploma universitario), donde enseñó en la (en la Universidad Interamericana de San Germán) también ha NOEMÍ RUIZ
también contiene una estructura específica además de lo que Hans universidad (y comenzó a desarrollar su estilo abstracto). Albizu y servido como fuente de inspiración para muchos artistas jóvenes. b. 1931, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico
Hofmann (cuya pintura Nightfall [Atardecer] de 1958, también se Vicente permanecieron en contacto y ambos se mantuvieron activos Noemí Ruiz (nacida en 1931) estudió en Puerto Rico y recibió su Lives and works in San Juan, Puerto
Rico
encuentra presente en la muestra) llamaría el efecto de “ir y venir” en Manhattan en los años 1960, donde la labor de Albizu demostró maestría en bellas artes de New York University en 1956. Mientras
(cat. no. 34). El ojo se dirige a las profundidades del lienzo y luego su admiración contínua tanto por la obra de su maestro como por se encontraba en Nueva York, tuvo numerosas oportunidades de Impromptu, 1976
acrylic on masonite
se ve expulsado hacia afuera al observar la totalidad de la imagen la de Hofmann, quien era reconocido como un gran pedagogo del observar las últimas tendencias en el arte abstracto e incorporó 48 x 60 in (122 x 152.5 cm)
(ilustración 13). movimiento Expresionista Abstracto44 (ilustración 14). Albizu se muchas de estas lecciones en su obra. Desde los años 1960, Museo de Arte Contemporáneo,
recuerda principalmente por las numerosas portadas de álbumes de su arte ha tratado con formas dinámicas, ritmos y alteraciones San Juan, Puerto Rico
Existe, de hecho, una correlación directa entre Albizu y Hofmann discos del maestro de jazz Stan Getz que diseñó en los años 1960 y de colores fuertes, marcando contrastes intensos de color y la Collection of R. J. Reynolds
Tobacco Co.
a través del maestro español de Albizu de la Universidad de Puerto 1970, pero en la actualidad, sus pinturas están siendo reevaluadas y naturaleza clave de la luz en un clima tropical (ilustración 15). © 1976 Noemí Ruiz
Rico, Esteban Vicente. Vicente (1903-2001) figura de manera en el futuro deberían recibir mucho mayor reconocimiento, cuando Ruiz fue celebrada en una muestra retrospectiva de importancia
prominente en la historia de la primera generación de expresionistas su papel trascendental en la abstracción caribeña quede más claro.45 en el Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Puerto Rico (MAC) en
abstractos de Nueva York (y el único miembro nacido en España). San Juan en 2007, la cual dio fe de su lugar de relevancia en la
En los años 1950, mantenía contacto fluído con Hofmann y trabajó Existen muchos más avances recientes (y significativos) en las formas historia del arte contemporáneo puertorriqueño.46
durante cierto tiempo en su atelier. Asimismo había pasado dos años expresionistas del arte abstracto en Puerto Rico y es importante
tends to erase color completely) (illustration 16). Balcácer has had an prior to and after the Cuban Revolution that started in 1959. Raúl to Paris in 1953 and remained there until his death. Throughout Illustration 16
immensely varied career, beginning in Santo Domingo in the 1950s Millián, Antonio Vidal and Hugo Consuegra were members of a his career, his work was characterized by vigorous gesture. ADA BALCÁCER
(a time of artistic efflorescence yet political instability), continuing loosely knit group called Los Once (The Eleven) who exhibited their Deriving inspiration from both New York Abstract Expressionism b. 1930, Dominican Republic
in New York (where she worked in the fashion industry) and, more work together on several occasions from the mid-1950s to the and its Parisian counterpart tachisme, Llinás consistently made Lives and works in Miami, Florida
recently, in Miami where she has done some of her largest and most early 60s, when many of them left the country. While figurative reference to Afro-Cuban iconography (taking at least a partial La anunciación de la luz con
experimental abstract canvases and murals. Balcácer, whose 2011 compositions such as those by Wifredo Lam (well known as a clue from Lam), especially in his extensive series collectively micrófono from the series Ensayos
de luz tropical (1986-2003)
retrospective show at the Centro Cultural Eduardo León Jiménez member of international avant-garde surrealist and cubist circles) called the Pinturas negras (Black Paintings) (illustration 17). (Day Break Light with Microphone
in Santiago (Dominican Republic) demonstrated the breadth of or the striking still lifes of Amelia Peláez may characterize Cuban Totemic shapes, semi-defined figural specters that appear to from the series Essays of Tropical
her work (which includes a large series devoted to paintings that art of the mid-twentieth century in the mind of many, there was emerge from a Lam-like jungle setting (minus the jewel like Light), 1993
reference ancient myths of the ancient Caribbean Taíno peoples) a remarkably healthy and highly original series of abstract options color of the older painter) define a body of work that is unique mixed media and relief on canvas
60 5⁄8 x 70 7⁄8 in. (154 x 180 cm)
and underscored her significance for the development of younger practiced by artists working in Havana, one of the most productive within the panorama of Caribbean abstraction that draws its Collection of Doña Margarita
Dominican artists such as Scherezade García and many others who and generative art centers of the Americas. Recent research by roots back to a time prior to the mid-twentieth century.49 García Arevalo viuda Martínez,
are carrying the experiments of their teacher into new directions.47 American, Cuban and European scholars has begun to underline Santo Domingo, Dominican
the importance of (principally gestural) abstraction in Cuba from The themes that interested Llinás (references to Afro-Cuban Republic
© 1996 Ada Balcácer
Pan American Modernism contains three important works by the 1950s onward.48 Guido Llinás (1923-2005) was one of the spirituality executed with a vigorous brush work and a rich
Cuban artists active in the developing forms of abstraction just most outstanding members of the group of Los Once. He moved palette of colors) also attracted the attention of Carlos Alfonzo
La artista dominicana Ada Balcácer (nacida en 1930) demuestra jóvenes como Scherezade García, entre muchos otros, que llevan la originales que practicaban los artistas de La Habana, uno de Illustration 17
una sensibilidad compartida con la de Ruiz en el sentido de que sus experimentación de su maestra en nuevas direcciones.47 los centros artísticos más productivos y prolíficos de América. GUIDO LLINÁS
pinturas abstractas tratan principalmente con la luz, los extremos Estudios recientes realizados por académicos estadounidenses, b. 1923, Pinar del Río, Cuba
del color caribeño y los efectos del reflejo del sol tropical (que, en Pan American Modernism contiene tres obras importantes de artistas cubanos y europeos han comenzado a subrayar la importancia d. 2005, Paris, France
efecto, a menudo tiende a borrar el color por completo) (ilustración cubanos activos en el desarrollo de las formas de la abstracción de la abstracción (principalmente gestual) en Cuba desde los Untitled from the series Pinturas
16). Balcácer ha tenido una carrera variada: comenzó en Santo apenas antes y después de la Revolución Cubana que comenzó en años 1950.48 Guido Llinás (1923-2005) fue uno de los miembros negras (Black Paintings), 1978
oil on canvas
Domingo en los años 1950 (en una época de florecimiento artístico 1959. Raúl Milián, Antonio Vidal y Hugo Consuegra eran miembros de Los Once más sobresalientes. Se trasladó a París en 1953 y 51 1⁄8 x 39 3⁄8 in. (130 x 100 cm)
en medio de la inestabilidad política); continuó en Nueva York (donde de un grpo un tanto disímil llamado Los Once, y exhibieron su obra permaneció allí hasta su muerte. A lo largo de su carrera, su obra Essex Collection of Art from Latin
trabajó en la industria de la moda), y, más recientemente, en Miami juntos en varias oportunidades a mediados de los años 1950 y se caracterizó por una gestualidad vigorosa. Tomando como base America, University of Essex, Donated
donde ha realizado algunos de sus lienzos y murales más grandes y principios de los años 1960, cuando muchos de ellos abandonaron el de inspiración el Expresionismo Abstracto de Nueva York y su by Ruta Correa, 1996
© 1978 Guido Llinás.
experimentales. Balcácer tuvo una muestra retrospectiva en el 2011 país. A pesar de que para muchos, las composiciones figurativas de contraparte parisino, Tachisme, Llinás hizo referencias constantes Image © ESCALA.
en el Centro Cultural Eduardo León Jiménez de Santiago (República artistas como Wifredo Lam (conocido como miembro perteneciente a la iconografía afrocubana (adoptando al menos en parte las
Dominicana) donde se demonstró la amplitud de su obra, que incluye a círculos de la vanguardia surrealista y cubista en el mundo) o ideas de Lam), en especial en su extensa serie denominada
una serie dedicada a pinturas que hacen referencia a mitos primitivos las sorprendentes naturalezas muertras de Amelia Peláez pueden Pinturas negras (ilustración 17). Las formas totémicas, espectros
de los pueblos caribeños taínos antiguos, y se subrayó la importancia caracterizar el arte cubano de mediados del siglo XX, existían figurativos semidefinidos que parecen surgir de una selva similar
dada por la artista al desarrollo de los artistas dominicanos más una serie de opciones dentro de la abstracción muy saludables y a las de Lam (excepto por los colores vivaces de aquel pintor),
(1950-1991). Alfonzo is the youngest of the artists in the ‘abstract in the over-heated art market of the time. His art, especially the be accomplished in the area of abstraction in the work of artists Illustration 18
expressionism’ section of this show and most of his mature work large-scale canvases of the later 1980s, stand as monuments to a throughout the Americas. The present exhibition will certainly CARLOS ALFONZO
was done in Miami. A graduate of the San Alejandro Academy in unique approach to the use of aggressive line and forceful color50 stimulate both scholars and lovers of art to think more carefully b. 1950, Havana, Cuba
Havana, he departed from his conservative training to devote himself (illustration 18). about the complexities of these issues. d. 1991, Miami, Florida
to investigations of Afro-Caribbean spirituality (with sometimes Curso de la vida (Lifetime), 1988
clear references to the syncretistic religious practices of Santería), CONCLUSION oil on linen
84 x 96 in. (213.4 x 243.8 cm)
which he painted in his highly personal visual vocabulary and vivid Gift of Friends of Art in honor of
colors. These compositions may be linked directly with a new form The Pan American Modernism exhibition plays an important role in Ira Licht’s 10th Anniversary at the
of expressive abstraction that dominated much of American and questioning and analyzing trans-national dialogues within a wide Lowe Art Museum, 88.0004
European art at the time Alfonzo’s career was at its high point. The variety of modernist forms of art. In terms of abstraction it allows
late 1970s and 80s witnessed the development of a new form of us a glimpse into the complexities of the hemispheric response to
abstract expressionism (often mixed with extorted figuration) that the non-objective image and to the discourses of expressive form.
came to be known by the catch-all phrase “neo expressionism.” It also serves as a platform for questioning notions of influence,
Alfonzo probably did not wish to be associated with any particular originality and dissemination of modes of artistic expression. The
group and his work represents an originality that makes it more preceding essay is, as stated at the beginning, a partial summation
memorable than a great many others who were highly successful of some of these themes. There are many more areas of research to
definen una obra que resulta única dentro del panorama de la y europeo en la época en que la carrera de Alfonzo se encontraba de formas artísticas modernistas. En términos de abstracción,
abstracción caribeña que nutre sus raíces de una época anterior al en su cúspide. Los finales de los años 1970 y los años 1980 fueron nos permite una mirada hacia las complejidades de la respuesta
siglo XX.49 testigo del desarrollo de una nueva forma de expresionismo abstracto en el hemisferio a las imágenes no figurativas y a los discursos
(a menudo combinado con una figuración retorcida) que recibió el de la forma expresiva. Asimismo, sirve como plataforma para
Los temas que resultaban de interés para Llinás (referencias a la nombre amplio de “neoexpresionismo”. Alfonzo quizás no desea cuestionar nociones de influencia, originalidad y diseminación de
espiritualidad afrocubana ejecutada con pinceladas vigorosas y una verse vinculado con ningún grupo en particular y su obra representa modos de expresión artística. Este ensayo representa, como se
paleta de colores intensos) también llamaron la atención de Carlos una originalidad que la hace más memorable que la de muchos otros indicó al principio, un resumen parcial de algunos de estos temas.
Alfonzo (1950-1991). Alfonzo es el más joven de la sección de que tuvieron gran éxito en el mercado artístico recalentado de la Existen muchas otras áreas de investigación por abordar en el
“expresionistas abstractos” de esta muestra y la mayor parte de su época. Su arte, en especial sus lienzos de gran tamaño de finales de área de la abstracción en la obra de artistas de toda América. La
trabajo maduro se realizó en Miami. Graduado de la Academia San los años 1980, se vuelven monumentos de un enfoque único en lo presente muestra sin dudas estimulará tanto a académicos como
Alejandro de La Habana, se alejó de su formación tradicional para relativo al uso de líneas agresivas y colores enérgicos50 (ilustración 18). a los amantes del arte para pensar las complejidades de estos
dedicarse a investigar la espiritualidad afrocaribeña (con ocasionales temas con mayor atención.
referencias claras a las prácticas religiosas sincréticas de la Santería), que CONCLUSIÓN
pintó con un vocabulario visual muy personal y colores vívidos. Estas
composiciones pueden vincularse de manera directa con una nueva La muestra Pan American Modernism tiene un papel importante en la
forma de abstracción expresiva que dominó mucho del arte americano disquisición y análisis de los dialogos trasnacionales de una variedad
BODY OF EVIDENCE: “Photography has its limits. What is important for a photographer is
to know them, understand them precisely, and give them a personal
THE MODERNISMS OF MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO interpretation. Reality itself is one limit that presents photography with
specific problems.” — Manuel Álvarez Bravo51
EL CUERPO DEL DELITO:
LOS MODERNISMOS DE MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO “Everything tends to make us believe that there exists a certain point of the
mind at which life and death, the real and the imagined, past and future, the
communicable and the incommunicable, high and low, cease to be perceived
as contradictions. Now, search as one may one will never find any other
Heather Diack motivating force in the activities of the Surrealists than the hope of finding
and fixing this point.” — André Breton52
“La fotografía tiene sus límites. Lo que es importante para un fotógrafo es

conocerlos, comprenderlos con precisión y darles una interpretación personal.
La realidad en sí misma es un límite que se le presenta a la fotografía con
problemas específicos” — Manuel Álvarez Bravo51
“Todo tiende a hacernos creer que existe un cierto lugar en la mente en

que la vida y la muerte, lo real y lo imaginario, el pasado y el futuro, lo
comunicable y lo incomunicable, lo elevado y lo bajo, se dejan de percibir
como contradicciones. Ahora bien, por más que uno busque, nunca encontrará
ninguna otra fuerza motivadora en las actividades de los surrealistas más que
la esperanza de hallar y fijar este punto” — André Breton52
52 BODY OF EVIDENCE: THE MODERNISMS OF MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO 53

The ties that bind photography to the real in the analog world medium of modernism and modern art. Additionally, due to have frequently been directed at photography and modernism Illustration 1
secure for the viewer a temporal and credible sense of what Roland photography’s “direct relation to what was present at the time the more broadly, including the tendency to separate documentary MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
Barthes called “that-has-been.”53 An assuredness exists, despite lens opened, and because it could reproduce reality with more fidelity practices from artistic ones, and thus in many ways, to view b. 1902, Mexico City, Mexico
whether uncertainty lurks regarding what transpired before and to appearance, its essence was really about representation per se.”55 politics apart from aesthetics. The case in point is the work of d. 2002, Mexico City, Mexico
after the actual shot under consideration. Somehow what is pictured The overwhelming sense of fragmented consciousness observed the Mexican photographer Manuel Álvarez Bravo (1902-2002), Obrero en huelga,
in the photograph indeed not simply depends upon reality but in as a phenomenon of modernity, in the face of vast technological which evidences a stark contrast to the dominant discourses of asesinado (Striking Worker,
Assassinated), 1934
fact represents reality in that it is a part of reality. As a complicated changes and political upheaval, made the camera the decisive device European and American modernist formalism, and demonstrates (printed 1974)
nexus of “the real,” it seems obvious why, as Andrea Noble has for probing a new sense of being in the world. To call on André the fixedly unstable synthesis of aesthetics and politics. gelatin silver print
expressed it, “Photography was the privileged medium of modern Breton’s words from the epigraph, regarding the desire to “fix” 7 1⁄2 x 9 5⁄8 in. (19.1 x 24.4 cm)
representation and was, moreover, used to alter the very image of “perceived contradictions,” it seems apt that the camera would be Overwhelmingly considered the defining practitioner of Mexican Gift of The American
Foundation for the Arts,
modernity.”54 Certainly, thinking through the layers of the real in called into service. photography, his highly circulated photographs have in some 84.0190.13
relation to representation has always been key to the modernist ways become occluded by the “celebratory weight” of his status © Colette Urbajtel/Archivo
project. The advent of photography in the nineteenth century itself I would like to address some of the complexities that were purportedly as “the greatest Mexican photographer.”56 As a participant in Manuel Álvarez Bravo, SC
attests to a zeitgeist centered on capturing images as a means of both resolved and instigated by photography as a vehicle of modernity the cultural renaissance in Mexico that followed the country’s
further understanding human experience. Arguably photography’s and modernism. Moreover, my analysis will be grounded in a case revolution of the 1910s, Álvarez Bravo’s experiments with form
crucial relationship to the real is in part what makes it the central study that puts pressure on many of the categorical distinctions that and subject amount to a body of work that cannot be subsumed
Los lazos que vinculan la fotografía con lo real en el mundo análogo que la relación crucial de la fotografía con lo real sea en parte lo del modernismo. Asimismo, mi análisis se basará en un estudio Illustration 2
le aseguran al espectador una sensación temporal y creíble de lo que que la convierte en el medio central del modernismo y del arte de caso que afecta muchas de las distinciones categóricas que MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
Roland Barthes ha denominado “esto ha sido”.53 Existe una cierta moderno. Asimismo, por la “relación directa [de la fotografía] con lo con frecuencia han permeado a la fotografía, y al modernismo b. 1902, Mexico City, Mexico
seguridad, más allá de si la inseguridad merodea lo que aconteció que se encontraba frente al lente al momento en que este se abría, y de manera más amplia, incluyendo la tendencia de separar las d. 2002, Mexico City, Mexico
antes y después de la toma que se observa. De algún modo, lo que se debido a que podía reproducir la realidad con mayor fidelidad en lo prácticas documentales de las artísticas y de muchas maneras ver La buena fama, durmiendo
representa en la fotografía de hecho no depende solo de la realidad relativo a la apariencia, su esencia era de hecho la representación en así a la política separada de la estética. El caso a revisar es la obra (Good Reputation, Sleeping),
1938 (printed 1974)
sino que de hecho representa la realidad misma puesto que ES sí misma”.55 El sentido sobrecogedor de la conciencia fragmentada del fotógrafo mexicano Manuel Álvarez Bravo (1902-2002), quien gelatin silver print
parte de la realidad. Como un nexo complicado de “lo real”, parece observado como fenómeno de la modernidad, frente a los vastos evidencia un marcado contraste con los discursos dominantes del 7 3⁄8 x 9 5⁄8 in. (18.7 x 24.4 cm)
obvio por qué (como ha indicado Andrea Noble) “La fotografía fue cambios tecnológicos y la agitación política, convirtió a la cámara en formalismo modernista europeo y estadounidense y demuestra Gift of The American
el medio privilegiado de la representación moderna e incluso se la un artefacto decisivo para investigar un nuevo devenir en el mundo. la síntesis siempre inestable de la estética y la política. Foundation for the Arts,
84.0190.03
utilizó para modificar la imagen misma de la modernidad”.54 Por Pensando las palabras de André Breton del epígrafe en cuanto al © Colette Urbajtel/Archivo
cierto, pensar a través de las capas de lo real en relación con la deseo de “fijar” “las contradicciones percibidas”, parece natural Considerado en general como el artista más paradigmático Manuel Álvarez Bravo, SC
representación siempre ha sido clave en los proyectos modernistas. que la cámara entrara en juego. exponente más acabado de la fotografía mexicana, a pesar
La aparición de la fotografía en el siglo XIX da cuenta de un espítiru de la alta difusión que han recibido sus fotografías, de algún
de la época que giraba en torno a la captura de imágenes como Me gustaría discutir algunas de las complejidades que se supone que modo estas se han visto opacadas por el “peso laudatorio” de
medio para comprender mejor la experiencia humana. Es posible resolvió y despertó la fotografía como vehículo de la modernidad y su estatus como “el fotógrafo más grande de México”.56 Como
54 EL CUERPO DEL DELITO: LOS MODERNISMOS DE MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO BODY OF EVIDENCE: THE MODERNISMS OF MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO 55
by a singular category, particularly if that category depends on a Two key bodies famously stand out in Álvarez Bravo’s oeuvre, in Separated by four years, the Striking Worker, Assassinated precedes The tone of the photograph here is one of statement rather than
stylistic concept for self-definition. Literally and figuratively bridging part because of their formal coincidence: focally, they are both lying Good Reputation, Sleeping, and shows a bloody corpse, eyes open, symbolic contemplation. And yet, this photograph has nevertheless
a gap between various versions of Latin American modernism and down. One titled Obrero en huelga, asesinado (Striking Worker, laying face up on the ground. The subject matter, a close-up of a been accounted for by a number of art historians and art critics as
Euro-North American modernism, a palpable confrontation between Assassinated, 1934) (illustration 1) and the other La Buena fama, victim of violence, connects the image to a long lineage of crime less about specificity or social ideology and more about a kind of
aesthetics and politics, regionalism and universalism, and, in terms durmiendo (Good Reputation, Sleeping, 1938-1939, illustration photography. Reminiscent of memorable and contemporaneous “symbolic visual vernacular,” which is often associated with the
of historiographic accounts, between mainstream modernist studies 2). It is meaningful to bring them into dialogue with one another images by Weegee58, the legendary free-lance tabloid photographer idea of the victim/martyr that is transcendental, harkening back to
and the critical edge of art from Latin America, occurs in Álvarez as much for their similarities as for their apparent contrasts. Each of New York City’s “dark side” throughout the 1930s and 1940s, the rites of human sacrifice in ancient Mexico.60 In Nissan Perez’s
Bravo’s photographs. Xavier Villaurrutia praised Álvarez Bravo’s provides a sensation of an out-of-body experience to the viewer. the viewer is directed to the scene of the crime. In stark black words, the Director of Photography at the Israel Museum, “What
ability to create unforeseen potentials in art, photography, and They suggest a place beyond the frame, thus calling attention to and white, the death clearly pictured is as real as it gets, at least matters is the act [of assassination] and its significance for the image
judgment, explaining he made “it possible that, standing before exactly what they can and cannot represent. As a pair, indeed they in representational terms. Leonard Folgarait has insightfully rather than its obvious social connotations.”61 Read in this way, as an
his best photographs, we find ourselves facing true representations can function as a parable regarding the limits of representation as referred to this photograph as a flat lifeless image exemplifying “a aesthetic representation of timeless themes, arguably the “obvious
of the unrepresentable, facing true evidence of the invisible.”57 well as a litmus test of the fine and often porous lines separating representation of death as further deadened.”59 The rhetorical first social connotations” are no longer so obvious. Rather, they are
This feat of straddling evidence and invisibility is a provocative documentary photography from art. Together they propose a crucial impression is indeed as pointed evidence rather than artifice. The elided by the high modernist impulse for considering the work of
description; one that I will argue deserves to be taken seriously as a example of the various modes of visuality Álvarez Bravo invested in fact of death before one’s eyes is arresting in its concrete impact, an art on its own terms, as centripetally contained by its frame and
mode of modernist “truth” which is always somehow out of reach and investigated. impact made only more substantial and stony by the ground upon demarcated apart from its social context.
or untenable, even in the moment it is presented or professed. which the body lies.
miembro del renacimiento cultural de México que se produjo en el invisible”.57 Esta hazaña de alternar invisibilidad y evidencia resulta prueba de fuego de la delgada (y a menudo porosa) línea que separa Leonard Folgarait se ha referido a esta fotografía como una imagen
país tras la revolución de la década de 1910, Álvarez Bravo llevó una descripción provocativa que merece tomarse en serio como una la fotografía documental del arte. Los dos proponen un ejemplo directa y sin vida, ejemplo de “una representación de la muerte aun
a cabo diversos experimientos con formas y temas que hacen que forma de “verdad” modernista que resulta siempre de algún modo crucial de los diversos modos de visualidad a los que se dedicó y que más muerta”.59 La primera impresión retórica de esta imagen es por
su obra no pueda resumirse en una única categoría, en especial inalcanzable o inasequible, incluso en el momento en el que se la investigó Álvarez Bravo. cierto de evidencia más que de artificio. El hecho de presentar la
si esa categoría depende de un concepto estilístico para definirse. presenta o profesa. muerte ante nuestra mirada resulta cautivador por el efecto que
Literal y figurativamente zanjando las diferencias entre diversas Separados por cuatro años, Obrero en huelga, asesinado es anterior provoca, un efecto que se hace aun más sustancial y duro por el
versiones del modernismo latinoamericano y el modernismo euro- En la obra de Álvarez Bravo hay dos cuerpos en particular que se a La buena fama, durmiendo, y muestra un cuerpo ensangrentado suelo sobre el que yace el cuerpo.
norteamericano, en las fotografías de Álvarez Bravo se produce una destacan en parte por su coincidencia formal: ambos se encuentran tendido de espaldas sobre el suelo con los ojos abiertos. Su tema,
confrontación palable entre estética y politica, entre regionalismo y recostados. Uno titulado Obrero en huelga, asesinado (1934) el primer plano de una víctima de la violencia, sitúa la imagen El tono de la fotografía es aquí declarativo más que de contemplación
universalismo y (en cuanto a las narraciones historiográficas) entre (ilustración 1) y el otro La buena fama, durmiendo (1938-1939) en el extenso contexto de la fotografía criminal. Al evocar con simbólica. Sin embargo, una cantidad de historiadores y críticos
los estudios modernistas convencionales y el lado crítico del arte de (ilustración 2). Resulta significativo ponerlos en diálogo tanto pos sus esta fotografía las imágenes memorables y contemporáneas de de arte han considerado que esta fotografía tiene menos que ver
Latinoamérica. Xavier Villaurrutia ha alabado la capacidad de Álvarez similitudes como por sus aparentes contrastes. Ambos le transmiten Weegee58, el legendario fotógrafo sensacionalista independiente con la especificidad o la ideología social y más con algún tipo de
Bravo de crear potenciales inesperados en el arte, la fotografía y la al espectador una sensación extracorpórea. Sugieren un lugar más que retrataba el “lado oscuro” de Nueva York en los años 1930 y “lenguaje visual vernáculo simbólico”, que a menudo se asocia con
razón al indicar que el artista hizo “posible que, cuando nos paramos allá del cuadro y, de este modo, llaman la atención a lo que pueden 1940, el espectador se dirige hacia la escena del crimen. En blanco la idea de la víctima/mártir que resulta trascendente y retrotrae a
frente a sus mejores fotografías, nos enfrentemos a representaciones y no pueden representar. Juntos de hecho, funcionan como una y negro severo, la muerte que se retrata con claridad retiene toda los ritos de sacrificio humano del México antiguo.60 Como indica
verdaderas de lo irrepresentable, a evidencias verdaderas de lo parábola sobre los límites de la representación además de como una su realidad, el menos en términos representativos. Con inteligencia, Nissan Perez, director de fotografía del Israel Museum, “Lo que
A key question here would be whether the image asks the viewer to the second brings the real to bear on the image as a work of not an identifiable source, seeps around his head, and runs straight out The title Álvarez Bravo attributes to this photograph is itself deliberate
read inwards or outwards, to see this photograph as a whole or as simply art, but, moreover, documentary. However, particularly in the lower frame to the right. Such details within the image – the – namely, Striking Worker, Assassinated, is concise in its delivery and
a fragment? In her discussion of grids as the emblematic structure this case, the centrifugal reading is compelling by virtue of the arm and the blood – reach beyond the photograph, thereby alluding punctuated in its explanation. What can we make of the comma,
of modernist ambition within the visual arts, Rosalind Krauss makes fact that it takes all of the parts of the image into consideration as to our living space outside the frame even as the “that-has-been” the temporal interruption that separates the “Striking Worker” from
important observations regarding the ambiguity of these two kinds evidence, including interdependent relations between the caption, of the image alienates our connection to the moment captured. the fate of his being “Assassinated”? Why not simply title the image
of readings. On the one hand, the centripetal reading affirms the the composition, and the context. Álvarez Bravo himself admitted These two elements have been observed as crucial counterpoints “Assassinated Striking Worker,” or drop the comma, as a number
idea of the image as autonomous, thereby encouraging modernist to the complimentary possibilities of combining the poetic with the by Folgarait, in his reflective attempt “to articulate a meaningful of published reproductions of this particular photograph have?
introspection, or more powerfully and ideologically “an introjection documentary,64 thereby creating “documentary fictions that invent relationship between the social dynamic of the historical moment Something is indeed lost in translation. Poetic titles and attention to
of the boundaries of the world into the interior of the work.”62 By and tell the truth, mimetically capture and abstract the subjects and the expressive content” of images.66 In his close reading of this literary detail are among Álvarez Bravo’s signature maneuvers.
contrast, a centrifugal reading would see the image as a fragment they contain.”65 In other words, faced with the photographic box particular photograph, Folgarait astutely observes that though the
“cropped from an infinitely larger fabric […] compelling our containing the body here, the subject nevertheless exceeds that arm reaches, the worker’s fingers retract. As though to “assert his The importance of political context to Álvarez Bravo, additionally
acknowledgement of a world beyond the frame.”63 Both approaches which is presented and visible. power of agency even in death,”67 his fingers curl back towards evidenced by the inclusion of a fragment of the Mexican flag in
are credible and considering the traditional rectangle encasement his own body. The framing of the body gives the viewer proximity the background, in this instance seems to exceed the desire to
of the photograph – they are provocative ways of thinking within This is true in formal as well as conceptual terms. Notice the arm of and privilege as a voyeur, while maintaining a distance in which the conscript the dead youth as an icon of elusive martyrdom. It is worth
or through the boundaries of the framing device. The first method the fallen man, as it stretches out languidly towards the viewer on viewer is always at an inevitable and interminable remove. noting that Álvarez Bravo was already an established photographic
emphasizes an aesthetic that is at a remove from the real, while the lower left, and the blood which courses over his face without artist by the time of this image’s creation, and as such it is truly
importa es el acto [de asesinato] y su significado para la imagen visión más potente e ideológica, “una incorporación subconsciente de este modo crear “ficciones documentales que inventan y cuentan su intento reflexivo de “articular una relación significativa entre la
más que sus obvias connotaciones sociales”.61 Leído de este modo, de los límites del mundo al interior de la obra”.62 En cambio, la lectura la verdad, captando de manera mimética y abstracta los temas que dinámica social del momento histórico y el contenido expresivo” de
como una representación estética de temas atemporales, es posible centrífuga vería la imagen como un fragmento “recortado de un contienen”.65 En otras palabras, frente a la caja fotográfica que aquí las imágenes.66 En su lectura crítica de esta fotografía en particular,
que las “obvias connotaciones sociales” ya no resulten tan obvias. lienzo sin fin más grande […] que nos obliga a reconocer un mundo contiene el cuerpo, el tema sin embargo excede lo presentado y Folgarait observa con astucia que, aunque el brazo se extiende,
En cambio, se desvanecen por la fuerte impronta modernista que más allá del cuadro”.63 Ambos enfoques son creíbles y, teniendo visible. los dedos del trabajador se retraen. De algún modo, se “afirma
considera las obras de arte en sí mismas, contenidas hacia el interior en cuenta los límites rectangulares tradicionales de la fotografía, su empoderamiento incluso en la muerte”67 ya que los dedos se
por el cuadro que las delimita y fuera de su contexto social. constituyen maneras provocativas de pensar hacia adentro o más allá Esto es cierto tanto en términos formales como conceptuales. contraen hacia el propio cuerpo. La composición del cuerpo le da al
de las fronteras delimitadas por el marco. El primer método enfatiza Nótese el brazo del hombre tendido que se extiende en el extremo espectador la proximidad y la prerrogativa de ser voyeur, mientras
Una pregunta clave para plantear en este caso sería si la imagen le una estética que se aleja de lo real, mientras que el segundo aporta inferior izquiero lánguido hacia el espectador, y la sangre que corre que mantiene una distancia en la que el espectador se encuentra
pide al espectador que la lea hacia adentro o hacia afuera, que la la realidad para que dé cuenta de la imagen como una obra, no solo sobre su rostro, sin que se identifique su fuente, y cae por su cabeza siempre alejado de forma inevitable e interminable.
vea como un todo o como un fragmento. En su discusión sobre el de arte sino documental. Sin embargo, en especial en este caso, la y se mueve desde la parte inferior del cuadro hacia la derecha.
cuadro como estructura emblemática de la ambición modernista en lectura hacia afuera resulta atractiva por el hecho de que toma en Estos detalles de la imagen, el brazo y la sangre, se proyectan más El título que Álvarez Bravo le da a su fotografía, Obrero en huelga,
las artes visuales, Rosalind Krauss ofrece observacionaes importantes cuenta todas las partes de la fotografía como evidencia, incluyendo allá de la fotografía, y de este modo aluden al espacio en que asesinado, es en sí mismo deliberado, conciso y explicativo. ¿Cómo
en lo relativo a la ambigüedad de estos dos tipos de lectura. Por un las relaciones interdependientes entre el epígrafe, la composición y habitamos fuera del cuadro incluso a pesar de que el “esto ha podemos interpretar la coma, esa interrupción temporal que separa
lado, la lectura hacia el interior afirma la idea de la imagen como el contexto. El mismo Álvarez Bravo ha admitido las posibilidades sido” de la imagen nos aleja del momento captado. Folgarait ha al “Obrero en huelga” de su destino al ser “asesinado”? ¿Por qué
autónoma, por lo que alienta la introspección modernista o, con una complementarias de combinar lo poético con lo documental,64 para considerado estos dos elementos como contrapuntos cruciales en no titular la imagen “Asesinan obrero en huelga”, o dejar de lado
ahistorical to consider this photograph entirely outside the political in the service of demonstrating a dialectic class conflict and arguably tight cropping, the sharp focus, and the abstracted context, however meanings might be obscure, however the framing is always decisive
and social realities of its time or of Álvarez Bravo’s larger oeuvre. “a timely protest against the tyranny of specific dictators and rulers” it is also visibly aware of not simply the rhetoric of photojournalism but in appearance. Similarly, what is literally laid bear before the viewers
Álvarez Bravo has described his trip to Tehuantepec, which resulted as opposed to a “an apolitical, modernist metaphor of a timeless moreover the particularities of the narrative pictured. Álvarez Bravo’s is crucial for Álvarez Bravo.
in this photograph, stating his intention to “make a counterpoint “ritual sacrifice to the gods of society.”72 consciously avant-garde use of “a modernist sensibility emphasizing
between labor and the picturesque.”68 Though he could not have sharp definition, everyday subject matter and a purist formal rigor,”76 The photograph Striking Worker, Assassinated is often referred to
precisely anticipated the sugar mill workers strike he encountered, In his provocative study of the archives of the celebrated Mexican does not preclude his ability to involve himself in a highly politicized as “one of Álvarez Bravo’s few “documentary” images.”78 However,
and this particular body, strikes were increasingly prevalent at the photographic agency Agencia Fotográfica Nacional (also known reportage regarding real life in Mexico. The pressure Álvarez Bravo I contend that particularly after spending time thinking about his
time. The intensity of worker protests in 1934 escalated to 202 with as the Casasola Archive), Jesse Lerner analytically takes up the has placed on the dead man’s chest here by virtue of cutting the early work, the social documentary strain that indeed characterized
approximately 14,685 workers participating.69 The Liga de Escritores complicated relationship between crime and photography in Mexico image close to the body creates a claustrophobic space; a desire Mexican art during the Cárdenas regime becomes visible in other
y Artistas Revolucionarios (the League of Revolutionary Writers and City in the 1920s and 1930s, the years following the Mexican for a way out of the demarcated arena is palpable and stressed. works by the artist. Olivier Debroise refers to such occurrences as
Artists), of which Álvarez Bravo was a member, included the image Revolution (1910-1920).73 Lerner refers to this iconic image by As an advocate of straight photography in the vein of Paul Strand evidence of a particularly Mexican “complex perception of the world
in their publication Frente a Frente in 1936. First as part of a two- Álvarez Bravo in terms of its relationship to contemporary judiciales74 and Tina Modotti,77 Álvarez Bravo famously disavowed any act of that is translated in the photographs through an emphasis on the
page photo spread, prepared by Álvarez Bravo in collaboration with images. For Lerner, this work is exemplary of the overlap between manipulation in the printing process. Visible, for example, in works invisible, on what is left out of the picture and yet is indispensable
Heinrich Gutmann,70 and again as the cover piece, montaged with the “two seeming distinct photographic practices, the tabloid and such as Strand’s Mexican Portfolio from the 1930s, a direct shot with to its existence.”79 This description sounds strikingly similar to words
portraits of Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Plutarco Elias Calles, the high modernist.”75 Striking Worker, Assassinated demonstrates a clearly centered subject is a shared modernist strategy (see cat. used by Esther Gabara when she discusses what she calls “visible
two issues later.71 In both cases Striking Worker, Assassinated is used a sophisticated literacy of modernist visual language, including the no. 54). Such images could even be described as confrontational; photographs of invisible bodies.”80 Álvarez Bravo’s work operates
la coma, como lo hacen algunas reproducciones publicadas de esta Aunque no pudo haber anticipado la huelga específica de los En su estimulante estudio sobre la celebrada Agencia Fotográfica del rigor formal”76 no descarta su habilidad de comprometerse en
fotografía en particular? Algo de hecho se perdería en el camino. trabajadores azucareros que halló y este cuerpo en particular, las Nacional de México (conocida también como el Archivo Casasola), un ensayo fotográfico con fuertes tintes políticos sobre la vida real
Los títulos poéticos y la atención a los detalles literarios son algunas huelgas eran cada vez más comunes por entonces. La cantidad Jesse Lerner realiza un análisis de la complicada relación entre el crimen en México. La presión que Álvarez Bravo ha depositado aquí sobre
de las maniobras características de Álvarez Bravo. de protestas obreras aumentó en 1934 a 202 con la participación y la fotografía en la ciudad de México en los años 1920 y 1930, los el pecho del hombre muerto al cortar la imagen cerca del cuerpo
de unos 14.685 trabajadores.69 La Liga de Escritores y Artistas años posteriores a la Revolución Mexicana (1910-1920).73 Lerner crea un espacio claustrofóbico: el deseo de hallar una salida del área
La importancia del contexto político para Álvarez Bravo, que se Revolucionarios, de la que Álvarez Bravo era miembro, incluyó la hace referencia a esta imagen icónica de Álvarez Bravo en relación demarcada resulta palpable y pronunciado. Como defensor de la
pone de manifiesto además al incluir una porción de la bandera imagen en su publicación Frente a Frente en 1936. Primero como con las imágenes judiciales74 de la época. Para Lerner, este trabajo fotografía directa al estilo de Paul Strand y Tina Modotti,77 Álvarez
de México en segundo plano, parece en este caso ir más allá parte de un ensayo fotográfico de dos hojas que preparó Álvarez es un ejemplo de la superposición de “dos prácticas fotográficas en Bravo rechazaba con vigor cualquier acto de manipulación en el
del deseo de transformar al joven muerto en ícono del martirio Bravo en colaboración con Heinrich Gutmann, 70 y luego como apariencia diferentes, la amarillista y la modernista”.75 Obrero en proceso de impresión. Por ejemplo, en obras como Mexican Portfolio
esquivo. Vale subrayar que Álvarez Bravo ya era un fotógrafo portada, montada con retratos de Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini huelga, asesinado demuestra un conocimiento sofisticado del lenguaje (Portafolio mexicano), de Strand, de los años 1930, se presenta una
consumado cuando creó esta fotografía, y por lo tanto resulta de y Plutarco Elias Calles dos números después.71 An ambos casos, visual modernista, incluyendo el encuadre recortado, la nitidez del toma directa con un sujeto centrado con claridad, una estrategia
veras ahistórico considerar esta fotografía del todo fuera de las Obrero en huelga, asesinado se utilizó para demostrar un conflicto enfoque y el contexto abstracto; sin embargo, también está conciente compartida por los modernistas (ver n.° cat. 54). Se podría describir
realidades políticas y sociales de su época o de la obra de Álvarez dialéctico de clase y, se podría decir, como “una protesta oportuna no solo de la retórica del periodismo fotográfico sino además de las estas imágenes incluso como combativas; aunque los significados
Bravo en general. Álvarez Bravo ha descrito su viaje a Tehuantepec, contra la tiranía de dictadores y gobernantes específicos” en lugar particularidades de la narrativa presentada. La conciente utilización pueden resultar poco claros, el encuadre siempre tiene un aspecto
que dio como fruto esta fotografía, indicando su intención de de como “la metáfora modernista apolítica de un sacrificio ritual vanguardista que hace Álvarez Bravo de “una sensibilidad modernista decisivo. De forma similar, lo que se desnuda frente a los espectadores
“realizar un contrapunto entre el trabajo y lo pintoresco”.68 atemporal a los dioses de la sociedad”.72 que enfatiza la definición nítida, los temas cotidianos y la búsqueda es crucial para Álvarez Bravo.
somewhere between the news journal and the art gallery, as a figures. His association with modern European and American artists The kind of latency and liminality I am describing here is paramount viewer’s distance from the body is further than in Striking Worker,
model for the ways in which there is no convincing way to talk about who professed their dedication to being aesthetically revolutionary to Good Reputation, Sleeping. Here again a body lies along the Assassinated. This bizarre proximity positions the viewer as a voyeur,
a singular ‘Mexican photography.’ As curator Jessica S. McDonald yet apolitical83 has frequently provided justification for viewing his picture plane, but it is “striking” in a different way. What is laid bare and by extension, an outsider. On the one hand this angle enhances
of the Museum of Modern Art in San Francisco has explained, work through a particularly symbolic and formal lens. This strain is in this instance seems at first glance to be less about evidence and the idea that this image evidences the pre-Cortesian erotic and exotic
citing Álvarez Bravo as the touchstone, “There is no one ‘Mexican absolutely essential to Álvarez Bravo’s work. However, his fascination more about reverie. The woman depicted rests on the ground, atop dream of Mexican Eden, affirming Sergei Eisenstein’s attraction to
photography,’ but one strand that runs throughout is a synthesis of with “unlocking the riddles of iconography”84 does not sufficiently a striped blanket, lounging. A group of star cacti at her side threaten what he referred to as Mexico’s “bodies outside of history,” or what
aesthetics and politics.”81 The photographs themselves are replete account for the unsettling character of many of his works. Álvarez to impale her if she were to inadvertently roll over, and their prickly Lerner describes in his Maya of Modernism as an “undifferentiated,
with contentious and competing multivalences. Bravo’s connection to the surrealist strategy of making strange (or thorns literally and figuratively impede onlookers from getting too languid sexuality [which] inhabits a place outside history – a timeless
ostranie) is never completely dissociated from the political charge of close. paradise in southeastern Oaxaca whose portrayal resonates with
The year 1933 was a significant year for Álvarez Bravo. He exhibited at confounding habitual seeing in everyday life and accessing news ways, depictions of that region created by Miguel Covarrubias, Manuel
the Julien Levy Gallery in New York alongside Henri Cartier-Bresson and truly sur-real ways, of thinking through social relationships. Arguably, Mostly nude, parts of her body are conspicuously bandaged in Álvarez Bravo, and more recently, Graciela Iturbide.”85
Walker Evans, as well as in Mexico City’s Palacio de Bellas Artes. Cartier- even when a solitary person is pictured in Álvarez Bravo’s photographs, white, her wrists, her feet, her hips and thighs, with her pubic area
Bresson and Evans’ emphasis on finding the compelling mysteries a social dimension is nevertheless implicated. Additionally, inanimate exposed. The image is overt and subtle, lending itself immediately The dream is not all it seems to be. A darkness lurks in the image
present in everyday scenes had affinities with Álvarez Bravo’s approach objects in his work take on multiple identities, as characters of sorts, to an eroticized reading, but also to a sense that this is about that harkens back to Striking Worker, Assassinated, and which
to photography.82 Certainly his membership in the avant-garde circle who prod viewers into considering a world that is defamiliarized, yet more than the body as a subject of desire. This staged scene detours escapist fantasies. Notice the gritty realism of the wall that
of photographic art was confirmed by his public alignment with such interdependent rather than isolated. speaks of estrangement. In part because of the depth of field, the forms the backdrop of this theater. The concrete wall is dirty, worn,
A menudo se refieren a la fotografía Obrero en huelga, asesinado Jessica S. McDonald del Museum of Modern Art (Museo de Arte dedicaban a ser revolucionarios desde lo estético empero apolíticos83 La especie de latencia y liminalidad que describo aquí reviste vital
como “una de las pocas imágenes ‘documentales’ de Álvarez Bravo”.78 Moderno) de San Francisco ha indicado, poniendo a Álvarez Bravo con frecuencia ha justificado que su trabajo se vea desde un punto importancia en La buena fama, durmiendo. Una vez más, aquí se
Sin embargo, creo que, especialmente luego de pensar en su obra como ejemplo, que “no existe una ‘fotografía mexicana’ única sino de vista en especial simbólico y formalista. Esta veta es del todo encuentra un cuerpo tendido en el plano de la imagen, pero resulta
temprana, la veta documental social que de hecho caracterizó el arte que una veta que la recorre es una síntesis de estética y política”.81 esencial en la obra de Álvarez Bravo. Sin embargo, su fascinación “llamativo” de un modo diferente. Lo que en este caso se expone
mexicano durante el régimen de Cárdenas, se hace más evidente en Las fotografías en sí mismas están repletas de una multiplicidad de por “desentrañar los acertijos de la iconografía”84 no justifica lo parece a primera vista tener menos que ver con lo evidencial y más
otros trabajos del artista. Olivier Debroise se refiere a tales eventos significados que compiten y se enfrentan entre ellos. suficiente el carácter inquietante de tantos de sus trabajos. La con la ensoñación. La mujer retratada descansa en el suelo sobre
como evidencia de una “percepción compleja (particularmente conexión de Álvarez Bravo con la estrategia surrealista de hacer lo una manta a rayas. Un grupo de cactus a su lado amenazan hincarla
mexicana) del mundo que se traduce a las fotografías a través de El año 1933 fue significativo para Álvarez Bravo. Tuvo una muestra extraño (ostranie) nunca se disocia por completo de la carga política si, por ejemplo, fuera a girar sobre sí sin darse cuenta, y las espinas
un énfasis en lo invisible, en lo que queda fuera de la imagen y en la Julien Levy Gallery de Nueva York junto a Henri Cartier-Bresson de confundir la forma habitual de ver lo cotidiano y encontrar nuevas impiden que los espectadores se acerquen demasiado, literal y
que sin embargo resulta indispensable para su existencia”.79 Esta y Walker Evans además de otra en el Palacio de Bellas Artes de la maneras (de veras surrealistas) de pensar a través de las relaciones figurativamente.
descripción suena extremadamente similar a las palabras que utilizó ciudad de México. El énfasis de Cartier-Bresson y de Evans por hallar sociales. Se podría decir que incluso cuando se fotografía a una sola
Esther Gabara al hablar de lo que ella denomina “fotografías visibles los misterios esenciales presentes en escenas cotidianas poseía ciertas persona en los trabajos de Álvarez Bravo, queda de todas formas En su mayoría desnudo, algunas partes de su cuerpo se ven cubiertas
de cuerpos invisibles”.80 La obra de Álvarez Bravo opera en algún afinidades con el enfoque de Álvarez Bravo hacia la fotografía.82 implicada una dimensión social. Asimismo, los objetos inanimados con vendas blancas: sus muñecas, sus pies, su cadera y sus muslos,
lugar entre el periódico noticioso y la galería de arte como modelo Sin duda su pertenencia al círculo vanguardista del arte fotográfico en sus fotografías adquieren múltiples identidades, como especies de pero la región púbica está expuesta. La imagen es manifiesta y sutil,
de las formas en las que no existe manera convincente de hablar se vió confirmado por su cercanía pública con estas figuras. Su personajes, que hacen que los espectadores consideren un mundo y se presta a una lectura erótica inmediata, pero también a la idea de
acerca de un tipo único de ‘fotografía mexicana’. La curadora asociación con artistas modernos europeos y estadounidenses que se desfamiliarizado y a la vez interdependiente en vez de aislado. que se trata más que de un cuerpo como objeto del deseo. Esta escena
scratched, filled with suspicious holes and other wounds. A heavy Good Reputation, Sleeping was originally created for inclusion in The distance between Striking Worker, Assassinated and Good Illustration 3
black seeping line runs unevenly and oppressively down the wall, a surrealist exhibition curated by André Breton.87 Álvarez Bravo Reputation, Sleeping could perhaps be bridged by a third body MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
intersecting the woman’s chest perpendicularly. In a noir twist this claimed that the bandages were inspired by “the way dancers in by Álvarez Bravo: Gorrión, claro (Sparrow, Skylight, 1938-1939) b. 1902, Mexico City, Mexico
may be an allusion to the idea that she may not be asleep at all, but Anna Sokolow’s company bound their feet during rehearsals.”88 (illustration 3). In this photograph, a partially nude young woman’s d. 2002, Mexico City, Mexico
rather a beautiful corpse. The dark stains on the vertical wall answer The paradox of drawing on the habits of dancers to picture such a body is again pictured. She emerges from the lower edge of the Gorrión, claro (Sparrow,
the blood in Striking Worker, Assassinated, and similarly push the still, inanimate figure is provocative. The subject’s motionlessness is frame vertically, though she is shown lying horizontally on a Skylight),
1938-1939
inquest outside the picture’s frame. Uncannily, by contrast to the crucial to the image. There is something of her stillness that again roof-like structure. Her lower body is missing. Cut in half by this gelatin silver print
worker’s open eyes, the subject here has her eyes closed, though plays to the idea of this as a vision of a “timeless” Mexico, passive perspectival reversal, the oddity of her “sleeping” is augmented. 7 3⁄16 x 9 1⁄2 in.
the former image is the only photograph in Álvarez Bravo’s oeuvre and ritualistic. A counter position however would be to consider Her outline against the cracked surface of the skylight veritably (18.26 x 24.13 cm)
that is explicitly of a dead body. The in-between and exchangeable that the photograph is staged as a “vision,” a fantastical one, that combines the language of documentary and crime scene © Colette Urbajtel/Archivo
Manuel Álvarez Bravo, SC
existential states summoned to mind may reflect Xavier Villaurrutia’s is entirely aware of the codes with which it is both playing with and photography from Striking Worker, Assassinated, with the
writing in 1932, claiming that, “what we can call an obsession, a tempting the viewer’s gaze. As yet another understated interruption, surreal poetry of Good Reputation, Sleeping. The possibility of
preoccupation with death, is present in the work of Manuel Álvarez the young woman’s far right leg crosses over her body to the left. imagining her as either dead or alive, as either reportage or
Bravo.”86 The bizarre bandages reinforce this reading, alluding as A curious irony is suggested and confounded by the words Good art, exists simultaneously. The allusion to the sparrow in the
much to mummification as adornment. Reputation, Sleeping. The comma gives pause once more. The title alludes to the idea of a fallen bird. The photograph here
image is puzzling and purposefully disorienting. is at once documentary forensics and surrealist fantasy. As with
montada habla del distanciamiento. Debido en parte a la profundidad escapistas. Nótese el crudo realismo de la pared que forma el telón presente en el trabajo de Manuel Álvarez Bravo”.86 Los vendajes Illustration 4
del campo, la distancia del espectador con el cuerpo es más llamativa de fondo de esta escena. La pared de concreto está sucia, desgastada extraños refuerzan esta lectura y aluden tanto a la momificación MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
que en Obrero en huelga, asesinado. Esta extraña proximidad ubica y llena de orificios sospechosos y otras heridas. Una pesada rajadura como al adorno del cuerpo. b. 1902, Mexico City, Mexico
al espectador como voyeur y, por extensión, lo excluye. Por un lado, negra se extiende de forma irregular y opresiva por la pared, e d. 2002, Mexico City, Mexico
este ángulo intensifica la idea de que esta imagen evidencia el sueño intersecta el pecho de la mujer de manera perpendicular. En un giro La buena fama, durmiendo fue creada en principio para incluirse Umbral (Threshold), 1947
precortesiano erótico y exótico del Edén mexicano, y confirma la negro, puede tratarse de una alusión a la idea de que la mujer puede en una muestra surrealista curada por André Breton.87 Álvarez gelatin silver print
9 5⁄8 x 7 11⁄16 in.
atracción por lo que Sergei Eisenstein llamaba “los cuerpos fuera no estar dormida sino ser un cadaver hermoso. Las manchas negras Bravo sostenía que los vendajes fueron inspirados por “la forma (24.45 x 19.53 cm)
de la historia” de México, o lo que Lerner describe en su Maya of en la pared vertical le responden a la sangre de Obrero en huelga, en que las bailarinas de la compañía de Anna Sokolow se © Colette Urbajtel/Archivo
Modernism (Maya del modernismo) como “una sexualidad lánguida asesinado y de forma similar llevan a buscar fuera del encuadre de la envolvían los pies en los ensayos”.88 La paradoja de inspirarse Manuel Álvarez Bravo, SC
e uniforme [que] habita un espacio fuera de la historia, un paraíso foto. De manera llamativa, en contraposición con los ojos abiertos en los hábitos de bailarinas para presentar una figura tan inmóvil
atemporal en el sudeste de Oaxaca cuya descripción tiene ecos de del obrero, el sujeto aquí tiene los ojos cerrados, aunque la imagen e inanimada resulta provocativa. La falta de movimiento del
las narraciones de la región creadas por Miguel Covarrubias, Manuel anterior es la única fotografía en toda la obra de Álvarez Bravo de sujeto es crucial para la imagen. Hay algo en su quietud que
Álvarez Bravo y, mas recientemente, Graciela Iturbide.”85 un cadaver retratado de forma explícita. Los estados existenciales una vez más juega con la idea de que se trata de una visión de
intermedios e intercambiables que evocan pueden reflejar las ideas un México “atemporal”, pasivo y ritualista. Sin embargo, sería
El sueño no es todo lo que parece. Una cierta oscuridad amenaza la de 1932 de Xavier Villaurrutia, quien escribió que “lo que podemos una contraposición considerar que la fotografía está montada
imagen y recuerda Obrero en huelga, asesinado y desvía las fantasías llamar obsesión, una preocupación por la muerte, se encuentra como una “visión” fantástica que está del todo conciente de los
other photographs by Álvarez Bravo, such as Umbral (Threshold, art situated in a real space between representation and action.”89 our attention to cropped signage and partial reference points. As Illustration 5
1947) (illustration 4) in which we see truncated feet, apprehensively The ethics Gabara refers to involve a social imperative that is never Roberto Tejada describes it, “Álvarez Bravo explores the contrast MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
positioned on a cold floor, surrounded by liquid that is either as entirely superseded by the drive for art or abstraction. Evidence for between two patterns: the imperfect grid of the advertisement b. 1902, Mexico City, Mexico
innocent as water or as incriminating as blood, there is more than this approach is found throughout Álvarez Bravo’s photographs. and the rickety slats and windows of the Mexico City building d. 2002, Mexico City, Mexico
one way to understand the image and any reading will always be behind it. With characteristic irony, he makes use of the divided Dos pares de piernas
only one aspect of what is before us. In Threshold the upper body Numerous scenes in Álvarez Bravo’s work picture walls and storefronts, plane to create a modern theme: the difference between the (Two Pairs of Legs),
1928-1929
is absent and the title itself suggests the tentative sensation of thereby drawing connections between the context of socialist concrete world and its copies, as represented in a painted imitation gelatin silver print
being in-between. This kind of uncanny duplicity recurs throughout murals (in the tradition of Diego Rivera and David Alfaro Siqueiros, or in the quasi-mirror likeness of a photograph.”91 Optical Parable 9 1⁄4 in. x 7 3⁄16 in.
Álvarez Bravo’s career, and functions as a means of suspending and for example)90 and the documentary potential of the camera. Such further challenges the epistemology that associates seeing with (23.5 cm x 18.26 cm)
combining various modernist avant-garde strategies. choices reinforce an ethos that functions through the conjunction knowing, in other words, the promise of Western modernity, as it © Colette Urbajtel/Archivo
Manuel Álvarez Bravo, SC
of social content with abstract form. Álvarez Bravo calls attention plays with temporal and spatial discontinuity in the public arena
Esther Gabara’s contribution to this mode of analysis is crucial. In to the urban billboard and by extension the prominence of new and in perceptual experience. Other photographers of the time
her 2008 study of photography in Mexico and Brazil, entitled Errant relationships with products in the metropolis in works such as Dos similarly sought to test the viewer’s optical sensitivity. Consider
Modernism, she evokes the concept of “ethos” to perform “a pares de piernas (Two Pairs of Legs, 1928-1929) (illustration 5) and Edward Weston’s Nude Floating (1939, cat. no. 53) for example.
mediatory function between ethics and aesthetics,” and further to Parabola óptica (Optical Parable, 1931) (illustration 6). In Two Pairs Included in the exhibition Pan American Modernism alongside
demonstrate how modernism in Latin America is “a philosophy of of Legs fragmented body parts above the word “inimitable” draw works by Álvarez Bravo, Weston’s photograph cunningly taunts
códigos con los que juega y a la vez tienta la mirada del espectador. verdaderamente combina el lenguaje documental y la fotografía La contribución de Esther Gabara a este modo de análisis es Illustration 6
Incluso como otra interrupción discreta, la pierna derecha de la joven criminal de Obrero en huelga, asesinado con la poesía surrealista de La crucial. En su estudio del año 2008 titulado Errant Modernism MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
cruza sobre su cuerpo hacia la izquierda. Las palabras La buena buena fama, durmiendo. Coexiste en la foto la posibilidad de imaginarla (Modernismo errante) sobre la fotografía en México y Brasil, b. 1902, Mexico City, Mexico
fama, durmiendo sugieren y trastocan una curiosa ironía. Una vez tanto viva como muerta, como ensayo fotográfico o arte. La alusión al evoca el concepto de “ethos” que cumple “una función d. 2002, Mexico City, Mexico
más la coma otorga una pausa. La imagen resulta enigmática y gorrión que se hace en el título remite a la idea de un pájaro caído. La mediadora entre la ética y la estética” y demuestra cómo el Parabola óptica (Optic Parable),
adrede desconcertante. fotografía es tanto documental forense como fantasía surrealista. Como modernismo latinoamericano es “una filosofía de arte situada 1931 (printed 1974)
gelatin silver print
en otras fotografías de Álvarez Bravo como Umbral (1947) [ilustración en un espacio real entre la representación y la acción”.89 La 9 3⁄8 x 7 1⁄8 in.
La distancia entre Obrero en huelga, asesinado y La buena fama, 4], en la que vemos pies truncados, colocados aprensivamente sobre un ética a la que se refiere Gabara implica un imperativo social que (23.8 x 18.1 cm)
durmiendo se podría quizás sortear con un tercer trabajo de Álvarez piso frío, rodeados de un líquido que resulta inocente como el agua o nunca se sustituye por completo con el impulso del arte o la Gift of The American
Bravo: Gorrión, claro (1938-1939) (ilustración 3). En esta fotografía incriminador como la sangre, hay más de una manera de comprender abstracción. Se puede hallar evidencia de este enfoque en las Foundation for the Arts,
84.0190.01
una vez más se presenta el cuerpo semidesnudo de una joven. Emerge la imagen y cualquier lectura será solo un aspecto parcial de lo que fotografías de Álvarez Bravo. © Colette Urbajtel/Archivo
del ángulo inferior del cuadro de manera vertical, aunque se la presenta encontramos frente a nosotros. En Umbral, el torso se encuentra Manuel Álvarez Bravo, SC
tendida horizontalmente sobre una estructura que parece ser un techo. ausente y el título sugiere la sensación tentativa de encontrarse entre En numerosas escenas de las imágenes de Álvarez Bravo se
La parte inferior de su cuerpo no aparece. Cortada en dos en esta dos espacios. Este sorprendente tipo de duplicidad es recurrente en observan paredes y frentes de tiendas, por lo que se establecen
inversión de la perspectiva, lo extraño de su “sueño” se potencia. toda la carrera de Álvarez Bravo y funciona como medio para suspender conexiones entre el contexto de los murales socialistas (por
Su silueta recortada contra la superficie resquebrajada del tragaluz y combinar varias estrategias vanguardistas del modernismo. ejemplo al estilo de Diego Rivera y David Alfaro Siqueiros)90 y el
the viewer to make visual sense of varying surfaces and weights as Further hauntings of social relationships, in “an adulterated sphere in Illustration 7 Illustration 8
they are formally suspended. which ethics and aesthetics are edgily interdependent and mutually MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO MAN RAY
disruptive”94 recur in these photographs when one begins to search b. 1902, Mexico City, Mexico b. 1890, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
I would argue that Álvarez Bravo’s Optical Parable however, exceeds beneath appearances. While Las lavanderas sobreentendidas (The d. 2002, Mexico City, Mexico d. 1976, Paris, France
the formal considerations of visuality and more importantly, Washerwoman Implied, 1932) (illustration 7) seems to share a formal Las lavanderas The Enigma of Isadore Ducasse
sobreentendidas (L’Enigme d’Isidore Ducasse),
even politically, “obliges us to become conscious of the act of coincidence with Man Ray’s Enigma of Isadore Ducasse (1920) 1920/replica 1971
(The Washerwoman Implied),
looking, here and now.”92 Strategies of modernist abstraction (illustration 8) for example, it is significant to note that the washerwoman 1932 Published in La Révolution
and defamiliarization for Álvarez Bravo seem to be about more who is insinuated beneath the sheet is a worker. Employed against gelatin silver print surréaliste, 1, December, 1924
assemblage: sewing machine,
than a game of looking for the sake of looking. The name of the reification, even if only in the form of such ghostly allusions, labor and 9 9⁄16 x 6 1⁄2 in.
blanket, strings, and wooden base
business “La Óptica Moderna” imaged in the photograph is literally the realities of labor continuously make their appearance in Álvarez (24.3 x 16.5 cm)
17 x 22 1⁄2 x 8 5⁄8 in. (43 x 57 x 22 cm)
© Colette Urbajtel/Archivo
translated into “the modern optician” but can also be interpreted Bravo’s photographs. In The Washerwoman Implied, the message is Manuel Álvarez Bravo, SC
The Israel Museum, Jerusalem
The Vera and Arturo Schwarz
as “the modern viewpoint.”93 Such a viewpoint here is explained all the more resounding despite its disguise, by virtue of the subject Collection of Dada and Surrealist
as far from coherent or singular but rather endlessly disjointed and being depicted as a kind of apparition. Such figures ask the viewer to Art in the Israel Museum
complicated. Such a viewpoint possesses the self-referentiality so look beneath the opacity of surface and summon a specifically post- © 2013 Man Ray Trust / Artists
Rights Society (ARS), NY / ADAGP,
often demanded of modernism. However, it also has the capacity to revolutionary Mexican psychology that though fascinating to outsiders Paris. Scan © The Israel Museum,
flip one’s sense and be infinitely contrary. at this time, could never be fully appreciated or emulated. Jerusalem by Shira Tabachnik
potencial documental de la cámara. Tales decisiones refuerzan un desafía la epistemología que asocia el ver con el saber; en otras abstracción y desfamiliarización modernistas para Álvarez Bravo Illustration 9
ethos que funciona a través de la conjunción del contenido social palabras, la promesa de la modernidad occidental que juega con parecen tener que ver con algo más que el juego de mirar por MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
con las formas abstractas. Álvarez Bravo dirige la atención a los la discontinuidad espacial y temporal en la esfera pública y en la el simple hecho de mirar. El nombre de la tienda “La Óptica b. 1902, Mexico City, Mexico
carteles públicos, y por extensión a la prominencia de las nuevas experiencia perceptiva. De modo similar, otros fotógrafos de la época Moderna” presente en la fotografía se puede interpretar como “el d. 2002, Mexico City, Mexico
relaciones con los productos en las metrópolis, en trabajos como buscaron poner a prueba la sensibilidad óptica del espectador. Vale punto de vista moderno”.93 Este punto de vista aquí no se presenta Juego de papel
Dos pares de piernas (1928-1929) (ilustración 5) y Parábola óptica considerar por ejemplo Nude Floating (Desnudo flotando,1939, n.° comocoherente o único sino desdoblado y complicado al infinito. (Paper Games),
1926-1927
(1931) (ilustración 6). En Dos pares de piernas, partes fragmentadas cat. 53), de Edward Weston. Incluido en la muestra Pan American Tal punto de vista posee la autorreferencialidad que tan a menudo gelatin silver print
del cuerpo sobre la palabra “inimitable” dirigen nuestra atención Modernism (Modernismo panamericano) junto a trabajos de Álvarez se requiere del modernismo. Sin embargo, también posee la 8 x 10 in. (20.3 x 25.4 cm)
a la señalización recortada y a puntos de referencia parciales. Bravo, la fotografía de Weston se burla con astucia del espectador al capacidad de invertir nuestro sentido y ser por completo contrario. © Colette Urbajtel/Archivo
Como describe Roberto Tejada, “Álvarez Bravo explora el contraste hacer que este le dé sentido visual a diversas superficies y pesos que Manuel Álvarez Bravo, SC
entre dos patrones: la grilla imperfecta de la publicidad y las se encuentran formalmente suspendidos. Otras evocaciones de las relaciones sociales en una “esfera adulterada
pizarras destartaladas, y las ventanas del edificio de la ciudad de en la que la ética y la estética se vuelven interdependientes hasta la
México detrás de ella. Con ironía característica, utiliza un plano Sin embargo, me atrevería a afirmar que Parábola óptica, de Álvarez crispación y mutuamente perturbadoras”94 se hacen recurrentes
dividido para crear un tema moderno: la diferencia entre el mundo Bravo, excede las consideraciones formales desde lo visual y, lo que en estas fotografías cuando uno comienza a indagar debajo de
concreto y sus copias, como se representa en la imitación pintada es más importante, incluso desde lo político “nos obliga a tomar las apariencias. A pesar de que Las lavanderas sobreentendidas
o en la similitud casi de espejo de una fotografía.91 Parábola óptica conciencia del acto de mirar aquí y ahora”.92 Las estrategias de (1932) (ilustración 7) parece compartir una coincidencia formal por
This sort of tension is also present in works that are seemingly less closer to Albert Renger Patzsch’s New Objectivity than Weston’s Illustration 10 Illustration 11
figurative. Juego de papel (Paper Games, 1926-1927) (illustration formalism (illustration 12) . Their ambiguity similarly brings to mind EDWARD WESTON MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
9) is a group of photographs often highlighted in Álvarez Bravo’s Walter Benjamin’s quoting of Bertoldt Brecht in his “Short History of b. 1886, Chicago, Illinois b. 1902, Mexico City, Mexico
practice for their formal innovation and exemplification of the Photography” (1931), as a means of critique the limits of how much d. 1958, Big Sur, California d. 2002, Mexico City, Mexico
tendency towards modernist abstraction.95 Though there is a critical information an image can convey. Benjamin writes: Pepper, 1930 Magueyes heridos
resemblance to Edward Weston’s sensualized studies, in which gelatin silver print (Wounded Agaves), 1950
9 1⁄2 x 7 9⁄16 in. gelatin silver print
close-ups of vegetables for example become suggestive bodies, it “The situation is complicated by the fact that less than ever (24.1 x 19.2 cm) 6 9⁄16 x 8 3⁄8 in.
is important to note that the paper pictured is in fact cash register does the mere reflection of reality reveal anything about reality. © The Lane Collection, (16.7 x 21.2 cm)
tape (illustration 10). These aestheticized receipts incite a direct A photograph of the Krupp works or the AEG tells us next to Courtesy, Museum of © Colette Urbajtel/Archivo
connection to economic realities and, again, to labor. They are not nothing about these institutions. Actual reality has slipped into Fine Arts, Boston Manuel Álvarez Bravo, SC
© 2013 Center for Creative
simply to be looked at. They exemplify the mediated “ethos” Gabara the functional. The reification of human relations—the factory, Photography, Arizona Board
discusses. Even a photograph such as Álvarez Bravo’s Magueyes say—means that they are no longer explicit. So something of Regents / Artists Rights
heridos (Wounded Agaves, 1950) (illustration 11) offers a radical must in fact be built up, something artificial, posed.”96 Society (ARS), New York
interpretation of modernist visual play. Showing agave plants cut
bluntly at their edges, these images connote violence on the body, Photographs may suggest readings that bring social realities such as
rather than pure optic pleasure. Such photographs are perhaps labor to bear on aesthetics, however the risk of aestheticizing and
ejemplo con Enigma of Isadore Ducasse (Enigma de Isadore Ducasse, en la práctica de Álvarez Bravo por su innovación formal y como las ideas que Walter Benjamin cita de Bertoldt Brecht en su “Short Illustration 12
1920), de Man Ray (ilustración 8), resulta significativo notar que la ejemplo de la tendencia hacia la abstracción modernista.95 Aunque History of Photography” (Breve historia de la fotografía) (1931) ALBERT RENGER-PATZSCH
lavandera que se insinúa debajo de la sábana es una trabajadora. se parecen en cierta medida a los estudios sensualizados de Edward como medio para criticar los límites de cuánta información clave b. 1897, Würzburg, Germany
Utilizados contra la cosificación, aunque más no sea como alusiones Weston en los que los primeros planos de vegetales por ejemplo puede transmitir una imagen. Benjamin escribe: d. 1966, Wamel, Germany
fantasmagóricas, el trabajo y las realidades laborales aparecen sugieren cuerpos humanos, es importante notar que el papel que Flatirons for Shoe
continuamente en las fotografías de Álvarez Bravo. En Las lavanderas se muestra es en realidadpapel de caja registradora (ilustración “La situación se complica debido al hecho de que ahora Manufacture, ca. 1926
sobreentendidas el mensaje resulta aun más resonante a pesar de su 10). Estos recibos estilizados incitan una conexión directa con las menos que nunca el solo reflejo de la realidad revela 9 x 6 5⁄8 in. (22.9 x 16.8 cm)
disfraz gracias a que el sujeto es presentado como una especie de realidades económicas y, una vez más, con el trabajo. No están nada de la realidad. Una fotografía de la fundición Krupp The J. Paul Getty Museum,
aparición. Tales figuras le piden al espectador que mire debajo de la solo para verse. Ejemplifican el “ethos” mediado del que habla o de la AEG nos dice casi nada de estas instituciones. La Los Angeles
opacidad de la superficie y evoque una psicología posrevolucionaria Gabara. Incluso una fotografía como Magueyes heridos (1950) de realidad en sí ha pasado a ser funcional. La cosificación de © Albert Renger-Patzsch
Archiv / Ann u. Jürgen Wilde,
mexicana específica que aunque resultara fascinante a los extranjeros Álvarez Bravo (ilustración 11) ofrece una interpretación radical del las relaciones humanas (digamos por ejemplo la fábrica) Zülpich / Artists Rights Society
en la época jamás podría ser apreciada o emulada. juego visual modernista. Al mostrar plantas de agave cortadas sin significa que estas ya no son explícitas. Por lo que de (ARS), New York
delicadeza en los bordes, estas imágenes connotan violencia sobre el hecho algo debe construirse, algo artificial propuesto”.96
Este tipo de tensión se encuentra también presente en trabajos que cuerpo en lugar de puro placer óptico. Tales fotografías se asemejan
en apariencia son menos figurativos. Juego de papel (1926-1927) quizás más a la Nueva Objetividad de Albert Renger Patzsch que al Las fotografías pueden sugerir lecturas que hacen que realidades
(ilustración 9) es un grupo de fotografías que a menudo se destacan formalismo de Weston (ilustración 12). Su ambiegüedad recuerda sociales como el trabajo pesen sobre la estética; sin embargo, el
thus removing the real from its actual conditions of production is are not crouched, but actually seated upright. The dynamic of stark productive and problematic arena in the photograph, one which Illustration 13
also a contentious possibility. light and shadow creates the impression of oppression, but again was mined extensively in Álvarez Bravo’s oeuvre. Staging the MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
there seems to be more to the eye. The workers are decapitated difficulties of the real subject with and against an abstracted b. 1902, Mexico City, Mexico
Once asked by John Mraz if he had ever taken “political” photographs figuratively by noonday shadows and yet the image may be more sense of presence is particular to photography in a manner that d. 2002, Mexico City, Mexico
other than Striking Worker, Assassinated, Álvarez Bravo responded by of a challenge to the partial vision of the viewer, both optically and painting, though struggling with shared issues, does not possess Los agachados
referring to Los agachados (Crouched Ones, 1934) (illustration 13).97 ideologically, who is demarcated outside of the space of the iron roll- as intimate or innate a connection. Álvarez Bravo’s modernisms (The Crouched Ones),
1934 (printed 1974)
The photograph depicts five seated workers from behind, each on up door, curtaining the top of the frame. challenge the ways in which post-revolutionary aesthetics in gelatin silver print
a stool, all chained together at the base, within the storefront of a Mexico have too often been blindly read as autonomous and 7 1⁄4 x 9 1⁄2 in.
typical Mexican comedor. At this modest lunch counter which caters Real bodies are at a stake in Manuel Álvarez Bravo’s practice. These instead reasserts their deeply self-aware contingency. (18.4 x 24.1 cm)
to the working and middle-classes, the sun bears down obliquely bodies evidence the necessity of grappling with the real as it exists Gift of The American
Foundation for the Arts,
casting dramatic, even ominous, shadows upon an ordinary scene. between an ethical and an aesthetic position, as they summon 84.0190.11
The title suggests the crouching their bodies perform in the act of thoughts of social documentary and modern art combined. The fact, © Colette Urbajtel/Archivo
work, but also seemingly inescapably, even during the down time moreover that a photograph, however real, is always an abstraction Manuel Álvarez Bravo, SC
of a meal. Freedom of movement is not a luxury available to these is reinforced. The very possibility of an abstraction only exists in
subjects. And yet there is also evidence in the photograph, in their relation to a real referent, a referent to be “abstracted.” This tense
actual bodies, that this is not entirely the case either. For they in fact interdependence between abstraction and objective reality finds a
riesgo de estetizar, y así quitar lo real de las actuales condiciones de se debe a que no están agachados sino en realidad sentados erectos. “abstraerá”. Esta tensa interdependencia entre la abstracción y la
producción, es también una posibilidad polémica. La dinámica del claroscuro severo crea la impresión de opresión, realidad objetiva encuentra una esfera productiva y problemática
pero una vez más parece que hay más de lo que se ve. Los obreros en la fotografía, una realidad explotada de manera extensa en
Cuando John Mraz le preguntó si alguna vez había tomado están figurativamente decapitados por las sombras del mediodía; no la obra de Álvarez Bravo. Poner en escena las dificultades del
fotografías “políticas” además de Obrero en huelga, asesinado, obstante, su imagen puede resultar un desafío para la visión parcial sujeto real con y contra un sentido abstracto de presencia es
Álvarez Bravo se refirió a Los agachados (1934) (ilustración 13).97 La del espectador, tanto desde lo óptico como desde lo ideológico, ya una característica peculiar de la fotografía, ya que la pintura, a
fotografía muestra a cinco obreros de espaldas, cada uno sentado que este se encuentra fuera del espacio de la persiana de metal que través de su debate con problemáticas compartidas, no posee
sobre un taburete, todos encadenados en la base, en el frente de un demarca la parte superior del cuadro. una conexión tan íntima o innata. Los modernismos de Álvarez
comedor típico mexicano. En esta modesta barra de almuerzo para Bravo desafían las formas en que las estéticas posrevolucionarias
la clase trabajadora y la clase media, el sol cae oblicuo, lo que le da a En la práctica de Manuel Álvarez Bravo están en juego los cuerpos de México tan a menudo se han observado como autónomas
esta escena común un tinte dramático, casi de mal agüero. El título reales. Estos cuerpos evidencian la necesidad de lidiar con lo real tal sin cuestionamientos y, en cambio, reafirman su contingencia
sugiere la manera en que se agachan para trabajar, pero también como existe entre una posición ética y una estética ya que evocan conscientes de sí mismos.
cómo lo hacen, casi sin poder evitarlo, durante su descanso para pensamientos combinados de documental social y arte moderno. De
comer. La libertad de movimiento no es un lujo que tengan estos hecho, se subraya la idea de que una fotografía, sin importar cuán real
sujetos. Y sin embargo hay también evidencia en la fotografía, en sea, es siempre una abstracción. La posibilidad de una abstracción
sus cuerpos reales, de que este no es tampoco del todo el caso. Esto solo existe en relación con un referente real, un referente que se
C ATA L O G U E
LIST OF CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS:
Gabriella Abdelnour (G. A.) Albert J. Monreal (A. J. M.)

Harriet Ashton (H. A.) Natascha Rincón (N. R.)
Diego Da Silva (D. D.) Gainya St. Clair (G. S. C.)
Cory Dunn (C. D.) Anaïs Sánchez (A. S.)
Sarah Fischer (S. F.) Ryan Simone (R. S.)
Kari Hecker (K. H.) Jessica Tellería (J. T.)
Sophie Isacowitz (S. I.) Nathan J. Timpano (N. T.)
Amanda Lemos (A. L.) Nikita van Dijk (N. V. D.)
Katie Mato (K. M.) Fabiola Vélez (F. V.)
Adys Mendizábal (A. M.) Fiona Yakubu (F. Y.)
Yoruba Mitchell (Y. M.)
74 75
PART 1: DIALOGUES
76
1
77
1
ANTONIO GATTORNO
b. 1904, Havana, Cuba
d. 1980, Acushnet, Massachusetts
Untitled, 1919
pencil on paper
11 7⁄8 x 8 5⁄8 in. (30.2 x 21.9 cm)
Donation from the Cuban Museum of the Americas,
Gift of Eduardo Avilés Ramírez, 99.0009.041
© 1919 Antonio Gattorno
Antonio Gattorno was a prominent member of the first

generation of Cuban modernists who, along with fellow
artists Wifredo Lam and Amelia Peláez, studied at Havana’s
Academy of San Alejandro in the early twentieth century.
In this untitled drawing, Gattorno depicts an Afro-Cuban
woman who appears to be dancing. One “discerns” that
Gattorno’s subject is a black woman through the artist’s use
of exaggerated, stereotypical facial features: the woman has
a large nose and lips, and a short-cropped hairstyle.
THE FEMALE MUSE: If not an Afro-Cuban dancer, the subject of the drawing
could represent a mulata, or half black, half white
CLASS, GENDER, RACE Cuban woman. The drawing includes a sensual element,
communicated through the semblance of the woman’s
breasts, as well as a sense of movement, conveyed by her
The female subject has long persisted as a popular genre within the history of art. Nearly every period since the prehistoric era has produced raised arms and flowing scarf. It is likely that the woman is
images of women and for various means, be those allegorical, historical, mythological/religious, symbolic, sensual, or as an exploration of dancing the rumba, a popular Afro-Cuban dance, or some
abstraction. The twentieth century was no exception, as the female subject continued to serve as a “muse” for artists working in the modern other form of musical genre representative of Cuban culture
and postmodern eras. By examining the international and intercultural interest in the female form during the early to mid-twentieth century, during this period.
objects in this module propose commonalities among disparate works via subject matter, rather than stylistic, nationalistic, or cultural constructs.
A. M. & N. T.
Notions of race, artistic “primitivism,” and class distinction equally develop as motifs alongside the overarching theme of gender. Photographs
by Lola Álvarez Bravo and Man Ray exemplify these themes alongside paintings and drawings by the Cuban vanguardia, who explored the
female body through the visual language of naturalism, surrealism, cubism, or a combination of divergent styles. The Colombian modernists
Enrique Grau and Guillermo Wiedemann similarly reveal their interest in (but divergence from) European representations of the female muse,
offering images that convey a strong sense of aesthetic hybridity.
78 THE FEMALE MUSE: CLASS, GENDER, RACE 79

2 3
EDUARDO ABELA CARLOS ENRÍQUEZ
b. 1889, San Antonio de los Baños, Cuba b. 1900, Zulueta, Cuba
d. 1965, Havana, Cuba d. 1957, Havana, Cuba
a | Mujer (Woman), late 1920s b | El triunfo de la rumba (Triumph Mulata, 1947
oil on canvas of the Rumba), ca. 1928 oil on canvas
25 5⁄8 x 19 3⁄8 in. (65.1 x 49.2 cm) oil on canvas 19 1⁄8 x 14 5⁄8 in. (48.6 x 37.1 cm)
Donation from the Cuban Museum 25 1⁄2 x 21 1⁄4 in. (65 x 54 cm) Donation from the Cuban Museum of the Americas, Bequest of the Rafael
of the Americas, Gift of Eduardo Avilés Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Casalins Estate, 99.0009.013
Ramírez, 99.0009.040 Havana, Cuba © 1947 Carlos Enríquez
© 1928 Eduardo Abela
In Carlos Enríquez’s painting Mulata, one can see the
In Mujer, the Cuban modern artist Eduardo Abela presents the
representation of a nude Afro-Cuban woman. She is
viewer with an allegorical image of his country, represented by a
surrounded by vivid strokes of green and yellow, which
woman surrounded by different elements that represent Cuban
represent Cuba’s tropical landscape. By placing this female
culture and its landscape. Abela places his female subject in the
subject at the center of the canvas, Enríquez seems to
center of the composition encircled by lush fruits and seashells,
suggest that she is symbolically at the heart of the island. This
indicative of Cuba as a Caribbean island. In the background, the
notion that the female body is symbolically and symbiotically
viewer can observe the sea and clear blue skies. These island
tied to the land is also evident in the subject’s left breast,
elements can be compared to his renowned painting, El triunfo
which is depicted with veins and arteries of a human heart,
de la rumba (ca. 1928), which includes representations of the sea,
or alternatively, the veins of a plant or leaf. As such, she
exotic shells, fish, and Royal Palm trees, as well as other elements
nurtures the land by holding her breast and providing for the
that were meant to symbolize Cuban folklore and culture.
land, just as a mother nourishes her newborn child.
It is important to note Abela’s use of vibrant colors in this painting,
a The use of bold, lush colors in the painting is of particular
many of which are utilized to highlight aspects of the native
interest, since Enríquez does not confine color to specific
landscape: the bright blue sky that merges with the glassy sea,
lines, but rather, incorporates colors of various gradients and
and the rich reddish brown hues of the Cuban soil. The mujer
tones throughout the canvas. The predominance of green
rests on a wheeled cart, perhaps representative of the wagons
overtakes the viewer’s visual field, reinforcing the tropical
used on Cuban sugar cane plantations in the late nineteenth
essence of the piece.
and early twentieth centuries. Abela paints the woman with a
caramel colored skin tone, perhaps an indication that she is a A. M. & N. T.
mulata and thus a symbol of Cuba’s diversified racial makeup.
A. M. & N. T.
80 PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: AVANT-GARDE ART IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE UNITED STATES THE FEMALE MUSE: CLASS, GENDER, RACE 81
4 5
WIFREDO LAM ENRIQUE GRAU
b. 1902, Sagua la Grande, Cuba b. 1920, Panama City, Panama
d. 1982, Paris, France d. 2004, Bogotá, Colombia
Portrait of Helena, 1941 Portrait of a Woman, 1955
ink and watercolor on paper gouache on paper
12 5⁄8 x 9 3⁄4 in. (32.1 x 24.8 cm) 30 5⁄8 × 19 1⁄4 in. (77.8 × 48.9 cm)
Bequest of Lydia Cabrera, 91.0295.04 Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Ernest Harper, 2012.23
© 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris © 1955 Enrique Grau
One of the most celebrated Cuban avant-gardists of the Enrique Grau is often affiliated with other well-known
twentieth century, Wifredo Lam was born in Cuba in 1902 Colombian modernists, including Alejandro Obregón, Édgar
to an Afro-Cuban mother and a Chinese father. He left for Negret, Fernando Botero, Guillermo Wiedemann, and Eduardo
Europe in 1923, where he met his mentor, Pablo Picasso, as Ramírez Villamizar. Along with Grau, the latter three artists
well as the Surrealist leader André Breton, and eventually represent the Colombian avant-garde in this exhibition. Despite
his second wife, Helena Holzer. In Portrait of Helena, Lam being an autodidactic painter, and therefore did not train at the
depicts his wife holding an oil lamp – an iconographic School of Fine Arts in Bogotá, Grau notably won an Honorable
element which was perhaps meant to bring visual form to a Mention award at the First Annual Salon of Colombian Artists
poem written by Breton in 1941 for Helena’s birthday. Breton in 1940. This early acclaim garnered him a government
wrote: “I have never lit a candle whose flame was as many- scholarship that allowed him to study at the Art Students
colored as are your lips when they leap from one language League in New York between 1941 and 1943. Four years after
to another.”98 his return to Bogotá, Grau became a professor of art at the
National University of Colombia, a position he held until 1954.
Conversely, or in addition to, the aestheticizing of Breton’s
prose, the lit flame might also serve as a symbol of the Grau painted Portrait of a Woman one year later, when he
inspirational light that Helena provided Lam as his artistic left Colombia for Italy. In terms of iconography, it is apparent
muse, particularly if one considers that the years of their that Grau’s work shares certain stylistic affinities with portraits
marriage (1939-1950) correspond with the development produced by Pablo Picasso in the mid-1950s, as both artists
of his most significant artistic period. One can also see were independently exploring a post-cubist visual language at
references to Afro-Cuban primitivism in the piece, specifically this time. Portrait of a Woman is a recent gift to the Lowe Art
through Lam’s subtle reference to a non-European mask in Museum and importantly makes its public debut as part of the
Helena’s cubistic face and headdress. Pan American Modernism exhibition.
K. M. & N. T. N. T.
6 7
WIFREDO LAM LOLA ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
b. 1902, Sagua la Grande, Cuba b. 1907, Lagos de Moreno, Jalisco, Mexico
d. 1982, Paris, France d. 1993, Mexico City, Mexico
Untitled, ca, 1943 Frida Kahlo Looking in Mirror with Two Hairless Dogs, ca. 1944
ink on tracing paper gelatin silver print
7 3⁄8 x 7 1⁄4 in. (18.7 x 18.4 cm) 8 7⁄8 x 4 1⁄4 in. (22.5 x 10.8 cm)
Bequest of Lydia Cabrera, 91.0295.10 Museum purchase, 2007.22.1
© 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris © 2013 Center for Creative Photography, The University of Arizona Founda-
tion / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
Throughout his career, Wifredo Lam often infused various artistic
genres and styles, such as surrealism, cubism, and automatism, This image of the Mexican artist Frida Kahlo was taken by her
along with traditional African and Oceanic motifs, in an effort to friend and photographer Lola Álvarez Bravo, who, at this time,
revive the Afro-Cuban culture in his native country. Lam began was the ex-wife of Manuel Álvarez Bravo. In this image, Kahlo’s
his studies in Havana at the Escuela de Bellas Artes and later at back is turned toward the viewer, so that her face (and identity)
the studio of Fernando Álvarez de Sotomayor in Madrid, Spain, is shown only in the mirror’s reflection. Given that Álvarez
before moving to Paris to work alongside Pablo Picasso and Bravo took this photograph five years after Kahlo’s divorce
French Surrealists in the 1930s. He returned to Havana in 1941 from Diego Rivera, her reflection may be intended to present
where his Afro-Cuban heritage served as his main inspiration, the (male) viewer with an indirect vision of the “feminized,”
seeking to synthesize Cuba’s indigenous culture with a sense of yet autonomous, female artist, who is nevertheless dressed in a
European modernism. black and white traditional dress.
In this drawing, Lam presents the viewer with an image of a The stone sculpture that is partially visible, yet present in the lower
nude woman, perhaps Venus (the ancient Greek goddess of love, left side of the composition, is seemingly included to visually
beauty, and procreation) at her toilette. When Lam’s female muse and symbolically connect Kahlo (and perhaps even Álvarez
gazes into her mirror, her reflection surprisingly reveals an image of Bravo) to a bygone, yet culturally-relevant, pre-Columbian
Lam’s femme cheval, or “horse-headed woman,” or alternatively, heritage. Álvarez Bravo and Kahlo maintained a close personal
Yemalla, the Santeria goddess of the ocean, moon, and magic. and professional relationship throughout the 1940s and 1950s,
Symbolically, Yemalla is characterized by her long flowing hair as Álvarez Bravo, who served as the director of photography
(representing the ocean), a mirror (representing her vanity), and at the National Institute of Fine Arts and Literature while at the
the belief that mortals could not look upon her directly. Lam’s same time owned her own gallery, was the first art dealer to
drawing recalls divination images drawn by Santería priests and exhibit Kahlo’s work in Mexico City.
priestesses during their Afro-Cuban rituals, as well as the Western
K. H. & N. T.
artistic interest in African masks, as seen in Man Ray’s photograph
Noire et blanche (Black and White, cat. no. 8).
C. D. & N. T.
8 9
MAN RAY JOSÉ MIJARES
b. 1890, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania b. 1921, Havana, Cuba
d. 1976, Paris, France d. 2004, Coral Gables, Florida
Noire et blanche (Black and White), 1926 (printed 2007) Untitled, ca. 1945
gelatin silver print oil on wood
11 1⁄8 x 15 1⁄4 in. (28.3 x 38.7 cm) 9 1⁄2 x 7 3⁄8 in. (24.1 x 18.7 cm)
Museum purchase through the Beaux Arts Endowment Fund, 2007.32 Gift of Martha Frayde Barraqué Collection of Hispanic Art and Culture,
© 2013 Man Ray Trust / Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY / ADAGP, Paris 2007.9.2
In this canonical surrealist photograph by the U.S. artist Man Although he was initially trained as an academic oil painter at
Ray, Kiki of Montparnasse, who was a well-known Parisian the Academy of San Alejandro in Havana in the late 1930s, the
model, as well as Man Ray’s lover, holds an African mask. The
Cuban modern artist José Mijares later worked in various styles
image was first published in the May 1926 issue of Vogue
and media throughout his artistic career. This brilliantly colored
magazine. By juxtaposing Kiki’s face with that of the African
mask, Man Ray alludes to the concept of primitivism as a composition is a prime example of Mijares’ more figurative
modernist theme. The woman’s face shows a certain level of paintings of the 1940s and 1950s, which often took female
sophistication, which is visible through her makeup, her very portraits as their subject. This untitled work is further indicative
thin eyebrows, as well as her neatly coiffed hair. Here, the of his preference for using strong lines to create form, and – as
African mask is elevated to the same level of sophistication was the case with many of his Cuban contemporaries working
as the woman, given that it is positioned on the same visual in the 1940s – presents the viewer with a mixture of stylistic
plane as her head, and yet the mask (in its vertical position) elements, ranging from constructivism, surrealism, and cubism.
ostensibly serves as a surrogate human subject, while Kiki’s
face is relegated to the role of artistic object. Considered an important figure in the Cuban avant-garde
movement, Mijares blended traditional colonial iconographies
In terms of hierarchy, this trope may suggest that the African
with modernist elements. Most striking about the present
mask is privileged above the European figure, and yet Kiki
painting is Mijares’ use of intense blues and greens, which are
is holding the mask, perhaps an allusion to the European/
colonialist control of the primitive. The viewer is left to reminiscent of the various stained glass windows that dominate
question whether or not she (Kiki) is attempting to hide Cuba’s colonial architecture. As in many of his pieces, Mijares
behind the mask – perhaps as a social commentary on race – incorporates the Cuban landscape – in this instance, a Havana
or whether this dichotomy is meant to highlight the belief that street scene – as the setting for his female muse.
“primitive” non-European bodies were seen as the new form
N. V. D. & N. T.
of beauty in early twentieth-century art.
A. M. & N. T.
10 11
RAFAEL SORIANO VICTOR MANUEL
b. 1920, Cidra, Matanzas, Cuba b. 1897, Havana, Cuba
Lives and works in Miami, Florida d. 1969, Havana, Cuba
Mujer (Woman), 1941 Untitled, ca. 1955
oil on canvas ink on paper
9 3⁄4 x 7 3⁄4 in. (24.8 x 19.7 cm) 21 3⁄8 x 16 in. (54.3 x 40.6 cm)
Donation from the Cuban Museum of the Americas, Bequest of the Rafael Gift of Martha Frayde Barraqué Collection of Hispanic Art and Culture,
Casalins Estate, 99.0009.025 2007.9.42
© 1941 Rafael Soriano
This drawing, created by the Cuban modernist Victor Manuel,
This early painting by the Cuban-born U.S. artist Rafael Soriano
blends European and Latin American avant-gardist elements
was finished while he was still a student at the Academy of
into a single work. Manuel’s subject is depicted in lush
San Alejandro in Havana, Cuba. Soriano is part of the third
tropical vegetation, drawing an allusion to the verdant Cuban
generation of Cuban modernists, and later became affiliated
landscape. The central figure closely resembles Manuel’s most
with geometric abstraction and the concrete art movement.
popular work La gitana tropical (The Tropical Gypsy, 1929) in
Mujer represents Soriano’s exploration of figuration alongside
its style, composition, and subject matter. The composition – a
geometric abstraction, as seen through his use of basic geometric
portrait of an anonymous female sitter – is equally reminiscent
shapes, such as the circle, to represent the woman’s face.
of European portraiture; yet Manuel’s “gypsy” girl offers a
Soriano’s work is also known for its use of Oneiric Luminism, a more modernized take on historical portraits like Leonardo
term coined by Ricardo Pau-Llosa to describe the use of “light da Vinci’s Mona Lisa (ca. 1503-1506). In Manuel’s drawing,
as a symbol” and a “vehicle for tropological expression” in as in the Mona Lisa, the subject’s penetrative stare reinforces
Soriano’s paintings.99 In this work, the viewer can observe her presence within the composition, while simultaneously
the visual tension that exists between light and dark on acknowledging her viewer’s gaze. Interestingly, this particular
the subject’s visage. Although Soriano’s style is generally figure type is often referred to as “la Giaconda americana,” or
believed to break with regional or folkloric Cuban themes, the the “American Mona Lisa.”
iconography and style of Mujer is seemingly in dialogue with G. S. C. & N. T.
Victor Manuel’s portraits of tropical “gypsies,” as represented
in this exhibition by Manuel’s 1955 ink drawing of a young
woman (cat. no. 11). Soriano had met Manuel during his
studies in Havana, and was purportedly drawn to the older
artist’s style and ideas.
A. M., N. R. & N. T.
12 13
RENÉ PORTOCARRERO AMELIA PELÁEZ
b. 1912, El Cerro, Havana, Cuba b. 1897, Yaguajay, Cuba
d. 1985, Havana, Cuba d. 1968, Havana, Cuba
Untitled, 1963 Untitled, 1963
ink on paper gouache on cardstock
22 3⁄8 x 14 in. (56.8 x 35.6 cm) 22 3⁄4 x 14 1⁄8 in. (57.8 x 35.9 cm)
Gift of Martha Frayde Barraqué Collection of Hispanic Art and Culture, Gift of Martha Frayde Barraqué Collection of Hispanic Art and Culture,
2007.9.15 2007.9.7
© 1963 Amelia Peláez. Courtesy of the Amelia Peláez Foundation.
Unlike most of his contemporaries, the Cuban artist René
Portocarrero remained in his native country following the Cuban Having entered the Academy of San Alejandro in Havana in
Revolution of 1959. Although Portocarrero initially trained at the 1916 as a rather non-traditional student (she was 20 at the
Academy of San Alejandro in the late 1920s, he soon abandoned time), Amelia Peláez eventually emerged as one of Cuba’s
his formal education in order to pursue a career outside the most significant artists of the early twentieth century. In 1927,
traditions of the institution. Accordingly, Portocarrero, along Peláez left Cuba to study painting in Paris, where she became
with Wifredo Lam and Amelia Peláez, is considered a key acquainted with cubism and the works of Pablo Picasso, whose
figure in the development of the Cuban vanguardia. Most of heavily outlined, flat organic shapes she greatly admired. When
Portocarrero’s work primarily deals with Cuba, focusing on the Peláez returned to Cuba in 1934, her style had matured and her
native landscape, culture, and people. signature trait of placing thick black outlines around her cubistic
figures distinguished her paintings from those being produced
The whimsical nature of this untitled drawing – which depicts by other Cuban avant-garde artists working in the 1930s (see,
a female sitter with an elongated neck, wearing a headdress for example, Eduardo Abela’s Mujer; cat. no. 2).
of leafy foliage – is characteristic of the artist’s method of
portraying his subjects in a theatrical, stylized manner. In terms The use of her signature black outlines can be seen in this late
of symbolism, the present drawing thus subsists a fantastical untitled painting, executed just five years before her death
representation of a Cuban woman, as well as a metaphorical in 1968. In terms of iconography, she dedicated most of her
representation of Cuba’s tropical landscape and vibrant culture. oeuvre to modernist representations of iron balconies, gates,
and stained glass windows that she observed in colonial and
N. V. D. & N. T.
bourgeois Cuban architecture. This particular piece presumably
features a woman in a long dress seated on a highly ornate
armchair that has been placed on a skewed red carpet (note
the contrasting use of aerial perspective), or which alternatively
stands before a vertical red door or stained-glass window.
A. S. & N. T.
14 15
WIFREDO LAM ROBERTO DIAGO
b. 1902, Sagua la Grande, Cuba b. 1920, Havana, Cuba
d. 1982, Paris, France d. 1955, Madrid, Spain
watercolor on paper ink, watercolor and colored pencil on paper
9 5⁄8 x 11 3⁄8 in. (24.4 x 28.9 cm) 13 1⁄2 x 10 1⁄8 in. (34.3 x 25.7 cm)
Gift of Martha Frayde Barraqué Collection Donation from the Cuban Museum of the Americas,
of Hispanic Art and Culture, 2007.9.3 Bequest of the Rafael Casalins Estate, 99.0009.010
© 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris © 1947 Roberto Diago
Wifredo Lam’s oeuvre is often understood as a combination Roberto Juan Diago was an Afro-Cuban artist who, like many
of disparate, artistic elements drawn from European, African, Cuban painters of the early twentieth century, received his
Afro-Cuban, and American cultures. Some of his work can be formal training at Havana’s Academy of San Alejandro. By the
categorized as surrealist; and at times, can be seen to intertwine late 1930s, Diago had become a prominent member of the
cubist elements with surrealist subject matter. Lam spent the Free Studio of Painting and Sculpture, and is often credited with
majority of his artistic career in Europe, studying in the 1930s revitalizing engraving into the Cuban art scene. According to art
alongside Pablo Picasso, and befriending Parisian Surrealists, historian Sara Cooper, Diago’s oeuvre can be seen to illustrate
such as André Breton. Between 1940 and 1941, Lam provided “obvious pride in his Blackness,” yet as an artist, he tended to
illustrations for Breton’s surrealist poem Fata Morgana, which emphasize “race-based controversy” in his native Cuba.100
presented readers with Lam’s popular motif of the femme cheval
(or “horse-headed woman”) for the first time. This idea resonates in Diago’s untitled watercolor of 1947. The
stark contrast between white and black/positive and negative
Following his return to Cuba in 1941, Lam produced his best- space in the image recalls the iconography of a silhouette,
known work, a painting titled La jungla (The Jungle, 1943), which in turn, ostensibly symbolizes the tension Diago may
which presents the viewer with a densely-populated tropical have observed between white and black races in Cuba. What
scene, replete with hybrid figures that recall iconographies is more, the central figure appears to have transformed into
found in Afro-Cuban or Oceanic sculptural works. Elements an anthropomorphized Santería figurine that is strained, yet
from La jungla can be seen in a number of Lam’s paintings from sonorously elegant in its arabesque pose. Jarring spikes – scissor-
the 1940s and 1950s, including this small watercolor, which like in appearance – surround the figure’s distorted body, yet
quizzically depicts a “deflated” female body draped in the mouth there is nevertheless a morphed sense of unity in Diago’s work.
of a monstrous creature. Alternatively, features associated with
A. J. M. & N. T.
the femme cheval can be seen in Lam’s 1943 untitled drawing
included in this exhibition (cat. no. 6).
F. Y. & N. T.
16
a | GUILLERMO WIEDEMANN b | ROGIER VAN DER WEYDEN
b. 1905, Munich, Germany b. 1399/1400, Tournai, Belgium
Lived and worked in Bogotá, Colombia d. 1464, Brussels, Belgium
d. 1969, Key Biscayne, Florida
Portrait of a Lady, ca. 1460
Untitled (Figure at Carnival), 1948 oil on panel
watercolor on paper 13 3⁄8 x 10 1⁄16 in. (34 x 25.5 cm)
26 1⁄4 x 30 in. (66.7 x 76.2 cm) Courtesy National Gallery of Art,
Bequest of Cristina Wiedemann, Washington, Andrew W. Mellon
91.0476.42 Collection, 1937.1.44
In viewing Guillermo Wiedemann’s Untitled (Figure at Carnival), Rogier van der Weyden’s Portrait of a Lady (ca. 1460). Unlike van der Weyden’s Renaissance
one notices that the artist constructs an expressionistic portrait panel painting – which idealized the female form, while calling attention to her piety, via her
of an Afro-Colombian woman dressed in a brightly colored downcast gaze – Wiedemann’s watercolor piece highlights the anti-classical, non-European
Carnival costume. The figure’s long, thin body appears slightly black body. Given his training at the Akademie der Kunst in Munich, Germany in the 1920s,
disproportionate, particularly the hands and forearms. Her small, one is left to wonder whether or not Wiedemann is deliberately drawing a visual allusion to
downcast eyes, large nose, red lips, and unrealistic bluish-grey Weyden’s fifteenth-century exploration of ideal female beauty. Having immigrated to Colombia
skin tone give the sitter an almost caricature-like quality. in 1939, it is likely that this “studio” portrait was drawn from first-hand observation of a black
Colombian woman attending the festivities of the 1948 carnival season.
In terms of style and iconography, the piece is seemingly a
modern interpretation of Old Master portrait types, such as Y. M. & N. T.
17 18
GUILLERMO WIEDEMANN GUILLERMO WIEDEMANN
b. 1905, Munich, Germany b. 1905, Munich, Germany
Lived and worked in Bogotá, Colombia Lived and worked in Bogotá, Colombia
d. 1969, Key Biscayne, Florida d. 1969, Key Biscayne, Florida
Untitled (Portrait of a Woman), 1961 Untitled (Surreal Woman), 1960s
ink on paper watercolor on paper
22 1⁄2 x 17 7⁄8 in. (57.2 x 45.4 cm) 25 1⁄2 x 22 1⁄8 in. (64.8 x 56.2 cm)
Bequest of Cristina Wiedemann, 91.0476.36 Bequest of Cristina Wiedemann, 91.0476.26
The German-born Colombian artist Guillermo Wiedemann During his early studies at the Akademie der Kunst in Munich,
executed this ink drawing of a female torso in a manner that Guillermo Wiedemann trained under the well-known Bavarian
recalls the visual language of cubism and German expressionism. portraitist Hugo von Habermann, whose genre of painting left a
The artist was reportedly mesmerized by the surroundings of his lasting impression on Wiedemann. Following his formal training,
newly adopted country, and was particularly intrigued by the he moved to Berlin in 1936, and, like other modern artists
customs of the indigenous Colombian population. The woman working in Germany during this period, fell victim to National
is depicted carrying a basket on her head, while her nude left Socialism’s persecution of so-called “degenerate art.” In 1939
breast is exposed. The use of ink allows the artist to explore he immigrated to South America, arriving first in Buenaventura,
delicate lines and traces, though there is no definitive outline Colombia, and later Bogotá. He immediately began painting,
to the figure, which presents a hurried, yet expressive style to drawing inspiration from the tropical environment and
the piece. exhibiting a strong preference for Afro-Colombian themes. He
was particularly intrigued by the native Colombian inhabitants
S. F. & N. T.
and subsequently painted this work in a cubist/surrealist style,
filling the heavily outlined figure with bold colors.
D. D. & N. T.
19
MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
b. 1902, Mexico City, Mexico
d. 2002, Mexico City, Mexico
Obrero en huelga, asesinado (Striking Worker, Assassinated), 1934 (printed 1974)
7 1⁄2 x 9 5⁄8 in. (19.1 x 24.4 cm)
Gift of The American Foundation for the Arts, 84.0190.13
© Colette Urbajtel/Archivo Manuel Álvarez Bravo, SC
Manuel Álvarez Bravo, who was born in Mexico City in 1902,

came from a family of painters and photographers, as both
his father and grandfather were artists. This notwithstanding,
he initially studied accounting and worked in the Mexican
Treasury Department until 1918, when he formally entered
the Academy of San Carlos to study art. He did not, however,
take photography classes at the Academy, which means he
was largely self-taught in this particular medium. He was well
acquainted with several artists, collectors, and connoisseurs
throughout his lifetime, including André Breton, Diego Rivera,
MEXICAN MURALISM AND ITS LEGACY Frida Kahlo, Tina Modotti, Lola Álvarez Bravo, Henri Cartier-
Bresson, and Edward Weston, who encouraged Álvarez
Bravo in the 1920s to continue to explore photography as
Twentieth-century modern art in Mexico was largely, though not uniformly, a response to the Mexican Revolution, which gripped the country an artistic career.
between 1910 and 1920. In 1921, the government began to fund public art projects – namely murals – as a means of building a strong sense
of nationalism among the people by reinforcing the importance of Mexican and Mesoamerican identity and cultural history through art. Populist The present work, easily one of Álvarez Bravo’s most canonical
artists working in post-revolution era Mexico, such as José Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, and David Alfaro Siqueiros, soon became known as photographs, was shot during a trip to Tehuantepec,
“the big three” painters within the Mexican mural movement, a widespread, though loosely-defined art movement that was strongest from Mexico, where a worker was killed during a protest. In many
the 1920s through the 1950s. ways, this image brings material form to the social interests
explored by artists working in post-revolution Mexico,
Other Mexican artists such as José Luis Cuevas and Rufino Tamayo principally rejected the nationalistic overtones and the social realist style of including the Mexican muralists. Within the pages of this
Mexican muralism. Together, Cuevas’ and Tamayo’s respective works offer a “counterpoint” to the dominance of muralism within the history of catalogue, Heather Diack provides further analysis of this
Mexican modernism. Unlike Cuevas and Tamayo, however, U.S. artists Romare Bearden, Jacob Lawrence, and Ben Shahn (who assisted Rivera in image in her essay “Body of Evidence: The Modernisms of
New York during the 1930s) each separately expressed their interest in Mexican muralism, and admired the possibility for social reform through Manuel Álvarez Bravo.”
this form of art. F. V. & N. T.
98 MEXICAN MURALISM AND ITS LEGACY 99

20 21
JOSÉ CLEMENTE OROZCO DIEGO RIVERA
b. 1883, Ciudad Guzmán, Jalisco, Mexico b. 1886, Guanajuato, Mexico
d. 1949, Mexico City, Mexico d. 1957, Mexico City, Mexico
a | Untitled, ca. 1945 b | Prometheus (Central Panel), 1930 Untitled, 1940s
etching fresco mural ink on paper
11 1⁄8 x 16 in. (28.3 x 40.6 cm) 20 x 28 ½ ft. (7 x 8.7 m) 5 x 7 5⁄8 in. (12.7 x 19.4 cm)
Gift of Martha Frayde Barraqué Frary Hall Gift of Kenneth and Helyne Treister, 94.0037.02
Collection of Hispanic Art and Pomona College, © 2013 Banco de México Diego Rivera Frida Kahlo Museums Trust, Mexico,
Culture, 2007.9.23 Claremont, California D.F. / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
© 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), © 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York / SOMAAP, Mexico City New York / SOMAAP, Mexico City
This untitled drawing, presumably a preparatory sketch for a
larger painting, depicts an industrial or agricultural building,
This highly expressive etching by the social realist Mexican
perhaps a factory, mill or barn, set within a bucolic landscape.
artist José Clemente Orozco, is based on his earlier mural
In this work, the Mexican artist Diego Rivera contrasts the
Prometheus (1930) at Pomona College. According to ancient
trunks of the trees with the tall structure of the factory’s
Greek mythology, Prometheus was a Titan who was eternally
chimney, a reminder of Mexico’s industrial advancements
punished for stealing fire from the gods to give to mankind.
in the early twentieth century. The impact of mankind is
In the early twentieth century, he became a heroic symbol of
therefore juxtaposed with a natural, peaceful environment.
the communist and socialist movements. This work reflects
Orozco’s classical training at the Academy of San Carlos Rivera’s European artistic education is evident in the
in Mexico City, both in its academic subject matter and geometric, almost cubist structure of the drawing, and
its European artistic conventions. The aggressive lines and seemingly recalls images of pollard trees painted by Vincent
a strong tonal contrasts, both signature traits of Orozco’s style, van Gogh in the late nineteenth century. One wonders,
translate well into the medium of etching. however, if these trees are instead meant to represent native
H. A. & N. T. Mexican cacti. According to Dawn Ades, it is nevertheless
clear that Rivera celebrated rural Mexico as “vital and
picturesque rather than backward and poverty-stricken.”101
H. A. & N. T.
100 PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: AVANT-GARDE ART IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE UNITED STATES MEXICAN MURALISM AND ITS LEGACY 101
22 23
BEN SHAHN DAVID ALFARO SIQUEIROS
b. 1898, Kaunas, Lithuania b. 1896, Chihuahua, Mexico
d. 1969, New York, New York d. 1974, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
Monroe Wheeler, 1958 Jesus from The Mexican Suite, 1968
ink on paper lithograph
15 7⁄8 x 12 in. (40.3 x 30.5 cm) 21 1⁄4 x 15 3⁄4 in. (54 x 40 cm)
Museum purchase, 65.027.000 Gift of Mrs. Benjamin Kresberg, 78.024.016
Art © Estate of Ben Shahn/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY © 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / SOMAAP, Mexico City
Ben Shahn was a Lithuanian-born U.S. artist who was best This piece comes from a series of lithographs created in
known for his social realist artworks. Embracing the style of the 1960s by the well-known Mexican artist David Alfaro
U.S. social realism, Shahn often depicted important social Siqueiros. Here, the artist depicts an emotional portrayal of
themes and figures of the period. In New York in the 1930s, the suffering Christ, perhaps reflecting the spiritual ideals
Shahn was affiliated with such artists as Walker Evans, conveyed in his Catholic upbringing. The dripping ink in the
Dorothea Lange, and Diego Rivera, who Shahn assisted in lithograph recalls blood and tears pouring down Christ’s face,
1933 with his infamous Rockefeller Center mural Man at the a human expression of his pain and sorrow, while the dark
Crossroads (1932-1934). contours of the body serve to further emphasize the intensity
of his anguish. The angular, geometric features of Christ’s face
In this image, Shahn represents the art publisher Monroe
and closed eyes appear to be inspired by “primitive” masks,
Wheeler who, starting in 1935, was an integral (and
perhaps illustrating a link between Spanish Catholicism and
influential) figure at the Museum of Modern Art in New
indigenous (pre-Columbian) Mexican motifs.
York. In this portrait of Wheeler, the sitter appears to be
pensive and deep in thought. His expressive facial features, H. A. & N. T.
with his crinkled forehead, ostensibly reinforce his persona
as a prominent intellectual figure in the art world.
S. F. & N. T.
24 25
CARLOS MÉRIDA ROMARE BEARDEN
b. 1891, Guatemala City, Guatemala b. 1914, Charlotte, North Carolina
d. 1984, Mexico City, Mexico d. 1988, New York, New York
Abstract with Three Figures, 1961 The Family from An American Portrait,
oil, sand and pencil on wood 1776-1976: Part 1 Your Huddled Masses, 1976
28 3⁄8 x 35 in. (72.1 x 88.9 cm) photo-etching and aquatint
Gift of ExxonMobil Corporation, 2006.28.1 19 3⁄8 x 26 in. (49.2 x 66 cm)
Gift of Kenneth and Helyne Treister, 94.0037.06.07
Carlos Mérida, a Guatemalan artist of Mayan-Quiché descent, Art © Romare Bearden Foundation/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY
is best remembered as a muralist and printmaker. In 1912,
he traveled to Europe to study painting and was acquainted The African-American artist Romare Bearden is perhaps best
with individuals like Pablo Picasso and Amedeo Modigliani. He known for his collage works of the 1960s. Having studied
returned to Guatemala in 1914, but settled in Mexico in 1919, at the Art Students League in New York in the late 1930s
where he became active in the Mexican mural movement. under the German expatriate artist George Grosz, Bearden
Throughout the 1920s, Mérida worked alongside Diego
also became interested in the Mexican muralists, particularly
Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Alfaro Siqueiros
Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco, whose social
on a number of government-sponsored projects. Like most
of the Mexican muralists, Mérida’s early work was politically realist style he admired for its exploration of race and class.
oriented and executed in a figurative, social realist style. After Following a period of abstraction in the 1950s, Bearden
1927, when Mérida took a second trip to Europe, his art turned to the medium of collage in the 1960s during the
became less representational and eventually developed into height of the civil rights movement in the United States, and
his characteristic abstract style of geometric forms, which are thus created a body of work that almost uniformly promotes
present in Abstract with Three Figures. a positivistic view of African American progress.
In this work, Mérida blended sand into his oil paint, perhaps In The Family, Bearden offers a bold, brightly colored
as a nod to European primitivism – as this practice is similar portrait of a black American family preparing a meal. Their
to Pablo Picasso’s use of sand in paintings from the 1930s, as style of dress indicates that they are probably Southern
well as Jean Dubuffet’s combination of materials in his art brut sharecroppers. The image thus tells a story of racial and
works – or as reference to organic materials utilized by Mérida’s
artistic gazes: in 1776 they were gazed upon as inferior
pre-Columbian/Mayan ancestors. Mérida equally draws upon
individuals, but in 1976, they dare to gaze back at their
the principles of the cubist grid, which are emphasized by the
deconstructed geometric forms that visually synthesize into (white) viewers, presumably as an act of empowerment.
three humanoid figures within the composition. Y. M. & N. T.
F. V. & N. T.
26 27
JACOB LAWRENCE RUFINO TAMAYO
b. 1917, Atlantic City, New Jersey b. 1899, Oaxaca de Juárez, Mexico
d. 2000, Seattle, Washington d. 1991, Mexico City, Mexico
Confrontation at the Bridge from An American Portrait, Dos cabezas from Las Mujeres Portfolio (Two Heads from
1776-1976: Part 2 Not Songs of Loyalty Alone, 1975 The Women Portfolio), 1969
screen print lithograph
19 3⁄8 x 25 7⁄8 in. (49.2 x 65.7 cm) 20 7⁄8 x 23 3⁄8 in. (53 x 59.4 cm)
Gift of Kenneth and Helyne Treister, 94.0037.07.05 Gift of Kenneth and Helyne Treister, 93.0035.37
© 2013 The Jacob and Gwendolyn Lawrence Foundation, Art © Tamayo Heirs/Mexico/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY
Seattle/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
The Mexican artist Rufino Tamayo is often associated with the
Jacob Lawrence was an African-American artist whose work
Mexican mural movement of the 1920s and 1930s, though
often dealt with the history of black emigrants in the United
unlike fellow artists Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and
States during the first half of the twentieth century. He is
David Alfaro Siqueiros – who were interested in forging a new
perhaps best known for his Migration series, a collection
Mexican identity through art and political activism – Tamayo
of sixty paintings created between 1940 and 1942 that
contrastingly explored the balance between pre-Columbian
depict the African-American “Great Migration” from the
and European-inspired iconographies. Strongly stirred by
southern United States to the North. Having described
prehistoric artifacts, his paintings are generally devoid of
his personal style as Dynamic Cubism, Lawrence sought
the pro-revolutionary stance adopted by the other Mexican
to convey emotion through his use of rich colors, moving
muralists. As a result of his “outsider” status, Tamayo left
iconographies, and bold compositions. His early interest in
Mexico for New York City in 1926. In Tamayo’s Dos cabezas,
the social realism of the Mexican muralists, including works
the artist emulates prehistoric painting and sculpture with
by Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco, which he saw
the use of simplified, geometric figuration. This work comes
in New York in the 1930s, is equally evident in this image
from a series titled Las mujeres, in which Tamayo explores
celebrating social activism. Confrontation at the Bridge – an
the female Mexican identity, blending notions of the Nahua
image that visually resembles work from the Migration series
people with cubistic, or even surrealist, formulations of the
– depicts a group of civil rights activists who marched from
female body.
Selma, Alabama to Montgomery in 1965. Here, Lawrence’s
use of color is able to evoke feelings of unsettlement and N. R. & N. T.
danger, or even fear of what lies ahead.
F. Y. & N. T.
28 29
ARNOLD NEWMAN JOSÉ LUIS CUEVAS
b. 1918, New York, New York b. 1934, Mexico City, Mexico
d. 2006, New York, New York
Mujer (Woman), 1962
Rufino Tamayo, New York City, 1949 lithograph
gelatin silver print 21 7⁄8 x 16 in. (55.6 x 40.6 cm)
7 3⁄8 x 9 1⁄4 in. (18.7 x 23.5 cm) Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Allan A. Kaplan, 73.026.006
Gift of the Estate of the Artist, 2007.31.7 © 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / SOMAAP, Mexico City
© Estate of Arnold Newman
Largely active in Mexico City in the 1950s and 1960s, José
U.S. photographer Arnold Newman was considered the
Luis Cuevas was a leading member of the Generación de
father of environmental portraiture, wherein the subject
la Ruptura (Rupture Generation) of Mexican painters who
is photographed in a setting that reveals something about
sought to distance their work from the politically charged
the sitter’s persona or profession. In this portrait, Newman
social realism of the previous generation of Mexican
depicts the Mexican artist Rufino Tamayo seated on a wooden
muralists. In Cuevas’ Mujer, the artist depicts what appears
bench, with his arms crossed and a noticeable scowl on his
to be a frightened woman. The subject’s face shows signs
face as he stares into the camera lens, and thus directly at
of fear, confusion, and anguish: themes and feelings that
the viewer. During the 1940s, Tamayo was an instructor at
Cuevas is known for depicting, and alluding to, in his work.
The Dalton School in New York and taught art to various
The fact that her arms are lifted in the air above her head
young rising artists, including Helen Frankenthaler. Given
likewise seems to suggest that she is caught in a moment
Tamayo’s pose in Newman’s photograph, one wonders
of surrender. Perhaps she is conceding to chaos, mental
if we are viewing the authoritative teacher, the political
turmoil, or to the viewer. Cuevas’ use of bold outlining adds
activist, the Mexican modernist, or a combination of these
to the emotionally charged state of the woman.
personas. Tamayo, who left Mexico for New York in 1926
due to his anti-revolutionary views, remained in New York A. M. & N. T.
until 1949. As such, Newman captured this image during
the artist’s final year in New York, before Tamayo and his
wife Olga left for Paris.
Y. M. & N. T.
30
ADOLPH GOTTLIEB
b. 1903, New York, New York
New York Night Scene, 1947
oil and sand on fiberboard
17 3⁄8 x 13 3⁄8 in. (44.1 x 34 cm)
Museum purchase through funds from Friends of Contemporary Art, 50.007.000
Art © The Adolph and Esther Gottlieb Foundation/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY
Although Adolph Gottlieb is largely remembered as a U.S.

Abstract Expressionist affiliated with the New York School, he
ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM AND ITS LEGACY: was initially part of an earlier modern art group called “The
Ten” (also known as The Whitney Dissenters), who, in the mid
A PAN AMERICAN LANGUAGE? to late 1930s, exhibited their “non-literal” paintings in New
York and Paris. During his early training in the 1920s, Gottlieb
studied at such places as the Art Students League, Parsons
It is commonly taught that a shift in power occurred at the close of World War II that displaced Paris as the center of the modern art School of Design, and Cooper Union – all in New York – as
world, transferring this control instead to New York City. This paradigm shift was consequently seen to solidify the nascent style of abstract well as at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière in Paris.
expressionism as the first significant “American” art movement to gain international acclaim. Accordingly, the historiography of the New York
School of Abstract Expressionism would have us believe that this style was chiefly born in the United States, and then transferred, disseminated, While his works from the 1930s were largely surrealist
and imitated elsewhere. in terms of iconography and content, paintings from the
1940s, such as New York Night Scene, are characterized by
Rather than perpetuating a U.S.-centric narrative of abstract expressionism, this module proposes that this style and its legacy (including color Gottlieb’s interest in pictographs and their symbolic meanings.
field painting) might instead be viewed as a Pan American language that developed through artistic dialogues between Pan American artists, or Gottlieb’s use of pictoforms is akin to Joaquín Torres-García’s
within independent schools that formed in the 1940s through the 1970s in the Americas. It is known, for example, that European expressionism exploration of Constructive Universalism in the 1930s and
and surrealism played a significant role in the New York School’s initial exploration of abstraction, though it is less well known that works by the 1940s, which sought to convey a universal visual language
Chilean artist Roberto Matta had a profound effect on the early development of these New York-based artists. through the use of traditional, indigenous symbols that
pervaded the Americas prior to European expansionism. In
Artists associated with the New York School (such as Adolph Gottlieb, Lee Krasner, Knox Martin, and Robert Motherwell), are therefore
this piece, Gottlieb seemingly captures the hectic nature of
juxtaposed alongside their contemporaries from Latin America, such as Matta, the Cuban Los Once artists, and the Puerto Rican abstractionists
the urban setting, but through archetypal, totem-like signs set
Olga Albizu and Luis Hernández Cruz. Paintings by lesser-known modernists, like Rodolfo Abularach and Silvio Miranda, are joined by other
within a compartmentalized grid composition. In this regard,
abstract works created by artists throughout the Americas.
a dichotomy exists between the title, which implies a modern
Individuals who openly (though sometimes inconspicuously) rejected abstract expressionism and color field painting in favor of neo-figuration cityscape, and the work’s iconography, which may reflect
are equally included in this module as stylistic “counterpoints” to abstraction. Pieces by Fernando Botero, Ernesto Deira, Sacha Tebó, and Gottlieb’s interest in non-Euro-American art.
Enrique Castro-Cid are subsequently offered here as “counter” abstract paintings. R. S. & N. T.
110 ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM AND ITS LEGACY: A PAN AMERICAN LANGUAGE? 111
31 32
RAÚL MILIÁN HUGO CONSUEGRA
b. 1914, Havana, Cuba b. 1929, Havana, Cuba
d. 1984, Havana, Cuba d. 2003, New York, New York
Untitled, 1960 Entrada en la tierra (Opening in the Earth), 1958
ink and watercolor on paper oil on canvas
14 3⁄8 x 10 1⁄4 in. (36.5 x 26 cm) 40 1⁄4 × 40 1⁄8 in. (102.2 × 101.9 cm)
Gift of Martha Frayde Barraqué Collection of Donation from the Cuban Museum of the Americas,
Hispanic Art and Culture, 2007.9.30 Bequest of the Rafael Casalins Estate, 99.0009.006
© 1958 Hugo Consuegra
Raúl Milián was a self-taught Cuban abstract expressionist
artist who did not begin painting until the age of 40. Although The Cuban-born artist Hugo Consuegra was a multi-faceted
he was a prominent member of the Cuban modern art group individual who worked as an architect, graphic designer,
Los Once (The Eleven) – which tended to favor oil on canvas painter, and engraver. He was a prominent member of the
painting – Milián preferred to work with mixed media, such modern Cuban art group Los Once (The Eleven), which was
as watercolor, gouache, and ink on paper or cardboard. a group of painters known for their abstract expressionist
His abstract paintings evoke a sense of turmoil, suggesting compositions and subversive, political ideals. Consuegra,
that the viewer is encountering a fractured or fragmented in particular, was known for his rustic, muddy, and dark
world within his compositions. The use of earth tones and tonal ranges. Entrada en la tierra is a prime example of this
black heavy outlines in this untitled drawing is seemingly in signature color palette. Consuegra later became a founding
dialogue with works by various New York School artists, such member of Los Once’s successive group, Los Cinco (The Five),
as Adolph Gottlieb, Knox Martin, or Robert Motherwell (see before immigrating to New York City in 1970.
cat. nos. 30, 37 & 45), yet nonetheless diverges from these
S. I. & N. T.
U.S. articulations of abstract expressionism.
A. S. & N. T.
112 PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: AVANT-GARDE ART IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE UNITED STATES ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM AND ITS LEGACY: A PAN AMERICAN LANGUAGE? 113
33 34
ANTONIO VIDAL HANS HOFMANN
b. 1928, Havana, Cuba b. 1880, Weissenburg, Bavaria, Germany
d. 2013, Havana, Cuba d. 1966, New York, New York
Sagua de Tánamo, not dated Nightfall, 1958
oil on canvas oil on composition board
28 1⁄8 x 35 1⁄4 in. (71.4 x 89.5 cm) 14 3⁄8 x 17 3⁄8 in. (36.5 x 44.1 cm)
Donation from the Cuban Museum of the Americas, Bequest of the Rafael Museum purchase through funds from
Casalins Estate, 99.0009.005 Mary Patterson Nats and Evelyn Waggener Jones, 90.0027
© Antonio Vidal © 2013 Renate, Hans & Maria Hofmann Trust/
Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
Antonio Vidal was a prominent member of the Cuban
abstract expressionist groups Los Once (The Eleven) and The German-born U.S. painter Hans Hofmann was a
Los Cinco (The Five), as well as a founder of TEG, or Taller prominent artist-teacher who played a significant role in
Experimental de Gráfica (Experimental Graphic Studio), in establishing postwar abstract art (namely “pure painting”
Havana. Organized in the 1960s, the TEG served as the official and abstract expressionism) in New York from the 1930s
union for Cuban writers and artists. Most likely executed through the 1960s. After immigrating to the United States
prior to the formation of the TEG, Sagua de Tánamo, named in 1932, Hofmann began teaching at the Art Students
after a city in Cuba’s Holguín province, exemplifies common League in New York, but left soon thereafter in order to
elements of Vidal’s “adventurous” abstractions such as lively start his own art school. A number of well-known Abstract
colors and painterly brushwork. Totem-like figures, such as Expressionists and post-painterly abstract painters, including
the one located on the right side of the composition, appear Helen Frankenthaler, Red Grooms, Lee Krasner (see cat. no.
quite frequently in Vidal’s work from the 1950s, and can 38), Louise Nevelson, Larry Rivers, and Frank Stella (see cat.
equally be found in paintings by other Los Cinco artists, such no. 67) all initially studied under Hofmann.
as Hugo Consuegra (see cat. no. 32), as well as earlier Cuban
modernists, such as Wifredo Lam, or New York Abstract The artist’s signature “push and pull” technique is clearly
Expressionists, like Adolph Gottlieb (see cat. nos. 14 & 30). visible in Nightfall, which reveals Hofmann’s interest in
impasto, or the building up of thick, noticeable layers of paint
S. I. & N. T. on the surface of the composition board. In terms of abstract
expressionist works included in Pan American Modernism,
Hofmann’s piece compares favorably to canvases by Olga
Albizu and Luis Hernández Cruz (see cat. nos. 35 & 36), as
well as Knox Martin’s untitled work of 1962 (cat. no. 37).
N. T.
35 36
OLGA ALBIZU LUIS HERNÁNDEZ CRUZ
b. 1924, Ponce, Puerto Rico b. 1936, San Juan, Puerto Rico
Subsuelo (Subsoil), 1964
Crecimiento (Growth), ca. 1960 oil and collage on canvas
oil on canvas 59 3⁄4 x 69 in. (151.8 x 175.3 cm)
50 1⁄8 x 42 in. (127.3 x 106.7 cm) Gift of Esso Inter-America, Inc., 70.024.042
Gift of Esso Inter-America, Inc., 70.024.025 © 1964 Luis Hernández Cruz
The Puerto Rican artist Olga Albizu is best known as a color Along with Olga Albizu, Luis Hernández Cruz is a prominent
field abstract expressionist painter, who formally studied at Puerto Rican abstract painter whose career spans five
the University of Puerto Rico before traveling to New York City decades. His paintings from the 1960s are characterized by
in 1948 to complete her post-baccalaureate work at the Art elements typical for the Puerto Rican school of abstraction:
Students League. After traveling throughout France and Italy in bright colors, painterly brushstrokes, and richly textured
the late 1940s and early 1950s, she returned to New York, where surfaces. In Subsuelo, Hernández Cruz divided the canvas
she spent the majority of her artistic career. Albizu’s paintings into two registers: the top third of the canvas is largely
typically feature harsh brushstrokes using the spatula, which occupied by rich black tones, while the lower two thirds of
allowed her to layer multiple colors of paint over monochromatic the composition consists of a myriad of brighter patches of
backgrounds. Crecimiento features bright yellows and oranges, color. In this regard, the artist may have intended his viewers
which contrast with deep blacks in order to evoke a sense of light to visually read the bottom portion of the painting as the
emerging from darkness, or a modernized re-conceptualization titular subsoil, leaving the upper register to symbolize a
of chiaroscuro effects utilized by Old Master painters to create cross-section of topsoil, or the darkened earth.
volume and form in a painting.
A. S. & N. T.
A. S. & N. T.
37 38
KNOX MARTIN LEE KRASNER
b. 1923, Barranquilla, Colombia b. 1911, New York, New York
Lives and works in New York, New York d. 1985, New York, New York
Untitled, 1962 Free Space from An American Portrait, 1776-1976:
acrylic, enamel, ink, pencil and collage on paper Part 3 Look Out Beyond and See, 1976
12 1⁄8 x 9 in. (30.8 x 22.9 cm) screen print
Gift of Rose Fried Gallery, 65.022.000 19 1⁄2 x 26 1⁄8 in. (49.5 x 66.4 cm)
Art © Knox Martin/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY Gift of Kenneth and Helyne Treister, 94.0037.08.04
© 2013 The Pollock-Krasner Foundation / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
Born in Barranquilla, Colombia to an American father and
a Colombian mother, Knox Martin emerged as a prominent Along with Helen Frankenthaler, Lee Krasner was one of the few
abstract expressionist artist affiliated with the New York female artists associated with the male-dominated New York School
School in the 1950s and 1960s. Having moved with his family of Abstract Expressionism in the 1940s and 1950s. Like many of her
to the United States in the 1920s, Martin later studied at male colleagues, she initially trained at the Art Students League,
Cooper Union (through its Women’s Art School) and later at the
New York’s Art Students League from 1946 until 1950, and
National Academy of Design. Krasner specifically studied abstract
eventually worked alongside other Abstract Expressionists,
expressionist painting with Hans Hofmann (see cat. no. 34), who also
such as Franz Kline. Best known for his symbolic and exposed her to cubist works by Pablo Picasso, and fauvist paintings
semiotic representations of natural forms, Martin expresses by Henri Matisse. Under Hofmann’s guidance, Krasner began to
this artistic interest in this untitled painting. This seemingly work in an “all-over” style, covering the surfaces of her paintings
complex collage offers the viewer a variety of colors and with abstract, repetitive designs informed by floral motifs. It was this
media through organic shapes and lines. “all-over” technique that later inspired her husband, Jackson Pollock,
to abandon cubism and develop his famous “drip” paintings.
S. I. & N. T.
Unlike Pollock, who had studied with David Alfaro Siqueiros at
the artist’s Experimental Workshop in New York in 1936, and was
inspired by the Mexican muralists, Krasner remained tied to the “Paris
School of Painting,” which, according to Krasner, was exemplified in
the works of Picasso and Matisse. Like Matisse’s gouaches découpés
(painted paper cut outs, or collages) from the 1950s, Krasner used
a color palette representative of nature: green, blue, and white in
Free Space, which collectively evoke the land, ocean, and sky. The
expressive arabesques repeated throughout the composition give the
work a feeling of rhythm, movement, and dynamism – elements that
characterize Krasner’s unique style.
F. V. & N. T.
39 40
CARLOS ALFONZO RODOLFO ABULARACH
b. 1950, Havana, Cuba b. 1933, Guatemala City, Guatemala
d. 1991, Miami, Florida
Untitled, 1964
Te pinto mi amor sincero (I Paint You My Most Sincere Love), 1978 ink on paper
gouache on paper 38 1⁄2 x 28 5⁄8 in. (97.8 x 72.7 cm)
21 3⁄4 x 17 1⁄4 in. (55.2 x 43.8 cm) Gift of Esso Inter-America, Inc., 70.024.032
Museum purchase, 2000.014
Rodolfo Abularach, a Guatemalan artist of Palestinian
Executed in 1978 by the Cuban-born U.S. artist Carlos
descent, is a painter and printmaker whose works exhibit
Alfonzo, this work was completed just two years prior to the
an interest in both abstraction and figuration. Recognized as
artist emigrating from Havana to Miami during the Mariel
one of Central America’s most distinguished contemporary
boatlift of 1980. Te pinto mi amor sincero thus represents
artists, he graduated from the National School of Plastic Arts
an emotional – and perhaps even violent – inner monologue
in Guatemala City in 1954, and later received a government
between his sexual orientation and issues surrounding his
grant to travel to New York, which allowed for study at the Art
political exile, given that Alfonzo was a gay man whose
Students League, among other U.S. institutions. Abularach is
sexuality had been repressed under Fidel Castro’s communist
most commonly recognized for his depictions of the human
regime. A sense of isolation and despair are therefore felt for
eye, which he visually references in this particular work on
his “amor sincero,” his sincere love.
paper by way of the large floating orb that hovers above
Prior to moving to the United States, Alfonzo studied at the semblance of rectangular form in the lower register of
Havana’s Academy of San Alejandro in the early 1970s. the composition. These “pseudo-pictographs,” whether
He concealed his homosexuality in Cuba, but lived as an intentional or not, recall the visual language employed by
openly gay man once he settled in Miami, where he resided such semi-abstract artists as Adolph Gottlieb (cat. no. 30)
until 1991 before dying of AIDS-related complications. His and Joaquín Torres-García (cat. nos. 63 & 64).
art, which collectively tended to adopt the language of G. A. & N. T.
abstract expressionism, is typically seen to express his sense
of alienation and despair. A feeling of claustrophobia or
confinement can equally be felt in the consolidated nature
of forms in Te pinto mi amor sincero.
F. V. & N. T.
41 42
LOLA FERNÁNDEZ VICENTE FORTE
b. 1926, Cartagena, Colombia b. 1912, Lanús, Argentina
Lives and works in San José, Costa Rica d. 1980, Lanús, Argentina
Petróleo 4 a.m. (Petroleum 4 a.m.), 1964 Pájaro libre (Free Bird), 1962
oil on board oil on canvas
57 x 48 1⁄8 in. (144.8 x 122.2 cm) 49 1⁄8 x 31 7⁄8 in. (124.8 x 81 cm)
Gift of Esso Inter-America, Inc., 70.024.018 Gift of Ruth and Richard Shack, 87.0076
© 1964 Lola Fernández
Born in 1912 in Lanús, Argentina, a suburb of Buenos
At the age of twenty-three, the Colombian-born Costa
Aires, Vicente Forte later attended the Buenos Aires School
Rican artist Lola Fernández became the youngest professor
of Fine Arts, and upon graduating, became a professor of
of fine arts at the National University in Bogotá. She was
drawing in 1935. Along with fellow artists Luis Barragán
also a member of the Grupo Ocho (Group Eight), a group
and Leopoldo Presas, Forte founded the Grupo Orión (Orion
of artists who introduced post-war, international styles
Group), a leading artistic group that embraced the second
to the contemporary art scene in Colombia in the 1960s.
avant-garde movement, which developed in Argentina in
In Petróleo 4 a.m., the abstracted forms recall the visual
the 1930s. This group sought to free Argentine art from
language of cubism, as well as geometric abstraction, or
the dominant academic, post-impressionist, and decorative
geometric non-objectivity, and yet the dark color palette
trends favored by the Buenos Aires elite until the third decade
– which simultaneously creates a somber, but rich picture
of the twentieth century. He is known for his strong-handed
plane – is a decidedly unique aspect of Fernández’s structured
brushstrokes and use of heavy impasto, as seen in Pájaro libre,
composition.
where the bird is being freed from the decomposing column
G. A. & N. T. to which it is attached. This motif was meant to symbolize
the avant-garde Argentine artists achieving freedom from
the decaying academic school of thought.
D. D. & N. T.
43 44
SILVIO MIRANDA MATTA
b. 1938, Nicaragua b. 1911, Santiago, Chile
d. 2002, Civitavecchia, Italy
La Sagrada Familia (The Holy Family), 1964
oil on canvas SM-4, ca. 1975
17 3⁄8 x 24 in. (44.1 x 61 cm) lithograph
Gift of Esso Inter-America, Inc., 70.024.019 25 x 17 1⁄2 in. (63.5 x 44.5 cm)
Gift of Ann and Dr. Norman Jaffe, 99.0030.45
In this symbolic and abstract painting, the Nicaraguan artist © 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris
Silvio Miranda depicts a modern rendition of a recurring
theme in the history of Christian art – the Holy Family – Roberto Matta, arguably the most well-known Chilean
or the Virgin Mary, Joseph, and the Christ Child. Unlike surrealist and abstract expressionist artist, played a major
traditional depictions of this motif, Miranda abstracts the role in the foundation of the New York School, and was
figures of the Holy Family. The red, white, and pink form instrumental in promoting an interest in surrealist automatic
in the center of the composition may therefore reference a drawing throughout the Americas in the 1940s. Like European
crib, or manger, and thus metaphorically represent the Christ Surrealists, Matta was interested in Sigmund Freud’s theories
Child. By casting the manger in a tenebristic light, Miranda of psychoanalysis, which in turn, greatly inspired his own
may symbolically suggest that Jesus is the light brought into artistic conceptualization of “psychological morphology,” or
the darkness of this world. the belief that the inner workings of the unconscious mind
could produce meaningful forms in a work of art.
D. D. & N. T.
According to Freud, the primary motivator for an individual’s
actions is sex. In Matta’s SM-4, the harsh lines used to
create the abstracted figure(s) seem to provide the viewer
with a sense of tension; one could argue that the image
appears to be emotionally charged, perhaps insinuating a
physical anxiety manifested through a battle of the sexes.
From a purely iconographic perspective, Matta’s forms share
affinities with the numerous Santería-inspired figures that
populate Wifredo Lam’s oeuvre (see cat. no. 14), as well as
the grotesque bodies that occupy paintings by the English
painter Francis Bacon.
K. M. & N. T.
45 46
ROBERT MOTHERWELL ERNESTO DEIRA
b. 1915, Aberdeen, Washington b. 1928, Buenos Aires, Argentina
d. 1991, Provincetown, Massachusetts d. 1986, Paris, France
Untitled, No. 10, 1970 En torno al pensamiento (Concerning Thought), 1964
screen print oil on canvas
22 1⁄2 x 17 1⁄4 in. (57.2 x 43.8 cm) 76 5⁄8 x 63 7⁄8 in. (194.6 x 162.2 cm)
Gift of Mrs. Nicolas Herpin, 79.029.003 Gift of Esso Inter-America, Inc., 70.024.039
Art © Dedalus Foundation, Inc./Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY
The Argentine artist Ernesto Deira was a founding member of
Robert Motherwell, a prominent member of the New York School of the group Otra Figuración (Other Figuration), which consisted
Abstract Expressionism, is said to have decided to pursue a career in of fellow Argentine artists Jorge de la Vega, Rómulo Macció,
painting during a 1941 voyage to Mexico with his friend and fellow and Luis Felipe Noé. Known also as the Nueva Figuración
artist, Roberto Matta (see cat. no. 44). Matta – whose interest in the (New Figuration) painters, this group sought to distance itself
artistic power of the psychic unconscious and automatic drawing had a from purely abstract painting by incorporating figurative,
profound effect on Motherwell and other New York School artists, such or representational, elements into their works. Deira, who
as Lee Krasner and Jackson Pollock – remained an important figure was almost exclusively preoccupied with the human form,
throughout Motherwell’s artistic career, and particularly during their ironically approached near abstraction in a number of his
time in Mexico. compositions that incorporate distorted, expressionistic
Within the history of U.S. abstract expressionism, Motherwell is best figures, as witnessed in En torno al pensamiento.
known for his series Elegy to the Spanish Republic, which he executed In terms of technique, Deira applied oil paint to the canvas in
between 1948 and 1967. According to the artist, the Spanish Civil War grand, violent gestures, allowing the medium to drip onto,
(1936-1939) represented the ultimate social injustice, and works in this and then spread throughout, the surface of the canvas.
series were thus meant to visually serve as a lamentation of the war, but Deira’s mode of painting recalls processes employed by
also as a forewarning of (modern) society’s potentially destructive destiny. U.S. abstract expressionist and color field painters, such as
In his Basque series of 1970, Motherwell similarly utilized form and color Helen Frankenthaler’s “soak stain” technique, and Jackson
to illicit a feeling of foreboding and unease in his viewers. In Untitled, Pollock’s “drip” paintings, yet ostensibly marries these
No. 10, the large black chevron that dominates the composition can techniques, along with semblances of the human body,
be seen to either recede from the vibrant green surface in the center of in order to arrive at the style of Other Figuration. In this
the work, or alternatively, invade (or swallow up) the tranquility of this particular painting, Deira’s subjects are three human figures
green space. In each of these interpretations of Motherwell’s abstract who are arguably deep in thought, as implied by the title.
composition, expressive forms serve as powerful metaphors for the The ambiguity of these subjects seemingly mirrors Deira’s
hardships endured by the Basque people during the war in Spain. The chaotic artistic process, and may also imply the confusion of
work seems to further suggest that no matter how much time separates modern thought.
the events of the war from the present moment, one can nevertheless N. R. & N. T.
witness the bloody scars that remain as a result of this conflict.
K. M. & N. T.
47 48
SACHA TEBÓ a | FERNANDO BOTERO
b. 1934, Port-au-Prince, Haiti b. 1932, Medellín, Colombia
d. 2004, Santiago, Dominican Republic Lives and works in New York, New York and Paris, France
Lovers, 1963 Las frutas (The Fruits), 1964
pigments and wax on canvas oil on canvas
26 3⁄4 x 30 3⁄8 in. (67.9 x 77.2 cm) 50 x 51 1⁄2 in. (127 x 130.8 cm)
Gift of Richard Levine, 84.0203 Gift of Esso Inter-America, Inc., 70.024.030
© 1963 Sacha Tebó © 1964 Fernando Botero
Sacha Thébaud, more commonly known as Sacha Tebó, was b | PAUL CÉZANNE
born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti in 1934. After moving to Canada b. 1839, Aix-en-Provence, France
d. 1906, Aix-en-Provence, France
with his family in 1945, he enrolled at College Stanislas in
Montreal, where he received his bachelor’s degree in French. Pommes et biscuits (Apples and Biscuits), ca. 1880
oil on canvas
Tebó later pursued a degree in architecture in the mid 1950s
Musée de l’Orangerie, Paris
at the University of Miami, and professionally exhibited Photo Credit: Gianni Dagli Orti / The Art Archive at Art Resource, NY
his works for the first time during this period. A myriad of
subjects can be found in his abstract and figurative paintings Painted in New York in 1964 by the well-known Colombian
which include: men and women; flora and fauna from the figurative artist Fernando Botero, Las frutas embodies
sea; spiritual, mystical, mythological, and metaphysical Botero’s unique style, which is characterized by the use of
creatures; natural forms; and metaphorical aspects of the rotund, voluminous or inflated figures, which often take
Caribbean region, such as rhythm, movement, and color. In the form of satirical caricatures. Here, Botero seemingly
this encaustic painting, two lovers – a common theme in the parodies the history of Western academic still life painting,
history of art – are depicted in vibrant blues, reds, and greens particularly of depicting fruit, and expands this discourse a
in a style that visually recalls cubism. The use of encaustics, or by creating enormous, plump, and muddy-colored fruits,
pigment-infused wax, adds a tactile quality that mirrors the perhaps suggesting that the tropical flora of his native
couple’s embrace and sense of touch. Colombia are more robust than those typically found in
conventional still life paintings. What is more, the choice
N. T.
of colors and slightly skewed perspective of the tabletop
appear to cleverly satirize other modernist re-interpretations
of the traditional still life, such as Paul Cézanne’s Pommes
et biscuits.
K. H. & N. T.
49
a | ENRIQUE CASTRO-CID
b. 1937, Santiago, Chile
Lived and worked in Miami, Florida
d. 1992, Santiago, Chile
Desnudo de Ingres (Ingres Nude), 1977
acrylic and pencil on canvas
72 × 120 in. (182.9 × 304.8 cm)
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Melvin Kolbert, 79.021.000A-B
b | JEAN-AUGUSTE-DOMINIQUE INGRES
b. 1780, Montauban, France
d. 1867, Paris, France
La Grande Odalisque, 1814
oil on canvas
b
35 7⁄8 x 63 3⁄4 in. (91 x 162 cm)
Louvre, Paris, France
Photo Credit: Scala / Art Resource, NY
Ingres Nude, a painting by the Chilean artist Enrique Castro-Cid, exhibits an

expressive, nude body that spirals around a monumental canvas. Here, the artist
plays with the geometric transformations of the nude body, manipulating it until
it becomes distorted and stretched. In terms of iconography, the subject matter
of this piece may be looked at as a fetus; however, the adult head and mature
legs seem to suggest the contrary.
From an art historical perspective, Ingres Nude can be said to visually pastiche
figural types from paintings such as La Grande Odalisque (1814), painted by the
well-known nineteenth-century French artist Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres.
In Ingres’ orientalist canvas, the artist intended to celebrate the non-European
female body, yet equally exoticized it through elongated and fleshy features.
Castro-Cid’s “interpretation” of Ingres’ nude contrastingly adopts a non-
naturalistic configuration, and one in which European physiognomies have been
replaced with Amerindian facial features, suggesting that the subject matter is a
hybrid of both cultural and art historical discourses.
a S. F. & N. T.
50
RODRIGO MOYA
b. 1934, Medellín, Colombia
Lives and works in Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
La vida no es bella, Región Ixtlera del Norte de México
(Life Isn’t Beautiful, Ixtlera Region, Northern Mexico), 1965
19 7⁄8 × 15 7⁄8 in. (50.5 × 40.3 cm)
Museum purchase through funds from Beaux Arts, 2013.7
© 1965 Rodrigo Moya
The Colombian-born Mexican photographer Rodrigo Moya

began working as a documentary photographer nearly a
generation after artists like Manuel Álvarez Bravo popularized
this medium in the 1930s and 1940s in Mexico. Moya’s most
productive period was between 1956 and 1968, during
which time he documented social injustice and political unrest
throughout Latin America, though largely in Mexico, Cuba, and
MODERNIST PHOTOGRAPHY: Venezuela, where he focused on such diversified populations
as peasants, children, revolutionaries, and guerrillas. Moya
PAN AMERICAN EXCHANGES initially studied with the Colombian photographer Guillermo
Angulo, but was equally interested in works executed by U.S.
Depression-era artists who explored social realism through
Given that photography and the camera were inventions of the nineteenth century –the same epoch that gave rise to the modern era – it could photography, including Walker Evans and Dorothea Lange.
be argued that photography is perhaps the most modern of mediums, at least amongst those explored in the current exhibition. And although
Moya’s La vida no es bella portrays a Mexican field worker
photography was not always considered a “high” art form during the nineteenth century, its place within the art historical canon was certainly
from the Ixtlera del Norte region of the country, whose hands
solidified by the twentieth.
have noticeably become swollen, cracked, and callused
This module examines the manner in which pan-American artists utilized the camera to explore modernity by way of the photographic lens, and from years of manual labor. In this particular image, Moya
chooses to focus not on the man’s face, as would typically be
via different genres, such as studio portraiture, documentary photography, social realism, or avant-garde compositions. Prints by Paul Strand and
the case in a portrait photograph, but rather, on the man’s
Edward Weston illustrate the value and importance of travel, as each of these U.S. artists spent time in Mexico, which had a profound effect
hands, which occupy the foreground of the image. In terms
on their individual oeuvres. Weston, in turn, encouraged Manuel Álvarez Bravo to continue to pursue the medium as a fine art form in the late of iconography and subject matter, La vida no es bella creates
1920s. an interesting dialogue with Álvarez Bravo’s La buena fama,
durmiendo (Good Reputation, Sleeping, cat. no. 52), which
Images by Lola Álvarez Bravo, Man Ray, and Arnold Newman are contrastingly included in other modules within the exhibition, as they reinforce
presents the viewer with a very different articulation of the
photography’s desire (and ability) to confront themes explored by other mediums, such as painting, drawing, and printmaking. The final work in
Mexican body in modernist photography.
this section, Carl Andre’s Yucatan, is interestingly not a photograph, but a photocopy – and thus suggests that a commonplace Xerox machine
(an instrument of reproducibility) can be utilized to create a modern photo-image. N. T.
132 MODERNIST PHOTOGRAPHY: PAN AMERICAN EXCHANGES 133

51 52
ARNOLD HERMAN CRANE MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
b. 1932, United States b. 1902, Mexico City, Mexico
Lives and works in Chicago, Illinois and Paris, France d. 2002, Mexico City, Mexico
Manuel Álvarez Bravo, 1971 La buena fama, durmiendo (Good Reputation, Sleeping), 1938 (printed 1974)
gelatin silver print gelatin silver print
13 1⁄2 x 9 1⁄8 in. (34.3 x 23.2 cm) 7 3⁄8 x 9 5⁄8 in. (18.7 x 24.4 cm)
Gift of Frederick S. Grahn, 81.0393 Gift of The American Foundation for the Arts, 84.0190.03
© Colette Urbajtel/Archivo Manuel Álvarez Bravo, SC
The U.S. artist Arnold Herman Crane initially worked as a trial
lawyer before turning to photography in the 1960s. During There is a famous saying in Mexico: “Hazte fama y échate a
this transitional period, Crane was introduced to one of his la cama,” which roughly translates to mean: make a good
longtime idols, the surrealist photographer Man Ray (see cat. reputation for yourself and sleep easy. In this image by the
well-known Mexican photographer Manuel Álvarez Bravo,
no. 8). After executing a few portrait photographs of him,
the artist creates a dialogue between the photograph and
Crane was commissioned to create a book titled The Other
this cultural idiom (as referenced by the title of the piece) by
Side of the Camera, which consists of candid images of depicting a nude woman laying on her back, relaxing and
influential photographers of the twentieth century. sunbathing on a Mexican serape. Bandages cover her feet
and hips, yet her breasts and pubic region are visible to the
In this particular image, Crane captures a likeness of the viewer, which collectively add an eroticized, voyeuristic tone
Mexican photographer Manuel Álvarez Bravo casually seated to the photographic print. Here, Álvarez Bravo ostensibly
in his studio. Álvarez Bravo, who was 69 at the time the satirizes the aforementioned Mexican idiom, offering that
photograph was taken, was arguably Mexico’s most celebrated the sensual nature of the woman’s unclothed body (which in
modern photographer. Working largely in Mexico City in the turn references the art historical importance given to classical
1930s and 1940s, Álvarez Bravo was affiliated with such nudes) should have us believe that this subject does not,
fellow artists and photographers as Lola Álvarez Bravo (his perhaps, possess a good reputation.
first wife), Wilhelm Kahlo (Frida Kahlo’s father), Tina Modotti, F. V. & N. T.
Edward Weston, Paul Strand, and Henri Cartier-Bresson.
J. T. & N. T.
134 PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: AVANT-GARDE ART IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE UNITED STATES MODERNIST PHOTOGRAPHY: PAN AMERICAN EXCHANGES 135
53 54
EDWARD WESTON PAUL STRAND
b. 1886, Chicago, Illinois b. 1890, New York, New York
d. 1958, Big Sur, California d. 1976, Orgeval, France
Nude Floating, 1939 Man, Tenancingo de Degollado, Mexico from the
gelatin silver print Mexican Portfolio, 1933 (printed 1973)
7 1⁄2 x 9 1⁄2 in. (19.1 x 24.1 cm) photogravure
Museum purchase through funds from Friends of Art 6 1⁄2 x 5 in. (16.5 x 12.7 cm)
in honor of Madge Dursum, 2007.29 Gift of Helen Weiss, 81.0552
© 2013 Center for Creative Photography, Arizona Board of Regents / Artists © Aperture Foundation Inc., Paul Strand Archive
Rights Society (ARS), New York
The modernist U.S. photographer and filmmaker Paul Strand was
Edward Weston, a pioneer in early twentieth-century American a key figure in his field, having studied under the documentary
photography, was affiliated throughout the 1920s and 1930s photographer Lewis Hine in the early decades of the twentieth
with such U.S. artists as Alfred Stieglitz, Paul Strand, and Ansel century. Through Hine, Strand met the renowned photographer
Adams, and Mexican artists like Manuel Álvarez Bravo, Diego Alfred Stieglitz, who owned and operated the eminent 291
Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Alfaro Siqueiros. Gallery in New York City. At 291, Stieglitz championed avant-
Between 1923 and 1927, Weston traveled between California garde photography as a medium on par with painting, and
equally promoted Strand’s images on the walls of his gallery, as
and Mexico with the Italian photographer Tina Modotti, with
well as within the pages of his quarterly journal Camera Work.
whom he was romantically involved. During his stay in Mexico,
Having established himself as a serious artist by the 1920s,
Weston photographed individuals and artists, including Rivera, Strand eventually co-founded New York’s Photo League, and
as well as the native landscape and folk art. helped to promote social reform through photography in the
1930s through 1950s.
The subject of this photograph is Weston’s third wife, Charis
Wilson. True to his style of depicting nude women throughout Strand was equally associated with Manuel Álvarez Bravo, who he
his artistic career, the photograph communicates Weston’s had befriended during his years in Mexico between 1932 and 1935.
belief that the body can create sensual, organic forms within Throughout this period, Strand worked as a cinematographer for
a work of art. Placing Wilson in a pool of water, the theme of the Mexican government, but also shot images that comprise his
celebrated Mexican Portfolio. In this particular photograph from
purity is reinforced; the purity of her form and the purity of the
the series, Strand offers the viewer a portrait of a man clothed in
water unite. The water also acts as a visual tool, given that the
the traditional style of dress worn by men in the early twentieth
depth of the left side of the pool presents an illusion, making century in Central Mexico, particularly the south-western region.
Wilson appear as if she is floating. The subject’s clothing, stoic pose, and vertical posture provide a
sharp contrast to the horizontal orientation and macabre subject
G. S. C. & N. T.
matter of Álvarez Bravo’s Obrero en huelga, asesinado (Striking
Worker, Assassinated, cat. no. 19), which was photographed at
roughly the same time as Strand’s image.
N. T.
55 56
WALKER EVANS FRANK PAULIN
b. 1903, St. Louis, Missouri b. 1926, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
d. 1975, New Haven, Connecticut Lives and works in New York, New York
A Cypress Swamp, Florida, 1941 Revolutionary, Cuba, 1959
4 3⁄4 x 3 5⁄8 in. (12.1 x 9.2 cm) 10 3⁄4 x 13 1⁄2 in. (27.3 x 34.3 cm)
Gift of an Anonymous Donor, 80.0185.03 Gift of Bruce Silverstein, 2009.24.22
© Walker Evans Archive, The Metropolitan Museum of Art © 1959 Frank Paulin
Best known for his regionalist images of American society, the The U.S. photographer Frank Paulin worked primarily as a
U.S. photographer Walker Evans began taking photographs street photographer, becoming well known for his ability to
with little artistic training, but eventually worked for the capture poignant, fleeting moments with his photographic
federal government’s Farm Security Administration capturing lens. Having grown up in Pittsburgh, New York, and Chicago,
the widespread effects of the Great Depression. His intent was it was the latter city that shaped Paulin as an artist. During
to move away from “high art” images, and instead, plainly the 1940s, he began studying art and photography at the
capture American life in the 1930s and 1940s. During the Whitaker-Christiansen Studio, the Chicago Academy of Fine
1930s, Evans traveled to Cuba and the southern United States, Arts, the Art Institute of Chicago, and later, the Chicago
photographing local scenes and people. A Cypress Swamp Institute of Design.
captures an iconic Florida landscape, while still subsisting as a
strong image in terms of formalism. In late 1959/early 1960, Paulin traveled to Havana to
document the social conditions in post-revolution Cuba.
G. S. C. & N. T.
He had a brief, though unplanned, encounter with Fidel
Castro during this initial trip to the island. The fortress of
the Castillo de los Tres Reyes Magos del Morro, or Morro
Castle, located at the entrance to Havana Harbor, can be
seen in the background of Paulin’s image. The majority of the
photographic plane, however, is dominated by the profile of
a Cuban revolutionary wearing a cowboy hat.
N. T.
57 58
ALBERT COYA MARIO ALGAZE
b. 1920, Havana, Cuba b. 1947, Havana, Cuba
d. 1993, Miami, Florida Lives and works in Miami, Florida
Child Receiving Inoculation, 1965 Carretas, Guatemala (Carts, Guatemala), 1979
9 1⁄4 x 11 3⁄4 in. (23.5 x 29.8 cm) 15 1⁄2 x 15 1⁄2 in. (39.4 x 39.4 cm)
Gift of The Coya Family and The Miami Herald, 94.0007.09 Gift of Jamo Inc., 84.0071
© 1965 Albert Coya © 1979 Mario Algaze
The Cuban-born U.S. photographer Albert Coya grew up in The Cuban-born U.S. artist Mario Algaze left his native
Havana, where he developed an early interest in photography country in 1960, and settled in Miami, where he has worked
and photojournalism. When the newspaper that Coya as a photographer and freelance photojournalist since 1971.
worked for closed following the Cuban Revolution, he and Algaze’s Carretas, Guatemala is striking for its graceful
his family immigrated to Miami. Coya soon thereafter became composition. The elegant lines, circles, and diagonals guide
a photojournalist for The Miami Herald, often assigned to the viewer’s eye through the grid-like photographic plane.
capture fleeting moments of intense human emotion. In this Although the decaying buildings, antiquated equipment, and
particular image, Child Receiving Inoculation, the subject of style of dress give an indication of setting, the sharpness of
the photograph is a young Cuban child who is receiving a the image, the complex tonal range, and the strong contrast
vaccination in order to be allowed to enter the United States. between light and shadows strip the image of its sense of time:
The close cropping of the photograph, the almost theatrical it could have been taken fifty or five years ago. The mother
presentation of the child’s emotions, and the expressive body and child glide subtly into the left side of the composition
language collectively evoke a sense of empathy in the viewer. with regal bearing, raising the question of whether they
J. T. & N. T.
support, or subvert, the tradition of depicting indigenous
peoples as part of the native landscape. Of particular interest,
the viewer will note that while the mother stares purposefully
ahead as she walks down the sidewalk, it is the infant who
glances back at the viewer, challenging our gaze.
Y. M. & N. T.
59 60
ALFREDO BOULTON MARTÍN CHAMBI
b. 1908, Caracas, Venezuela b. 1891, Puno, Peru
d. 1995, Caracas, Venezuela d. 1973, Cusco, Peru
Puerto Nutrias 1949, printed 2003 Tambomachay, Cuzco, ca. 1930s
14 1⁄8 x 13 3⁄4 in. (35.9 x 34.9 cm) 6 1⁄2 x 8 7⁄8 in. (16.5 x 22.5 cm)
Gift of Javier and Monica G. Mora, 2006.45.2 Museum purchase, 2007.22.3
© Alberto Vollmer Foundation © 1930 Martín Chambi
The photographer and art historian Alfredo Boulton was The Peruvian photographer Martín Chambi is best known for
a prominent Venezuelan artist and intellectual in the early his ethnographic, documentary-style images of indigenous
to mid-twentieth century. While his formal education was Andean people, though he also enjoyed considerable
completed in Europe, he seriously turned to photography success as a society portraitist in Cuzco in the early twentieth
upon his return to Venezuela in 1928, and was largely century. Born in a rather poor region in Southern Peru,
interested in documenting the rapidly changing nature of Chambi first learned the techniques of photography from a
urbanization in Caracas. He is often associated with other site photographer who worked at the Santo Domingo Mine
Venezuelan artists working in the early twentieth century, near Coaza. He eventually moved to Cuzco in the 1920s,
including Manuel Cabré, Francisco Narváez, and Armando where he opened his second photographic studio.
Reverón, and was the first art historian to publish a
comprehensive survey of Venezuelan art from the colonial In addition to shooting society portraits and local peoples,
period to the twentieth century. Chambi extensively documented Incan ruins in the Andes, often
selling these and other landscape photographs as lucrative
The subject of Boulton’s image is a Venezuelan gondolero, who postcards. This particular image depicts Tambomachay, a
appears to be pushing a truck or jeep on a barge (constructed site near Cuzco associated with the Incas. Also known as El
from four gondolas) over the Río Apure, near the village of Baño del Inca, or “The Bath of the Inca,” the site may have
Puerto de Nutrias in Barinas, Venezuela. The reflection of functioned as a thermal spa within the Inca Empire, as it
the sunlight off the surface of the river water and the strong contains a series of stone aqueducts, canals, and terraced
diagonal lines created from the shape of the gondolas, as rock waterfalls. In Chambi’s image, the ruins are romanticized,
well as the boatman’s long wooden pole, combine to create a conveying a sense of nostalgia; and yet the photograph
dynamic composition in the photograph. also conveys a heightened sense of formalism through the
N. T.
repetitive linear lines of Tambomachay’s stonework, as well
as the contrast between light and shadows on the surface
of the walls.
N. T.
61 62
RICHARD B. HOIT CARL ANDRE
b. 1887, United States b. 1935, Quincy, Massachusetts
d. 1973, Miami, Florida Lives and works in New York, New York
A Wall of the Ball Court, Yucatan, Mexico, 1936 Yucatan from the Anthology Film Archives Portfolio, 1973
gelatin silver print photocopy
13 3⁄4 x 10 3⁄4 in. (34.9 x 27.3 cm) 11 x 8 1⁄2 in. (27.9 x 21.6 cm)
Museum purchase, 2003.29.2 Gift of The American Art Foundation, 84.0009.02
Art © Carl Andre/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY
Having moved to South Florida in 1914 at the age of 27,
the U.S. photographer Richard Hoit was primarily a Miami- The U.S. minimalist artist Carl Andre is best known for his
based artist who photographed a number of historic sites sculptures based on the grid or grid-like forms, though he is
in the region, including James Deering’s Villa Vizcaya, the equally recognized for his large-scale public artworks and
burgeoning city of Coral Gables in the 1920s, and the concrete poetry. During his studies at the Phillips Academy in
developing University of Miami campus in the 1950s. Hoit the early 1950s, Andre met fellow artist Frank Stella, who is said
traveled extensively throughout the Americas during the to have encouraged Andre to explore new conceptualizations
early twentieth century, taking trips to Mexico, Bolivia, Chile, of form in his “cut” sculptures of the late 1950s. Between
Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. This photograph depicts a 1960 and 1965, Andre briefly abandoned sculpture for
wall and “hoop” at the pre-Columbian Mayan ball court at concrete poetry, or “visual poetry,” in which the typographical
Chichén Itzá in the Yucatan region of Mexico. Hoit’s decision placement of words on the page is directly tied to the meanings
to place the stone hoop in the upper left-hand corner of the of these words within the context of the poem’s linguistic or
photographic plane simultaneously creates a sharp diagonal rhythmic structure.
line through the sloping wall of the immense ball court. The
framing of the court within this image thus presents the Andre’s Yucatan, which is one image in a series of works by
viewer with a composition constructed through the use of the same title, is a prime example of the artist’s examination
extreme one-point perspective. of concrete poetry in the 1970s. At around this same time,
Andre became interested in Cortés’ conquest of Mexico, and
N. T. accordingly, one wonders if the words in this visual poem
are meant to invoke the placement and shape of stones that
constructed the grand stepped pyramids of the Aztec or Mayan
Empires. As meaning is not immediately discernible to the viewer,
one must read the text, thus engaging with the work of art in an
unconventional way. Given that Yucatan is a photocopy, Andre
additionally plays with notions of originality and reproduction, a
debate that has long occupied art historical discourses.
R. S. & N. T.
PART 2: COMMONALITIES & DISCONNECTS
146
2
147
63
JOAQUÍN TORRES-GARCÍA
b. 1874, Montevideo, Uruguay
d. 1949, Montevideo, Uruguay
Composición (Composition), 1935
ink on paper
4 5⁄8 × 7 in. (11.7 × 17.8 cm)
Museum purchase through the 2013 Director’s Circle, Christina Wiedemann Endowment
Fund, Linnie E. Dalbeck Memorial Endowment Fund, Larue Storm Art Acquisition
Endowment and the Lowe Art Museum Acquisitions Fund, 2013.9.2
As the founder of Constructive Universalism – a style formed around
THE LEGACY OF GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION:

the cubist grid, but which also incorporated universal symbols
common to disparate countries, cultures, and peoples – the celebrated
Uruguayan artist Joaquín Torres-García was instrumental in promoting
CONSTRUCTIVIST ART, MINIMALISM, OP ART geometric abstraction in his native Uruguay, as well as other South
American countries, throughout the 1930s and 1940s. Torres-
García’s Composición consequently demonstrates the artist’s interest
Within the Western tradition of twentieth-century abstract art, geometric abstraction emerged early on as a prevalent style of painting in geometric abstraction, particularly the neoplasticism of the Dutch
that explored non-representational (or non-illusionistic) compositions through the use of reductive geometric forms and “pure” color. Like modernist Piet Mondrian and the De Stijl art movement.
expressionism and cubism, geometric abstraction’s roots can be grounded in the European avant-gardes of the early twentieth century, as early
practitioners were the Russian Suprematists, as well as the Dutch De Stijl artists. Although he was born in Montevideo, Uruguay, Torres-García, along
with his family, moved to Spain in the late nineteenth century, a
Variously called non-objective painting, neoplasticism, or constructivism, geometric abstraction took various forms (and names) throughout decision that allowed Torres-García to eventually study painting at the
the twentieth century, and was explored by countless modern artists in the United States and Latin America, where it enjoyed considerable Escuela de Bellas Artes in Barcelona. Following his studies, he began
popularity following the Second World War. In South America, the well-known Uruguayan constructivist artist Joaquín Torres-García was an exhibiting work in Europe, and eventually befriended such European
modernists such as Manolo Hugué, Pablo Picasso, Antoni Gaudí, and
early proponent of geometric abstraction, and was likewise responsible for popularizing this form of abstraction in the 1930s and 1940s.
Mondrian. Along with Mondrian, Pierre Daura, and Michel Seuphor,
In terms of geometric abstraction’s legacy, concrete art, minimalism, hard-edge painting, post-painterly abstraction, and optical art (or Op Torres-García co-founded the group Cercle et Carré (Circle and Square),
which promoted geometric abstraction and constructivism in Paris in
art) can collectively be seen to have developed out of, or as a form of, this “brand” of abstraction at the mid-century. A number of artists
the late 1920s and early 1930s. After leaving Paris in 1932, he soon
represented in this module were first shown together in William C. Seitz‘s exhibition The Responsive Eye, held at New York’s Museum of Modern established the Grupo Constructivo (Constructive Group) in Spain in
Art in 1965. These individuals include: U.S. artists Richard J. Anuszkiewicz, Gene Davis, Kenneth Noland, Julian Stanczak, and Frank Stella, and 1933, and permanently resettled a year later in Montevideo, where he
the Venezuelan artist Carlos Cruz-Diez. Pan American Modernism similarly examines objects by these artists, but additionally presents works by founded the Sociedad de las Artes del Uruguay. Composición, created
Pierre Daura, Gordon Matta-Clark, Jesús Rafael Soto, and Eduardo Ramírez Villamizar. one year after his return to Uruguay, subsequently draws upon his
early “European” constructivist works, yet situates this drawing as a
The 1979 film H.O. by Ivan Cardoso is likewise included in this module, given that Cardoso’s work documents various abstract and conceptual particularly “American” object, given its association with the Society
pieces by the Brazilian neo-concrete artist Hélio Oiticica, who explored elements of geometric abstraction in the 1950s, before turning to and its promotion of modern Uruguayan art.
installation and performance art in the 1960s.
N. T.
148 THE LEGACY OF GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION: CONSTRUCTIVIST ART, MINIMALISM, OP ART 149
64
JOAQUÍN TORRES-GARCÍA
b. 1874, Montevideo, Uruguay
d. 1949, Montevideo, Uruguay
Constructivo con sol (Construction with Sun), 1937
pencil on paper
7 5⁄8 × 5 3⁄8 in. (19.4 × 13.7 cm)
Museum purchase through the 2013 Director’s Circle, Christina Wiedemann
Endowment Fund, Linnie E. Dalbeck Memorial Endowment Fund, Larue Storm
Art Acquisition Endowment and the Lowe Art Museum Acquisitions Fund,
2013.9.1
figurative pictographs into his compositions. According to the artist, these example of the artist’s work from this period, as the figure of a ship (in
Like Composición of 1935 (cat. no. 63), Torres-García’s
pictographs were symbols that could be found across cultures and peoples, the upper register of the drawing) could be read as a representation of a
Constructivo con sol reveals the artist’s preoccupation with
but which also highlighted traditional and indigenous pictographs created conquistador’s ship or of European expansionism/commercialism, while
the (cubist) grid as a geometric motif celebrating abstract
by pre-Columbian cultures in South America. the pictograph of a head (located on the left side of the grid) is largely
art in the 1930s. The modernist grid was historically seen
reminiscent of a pre-Columbian mask or ancient Olmec head (ca. 1500-
to convey order and categorization in a work of art, and Having co-founded Cercle et Carré (Circle and Square) in Paris in 1929, 400 BCE) from present-day Mexico. Other symbols ostensibly represent
was furthermore regarded as a visual element that could Torres-García eventually “re-established” this art group in Montevideo in ancient Mesoamerican glyphs, including the image of the sun, while the
symbolically represent the underlying structural systems at 1936 under the Spanish name Círculo y Cuadrado. As in Europe, Circle symbols for “man” and “woman” (located below the sun glyph) seem
play in art, nature, and across cultures. Torres-García was the and Square continued to promote constructivist art, though the Uruguayan to materialize as universal symbols for a collective mankind.
founder of Constructive Universalism, a personal style that articulation of this group equally embraced figurative elements that might
embraced abstraction, while simultaneously incorporating represent South America’s pre-European past. Constructivo con sol is a prime N. T.
150 PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: AVANT-GARDE ART IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE UNITED STATES THE LEGACY OF GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION: CONSTRUCTIVIST ART, MINIMALISM, OP ART 151
65 66
PIERRE DAURA EDUARDO RAMÍREZ VILLAMIZAR
b. 1896, Minorca, Balearic Islands, Spain b. 1923, Pamplona, Colombia
d. 1976, Rockbridge Baths, Virginia d. 2004, Bogotá, Colombia
Étude No. 1 Analise, 1945-1965 Ritmo vertical (Vertical Rhythm), 1962
oil on canvas cardboard and paint
29 1⁄4 x 24 3⁄8 in. (74.3 x 61.9 cm) 27 1⁄8 x 16 3⁄4 in. (68.9 x 42.5 cm)
Gift of Martha R. Daura, 2003.45.53 Bequest of Cristina Wiedemann, 91.0476.39
© Lowe Art Museum, University of Miami
The Colombian artist Eduardo Ramírez Villamizar initially
In 1929, the Spanish-born U.S. artist Pierre Daura, along trained as an architect at the National University of Colombia
with the renowned Uruguayan artist Joaquín Torres-García in the early 1940s, but decided instead to pursue a career in
and the Belgian artist Michel Seuphor, co-founded the art the fine arts. Throughout the 1950s, he traveled (and lived)
group known as Cercle et Carré (Circle and Square), which in France, made frequent trips to New York City, Madrid and
celebrated geometric abstraction through the purity of Rome, and also taught courses at the School of Fine Arts in
circular and square forms. The group, which formed in 1929, Bogotá. Ramírez Villamizar’s oeuvre underwent a transition in
exhibited their works the following year for the first time in the late 1950s and early 1960s, as the artist turned almost
a joint exhibition, but was eventually absorbed in 1931 by exclusively to sculptural work, for which he is known for today.
the anti-surrealist group Abstraction-Création (Abstraction-
Even though Ramírez Villamizar ultimately abandoned
Creation), which equally favored non-representational,
architecture for painting, and then sculpture, Ritmo vertical
abstract works of art. visually suggests that the artist was interested in combining
Even though Daura painted Étude No. 1 Analise after he each of these disparate categories into a single work of art,
as the three-dimensionality of the piece ostensibly blurs the
left France and moved to the United States, the work’s grid-
line between painting, sculpture, and small-scale architecture.
like patterning and resultant color fields, or planes, are an
Somewhat reminiscent of Brazilian neo-concretism, and
exploration of the principles of abstraction explored by the
particularly Lygia Clark’s flat, three-dimensional “sculpture-
Circle and Square group, which included artists like Wassily
paintings” from the 1950s, Ritmo vertical presents the viewer
Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian (who later became a member of
with an equally dynamic, avant-garde confrontation of artistic
Abstraction-Création), Fernand Léger, and Joseph Stella. categories. This work additionally shares commonalities
As with paintings by Mondrian, Léger, and Torres-García, with Joaquín Torres-García’s geometric abstraction and
Daura’s piece is a further examination of the cubist grid as constructivist works of the 1930s and 1940s (see cat. nos. 63
the underlying framework of nature. & 64); and yet, Villamizar’s piece pushes Torres-García’s grid-
N. V. D. & N. T.
like compositions one step further, exploring their forms in
three-dimensional space.
N. T.
67 68
FRANK STELLA RICHARD JOSEPH ANUSZKIEWICZ
b. 1936, Malden, Massachusetts b. 1930, Erie, Pennsylvania
Lives and works in New York, New York Lives and works in New York, New York
Hyena Stomp, 1973 Spectral Nine, 1969
lithograph nine screen prints on plastic
8 5⁄8 x 8 5⁄8 in. (21.9 x 21.9 cm) 59 1⁄8 x 59 1⁄8 in. (150.2 x 150.2 cm)
Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Martin B. Grossman, 78.029.001 Gift of Ann and Dr. Norman Jaffe, 99.0030.90
© 2013 Frank Stella / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York Art © Richard Anuszkiewicz/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY
Known for his anti-illusory works, Frank Stella began to Richard Joseph Anuszkiewicz is a U.S. artist who emerged
create minimalist art in the late 1950s that consisted of as a prominent figure in the optical art movement of the
simple shapes and lines in an effort to steer away from purely 1960s. Along with fellow optical artist Julian Stanczak,
figurative painting. Having moved to New York in 1958 after Anuszkiewicz studied at the Cleveland Institute of Art and
his studies at Princeton University, Stella began working on Yale University, under the tutelage of Josef Albers. In his
his Black Paintings series soon after, having largely completed early works, Anuszkiewicz was fascinated by the power
the series by 1959. As the title of the series implies, these of mathematics, the role of color theory, and how basic
paintings consist of wide black stripes and smaller white lines geometric shapes could be utilized to construct a modern
that often generate non-representational geometric shapes, work of art. In Spectral Nine, he plays with the juxtaposition
such as diamonds, chevrons, crosses, or squares. of warm, analogous colors bordered by cooler, pseudo-
complementary colors. The use of concentric square patterns
In Stella’s Hyena Stomp, the artist’s signature use of minimalist and bright colors compel each square to visually “vibrate,”
lines calls attention to the flattened picture plane. In this allowing the viewer’s eye to experience the invisible energy
work, which is both a reference to, as well as a deviation that his colors and forms possess.
from Stella’s earlier Black Paintings, the artist visually creates
tension between the negative and positive spaces of the C. D. & N. T.
square form, in a manner that references optical art and its
visual effects on the viewer.
K. M. & N. T.
69 70
JULIAN STANCZAK JESÚS RAFAEL SOTO
b. 1928, Borovnica, Poland b. 1923, Ciudad Bolívar, Venezuela
Lives and works in Seven Hills, Ohio d. 2005, Paris, France
Fervent #1, 1971 Jai-Alai, 1969
acrylic on canvas screen print on plexiglas
27 7⁄8 x 23 3⁄4 in. (70.8 x 60.3 cm) 24 3⁄8 x 19 5⁄8 in. (61.9 x 49.8 cm)
Gift of Mann Galleries, 73.009.000 Gift of Steven Sohacki, 79.044.008
© 1971 Julian Stanczak © 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris
Julian Stanczak is a Polish-American painter and printmaker The Venezuelan artist Jesús Rafael Soto was a leading figure
best known for his exploration of optical art. Similar to the in geometric abstraction, as well as the kinetic and optical art
works of Anuszkiewicz, Soto, and Cruz-Diez, Stanczak’s movements of the late 1950s and 1960s. Having studied at
work is concerned with how colors, shapes, and patterns La Escuela de Arte in Caracas in the 1940s, Soto was initially
affect one’s perceptual experiences, as filtered through a interested in cubism, neoplasticism, and soviet constructivism,
dialogue between the senses and the psyche. In Fervent #1, but after moving to Paris in 1950, his work began to adopt
the artist uses hues of the same color (yellow) to insinuate optical, and then kinetic elements. Rather than embracing
depth and transparency, giving the work a three-dimensional the contemporary trends of lyrical abstraction or abstract
effect. The background consists of a grid with lines that vary expressionism, Soto and fellow Venezuelan expatriate artists
in spacing and pattern to produce a pulsating rhythm that, Alejandro Otero and Narciso Debourg (all of whom were then
when combined with the painting’s warm, golden hues, living in Paris) formed the short-lived, counterculture art group
generates an all-over, radiant affect within, and around, the Los Disidentes (The Dissidents), which rejected figurative art
central cube. in favor of geometric abstraction and concrete/constructivist
ideals. Jai-Alai, a screen print on Plexiglas, shares its title with
C. D. & N. T.
another work in this series by Soto included in the exhibition
(see cat. no. 74), and implies movement through the startling
contrast between the bright yellow field and the more subdued
gray field, which is further “animated” by yellow straw-like
lines, which give the illusion of vibration in the piece.
N. R. & N. T.
71 72
KENNETH NOLAND GENE DAVIS
b. 1924, Asheville, North Carolina b. 1920, Washington, DC
d. 2010, Port Clyde, Maine d. 1985, Washington, DC
screen print on linen screen print
16 3⁄4 x 47 1⁄2 in. (42.5 x 120.7 cm) 32 1⁄2 x 22 in. (82.6 x 55.9 cm)
Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Martin B. Grossman, 85.0131 Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Rudolph E. Drosd, 78.028.018
Art © Estate of Kenneth Noland/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY © 2013 Estate of Gene Davis / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
Variously known as an abstract expressionist, color field painter, Born in Washington D.C., Gene Davis was initially a writer
and minimalist artist, Kenneth Noland is perhaps best known and journalist who wrote for various newspapers around
for his artistic preoccupation with geometric shapes, namely the United States. Inspired by modern works of art at the
circles (including targets or concentric, repeated circles), Phillips Collection, which he saw for the first time in 1949,
stripes, and chevrons. During his studies in the 1940s at Black he began to take up painting as a serious artistic pursuit.
Mountain College in North Carolina, Noland was introduced Known for his canvases and prints of vertical stripes of color,
to the aesthetics of neoplasticism, so central to De Stijl and the of which Untitled is a prime example, Davis, along with fellow
works of Piet Mondrian, as well as to the centricity of color in U.S. artists Kenneth Noland and Morris Louis, form the first
works by Paul Klee and Josef Albers, who was then teaching generation of the Washington Color School. This particular art
at Black Mountain as one of Noland’s instructors. Following
movement began in the 1950s and was largely a response to
his formal training, Noland became acquainted with the artists
the philosophical tenets behind abstract expressionism. Davis
Morris Louis and Helen Frankenthaler, who were interested
placed a heavy importance on color and was greatly inspired
“soak-stain” paintings, as well as the influential New York art
by modernist works by the Swiss expressionist artist Paul Klee.
critic Clement Greenberg, who included Noland’s work in his
Like Noland, Davis’ works tend to explore a post-painterly
Post-Painterly Abstraction exhibition of 1964.
aestheticism through geometric abstraction and minimalist
During the latter half of the 1960s, Noland began to compositions.
experiment with horizontal bands of color, filling the surface
A. L. & N. T.
of his canvases with vibrant, yet thinly applied paint. Untitled,
which is very much a part of this larger exploration of
minimalist lines, consists of green, dark purple, white and
yellow horizontal stripes set parallel to one another in the
visual plane. The work’s competing color values, exemplified
by the tension between light and dark shades, in turn may be
seen to create interesting optical effects for the viewer.
A. L. & N. T.
73 74
CARLOS CRUZ-DIEZ JESÚS RAFAEL SOTO
b. 1923, Caracas, Venezuela b. 1923, Ciudad Bolívar, Venezuela
Lives and works in Paris, France d. 2005, Paris, France
Physichromie No. 577, 1972 Jai-Alai, 1969
acrylic, wood and plastic wood and metal
27 7⁄8 x 28 1⁄8 in. (70.8 x 71.4 cm) 19 5⁄8 × 6 × 6 in. (49.8 × 15.2 × 15.2 cm)
Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Marvin Sackner, 79.050.000 Gift of Steven Sohacki, 79.044.003
© 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris © 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris
The title Physichromie No. 577 derives from a word invented In this sculptural, kinetic piece titled Jai-Alai, the Venezuelan
by the Venezuelan artist Carlos Cruz-Diez to define concepts artist Jesús Rafael Soto investigates the optical effects of
that inform his exploration of color within geometric geometric lines on his viewers’ visual perception by placing
abstraction, as well as optical and kinetic art. Physichromie a movable red line in front of a raised white surface (in the
thus reflects the interplay between nature (physis) and color upper portion of the composition), as well as a raised surface
(chromos). In this piece, vertical strips of plastic, which have with black and white lines (in the lower register of the work).
been painted with differing colors on either side, are affixed Jai-alai – a ball sport played across the globe, but particularly
perpendicularly to a flat painted background. As a result, popular in Latin American countries – is perhaps referenced
when the viewer observes the piece from multiple angles here through the interplay of the rectangular white shape, the
and vantage points, various geometric shapes rendered movable red line (a kinetic element that is moved by changes
in different color combinations begin to emerge and then in the air around the piece), and the vertical black lines, which
change within the composition. create varying optical effects when the viewer observes the
piece from varying angles. The implied “energy” of the piece
The overall effect of the work creates multiple optical is therefore in direct relation to the viewer’s physical presence
illusions, or multiple ways of “seeing” the various geometric in the space surrounding this object, as this non-motorized
combinations that are “contained” in the visual plane. For sculpture only moves when changes in the environment
Cruz-Diez, the notion of color is not something that can surrounding the piece occur.
be expressed upon a flat surface, but is an experience that
transpires in space. Although his work shares theoretical N. R. & N. T.
and iconographic similarities with other Venezuelan optical
and kinetic artists, such as Jesús Rafael Soto and Alejandro
Otero, Cruz-Diez was not a member of Los Disidentes (The
Dissidents), as he did not travel to Paris until the 1960s.
N. R. & N. T.
75 76
GORDON MATTA-CLARK IVAN CARDOSO
b. 1943, New York, New York b. 1952. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
H.O., 1979
Circus, 1978 35mm film transferred to DVD
photographic collage 12 minutes, 24 seconds
20 x 30 in. (50.8 x 76.2 cm) Courtesy of Ivan Cardoso/Topázio Filmes Ltda.
Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Marvin Sackner, 86.0115 Stills © Ivan Cardoso
© 2013 Estate of Gordon Matta-Clark / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s in Brazil, new and innovative
The son of Chilean artist Roberto Matta, Gordon Matta- avenues in contemporary art were explored by various artists, who
Clark initially studied architecture at Cornell University before often blurred the line between reality and artifice, while challenging
turning to a career in the visual arts. In an effort to distance distinctions between “high” and “low” art. In 1959, the Grupo
himself from his father’s surrealist works (see cat. no. 44), Neoconcreto (Neo-Concrete Group) was formed by visual artists
Matta-Clark instead experimented with a wide range of Hélio Oiticica, Lygia Clark, Amílcar de Castro, Lygia Pape, and Franz
media, though is mostly known for his use of photography Weissmann, as well as the poet Ferreira Gullar, in order to push the
and film throughout his oeuvre. boundaries of contemporary Brazilian art. Although the group did not
officially embrace any singular/collective style, an exploration of color
Circus forms part of Matta-Clark’s most well-known series and the tenets of concrete art form the basis of their early works. Grupo
of “building cuts” (1972-1978), or works that function as Neoconcreto disbanded in 1961, though its members continued to
“archives” of performance pieces, as well as photographic explore novel approaches to art making, each becoming pioneers in
collages. To construct these images, Matta-Clark first “cut” various fields, including abstract art, concrete and neo-concrete art,
into old or condemned buildings with a chain saw in order kinetic and optical art, and perhaps most importantly, sensorial and
to literally fracture the original structure, thus creating performance art. In Ivan Cardoso’s art/documentary film H.O. (titled
new architectural compositions, which the artist called after Hélio Oiticica), a number of Grupo Neoconcreto artists, including
“Anarchitecture.” For Circus, Matta-Clark initially carved Lygia Clark, can be seen to engage with Oiticica’s various artworks,
portions out of soon-to-be demolished buildings in Chicago, including his environmental/performance pieces from the 1960s.
then photographed these architectural spaces, before cutting Among these works is his well-known series Parangolés, or capes,
and tearing the final prints in order to present them in a new/ which explore art and dance in the public sphere by inviting spectators
original composition. This final image is not, however, meant to become participants in the art making process. Cardoso’s film is not
only important for its examination of these ephemeral performance
to be entirely abstract; rather, the artist leaves recognizable
pieces, but even more so as a documentary archive, given that the
elements, such as doors and knobs, so that the viewer
majority of Oiticica’s works (including his Parangolés) where destroyed
might still discern the original building in the photographic
when a fire claimed the artist’s collection in 2009.
fragments.
A. L. & N. T.
CONTRIBUTORS
NATHAN J. TIMPANO is Assistant Professor of Art History at the EDWARD J. SULLIVAN is the Helen Gould Sheppard Professor of
University of Miami. Across his program of research, Timpano the History of Art at the Institute of Fine Arts and the Department
investigates modern artistic movements in Europe and Latin America, of Art History of New York University. Specializing in the modern and
respectively, and adopts an interdisciplinary approach to the nature contemporary art of Latin America and the Caribbean he is the author
of collaborative activities in both the visual and performing arts. of over thirty books and exhibitions catalogues. His most recent
His major area of study examines the history and historiography texts include The Language of Objects in the Art of the Americas
of modern German and Austrian art, while his minor area focuses (Yale University Press, 2007); Fragile Demon: Juan Soriano in Mexico
on the Cuban avant-garde and critical theory. Prior to curating 1935-1950 (Philadelphia Museum of Art and Yale University Press);
the Pan American Modernism exhibition at the Lowe Art Museum, Observed: Milagros De La Torre (co-authored exhibition catalogue)
he organized an online exhibition and study database of Lyonel and the forthcoming From San Juan to Paris: Francisco Oller and
Feininger’s photographic works at the Harvard Art Museums (2009- Caribbean Art in the Era of Impressionism (Yale University Press)
2011). Timpano has been awarded national and international honors,
including a 2007 DAAD research grant and a 2007-2008 Fulbright
fellowship, and has likewise published articles and book chapters on
the cross-cultural and artistic exchanges that exist between various
artists in Europe, Latin America, and the United States. As a current
Faculty Research Fellow within the Center for the Humanities at the
University of Miami, Timpano is completing a book on modern art,
theatre, and science in fin-de-siècle Vienna.
MUSEUM STAFF
HEATHER DIACK is Assistant Professor of Modern and Contemporary PATRICIA GARCÍA-VELEZ HANNA is an independent art consultant Yina Balarezo Membership Coordinator
Art in the Department of Art and Art History at the University of based in Miami, Florida. Most recently, she served as the Director Irene Bergmann Special Events Coordinator
Miami. Diack holds a PhD from the University of Toronto and is active of the Cisneros Fontanals Art Foundation (CIFO), a non-profit
Julie Berlin Registration Assistant
as a writer and independent curator. Specializing in the history of contemporary art foundation in Miami. In this capacity, she managed
the overall operations of the foundation in addition to its exhibitions Angeles Cardenas Receptionist
photography, Diack has held many fellowships including a research
residency at The Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montreal and a and publications program. Recent editorial projects include: Frames Natasha Cuervo Museum Registrar for Exhibitions and Loans
Rubenstein Fellowship in Critical Studies at the Whitney Independent and Documents, Conceptualist Practices; Inside Out, Photography Brian Dursum Director and Chief Curator
Study Program, New York. Diack has presented and published After Form; and Tacita Dean: Film Works. Prior to directing the Janie Graulich Receptionist
papers internationally on topics related to twentieth century art, Cisneros Fontanals Art Foundation, she was the Exhibitions Manager
Alessia Lewitt Preparator
photography and theory throughout Europe and North America. of Miami Art Central. With over ten years in the non-profit sector,
Currently, she is working on a number of research projects including she has worked with internationally recognized artists and institutions Raymond Mathews Communications Specialist
the final manuscript for her book The Benefit of the Doubt: Regarding to bring numerous contemporary art exhibitions to the South Florida Marie Milhomme Chief Security Officer
the Photographic Conditions of Conceptual Art, 1966-1973 and co- community. Darren Price Senior Preparator
editing a volume on the critical conjunction between conceptual art
Kara Schneiderman Assistant Director
and humor.
Lorrie Stassun Office Manager
Jodi Sypher Curator of Education
Hope Torrents School Programs Coordinator
REFERENCES PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: Ramírez, “A Highly Topical Utopia,” 2. Although a number of relevant sources could be listed here that examine literary avant-garde
7 13
DIALOGUES, COMMONALITIES, DISCONNECTS movements throughout Latin America, I would direct my readers to essays in the following
8
Yúdice, et al., On Edge, vii. volume: Anthony L. Geist and José B. Monleón, eds., Modernism and Its Margins: Reinscribing
1
David Craven, “The Latin American Origins of ‘Alternative Modernism’,” Third Text 36 9
For Traba’s musings on Latin American art, and its relationship to U.S. art trends, see Marta Cultural Modernity from Spain and Latin America (New York: Garland, 1999). See also Vicky
(Autumn 1996): 44. Traba, Dos décadas vulnerables en las artes plásticas latinoamericanas 1950-1970 (Buenos Unruh, Latin American Vanguards: The Art of Contentious Encounters (Berkeley: University of
Aires: Siglo XXI, 2005); and Marta Traba, Mirar en América (Caracas: Fundación Biblioteca California Press, 1994).
2
Mari Carmen Ramírez, “A Highly Topical Utopia: Some Outstanding Features of the Avant-
Garde in Latin America,” in Inverted Utopias: Avant-Garde Art in Latin America, (eds.) Mari Ayacucho, 2005). For a concise summation of Traba’s theories and criticisms, see Florencia 14
See William C. Seitz, The Responsive Eye, exh. cat. (New York: The Museum of Modern Art,
Carmen Ramírez and Héctor Olea, exh. cat. (Houston and New Haven: The Museum of Fine Bazzano-Nelzon, “Marta Traba: Internationalism or Regional Resistance?,” Art Journal 64, no. 1965).
Arts, Houston and Yale University Press, 2004), 1. 4 (Winter 2005): 87-89.
15
For details of Lola Álvarez Bravo’s life and career, see Elizabeth Ferrer, Lola Álvarez Bravo (New
3
Craven, “The Latin American Origins of ‘Alternative Modernism’,” 31-33.
10
See Mari Carmen Ramírez, “Inversions: The School of the South,” in Inverted Utopias, 73- York: Aperture and the Center for Creative Photography, 2006).
74. See also Dawn Ades, Art in Latin America: The Modern Era, 1820-1980 (New Haven and
4
George Yúdice, “Postmodernity and Transnational Capitalism in Latin America,” in On Edge: London: Yale University Press, 1993), 144-50; and Jacqueline Barnitz, Twentieth-Century Art in 16
Pamela Allara, Pictures of People: Alice Neel’s American Portrait Gallery (Hanover: University
The Crisis of Contemporary Latin American Culture, eds. George Yúdice, Jean Franco, and Juan Latin America (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001), 127-35. Press of New England and Brandeis University Press, 1998), 59. For further information on
Flores (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis, 1992), 1. Enríquez, see Juan A. Martínez, Cuban Art and National Identity: The Vanguard Painters, 1927-
11
Joaquín Torres-García, La escuela del Sur, in Joaquín Torres-García, “Lección 30: La escuela 1950 (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1994).
5
Gerardo Mosquera, “The New Art of the Revolution,” in The Nearest Edge of the World: Art del Sur,” Universalismo constructivo, second ed. (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1984), 213. Mari
and Cuba Now, exh. cat. (Brookline: Polarities, 1990), 9. Carmen Ramírez translates and discusses portions of the manifesto in Ramírez, “Inversions,” 73. 17
See Robert Linsley, “Utopia Will Not Be Tolerated: Rivera at Rockefeller Center,” Oxford Art
6
Joseph Randall Shapiro, The United States Collects Pan American Art, exh. cat. (Chicago: The Journal 17, no. 2 (1994): 48–62.
12
Barnitz, Twentieth-Century Art in Latin America, 287.
Art Institute of Chicago, 1959), 1. 18
For Shahn’s political affiliation, see Andrew Hemingway, Artists on the Left: American Artists
and the Communist Movement, 1926–1956 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 146.
MODERNISMO PANAMERICANO: 7
Ramírez. “A Highly Topical Utopia”. p. 2.
DIÁLOGOS, PUNTOS DE CONTACTO, INCONEXIONES 13
Aunque se podrían enumerar una cantidad de fuentes relevantes que examinan los
8
Yúdice, et al. On Edge. p. vii. movimientos vanguardistas literarios en toda Latinoamérica, dirigiré a mis lectores a los ensayos
1
Craven, David. (Otoño 1996). “The Latin American Origins of ‘Alternative Modernism’”. Third 9
Para conocer las ideas de Traba sobre el arte latinoamericano y su relación con las tendencias contenidos en el siguiente volumen: Geist, Anthony L. y Monleón, José B. (comp.). (1999).
Text 36. p. 44. artísticas estadounidenses, ver Traba, Marta. (2005) Dos décadas vulnerables en las artes Modernism and Its Margins: Reinscribing Cultural Modernity from Spain and Latin America.
plásticas latinoamericanas 1950-1970. Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI; y Traba, Marta. (2005) Mirar Nueva York: Garland. Ver asimismo Unruh, Vicky. (1994). Latin American Vanguards: The Art
2
Ramírez, Mari Carmen. (2004) “A Highly Topical Utopia: Some Outstanding Features of the of Contentious Encounters. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Avant-Garde in Latin America” En Inverted Utopias: Ramírez, Mari Carmen y Olea Héctor en América. Caracas: Fundación Biblioteca Ayacucho. Para leer un resumen conciso de las
(comp.). Catálogo de la muestra. Houston y New Haven: The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston teorías y críticas de Traba, ver Bazzano-Nelzon, Florencia. (Invierno 2005). “Marta Traba: Ver Seitz, William C. (1965). The Responsive Eye. Catálogo de la muestra. Nueva York: The
14
y Yale University Press. p. 1. Internationalism or Regional Resistance?”. Art Journal 64, no. 4. pp. 87-89. Museum of Modern Art.
3
Craven, David. “The Latin American Origins of ‘Alternative Modernism’”. pp. 31-33.
10
Ver Ramírez, Mari Carmen. “Inversions: The School of the South”. En Inverted Utopias. 15
Para conocer detalles sobre la vida y carrera de Lola Álvarez Bravo, ver Ferrer, Elizabeth.
pp. 73-74. Ver además Ades, Dawn. (1993). Art in Latin America: The Modern Era, 1820- (2006). Lola Álvarez Bravo. New York: Aperture y Center for Creative Photography.
4
Yúdice, George. “Postmodernity and Transnational Capitalism in Latin America”. En On Edge: 1980. New Haven y Londres: Yale University Press. pp. 144-50; y Barnitz, Jacqueline. (2001).
The Crisis of Contemporary Latin American Culture. Yúdice, George; Franco, Jean y Flores, Juan Twentieth-Century Art in Latin America. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 127-35. 16
Allara, Pamela. (1998). Pictures of People: Alice Neel’s American Portrait Gallery. Hanover:
(comp.). Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis. p. 1. University Press of New England y Brandeis University Press. p. 59. Para conocer más
11
Torres-García, Joaquín. (1984) La escuela del Sur. En Torres-García, Joaquín. “Lección 30: información sobre Enríquez, ver Martínez, Juan A. (1994). Cuban Art and National Identity:
5
Mosquera, Gerardo. (1990) “The New Art of the Revolution”. En The Nearest Edge of the La escuela del Sur”. Universalismo constructivo, segunda edición. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. The Vanguard Painters, 1927-1950. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.
World: Art and Cuba Now. Catálogo de la muestra. Brookline: Polarities. p. 9. p. 213. Mari Carmen Ramírez traduce y discute segmentos del manifiesto en Ramírez.
“Inversions”. p. 73. 17
Ver Linsley, Robert. (1994). “Utopia Will Not Be Tolerated: Rivera at Rockefeller Center”.
6
Shapiro, Joseph Randall. (1959). The United States Collects Pan American Art. Catálogo de la Oxford Art Journal 17, no. 2. pp. 48-62.
muestra. Chicago: The Art Institute of Chicago. p. 1. 12
Barnitz. Twentieth-Century Art in Latin America. p. 287.
19
In addition to meeting with Pollock and Krasner, Lam met with a number of artists throughout GEOMETRY AND GESTURE: Museum, 2010). The curator of this exhibition was Mary Kate O’Hare. 33
For a succinct discussion of these movements see Mario H. Gradowczyk and Nelly Perrazo,
the 1940s and 1950s who were living and working in New York. See Lowery Stokes Sims, Wifredo NOTES ON ABSTRACTIONS IN THE AMERICAS Abstract Art from the Río de la Plata (New York: The Americas Society, 2001).
Lam and the International Avant-Garde: 1923-1982 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002), 139-40.
28
Carlos Cruz-Diez. Color in Space and Time (Museum of Fine Arts Houston, 2011); Soto. Paris
22
Leah Dickerman (ed.) Inventing Abstraction, 1910-1925 (New York: The Museum of Modern and Beyond 1950-1970 (New York: The Grey Art Gallery, New York University, 2012). 34
As this essay is in preparation the Carnegie Museum of Art in Pittsburgh is planning a large-
20
For a review of Motherwell’s biography and personal writings and correspondences with Art, 2013). scale exhibition of the work of Hélio Oiticica and the MoMA is organizing one of Lygia Clark.
other artists and critics, see Stephanie Terenzio, (ed.), The Collected Writings of Robert
29
Fundacão de São Paulo, XXIV Bienal de São Paulo: núcleo histórico: antropofagia e histórias
Motherwell (Berkeley Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992). 23
See Mari Carmen Ramírez (ed.) El Taller Torres-García the School of the South and its Legacy de canibalismos (São Paulo, 1998). See especially the section of the catalogue that discusses 35
See Ana Franco, Ramírez Villamizar. Geometría y abstracción (Bogotá: Ediciones Gamma,
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992). the nucleus of the exhibition devoted to abstract art: which was curated by Paulo Herkenhoff 2010). See also her unpublished PhD dissertation “Edgar Negret and Eduardo Ramírez
21
The Dyn art journal, which was published in both English and French, has recently been “Monocromos,” 192-233. Villamizar: Transnational Encounters and the Rise of Modernism in Colombian Art, 1944-
the subject of a small, but thorough exhibition at the Getty Center. See Annette Leddy and 24
This was only one of several significant shows devoted to Torres-García in the 1980s and 1964,” New York University, 2012.
Donna Conwell, eds., Farewell to Surrealism: The Dyn Circle in Mexico (Los Angeles: The Getty early 90s. See also Torres-García: Grid-Pattern-Sign. Paris-Montevideo, 1924-1944 (London:
30
Cold America. Geometric Abstraction in Latin America (1943-1973) (Madrid: Fundación Juan
Research Institute, 2012). Hayward Gallery, 1985). March, 2011). 36
On Sanín see the exhibition catalogue Fanny Sanín: 1987-1999, color y simetría (Bogotá :
31
On Pettoruti see Edward J. Sullivan and Nelly Perazzo Emilio Pettoruti (1892-1971) (Buenos Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango, 2000).
Mari Carmen Ramírez and Héctor Olea (eds.) Inverted Utopias. Avant-Garde Art in Latin
25
America (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004). Aires: LaMarca Editora, 2004). For a discussion of his early drawings see pp. 36-42. 37
As a child Fernández moved to Costa Rica. She is considered one of the principal participants
32
Pettoruti’s art post-Europe was derived from a variety of sources, including the cubism of in the abstract movements in that country.
26
Geometric Abstraction. Latin American Art from the Patricia Phelps de Cisneros Collection
(Cambridge: Harvard Art Museums, 2001) and The Geometry of Hope. Latin American Art Picasso and Juan Gris. The subject matter of some of his most well-known works from the 38
Natalia Majluf, “Peru,” in Edward J. Sullivan, Latin American Art in the Twentieth Century
from the Patricia Phelps de Cisneros Collection (Austin: Blanton Museum of Art and New York: 1920s and 30s included such “local” themes as street musicians reminiscent of tango and (London: Phaidon Press, 2000),197.
Grey Art Gallery, 2007). other popular street bands. In old age he returned to pure abstraction, although this has often
been considered decorative and non-experimental. 39
Dore Ashton, Fernando de Szyslo (Barcelona: Ediciones Polígrafa, 2003).
27
The Constructivist Spirit: Abstract Art in South and North America, 1920s-50s (Newark
18
Para conocer acerca de la afiliación política de Shahn, ver Hemingway, Andrew. (2002). GESTO Y GEOMETRÍA: 27
(2010) The Constructivist Spirit: Abstract Art in South and North America, 1920s-50s. y otros tipos de bandas callejeras populares. En su vejez, regresó a la abstracción pura aunque
Artists on the Left: American Artists and the Communist Movement, 1926–1956. New Haven: APUNTES SOBRE LA ABSTRACCIÓN EN LAS AMÉRICAS Newark Museum. La curadora de esta muestra fue Mary Kate O’Hare. estas obras se han considerado decorativas y no experimentales.
Yale University Press. p. 146.
Dickerman, Leah (comp.). (2013) Inventing Abstraction, 1910-1925. Nueva York: The
22
28
(2011) Carlos Cruz-Diez. Color in Space and Time. Houston: Museum of Fine Arts Houston; 33
Para leer una discusión suscinta sobre estos movimientos, ver Gradowczyk, Mario H. y
19
Además de conocer a Pollock y Krasner, Lam conoció a un número de artistas que vivían y Museum of Modern Art. (2012) Soto. Paris and Beyond 1950-1970. Nueva York: The Grey Art Gallery, New York Perrazo, Nelly. (2001). Abstract Art from the Río de la Plata. Nueva York: The Americas Society.
trabajaban en Nueva York durante los años 1940 y 1950. Ver Stokes Sims, Lowery. (2002). University.
Wifredo Lam and the International Avant-Garde: 1923-1982. Austin: University of Texas Press. 23
Ver Ramírez, Mari Carmen (comp.). (1992). El Taller Torres-García the School of the South 34
Mientras se escribe este ensayo, el Carnegie Museum of Art de Pittsburgh se encuentra
pp. 139-40. and its Legacy. Austin: University of Texas Press.
29
Fundacão de São Paulo. (1998). XXIV Bienal de São Paulo: núcleo histórico: antropofagia organizando una muestra a gran escala de la obra de Hélio Oiticica y el MoMA está preparando
e histórias de canibalismos. São Paulo. Ver en especial la sección del catálogo que discute una exposición de Lygia Clark.
20
Para estudiar la biografía y algunos escritos personales y correspondencias de Motherwell 24
Esta fue una de las varias muestras significativas que se dedicaron a Torres-García en los el núcleo de la muestra dedicado al arte abstracto, cuyo curador fur Paulo Herkenhoff,
con otros artistas y críticos, ver Terenzio, Stephanie (comp.). (1992). The Collected Writings of años 1980 y principios de los 1990. Ver además (1985) Torres-García: Grid-Pattern-Sign. Paris- “Monocromos”. 192-233. 35
Ver Franco, Ana. (2010) Ramírez Villamizar. Geometría y abstracción. Bogotá: Ediciones
Robert Motherwell. Berkeley Los Angeles: University of California Press. Montevideo, 1924-1944. Londres: Hayward Gallery. Gamma. Ver también su disertación doctoral inédita (2012) “Edgar Negret and Eduardo
30
(2011) Cold America. Geometric Abstraction in Latin America (1943-1973). Madrid: Ramírez Villamizar: Transnational Encounters and the Rise of Modernism in Colombian Art,
21
El períodico de arte Dyn, que se publicaba en inglés y en francés, ha sido recientemente 25
Ramírez, Mari Carmen y Olea, Héctor (comp.). (2004) Inverted Utopias. Avant-Garde Art in Fundación Juan March. 1944-1964”. New York University.
objeto de una muestra pequeña pero exhaustiva en el Getty Center. Ver Leddy, Annette y Latin America. New Haven y Londres: Yale University Press.
Conwell, Donna (comp.). (2012). Farewell to Surrealism: The Dyn Circle in Mexico. Los Angeles:
31
Sobre Pettoruti, ver (2004) Sullivan, Edward J. y Perazzo, Nelly. Emilio Pettoruti (1892-1971). 36
Para obtener información sobre Sanín, ver el catálogo de la muestra (2000) Fanny Sanín:
The Getty Research Institute.
26
(2001) Geometric Abstraction. Latin American Art from the Patricia Phelps de Cisneros Buenos Aires: LaMarca Editora. En lo relativo a sus dibujos tempranos, ver pp. 36-42. 1987-1999, color y simetría. Bogotá: Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango.
Collection. Cambridge: Harvard Art Museums. y (2007) The Geometry of Hope. Latin American
Art from the Patricia Phelps de Cisneros Collection. Austin: Blanton Museum of Art y Nueva
32
El arte de Pettoruti luego de Europa derivaba de una variedad de fuentes, incluyendo el 37
De niña Fernández se mudó a Costa Rica. Se la considera una de las principales participantes
York: Grey Art Gallery. Cubismo de Picasso y Juan Gris. El tema de algunas de sus obras más conocidas de los años en los movimientos abstractos de aquel país.
1920 y 1930 incluían notas de “color local” como músicos callejeros que recordaban el tango
40
See the exhibition catalogue Risking the Abstract. Mexican Modernism and the Art of Gunter 46
Noemí Ruiz y su espacio en el tiempo (San Juan: Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Puerto BODY OF EVIDENCE: 57
Xavier Villaurrutia, “Manuel Álvarez Bravo,” in Manuel Álvarez Bravo: Fotografías, exh. cat.
Gerzso (Santa Barbara Museum of Art, 2003). Rico, 2007). THE MODERNISMS OF MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO (Mexico City: Sociedad de Arte Moderno, July 1945), 22. Also quoted in Esther Gabara, Errant
Modernism: The Ethos of Photography in Mexico and Brazil, (Durham, N.C. and London, U.K.:
41
On foreign surrealists in Mexico see Martica Sawin, Surrealism in Exile and the Beginning
47
Alas y raíces. Ada Balcácer (Santiago de los Caballeros: Centro Cultural Eduardo León Jiménez, 51
Quoted in Cristina Pacheco, “En los 80 años de Manuel Álvarez Bravo: ‘Solo hay que mirar Duke University Press, 2008), 196 and 225.
of the New York School (Cambridge, MIT Press, 1995), and, specifically on Paalen, Andreas 2011). hacia el futuro’,” Sábado, supplement of Unomasuno, 6 February 1982, 7; cited in John
Neufert, “Wolfgang Paalen. The Totem as Sphinx,” in Dawn Ades (et al), eds. Surrealism in Mraz, “Revolution and Culture (1910-1940),” Looking for Mexico: Modern Visual Culture and
58
Born Arthur Fellig, Weegee earned his nickname in reaction to his astonishingly quick arrival
48
It is important to note that there was a somewhat smaller but equally significant group of times at crime scenes. Though he covertly tuned into the police radio frequency for tips, he
Latin America. Visísimo Muerto (Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2012), 111-129. geometric abstracts artists working in Havana at this time. Among the most outstanding were National Identity (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2009), 86.
was nevertheless perceived as possessing a kind of sixth sense and thus his name is a play on
42
See the exhibition catalogue Lilia Carrillo (Monterrey: Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Mario Carreño and Loló Soldevilla. 52
André Breton, “Second Manifesto of Surrealism (1930)” in Manifestoes of Surrealism, trans. the fortune telling capacities of the “Ouija” board.
Monterrey, 1992). 49
See the exhibition catalogue Guido Llinás and Los Once After Cuba (Miami: the Art Museum Richard Seaver and Helen R. Lane (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972), 123-24. 59
Folgarait,168.
43
Marimar Benítez, “The Special Case of Puerto Rico,” in Luis Cancel (ed.) The Latin American at Florida International University, 1997). 53
Roland Barthes, Camera Lucida: Reflections on photography, trans. Richard Howard (New
Spirit: Art and Artists in the United States, 1920-1970 (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1988), York: Hill and Wang, 1981). Barthes refers to this as the noeme of photography.
60
Nissan N. Perez, Revelaciones: The Art of Manuel Álvarez Bravo (San Diego: Museum of
50
Discussed in the texts for the exhibition catalogue Carlos Alfonzo. Triumph of the Spirit: A Photographic Arts, 1990), 24-25.
72-105. Survey 1975-1991 (Miami Art Museum, 1997). 54
Andrea Noble, “When photography errs,” review of Errant Modernism: The Ethos of
44
On Vicente as a teacher and his work with Albizu see Edward J. Sullivan, “ ‘Professor Esteban Photography in Mexico and Brazil by Esther Gabara (Durham, N.C. and London, U.K.: Duke
61
Amanda Hopkinson, Manuel Álvarez Bravo (London and New York: Phaidon, 2002), 50.
Vicente’ Teaching and Creativity in His Art,” in the exhibition catalogue Esteban Vicente. University Press, 2008), in A Contracorriente, Vol. 8, No. 1 (2010): 444. 62
Rosalind Krauss, “Grids,” October, vol. 9 (Summer 1979): 61.
Concrete Improvisations. Collages and Sculptures (New York: Grey Art Gallery, 2011), 48-87. 55
Leonard Folgarait, Seeing Mexico Photographed: The Work of Horne, Casasola, Modotti, and 63
Ibid., 60.
45
Abby McEwen of the University of Maryland is currently at work on a monograph about Álvarez Bravo (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008),174.
Albizu. 64
See Susan Kismaric, Manuel Álvarez Bravo, exh. cat. (New York: Museum of Modern Art,
56
Folgarait, 153. 1997), 37.
38
Majluf, Natalia. (2003) “Perú”. En Sullivan, E. J. Latin American Art in the Twentieth Century 44
Sobre la labor docente de Vicente y su obra junto a Albizu ver Sullivan, Edward J. “‘Professor EL CUERPO DEL DELITO: 56
Folgarait. p. 153.
(p. 197). London: Phaidon Press. Esteban Vicente’ Teaching and Creativity in His Art,” en el catálogo de la muestra (2011) Esteban LOS MODERNISMOS DE MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO
Vicente. Concrete Improvisations. Collages and Sculptures. (48-87) New York: Grey Art Gallery.
57
Villaurrutia, Xavier. (Julio de 1945). “Manuel Álvarez Bravo”. En Manuel Álvarez Bravo:
39
Ashton, Dore. (2003). Fernando de Szyslo. Barcelona: Ediciones Polígrafa. 51
Citado en Pacheco, Cristina. (6 de febrero de 1982). “En los 80 años de Manuel Álvarez Fotografías. Catálogo de la muestra. México: Sociedad de Arte Moderno. p. 22. También
45
Abby McEwen, profesora de la historia de arte de la University of Maryland, trabaja en la Bravo: “Solo hay que mirar hacia el futuro”. Sábado, suplemento de Unomasuno. p. 7; citado citado en Gabara, Esther. (2008). Errant Modernism: The Ethos of Photography in Mexico and
Ver catálogo de la muestra (2003) Risking the Abstract. Mexican Modernism and the Art of
40
actualidad en una monografía sobre Albizu. Brazil. Durham y Londres: Duke University Press. pp. 196 y 225.
Gunter Gerzso. Santa Barbara Museum of Art. en Mraz, John. (2009). “Revolution and Culture (1910-1940)”. Looking for Mexico: Modern
46
(2007) Noemí Ruiz y su espacio en el tiempo. San Juan: Museo de Arte Contemporáneo Visual Culture and National Identity. Durham y Londres: Duke University Press. p. 86. 58
Weegee, cuyo nombre verdadero era Arthur Fellig, recibió su sobrenombre por la increíble
41
Para conocer más acerca de los surrealistas extranjeros de México ver Sawin, M. (1995). de Puerto Rico. 52
Breton, André. (1972). “Second Manifesto of Surrealism (1930)”. En Manifestoes of velocidad con la que llegaba a las escenas de los crímenes. Aunque en secreto escuchaba
Surrealism in Exile and the Beginning of the New York School. Cambridge: MIT Press. y, en Surrealism. Richard Seaver y Helen R. Lane (trad.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. la frecuencia de radio policial en busca de datos y pistas, de todas formas parecía que tenía
especial sobre Paalen, ver Neufert, Andreas. (2012) “Wolfgang Paalen. The Totem as Sphinx.”
47
(2011) Alas y raíces. Ada Balcácer. Santiago de los Caballeros: Centro Cultural Eduardo un sexto sentido; por ello es que su sobrenombre es un juego de palabras con el prodigioso
León Jiménez. pp. 123-24.
En Ades, Dawn et al. (comp.). Surrealism in Latin America. Visísimo Muerto (pp. 111-129). Los tablero Ouija, de similar pronunciación en inglés.
Ángeles: Getty Publications. 48
Resulta importante hacer notar que en esa época había un grupo de artistas abstractos
53
Roland Barthes. (1981). Camera Lucida: Reflections on photography. Richard Howard (trad.).
Nueva York: Hill and Wang. Barthes se refiere a esto como el noema de la fotografía.
59
Folgarait. p. 168.
42
Ver el catálogo de la muestra (1992) Lilia Carrillo. Monterrey: Museo de Arte Contemporáneo geométricos un tanto menor pero de igual importancia que trabajaba en La Habana. Entre los
de Monterrey. más excepcionales se encuentran Mario Carreño y Loló Soldevilla. 54
Andrea Noble. (2008). “When photography errs”. Reseña de Errant Modernism: The Ethos
60
Perez, Nissan N. (1990). Revelaciones: The Art of Manuel Álvarez Bravo. San Diego: Museum
of Photography in Mexico and Brazil, de Esther Gabara. Durham y Londres: Duke University of Photographic Arts. pp. 24-25.
43
Benítez, Marimar. (1988) “The Special Case of Puerto Rico”. En Cancel, Luis (comp.) The Ver el catálogo de la muestra (1997) Guido Llinás and Los Once After Cuba. Miami: the Art
49
Museum at Florida International University. Press., en A Contracorriente, Vol. 8, No. 1 (2010): p. 444. 61
Hopkinson, Amanda. (2002). Manuel Álvarez Bravo. Londres y Nueva York: Phaidon. p. 50.
Latin American Spirit: Art and Artists in the United States, 1920-1970 (p. 72-105). Nueva York:
Harry N. Abrams. 50
Discutido en los textos del catálogo de la muestra (1997) Carlos Alfonzo. Triumph of the Leonard Folgarait. (2008). Seeing Mexico Photographed: The Work of Horne, Casasola,
55
62
Krauss, Rosalind. (Verano de 1979). “Grids”. October, vol. 9: p. 61.
Spirit: A Survey 1975-1991. Miami Art Museum. Modotti, and Álvarez Bravo. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 174.
65
Esther Gabara, Errant Modernism: The Ethos of Photography in Mexico and Brazil (Durham, 73
Ibid. 80
Gabara, 221. 87
The photograph was in fact not included in the exhibition. Due to its full frontal nudity,
N.C. and London, U.K.: Duke University Press, 2008), 222. Eastman Kodak refused to send it through the mail. See John Mraz, Looking for Mexico, 86,
74
Judiciales photographs refer to images created and used in the related practices of tabloid 81
Jessica S. McDonald, Photography in Mexico: Selected Works from the Collections of referring to Elena Poniatowska, “Manuel Álvarez Bravo (Quinta y ltima parte),” La Jornada, 26
66
Folgarait, 3. photography, law enforcement, and the judicial and penal systems of Mexico. SFMOMA and Daniel Greenberg and Susan Steinhauser, exh. cat. (San Francisco: San Francisco July 1990, 11.
Museum of Modern Art, 2012). Press release dated November 14, 2011.
67
Ibid., 171. 75
Ibid., 68. 88
Hopkinson, 62.
82
Walker Evans’ A Cypress Swamp, Florida (1941), for example, included in the exhibition Pan
68
Elena Poniatowska, Manuel Álvarez Bravo: El artista, su obra, sus tiempos, exh. cat. (Mexico 76
Ibid., 61. American Modernism, demonstrates eloquently how a simple setting may be endowed with 89
Gabara, 8.
City: Banco Nacional de México, 1991), 42-43. unexpected presence and poetic power through photography.
77
Both Strand and Modotti were influential on Álvarez Bravo and each spoke resolutely 90
Works by Rivera, Siqueiros and other significant Mexican muralists are included in the
69
John W. F. Dulles, Yesterday in Mexico: A Chronicle of the Revolution, 1919-36 (Austin: regarding what was to be expected from a “good” photograph. “Bad photography should 83
Frederick Kaufman, “An Essay of Memories: Based on Interviews with Manuel Álvarez Bravo, exhibition Pan American Modernism and provide a useful way of thinking about the entwined
University of Texas Press, 1961) 631; cited in Folgarait, 178. be understood as that which is produced, one could say, with a kind of inferiority complex, Winter 1996,” Manuel Álvarez Bravo: Photographs and Memories (New York: Aperture, 1997), contexts of muralism and socialism, as well as their impact on artists, such as Álvarez Bravo.
without valuing what photography has to offer as its very own.” Tina Modotti, first published 10.
70
Frente a Frente, segunda epoca, no. 1 (March 1936): 12-13. See Jesse Lerner, “Modernity with the title “On Photography” in Mexican Folkways, n. 4 (October – December 1929): 196- 91
Roberto Tejada, National Camera: Photography and Mexico’s Image Environment
Runs Amok,” in The Shock of Modernity: Crime Photography in Mexico City (Mexico: Turner, 198. This manifesto is reprinted in Jesus Nieto Sotelo and Elisa Lozano Álvarez, eds., Tina 84
Ibid., 5. (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2009), 106.
2007), 61-83 for further discussion of these publications and their graphic strategies. Modotti: Una nueva mirada, 1929 (Mexico City, Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes/
Centro de la Imagen, 2000), 32-33 and 126-127.
85
Jesse Lerner, The Maya of Modernism: Art Architecture, and Film (Albuquerque: University 92
Debroise, 227.
71
Frente a Frente, segunda epoca, no. 3 (May 1936):1. Calles was the President of Mexico of New Mexico Press, 2011), 130.
between 1924-1928 and continued to exert power in Mexican politics throughout the 1930s. 78
Olivier Debroise, Mexican Suite: A History of Photography in Mexico. Trans. Stella de Sa Rego
93
Roberto Tejada, 123.
He notably championed populist politics at the outset before becoming increasingly repressive (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001), 227.
86
Xavier Villaurrutia, Obras: poesía, teatro, prosas varias, crítica, (Mexico City: Fondo de
and violent as his administration turned towards anti-Catholic campaigns. Cultura Económica, 1966), 1057.
94
Gabara, 198.
79
Ibid., 228.
72
Jesse Lerner, The Shock of Modernity: Crime Photography in Mexico City (Mexico: Turner, 2007), 68.
63
Ibid., p. 60. 71
Frente a Frente, segunda época, n.° 3 (Mayo de 1936): p. 1 Calles fue presidente de México lo que la fotografía tiene para ofrecer en sí misma”. Modotti, Tina. (octubre-diciembre 1929). 83
Kaufman, Frederick. (1997). “An Essay of Memories: Based on Interviews with Manuel
entre 1924 y 1928 y continuó ejerciendo poder sobre los políticos mexicanos a lo largo de los Publicado por primera vez bajo el título “On Photography” en Mexican Folkways, n° 4. pp. Álvarez Bravo, Winter 1996”. Manuel Álvarez Bravo: Photographs and Memories. Nueva York:
64
Ver Kismaric, Susan. (1997) Manuel Álvarez Bravo. Catálogo de la muestra. Nueva York: 1930. Vale destacar que en un comienzo detentó una política populista pero luego se volvió 196-198. Este manifiesto fue reimpreso en Modotti, Tina. (2000).Una nueva mirada, 1929. Aperture. p. 10.
Museum of Modern Art. p. 37. cada vez más represiva y violenta cuando su gobierno comenzó campañas anticatólicas. Nieto Sotelo, Jesus y Lozano Álvarez, Elisa (comp.). México: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura
y las Artes/Centro de la Imagen. pp. 32-33 y 126-127.
84
Ibid., p. 5.
Gabara, Esther. (2008). Errant Modernism: The Ethos of Photography in Mexico and Brazil.
65
72
Lerner, Jesse. (2007). The Shock of Modernity: Crime Photography in Mexico City. México:
Durham y Londres: Duke University Press. p. 222. Turner. p. 68. 78
Debroise, Olivier. (2001). Mexican Suite: A History of Photography in Mexico. Stella de Sa
85
Lerner, Jesse. (2011). The Maya of Modernism: Art Architecture, and Film. Albuquerque:
Rego (trad.). Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 227. University of New Mexico Press. p. 130.
66
Folgarait. p. 3. 73
Ibid.
79
Ibid., p. 228.
86
Villaurrutia, Xavier (1966). Obras: poesía, teatro, prosas varias, crítica. México: Fondo de
67
Ibid., p. 171. 74
Las fotografías Judiciales son imágenes creadas y utilizadas en las prácticas relacionadas de Cultura Económica. p. 1057.
68
Poniatowska, Elena. (1991). Manuel Álvarez Bravo: El artista, su obra, sus tiempos. Catálogo la fotografía en la prensa amarilla, en la detección del delito, y en el sistema judicial y penal 80
Gabara. p. 221.
de México.
87
De hecho la fotografía no se incluyó en la muestra. Debido al desnudo frontal completo,
de la muestra. México: Banco Nacional de México. pp. 42-43. 81
McDonald, Jessica S. (2012). Photography in Mexico: Selected Works from the Collections Eastman Kodak se negó a enviarla por correo. Ver Mraz, John. Looking for Mexico. p. 86, en
69
Dulles, John W. F. (1961). Yesterday in Mexico: A Chronicle of the Revolution, 1919-36.
75
Ibid., p. 68. of SFMOMA and Daniel Greenberg and Susan Steinhauser. Catálogo de la muestra. San referencia a Elena Poniatowska. (26 de julio de 1990). “Manuel Álvarez Bravo (Quinta y última
Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 631; citado en Folgarait, p. 178. Francisco: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. Notade prensa fechado 14 de noviembre parte)”. La Jornada. p. 11.
76
Ibid., p. 61. de 2011.
70
Frente a Frente, segunda epoca, n.° 1 (Marzo de 1936): pp. 12-13. Ver Lerner, Jesse. (2007).
88
Hopkinson. p. 62.
77
Tanto Strand como Modotti influenciaron a Álvarez Bravo y cada uno de ellos habló con 82
Por ejemplo, la obra A Cypress Swamp, Florida (1941), de Walker Evans, incluida en la
“Modernity Runs Amok”. En The Shock of Modernity: Crime Photography in Mexico City. México: seguridad sobre lo que se esperaba de una “buena” fotografía. “Se debe entender por mala 89
Gabara. p. 8.
Turner. pp. 61-83 para conocer más acerca de estas publicaciones y sus estrategias gráficas. muestra Pan American Modernism [Modernismo Panamericano] demuestra con elocuencia
fotografía la que se produce, diríamos, con una especie de complejo de inferioridad, sin valorar cómo un escenario simple se puede cargar de una presencia inesperada y de una fuerza
poética a través de la fotografía.
95
See Otras Cosas: Mexican Modern Abstractions, exh. cat. (New York: Throckmorton Fine Art, Catalogue
2000). Exhibiton curated by Malin Barth and co-organized by the Mexican Cultural Institute
of New York. 98
Helena Benitez, Wifredo and Helena: My Life with Wifredo Lam, 1939-1950 (Lausanne:
Acatos Publisher, 1999), 16.
96
Walter Benjamin, “Little History of Photography,” in The Work of Art in the Age of Its
Technological Reproducibility and Other Writings on Media, eds. Bel Michael W. Jennings, 99
Andrea O’Reilly Herrera, Cuban Artists Across the Diaspora: Setting the Tent Against the
Brigid Doherty, and Thomas Levin, trans. Edmund Jephcott and Kingsley Shorter (Cambridge, House (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011), 110.
Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008),
293. Originally published in Die literarische Welt, September-October 1931. 100
Sara E. Cooper, “Quien no tiene de congo, tiene de carabalí: Representation of blackness
97
John Mraz, “Revolution and Culture (1910-1940),” Looking for Mexico: Modern Visual in works by Mirta Yáñez, Roberto Diago, y Armando Mariño,” Chasqui 39, no. 2 (2010),
Culture and National Identity (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2009), 89; See Susan 54-69.
Kismaric, Manuel Álvarez Bravo (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1997), 78. Unpublished
interview with Álvarez Bravo by John Mraz, 1988.
101
Dawn Ades, Art in Latin America: The Modern Era, 1820-1980 (New Haven and London:
Yale University Press, 1993), 160.
90
La muestra Pan American Modernism incluye trabajos de Rivera, Siqueiros y otros muralistas 97
Mraz, John. (2009). “Revolution and Culture (1910-1940).” Looking for Mexico: Modern
mexicanos significativos y ofrece una manera útil de pensar los contextos interrelacionados del Visual Culture and National Identity. Durham y Londres: Duke University Press. p. 89; Ver
muralismo y el socialismo, además del efecto que produjeron en artistas como Álvarez Bravo. Kismaric, Susan: (1997). Manuel Álvarez Bravo (New York: Museum of Modern Art. pp. 78.
Entrevista inédita con Álvarez Bravo realizada por John Mraz. 1988.
Tejada, Roberto. (2009). National Camera: Photography and Mexico’s Image Environment.
91
Minneapolis y Londres: University of Minnesota Press. p. 106.

92
Debroise. p. 227.
93
Roberto Tejada. p. 123.
94
Gabara. p. 198.
95
Ver (2000) Otras Cosas: Mexican Modern Abstractions. Catálogo de la muestra. Nueva
York: Throckmorton Fine Art. Muestra curada por Malin Barth y coorganizada por el Mexican
Cultural Institute [Instituto Cultural Mexicano] de Nueva York.
96
Benjamin, Walter. (2008). “Little History of Photography” En The Work of Art in the Age
of Its Technological Reproducibility and Other Writings on Media. Bel Michael W. Jennings,
Brigid Doherty yThomas Levin (comp.). Edmund Jephcott y Kingsley Shorter (trad.). Cambridge,
Massachusetts, y Londres, Inglaterra: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 293.
Publicado originalmente en Die literarische Welt, septiembre-octubre 1931.
178

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P A N A M E R I C A N M O D E R N I S M

UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI LOWE ART MUSEUM

Patricia García-Vélez Hanna

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013946399 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

“In the case of Latin American artistic movements, …omission…is largely

In many ways, Pan American Modernism: Avant-Garde Art in Latin America

“Por tanto, a pesar de que en cierto sentido hemos ingresado a un período

“En lo relativo a los movimientos artísticos latinoamericanos, …las

En cierta manera, Pan American Modernism: Avant-Garde Art in Latin

8 PAN AMERICAN MODERNISM: DIALOGUES, COMMONALITIES, DISCONNECTS 9

En toda su variedad de formas, el arte abstracto experimenta, en la actualidad,

24 GEOMETRY AND GESTURE: NOTES ON ABSTRACTIONS IN THE AMERICAS 25

“La fotografía tiene sus límites. Lo que es importante para un fotógrafo es

“Todo tiende a hacernos creer que existe un cierto lugar en la mente en

52 BODY OF EVIDENCE: THE MODERNISMS OF MANUEL ÁLVAREZ BRAVO 53

Gabriella Abdelnour (G. A.) Albert J. Monreal (A. J. M.)

Antonio Gattorno was a prominent member of the first

78 THE FEMALE MUSE: CLASS, GENDER, RACE 79

Manuel Álvarez Bravo, who was born in Mexico City in 1902,

98 MEXICAN MURALISM AND ITS LEGACY 99

Although Adolph Gottlieb is largely remembered as a U.S.

Ingres Nude, a painting by the Chilean artist Enrique Castro-Cid, exhibits an

The Colombian-born Mexican photographer Rodrigo Moya

132 MODERNIST PHOTOGRAPHY: PAN AMERICAN EXCHANGES 133

As the founder of Constructive Universalism – a style formed around

THE LEGACY OF GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION:

Minneapolis y Londres: University of Minnesota Press. p. 106.

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