See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/309026190

Human memory research: Current hypotheses and new perspectives

Article · June 2016

DOI: 10.5935/1678-4669.20160010

CITATIONS READS

0 537

4 authors, including:

Antonio Jaeger Cesar Galera

Federal University of Minas Gerais University of São Paulo
31 PUBLICATIONS   213 CITATIONS    67 PUBLICATIONS   183 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Ederaldo José Lopes

Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU)
64 PUBLICATIONS   90 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

The role of attention and visual processing in the retro-cue effect View project

The contribution of Long-Term Memory in encoding and retrieval of information in the visuo-spatial short-term memory. View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Antonio Jaeger on 28 October 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Estudos de Psicologia
Estudos de Psicologia, 21(2), abril a junho de 2016, 92-103

Human memory research: Current hypotheses and new

perspectives
Antônio Jaeger. Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais.
Cesar Alexis Galera. Universidade de São Paulo (Ribeirão Preto).
Lilian Milnitsky Stein. Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul.
Ederaldo José Lopes. Universidade Federal de Uberlândia.

Abstract
Research on human memory has increased significantly in the last few decades. Inconsistencies and controversies inherent to
such research, however, are rarely articulated on published reports. The goal of the present article is to present and discuss a
series of open questions related to major topics on human memory research that can be addressed by future research. The
topics covered here are visual working memory, recognition memory, emotion and memory interaction, and methodological
issues of false memories studies. Overall, the present work reveals a series of open questions and alternative analysis which
could be useful for the process of hypothesis generation, and consequently for the design and implementation of future research
on human memory.
Keywords: memory; human memory; hypotheses.

Resumo
Pesquisa em memória humana: Hipóteses atuais e novas perspectivas. A pesquisa em memória humana aumentou
significativamente nas últimas décadas. Inconsistências e controvérsias inerentes a pesquisas com este foco, entretanto, são
raramente articuladas nas publicações especializadas. O objetivo do presente artigo é apresentar e discutir uma série de questões
abertas relacionadas aos principais tópicos de pesquisa em memória humana, e que podem vir a ser abordados por pesquisas
futuras. Os tópicos abordados no presente estudo são memória operacional visual, memória de reconhecimento, interação
entre emoção e memórias e aspectos metodológicos do estudo de falsas memórias. De forma geral, o presente trabalho revela
uma série de questões em aberto e análises alternativas que podem ser úteis para o processo de geração de hipóteses, e
consequentemente para o desenvolvimento de pesquisas futuras sobre a memória humana.
Palavras-chave: memória; memória humana; hipóteses.

Resumen
Investigación en la memoria humana: Hipótesis actuales y nuevas perspectivas. La investigación en la memoria humana ha
aumentado significativamente en las últimas décadas. Las inconsistencias y controversias inherentes a la investigación con este
enfoque, sin embargo, rara vez se articulan en publicaciones especializadas. El objetivo de este trabajo es presentar y discutir
una serie de cuestiones abiertas relacionadas con los temas principales de la investigación en la memoria humana, y que pueden
ser abordados por investigaciones futuras. Los temas tratados en este estudio son la memoria de trabajo visual, la memoria de
reconocimiento, la interacción entre la emoción y las memorias y los aspectos metodológicos del estudio de las falsas memorias.
En general, este estudio revela una serie de cuestiones abiertas y alternativas de análisis que pueden ser útiles para el proceso
de generación de hipótesis, y en consecuencia para el desarrollo de futuras investigaciones sobre la memoria humana.
Palabras clave: memoria; memoria humana; hipótesis.

DOI: 10.5935/1678-4669.20160010 ISSN (versão eletrônica): 1678-4669 Acervo disponível em www.scielo.br/epsic

Hypotheses in human memory research

Research on human memory has greatly We discuss several unresolved issues concerning
proliferated in the last few decades. Such intense the interaction between emotion and memory in the
proliferation, however, may paradoxically overshadow section Emotion and Memory Accuracy of the present
some unanswered questions in the field of memory article. We discuss first the parallel increase in memory
research. While this increase in volume of research may accuracy for central and decrease for peripheral details
supply interested readers with an abundance of data of emotional events (Pickel, 2007); a phenomenon
and results, it may not necessarily be helpful in terms often termed “weapon focus effect”. Although several
of revealing for him or her the main controversies and studies have shown that emotional information is
inconsistencies in the field. Thus, our goal in this paper more memorable than neutral information (Hamann,
is to discuss some hypotheses that we consider central 2001), the former also appears to be more susceptible
to the advance of the study of human memory from a to distortion. Another important topic discussed in the
cognitive psychology perspective. Instead of focusing on referred section, is the methodological limitations of
new data, we pursued to reveal a set of controversies and extant studies investigating the interaction between
open questions in the field of human memory research. memory and emotion. Such methodological limitations
Such controversies and open questions, we believe, may should be carefully approached by future research. In
be useful as bases for generating hypothesis for future this section, we also approach predictions concerning
research (McGuire, 1997). the influence of emotion on false memories based on the
The first controversy we approach concerns Fuzzy-Trace Theory, emphasizing its theoretical relevance
current theories of visual working memory. We for further research.
discuss unexpected effects in visual working memory Finally, we consider current data analysis
tasks apparently generated by task-irrelevant visual approaches to false memory, and suggest that systematic
information (Logie, 1995; 2011). That is, task-irrelevant analysis of reaction times could be a successful approach
visual information causes deleterious effects on working for future research. Reaction times data has been rarely
memory capacities for information that cannot be implemented on false memory studies, such as the DRM
semantically encoded. Stimuli that can be semantically paradigm (Roediger & McDermott, 1995). Balota and Yap
encoded, on the other hand, tend to be more resistant (2011) have already shown that reaction time analysis
to such visual interference. This finding, nonetheless, is could have the potential of bringing relevant advances
not consistently replicated, and characteristics of task for the field.
and stimulus may underlie such inconsistency. Thus, we In sum, we approach several topics on memory
suggest that an important approach for future research research in the following sections. In contrast to a typical
is to identify stimuli dimensions that can be determinant review article, however, these topics are discussed in
to make such short-term visual representations either terms of their unanswered questions, inconsistencies,
resistant or susceptible to irrelevant visual inputs. and controversial issues. We expect that the discussion
Another topic concerns the debate about single- of such issues motivate the generation of new hypothesis
versus dual-process theories of recognition memory for future research, and consequently help to advance
(Wixted, 2007; Yonelinas, 2002). To study recognition the comprehension of human memory.
memory, researchers usually let participants encode
a set of items (i.e., targets), and later discriminate Working Memory and Irrelevant Visual Input
them from novel items (i.e., distracters). According to The visual working memory construct (VWM), as
single-process theories, such discrimination process is proposed by Logie (1995), contains two structures, the
based primarily on a strength-like signal of familiarity, visual cache and the inner scribe. The visual cache, or
whereas according to dual-process theories, such visual short-term store, stores visual representations, as
discrimination is typically based on a combination color and shape of stimuli. The inner scribe, on the other
of familiarity signal with additional contextual and hand, stores spatial information and is responsible for
detailed episodic information. These conflicting the rehearsal of the visuo-spatial content stored in the
approaches provide different predictions regarding visual cache. The VWM is analogous to the phonological
behavioral performance, and we discuss the potential memory construct proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974;
corroboration (or refutation) of such predictions by see also Baddeley, 1986) containing two subsystems, a
experimental findings. passive store directly accessed by sensory phonological

Estudos de Psicologia, 21(2), abril a junho de 2016, 92-103

93
 A. Jaeger, C. A. Galera, L.M. Stein, E.J. Lopes

information (Salamé & Baddeley, 1982), and a rehearsal of mental images. In visual memory tasks, the DVN is
process that maintains information active in the passive presented after stimuli have been moved from perception
store. Unlike the phonological memory model, however, to a more stable representation, possibly in the short-
visual sensory information cannot reach the visual cache term visual memory. Thus, irrelevant information affects
directly (Logie, 2011). Representations stored in the the conscious generation of visual images, but not the
visual cache are acquired through vision, tactile or verbal storage of visual representations in the short-term visual
descriptions of environmental scenes, and interpreted store, whether arising from perception or long-term
according to long-term based knowledge. These memory (Borst, Niven & Logie., 2012; Logie, 2011; Quinn,
representations contain, in abstract form, the necessary 2008, 2012).
information to reconstruct visual mental images that can Methodological differences in visual image and
be inspected and manipulated consciously. visual memory tasks may explain the difference between
The proposal that visual information reaches effects of DVN in these two types of task. However, it does
the visual cache indirectly has been put into question not explain why DVN impairs recognition of some types
in theoretical grounds (Baddeley, 2007; Pearson, 2001; of stimuli, while leaving others unaffected. Differences
Quinn, 2008, 2012) and in experimental studies using between effects of DVN on memory tasks with more
irrelevant visual input techniques. One such technique, complex stimuli, such as Chinese characters or geometric
the Dynamic Visual Noise (DVN), consists in a flickering patterns (Andrade et al., 2002; Avons & Sestieri, 2005),
black and white dot pattern similar to that produced and tasks that rely on recall of size, color or shape details
by a TV screen out of tune. It impairs performance (Darling et al., 2009; Dent, 2010; McConnell & Quinn, 2004;
in memory tasks wherein mental images are created Pereira & Galera, n.d.; Santana et al., 2013) have yet to be
from verbal instructions (pegword). The DVN impairs explained. Quinn (2012) suggests that different systems
performance on these tasks when administered during may be involved in the storage of these two broad types
both encoding and retrieval (Andrade, Kemps, Werniers, of stimuli. Complex stimuli, such as Chinese characters
May, & Szmalec, 2002; McConnell & Quinn, 2000, and visual patterns, are easier to encode semantically,
2004; Quinn & McConnell, 1996, 2006), but not during whereas stimuli involving subtle variations in size, color,
retention intervals (Quinn & McConnell, 2006). The DVN and shape, remain for longer in a pre-semantic visual store,
also impairs memory performance when stimuli are which is more susceptible to interference from sensory or
presented visually, although the effect of noise is less perceptual information. Orme (2009), who showed that
consistent in this case. For example, the DVN has no more easily nameable visual patterns are less sensitive to
significant effects on recognition of Chinese characters the effect of the DVN, obtained evidence that corroborates
(Andrade et al., 2002) or on recognition of randomly this assumption. Darling, et al. (2009) showed that the
filled matrices (Avons & Sestieri, 2005), although it may DVN impairs the recognition of graphical fonts, and
affect the confidence of participants on the accuracy of suggested that in visual memory tasks the maintenance
their recognition judgments (Kemps & Andrade, 2012). of complex stimuli requires continuous generation of
In other studies, the DVN affected performance in representations, exposing these representations to
recognition tasks for the exact size of circles (McConnell deleterious effects of irrelevant visual inputs. Such issues
& Quinn, 2003), color shades (Dent, 2010; Pereira & could be investigated by future research by assessing the
Galera, n.d.), texture (Dean, Dewhurst, & Whittaker, amount of details required to impair the maintenance of
2008) and graphical fonts (Darling, Della Sala, & Logie, graphical fonts and Chinese characters (Andrade et al.,
2009; Santana, Godoy, Farias, Ferreira, & Galera, 2013). 2002) and randomly filled matrices on working memory
The simplest account for differences of (Avons & Sestieri, 2005).
DVN effects on memory and visual image tasks is In sum, even though some studies attribute the
methodological. In visual image tasks, presentation of variable effects of DVN to rehearsal or to generation
DVN and generation of mental images are simultaneous. processes involved in the maintenance of memorized
Assuming that perception and generation of mental representations on consciousness (Darling et al., 2009;
images activate overlapping brain regions, as proposed McConnell & Quinn, 2003), such different effects for
by Kosslyn (1994), the impairment caused by the different stimuli remains an open question. Thus, the
presentation of DVN can result from the interference of identification of stimuli dimensions that determine
irrelevant perceptual information during the generation whether visual representations are affected by irrelevant

Estudos de Psicologia, 21(2), abril a junho de 2016, 92-103

94
Hypotheses in human memory research

visual input is an important goal for future research. Single process models have been traditionally
Findings from such studies could extend our knowledge based on the Signal Detection Theory (SDT; Macmillan
regarding visual short-term memory, as well as regarding & Creelman, 2004). Initially proposed as a framework
the connection of such process to the visual buffer. to account for psychophysics findings (Green &
In addition, further studies considering consolidation Swets, 1966), SDT became extensively employed to
processes (Vogel, Woodman, & Luck, 2006) can also be accommodate findings from recognition memory
beneficial to expand the current knowledge about the experiments. As can be seen in Figure 1A, according
contribution of early visual processing to visual short- to the original signal detection framework, memory
term memory (e.g., van de Ven, Jacobs, & Sack, 2012). strength can be represented by a continuous horizontal
axis in which information more to the left of the axis
Recognition Memory: Single Versus Dual-process have a less intense memory signal (i.e., weak memories),
Models whereas information to the right a more intense memory
signal (i.e., strong memories). Thus, in recognition
In typical recognition memory tasks, individuals
memory tests, ‘old’ and ‘new’ items can be described
are asked to discriminate previously encoded items from
by two Gaussian distributions (Figure 1A), with the
novel items. Such tasks usually contain an encoding phase
distribution to the left representing new items and the
wherein lists of items are presented to volunteers, and
one to the right old items. In order to perform recognition
a test phase wherein items presented at the encoding
judgments, individuals establish an arbitrary cutoff point
phase are presented again, intermixed with novel items.
(criterion), and items falling to the left of this point are
During the test phase, participants judge whether each
classified as ‘new’ while items falling to the right are
item has been previously encountered at the encoding
classified as ‘old’ (Macmillan & Creelman, 2004).
phase or not. There are currently two divergent
Since its initial proposal as a framework to
theoretical views regarding the cognitive processes
account for recognition memory, SDT was adopted by
engaged during recognition memory tasks. According to
several memory theorists as the framework of choice
the ‘single process’ view, recognition memory depends
for characterizing this phenomenon (e.g., Morrell,
exclusively on a strength-like memory signal, usually
Gaitan, & Wixted, 2002; Turner, Van Zandt, & Brown,
referred to as familiarity (Benjamin, Diaz, & Wee, 2009;
2011). The main reason for this is perhaps the elegance
Verde & Rotello, 2007). According to the ‘dual process’
and parsimony of the model, its consistency with a
view, on the other hand, recognition memory involves
number of theories of memory (e.g., Global Matching
a combination of familiarity processes and retrieval of
Models; Clark, & Gronlund, 1996), and its outstanding
contextual or qualitative details linked to each item, a
capacity of generating useful indexes to measure
process termed ‘recollection’ (Mandler, 1980; Yonelinas,
memory performance (e.g., d’ to measure accuracy
2002). In this section, we discuss arguments in favor and
and C to response bias, Snodgrass & Corwin, 1988). The
against each of these models, while highlighting some
question remains, however, of whether this model can be
topics that can be further explored by future research.

Figure 1. Basic equal variance signal detection model (A), and unequal variance signal detection model (B). On panels A and B, horizontal arrows represent
strength of memory evidence. The curves represent the distribution of memory signal from new and old items, and the vertical lines represent criterion.

Estudos de Psicologia, 21(2), abril a junho de 2016, 92-103

95
 A. Jaeger, C. A. Galera, L.M. Stein, E.J. Lopes

regarded as a true theoretical description of the process (i.e., false alarms, see Figure 2). Such pattern suggests
of recognition memory instead of just a pragmatic that high confidence responses to encoded items
framework to measure memory performance. Note are often accompanied by explicit retrieval of vivid
that if one assumes that this model is a true description contextual details, indicating the presence of recollective
of recognition memory, one must assume also that processes during their recognition. Further research
recognition memory is based solely on familiarity showed that the asymmetries brought to attention by
processes. Therefore, the chief question here is whether Yonelinas are remarkably consistent (for a review, see
the process of familiarity is enough to account for the Yonelinas & Parks, 2007), suggesting that recollection
phenomenon of recognition memory or not. plays an important role during recognition of encoded
Even though findings from recognition memory items (see Figure 2).
experiments are roughly consistent with the traditional These findings have instigated a heated debate
SDT framework, subtle inconsistencies advanced between proponents of single and dual-process models
by later memory researchers exposed a number of recognition memory, a debate that does not seem to
of limitations inherent to single process models of become resolved anytime in the near future. Researchers
recognition (Yonelinas, 1994). That is, unpredicted favorable to single process models have proposed
asymmetries encountered in analyses of receiver- adjustments to the original models in order to account
operating characteristics (ROC, Macmillian & Creelman, for the ROCs asymmetries highlighted by Yonelinas
2004) indicate that whereas encoded items are (1994). Perhaps the most accepted updated single
frequently recognized with high levels of confidence, process model is the unequal variance signal detection
such highly confident judgments are unexpectedly model proposed by Mickes, Wixted and Wais (2007).
rare to novel items mistakenly classified as ‘old’ According to this model, the distributions of novel and

Figure 2. Illustrative ROCs predicted by equal variance signal detection models (A) and by dual process models (B). ROCs can be derived from recognition memory
experiments in which participants rate their confidence on each of their responses (i.e., Likert scales from high confident “old” to high confident “new”). Thus, in
panels A and B, the bottom left point in the graph represents the proportion of high confidence “old” responses for both actual old items (hits – y-axis) and for
new items (false alarms – x-axis). The following point (second from left to right), represents the proportion of medium confidence “old” responses for both old
items (hits) and new items (false alarms). The third, forth, and fifth points from left to right represent the proportions of low confidence “old”, low confidence
“new” and medium confidence “new” responses for actual old and new items respectively. It is important to note that these proportions are cumulative, thus
the second point from left to right, for example, is the proportion of medium confidence “old” responses plus the proportion of high confidence “old” responses;
the third point is the proportion of low confidence “old” plus the proportions of medium and high confidence “old” responses, and so on. Notably, the proportion
of high confidence “old” responses for actual old items (hits) is higher in panel B than in panel A, while the proportion of high confidence “old” responses to
new items (false alarms) are equivalent in both panels. Such increased proportion of high confidence for hits generates an asymmetry in the ROC curve (panel
B), and is interpreted by dual process theorists as resulting from recollective processes restricted to high confidence old responses.

Estudos de Psicologia, 21(2), abril a junho de 2016, 92-103

96
Hypotheses in human memory research

encoded items have different variances at test (see have been used for several years to investigate these
Figure 1B). That is, this model proposes that in typical processes (Tulving, 1985). In experiments using such
recognition tests, the distribution of novel items is about paradigm, participants report whether they recollect
20% less variable than the distribution of encoded items. qualitative information associated with each item
Even though this modified version of the original signal (“remember”), or just know they encountered the item
detection model is capable of account statistically for the in the encoding list, without recollecting any contextual
aforementioned ROC asymmetries, it is not clear what information (“know”). In an interesting version of this
this difference in variance means psychologically. One paradigm (Gardiner, Ramponi, & Richardson-Klavehn,
could suggest that ‘old’ items are encoded with variable 1998), participants were asked to provide verbal
strength, becoming items with variable memory strength explanations for a subset of their remember/know
at test (Jang, Mickes, Wixted, 2012; Wixted, 2007). responses. The results suggest that only explanations
It is not clear, nonetheless, why novel items following “remember” responses included descriptions
should not exhibit the same pattern. Note that as well of recollective experiences, while explanations following
as encoded items, novel items in typical recognition “know” responses included mostly feelings of familiarity.
memory tests are common pieces of information Updated versions of this paradigm can be extremely
(i.e., words, figures) usually well known to research profitable to increase the current knowledge regarding
participants (e.g., relatively frequently read/spoken phenomenological aspects of experiences of recollection
words encoded at a prior point of each participant’s and familiarity (see Selmeczy & Dobbins, 2014).
lifetime). So, were not novel items supposed to be
variable as well? Furthermore, in typical recognition Emotion and Memory Accuracy
tests old items were all encountered recently in an There is a long history of investigation on how
encoding list, while new items were encountered for emotion influences memory. Reisberg and Heuer (2007)
the last time in different moments and contexts in each provide a comprehensive review of this issue, which
participant’s natural environment. Then, would it not be reveals inconclusive results. That is, emotional stimuli
more reasonable to expect the opposite of the pattern tend to increase the retention of both central details and
proposed by Wixted (2007)? That is, novel items imbued the gist of events. Such facilitation, however, does not
with a more variable memory signal than old items. necessarily result in accurate memories. The phenomenon
This issue is in need of further research, which could be of flashbulb memory illustrates this issue. Talarico and
determinant to reveal the process or processes engaged Rubin (2003) reported that the recall of details of the
during recognition memory. terrorist attacks on September 11, a highly emotional
The question under debate is simple. How many event, was as accurate as the recall of everyday events,
cognitive processes people engage during recognition with participants showing significant forgetting over time.
memory? Despite its simplicity, future studies should Interestingly, nonetheless, they also showed that ratings
approach this question properly. An undesired but of recollection and vividness declined solely for everyday
often widespread practice in psychological research is memories, while remaining constant for the September
the reification of poorly defined mental constructs. In 11 episode (see also Phelps & Sharot, 2008).
cognitive neuroscience studies, for instance, a variety In contrast to its effects on central details of
of memory tasks are assumed to engage recollection events, emotional factors can decrease memory accuracy
(Rugg & Yonelinas, 2003), and although such process is for peripheral details of episodes, as in the weapon focus
likely to be engaged by a significant part of such tasks, effect (e.g., Pickel, 2007). To further complicate matters,
a stronger agreement about the involvement of this the level of emotion expressed and/or the degree of
process in recognition should be reached. Otherwise, stress experienced during an event must also be taken
researchers risk assigning brain activations to mental into account, as even details that are central to the event
constructs that have theoretical weaknesses in their may be subject to distortion under extreme emotional
most basic assumptions. conditions as opposed to neutral circumstances
Novel experimental paradigms pursuing to (Deffenbacher, Bornstein, Pewnrod, & McGorty, 2004).
dissociate processes of familiarity and recollection during Another factor to be considered in the
recognition tasks may be a useful approach to investigate investigation of the influence of emotion on memory, is
this issue. The remember-know paradigm, for example, emotional valence (i.e., positive and negative emotions).

Estudos de Psicologia, 21(2), abril a junho de 2016, 92-103

97
 A. Jaeger, C. A. Galera, L.M. Stein, E.J. Lopes

The question at issue here is how the retention of lure (e.g. cape, nape, tape, related to rape), individuals
memories for emotional events compares to the were less likely to falsely recall or to falsely recognize
retention of memories for neutral events. Many lines emotional lures than neutral lures. A limitation of these
of investigation have shown that emotional events are studies, however, is that the majority of studied words
more memorable than neutral events (Hamann, 2001; were neutral. Therefore, a decrease in false alarms
Kensinger, 2004; LaBar & Cabeza, 2006). Nonetheless, to emotional lures was perhaps an effect of semantic
some studies have demonstrated that emotional incongruence with targets, a form of distinctiveness,
memories are also more susceptible to distortion. rather than a specific effect of emotion on memory
For instance, autobiographical memory studies have (Kensinger & Schacter, 2006; Schacter, Gallo, & Kensinger,
indicated that memories for emotional events are 2007). Budson et al. (2006), in a departure from the two
heavily vulnerable to distortion (Levine, 1997; Schmolk, previous studies, used lists containing both neutral and
Buffalo, & Squire, 2000; Talarico & Rubin, 2003). Although emotional words that were semantically associated in the
these ecologically relevant studies provide precious study phase. Their findings indicated no effect of emotion
insights about how people remember events in the real on false memory reports. Nevertheless, these findings
world, they have some methodological disadvantages might be taken with caution, since there was no control
in comparison to laboratories investigations. In for semantic relatedness between studies lists and lures.
autobiographical studies, for example, the exactly Overall, several studies addressing memory
conditions in which target events were encoded are distortion for emotional information have limitations:
unknown, and thus the accuracy of the autobiographical (a) materials are mostly non-emotional; (b) semantic
event cannot be properly checked (Berntsen, 2002; relatedness of study and test materials are not
Reisberg & Heuer, 2004). controlled;(c) materials are not standardized for
The issue of whether or not memories for emotional dimensions (valence and arousal); (d) positive
emotional valenced items are susceptible to distortion and negative valenced materials are not compared.
was also investigated by laboratory studies. Some of Regarding the theoretical accounts for distortions
these studies have used the Deese- Roediger-McDermott of memories of emotional information, we hypothesize
paradigm (DRM; Roediger & McDermott, 1995), which that two independent memory traces are responsible
was adapted to the Brazilian population (Stein & Perguer, for true and false recognition in the DRM paradigm
2001; Stein, Feix, & Rohenkohl, 2006), and was design to (see also Budson et al., 2006). This hypothesis is based
examine whether emotional critical lures could be falsely on the Fuzzy Trace Theory (Brainerd & Reyna, 2005),
remembered (Budson et al., 2006; Kensinger & Corkin, which proposes that gist traces store the meaning of
2004a; Pesta, Murphy, & Sanders, 2001). The DRM the experience, whereas verbatim traces store specific
paradigm involves the presentation of lists of words (e.g., features of the experience. False memories result
table, sit, legs, seat…), each of which is highly associated from remembering gist traces while not remembering
with a single, non-presented word (e.g., chair), referred verbatim representations. Veridical memories, on the
to as the critical lure. After participants read or hear other hand, result from remembering both item-specific
such lists, they typically show a high tendency to falsely verbatim and gist traces. Therefore, assuming that
recall or recognize the critical lures. These researchers emotion enhances memory for specific features of the
have shown that while emotional lures are falsely study list (i.e., verbatim trace), one would predict that
remembered, they have also reached the conclusion that false recognition of both negative and positive emotional
memory for emotional information are less likely to be lures would decrease relative to emotionally neutral
distorted than neutral information. Nevertheless, these lures. Conversely, assuming that emotion enhances only
studies present some methodological limitations that the gist trace of the study list, one would predict that the
prevent one from making more conclusive assumptions false recognition of emotional lures could actually be
regarding the effect of emotion on memory distortion. greater than that of non-emotional lures. That is, levels
In the experiments reported by Pesta et of false recognition for emotional lures would increase
al. (2001) and Kensinger and Corkin (2004a), after or decrease depending upon the specific memory trace
studying lists of non-emotional words orthographically enhanced by emotion. Such prediction remains in need
associated with a nonpresented neutral lure (e.g., link, of further experiments, which could circumvent the
mink, and sink were related with rink) or an emotional limitations of the studies mentioned above.

Estudos de Psicologia, 21(2), abril a junho de 2016, 92-103

98
Hypotheses in human memory research

False Memories in Short-Term Tasks: Raulerson and Jordan (2007) used the task proposed by
Contributions of Reaction Time Measures S. Sternberg to study false memories on DRM lists. Those
authors manipulated stimuli set size (three, five and
Among the distortions encountered in human seven words) and test type (targets, critical distracters,
memory, the phenomenon of false memories (FM) has and unrelated distracters), having RT and proportion of
been taking a prominent position due to its importance errors as dependent variables. This study showed that
in daily events, as well as in experimental studies critical distracters were both more falsely recognized
(for a review, see Stein & Cols., 2010). FMs can be than unrelated distracters, and slower to be correctly
conceptualized either as memories for events that have rejected than unrelated distracters. As expected, RTs also
never occurred, or memories that differ significantly increased as a function of number of memorized stimuli.
from their original events (Alves & Lopes, 2007; Similar findings were reported by Atkins and
Brainerd & Reyna, 2005; Mazzoni & Scoboria, 2007; Reuter-Lorenz (2008). These authors showed an increase
Stein et al., 2010). The experimental procedure used in in RTs for critical distracters using an interval of 4
most current FM research is the abovementioned DRM seconds between study and test. These results were
paradigm (Gallo, 2010; Pezdek & Lam, 2007; Roediger & further replicated in an experiment wherein task-related
McDermott, 1995). Although the FM effects elicited by neuroimaging data were collected to examine the role of
this paradigm are considerably robust, the majority of prefrontal cortex regions (PFC) during false recognition
studies employing such paradigm use tasks of recall and versus correct rejection of critical distracters (Atkins
recognition, having as dependent variable the proportion & Reuter-Lorenz, 2011). Since it has been extensively
of distortions on these indices. Moreover, research using demonstrated that PFC regions, such as left ventrolateral
the DRM has focused on long-term episodic memory PFC and dorsolateral PFC, are involved in cognitive
for verbal material, a type of memory that can be control during resolution of semantic interference
significantly distorted after intervals of weeks or months (e.g., Badre & Wagner, 2007), decreases in the activity
(Atkins & Reuter-Lorenz, 2008). of these regions during false recognition may suggest
An open question regarding FMs is whether such that false memories are a consequence of reduced
phenomenon is circumscribed to long-term memory. cognitive control. The neuroimaging data reported by
There is substantial evidence suggesting that semantic Atkins and Reuter-Lorenz showed that these predictions
coding can also be found in short-term memory tasks were supported for the left dorsolateral PFC (i.e., there
(Bartha, Martin, & Jensen, 1998; Flegal, Atkins, & was a decrease in the activity of this region during false
Reuter-Lorenz, 2010; Haarmann & Usher, 2001; Jones recognition). These authors interpreted this finding as
& Anderson, 1982; Shulman, 1972), a proposal also evidence for the proposal that when items produce high
supported by neuropsychological studies (R. C. Martin & levels of interference, as in the case of the DRM critical
Romani, 1994; N. Martin & Saffran, 1992). Such evidence distracters, cognitive control processes supported by the
make the possibility of studying FM in short-term tasks left dorsolateral PFC are responsible for the maintenance
promising, and allow for the use of reaction time (RT) as of accuracy (i.e., they prevent false recognition).
a dependent variable in combination with the commonly Sene, Lopes and Rossini (2014), using the Brazilian
used accuracy measures (Galera & Lopes, 1995; Lopes & version of the DRM lists (Stein & Perguer & 2001; Stein
Garcia, 2014). The greatest advantage of such approach et. al, 2006), showed that RTs were significantly increased
is that it can provide finer-grained knowledge about basic as a function of test type due to an increase in memory
memory processes in comparison to accuracy measures load, and this increase was higher for critical distracters
alone (Balota & Yap, 2011; Luce, 1986; Welford, 1980). (FMs) with a memorized set of seven words. Similarly,
The use of RT measures to study cognition grew the percentage of errors significantly increased due to
steadily since the S. Sternberg’s (1966) seminal paper, increase in memory load and this increase was higher in
which was among the most cited papers in the 60’s, the critical distracter condition with the memorized set of
70’s and early 80 (White, 1983). A search in PsychINFO seven words. From the memorized set of size three to size
with the keywords memory scanning, memory search seven, percentage of false alarms to critical distracters
and Sternberg’s task, crossed with the keywords false increased eight times! (Sene et al., 2014).
memories or false memory, in the period from 1950 to Current reaction time findings regarding false
2010, revealed that only the study of Coane, McBride, memories in short-term tasks is a promising ground

Estudos de Psicologia, 21(2), abril a junho de 2016, 92-103

99
 A. Jaeger, C. A. Galera, L.M. Stein, E.J. Lopes

for future investigations. Such investigations can focus Atkins, A. S., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. A. (2011). Neural mechanisms of
semantic interference and false recognition in short-term memory.
on analysis of RT distributions for different types of NeuroImage, 56, 1726-1734. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.02.048
tests, focus on the study of processing types (serial x Avons, S. E., & Sestieri, C. (2005). Dynamic visual noise: No interference
parallel, e.g., Galera & Lopes, 1997; Townsend, 1990), with visual short-term memory or the construction of visual images.
manipulations of retention interval and memory load European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 17(3), 405-424. doi:
in the Sternberg’s task, or interfering tasks in working 10.1080/09541440440000104
memory paradigms. Results from such experiments, Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. London: Oxford University Press.
combined with existing theories of long-term memory, Baddeley, A. D. (2007). Working memory, thought, and action. New York:
Oxford University Press.
short-term memory and working memory can shed new
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower
light on the rich and interesting phenomenon of false
(Ed.), The Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47-89).
memories. New York: Academic Press. doi: 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1
Badre, D., & Wagner, A. D. (2007). Left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and
Concluding remarks the cognitive control of memory. Neuropsychologia, 45, 2883-2901.
doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.06.015
Currently, a major challenge faced by students Balota, D. A., & Yap, M. J. (2011). Moving beyond the mean in studies
and researchers is to identify what is really important of mental chronometry: the power of response time distributional
or relevant among the ever increasing amount of analyses. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(3), 160-
166. doi:10.1177/0963721411408885
publications on a given research field. This can be
Bartha, M. C., Martin, R. C., & Jensen, C. R. (1998). Multiple interference
especially difficult when instead of novel and potentially effects in short-term recognition memory. American Journal of
promising results, the student or researcher is interested Psychology, 111, 89-118. doi: 10.2307/1423539
in the limitations and inconsistencies inherent to a given Benjamin, A. S., Diaz, M., & Wee, S. (2009). Signal detection with criterion
research field. Unfortunately, difficulties like this are also noise: Applications to recognition memory. Psychological Review,
common for those who are interested in human memory. 116, 84-115. doi: 10.1037/a0014351

Our goal here was to expose such inconsistencies, and to Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2002). Emotionally charged autobiographical
memories across the life span: the recall of happy, sad, traumatic and
summarize unanswered questions that can be especially involuntary memories. Psychology and Aging, 17(4), 636-652. doi:
relevant for the process of hypothesis generation on 10.1037/0882-7974.17.4.636
human memory research (McGuire, 1997). Thus, in Borst, G., Niven, E., & Logie, R. H. (2012). Visual mental image
the present article we exposed and discussed several generation does not overlap with visual short-term memory: A dual-
issues concerning the study of human memory that can task interference study. Memory and Cognition, 40(3), 360-372. doi:
10.3758/s13421-011-0151-7
potentially become raw material for the development of
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2005). The science of false memory. New
future research. The article focused on issues inherent York: Oxford University Press.
to the study of working memory processes, long-term Budson, A. E., Todman, R. W., Schacter, D. L. (2006). Gist memory
memory recognition, emotion and memory interaction, in Alzheimer’s disease: evidence from categorized pictures.
and analysis of false memory data. All approached topics Neuropsychology, 20, 113-122. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.20.1.113.
revealed puzzling inconsistencies and open questions, Clark, S. E., & Gronlund, S. D. (1996). Global matching models of
suggesting that theorizing on human memory would recognition memory: How the models match the data. Psychonomic
Bulletin & Review, 3, 37-60. doi: 10.3758/BF03210740
profit greatly from further and improved studies on
Coane, J. H.; McBride, D. M.; Raulerson, B., III; & Jordan, J. S.
these topics. (2007). False memory in a short-term memory task. Experimental
Psychology, 54, 62-70. doi: 10.1027/1618-3169.54.1.62
References Darling, S., Della Sala, S., & Logie, R. H. (2009). Dissociation between
appearance and location within visuo-spatial working memory. The
Alves, C. M.; & Lopes, E. J. (2007). Falsas memórias: questões teórico- Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62(3), 417-425. doi:
metodológicas. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 17, 45-56. doi: 10.1590/ 10.1080/17470210802321984
S0103-863X2007000100005 Dean, G. M., Dewhurst, S. A., & Whittaker, A. (2008). Dynamic visual
Andrade, J., Kemps, E., Werniers, Y., May, J., & Szmalec, A. (2002). noise interferes with storage in visual working memory. Experimental
Insensitivity of visual short-term memory to irrelevant visual Psychology, 55(4), 283-289. doi: 10.1027/1618-3169.55.4.283
information. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55(3), Deffenbacher, K. A., Bornstein, B. H., Penrod, S. D., & McGorty, E.
753-774. doi: 10.1080/02724980143000541 K. (2004). A meta-analytic review of the effects of high stress on
Atkins, A. S., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. A. (2008). False working memory? eyewitness memory. Law and Human Behavior, 28(6), 687-706.
Semantic distortion in a mere 4 seconds. Memory & Cognition, 36, doi:10.1007/s10979-004-0565-x
74-81. doi: 10.3758/MC.36.1.74

Estudos de Psicologia, 21(2), abril a junho de 2016, 92-103

100
Hypotheses in human memory research

Dent, K. (2010). Dynamic visual noise affects visual short-term memory Logie, R. H. (2011). The functional organization and capacity limits of
for surface color, but not spatial location. Experimental Psychology, working memory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(4),
57(1), 17-26. doi: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000003 240-245. doi: 10.1177/0963721411415340
Flegal, K. E., Atkins, A. S., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. A. (2010). False memories Lopes, E. J., & Garcia, R. B. (2014). On the possibility of using reaction
seconds later: The rapid and compelling onset of illusory recognition. time to study false memories. Psychology & Neuroscience, 7(3),
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and 393-397. doi: 10.3922/j.psns.2014.047
Cognition, 36, 1331-1338. doi: 10.1037/a0019903 Luce, R. D. (1986). Response times: Their role in inferring elementary
Galera, C., & Lopes, E. J. (1995). Cronometria de processos mentais. mental organization. New York: Oxford University Press.
Temas em Psicologia, 3, 1-10. Recuperado de http://pepsic.bvsalud. Macmillan, N. A., & Creelman, C. D. (2004). Detection theory: A user’s
org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1413-389X199500030000 guide (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
2&lng=pt&tlng=pt
Mandler, G. (1980). Recognizing: the judgment of previous occurrence.
Galera, C., & Lopes, E. J. (1997). Diagnostics of parallel and serial processing Psychological Review, 87, 252-271. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.87.3.252
in a visual search task. Proceedings of the II Workshop on Cybernetic
Martin, N., & Saffran, E. (1992). A computational account of deep
Vision (pp. 159-165). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society.
dysphasia: Evidence from a single case study. Brain and Language,
Gallo, D. (2010). False memories and fantastic beliefs: 15 years of the DRM 32, 240-274. doi: 10.1016/0093-934X(92)90130-7
illusion. Memory & Cognition, 38, 833-848. doi: 10.3758/MC.38.7.833
Martin, R. C., & Romani, C. (1994). Verbal working memory and sentence
Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Richardson-Klavehn, A. (1998). comprehension: A multiple components view. Neuropsychology, 8,
Experiences of remembering, knowing, and guessing. Consciousness 506-523. doi: 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.506
and Cognition, 7, 1-26. doi: 10.1006/ccog.1997.0321
Mazzoni, G.; & Scoboria, A. (2007). False memories. In: F. T. Durso, R.
Green, D. M., & Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and S. Nickerson, S. T. Dumais, S. Lewandowsky, & T. J. Perfect (Eds.),
psychophysics. New York: Wiley & Sons, Inc. Handbook of applied cognition (2nd ed., pp. 787-813). Chichester,
Haarman, H., & Usher, M. (2001). Maintenance of semantic information UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
in capacity-limited item short-term memory. Psychonomic Bulltein & McConnell, J., & Quinn, J. G. (2000). Interference in visual working
Review, 8, 568-578. doi: 10.3758/BF03196193 memory.The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Section
Hamann, S. (2001). Cognitive and neural mechanisms of emotional A, 53, 53-67. doi: 10.1080/713755873
memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 394-400. doi: 10.1016/ McConnell, J., & Quinn, J. G. (2003). Cognitive mechanisms of visual
S1364-6613(00)01707-1 memories and visual images. Imagination, Cognition and Personality,
Jang, Y., Mickes, L., & Wixted, J. T. (2012). Three tests and three 23(2-3), 201-207. doi: 10.2190/NX2P-NG6L-XY15-P78H
corrections: Comment on Koen and Yonelinas (2010). Journal of McConnell, J., & Quinn, J. G. (2004). Complexity factors in
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38, visuo-spatial working memory. Memory, 12(3), 338-350. doi:
513-523. doi: 10.1037/a0025880 10.1080/09658210344000035
Jones, W. P., & Anderson, J. R. (1982). Semantic categorization and McGuire, W. J. (1997). Creative hypothesis generating in psychology:
high-speed scanning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Some useful heuristics. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 1-30. doi:
Memory & Cognition, 8, 237-242. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.8.3.237 10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.1
Kemps, E., & Andrade, J. (2012). Dynamic visual noise reduces Mickes, L., Wixted, J. L., & Wais, P. E. (2007). A direct test of the unequal-
confidence in short-term memory for visual information. Cognitive variance signal detection model of recognition memory. Psychonomic
Processing, 13(2), 183-188. doi: 10.1007/s10339-011-0429-5 Bulletin & Review, 14(5), 858-865. doi: 10.3758/BF03194112
Kensinger, E. A. & Schacter, D. L. (2006). Processing emotional pictures Morrell, H. E. R., Gaitan, S., & Wixted, J. T. (2002). On the nature of the
and words: effects of valence and arousal. Cognitive, Affective, & decision axis in signal-detection-based models of recognition memory.
Behavioral Neuroscience, 6(2), 110-126. doi:10.3758/CABN.6.2.110 Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,
Kensinger, E. A. (2004). Remembering emotional experiences: the 28(6), 1095-1110. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.28.6.1095
contribution of valence and arousal. Reviews in the Neurosciences, Orme, E. (2009). Identifying the functional architecture underlying multiple
15(4), 241-252. doi: 10.1515/REVNEURO.2004.15.4.241 representations in visual working memory (Doctoral dissertation).
Kensinger, E. A., & Corkin, S. (2004). Two routes to emotional memory: Northumbria University. Retrieved from http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/2630/
distinct neural processes for valence and arousal. Proceedings of Pearson, D. G. (2001). Imagery and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. In J.
the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A, 101(9), 3310-3315. Andrade (Ed.), Working memory in perspective (pp. 33-59). Hove:
doi: 10.1073/pnas.0306408101 Psychology Press.
Kosslyn, S. M. (1994). Image and brain: The resolution of the imagery Pereira, M. S., & Galera, C. (n.d.). A integração da informação visual e
debate. Cambridge: Mit Press. espacial na memória de trabalho: evidências baseadas no efeito
LaBar, K. S., & Cabeza, R. (2006). Cognitive neuroscience of emotional do ruído visual dinâmico (Master’s thesis). Faculdade de filosofia,
memory. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 54-64. doi:10.1038/nrn1825 ciências e letras de Ribeirão Preto. Ribeirão Preto, SP. Retrieved from
Levine, L. J. (1997). Reconstructing memory for emotions. Journal http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/59/59134/tde-29112012-
of Experimental Psychology: General, 126(2), 165-177. doi: 141651/pt-br.php
10.1037/0096-3445.126.2.165 Pesta, B. J., Murphy, M. D., & Sanders, R. E. (2001). Are emotionally
Logie, R. H. (1995). Visuo-spatial working memory. Hove: Lawrence charged lures immune to false memory? Journal of Experimental
Erlbaum Associates Ltd. Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27(2), 328-338. doi:
10.1037/0278-7393.27.2.328

Estudos de Psicologia, 21(2), abril a junho de 2016, 92-103

101
 A. Jaeger, C. A. Galera, L.M. Stein, E.J. Lopes
Pezdek, K., & Lam, S. (2007). What research paradigms have cognitive Shulman, H. G. (1972). Semantic confusion errors in short-term memory.
psychologists used to study “false memory”, and what are the Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 221-227. doi:
implications of these choices? Consciousness and Cognition, 16, 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80080-X
2-17. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2005.06.006 Snodgrass, J. G., & Corwin, J. (1988). Pragmatics of measuring recognition
Phelps, E. A., & Sharot, T. (2008). How (and why) emotion enhances the memory: Applications to dementia and amnesia. Journal of Experimental
subjective sense of recollection. Current Directions in Psychological Psychology: General, 117, 34-50. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.117.1.34
Science, 17(2), 147-152. doi: 10.1111%2Fj.1467-8721.2008.00565.x Stein, L. M., & Cols. (2010). Falsas memórias: Fundamentos científicos
Pickel, K. L. (2009). The weapon focus effect on memory for e suas aplicações clínicas e jurídicas. Porto Alegre: Artmed.
female versus male perpetrators. Memory, 17(6), 664-678. doi: Stein, L. M.; Feix, L. F.; & Rohenkohl, G. (2006). Avanços metodológicos
10.1080/09658210903029412 no estudo das falsas memórias: construção e normatização do
Quinn, J. G. (2008). Movement and visual coding: The structure of procedimento de palavras associadas. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica,
visuo-spatial working memory. Cognitive Processing, 9, 35-43. doi: 19(2), 166-176. doi:10.1590/S0102-79722006000200002
10.1007/s10339-007-0184-9 Stein, L. M; & Perguer, G. K. (2001). Criando falsas memórias em adultos
Quinn, J. G. (2012). Theories and debate in visuo-spatial working memory: por meio de palavras associadas. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica,
The questions of access and rehearsal. In V. Gyselinck & F. Pazzaglia 14(2), 353-366. doi: 10.1590/S0102-79722001000200010
(Eds.), From mental imagery to spatial cognition and language: Essays Sternberg, S. (1966). High speed scanning in human memory. Science,
in honour of Michel Denis (pp. 106-124). Hove: Psychology Press. 153, 652-654. doi: 10.1126/science.153.3736.652
Quinn, J. G., & McConnell, J. (1996). Indications of the functional Talarico, J. M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency,
distinction between the components of visual working memory. characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14(5),
Psychologische Beitrage, 38(3-4), 355-367. 455-461. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.02453
Quinn, J. G., & McConnell, J. (2006). The interval for interference Townsend, J. T. (1990). Serial vs. parallel processing: Sometimes they
in conscious visual imagery. Memory, 14(2), 241-252. doi: look like Tweedledum and Tweedlee but they can (and should) be
10.1080/09658210500210019 distinguished. Psychological Science, 1, 46-54. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-
Reisberg, D., & Heuer, F. (2004). Remembering emotional events. In D. 9280.1990.tb00067.x
Reisberg & P. Hertel (Eds.), Memory and emotion (pp. 3–41). New Tulving. E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychology,
York: Oxford University Press. 26, 1-12. doi: 10.1037/h0080017
Roediger, H. L., III; & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Turner, B. M., Van Zandt, T., & Brown, S. (2011). A dynamic stimulus-
Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental driven model of signal detection. Psychological Review, 118, 583-613.
Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 21, 803-814. doi:
Van de Ven, V., Jacobs, C., & Sack, A. T. (2012). Topographic contribution
10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.803
of early visual cortex to short-term memory consolidation: A
Rugg, M. D., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2003). Human recognition memory: A transcranial magnetic stimulation study. The Journal of Neuroscience,
cognitive neuroscience perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 32(1), 4-11. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3261-11.2012
7, 313-319. doi: 10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00131-1
Verde, M. F., & Rotello, C. M. (2007). Memory strength and the decision
Salamé, P., & Baddeley, A. D. (1982). Disruption of short-term memory by process in recognition memory. Memory & Cognition, 35(2), 254-262.
unattended speech: Implications for the structure of working memory. doi: 10.3758/BF03193446
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 21(2), 150-164. doi:
Vogel, E. K., Woodman, G. F., & Luck, S. J. (2006). The time course of
10.1016/S0022-5371(82)90521-7
consolidation in visual working memory. Journal of Experimental
Santana, J. J. R. A. de, Godoy, J. P. M. C., Farias, K. L., Ferreira, H. C. P., & Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32(6), 1436-1451.
Galera, C. (2013). Interference of dynamic visual noise on encoding doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.32.6.1436
visual information in working memory. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica,
Welford, A. T. (1980). Reaction times. New York: Academic Press.
26(4), 735-742. doi: 10.1590/S0102-79722013000400014
White, M. J. (1983). Prominent publications in cognitive psychology.
Schacter, D. L., Gallo, D. A., & Kensinger, E. A. (2007). The cognitive
Memory & Cognition, 11(4), 423-427. doi: 10.3758/BF03202459
neuroscience of implicit and false memories: Perspectives on
processing specificity. The foundations of remembering: Essays in Wixted, J. T. (2007). Dual-process theory and signal-detection theory
honor of Henry L. Roediger III, 353-378. of recognition memory. Psychological Review, 114, 152-176.
doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.1.152
Schmolck, H., Buffalo, E. A., & Squire, L. R. (2000). Memory distortions
develop over time: recollections of O.J. Simpson trial veredict Yonelinas, A. P. (1994). Receiver-operating characteristics in recognition
after 15 and 32 months. Psychological Science, 11(1), 39-45. doi: memory: Evidence for a dual-process model. Journal of Experimental
10.1111/1467-9280.00212 Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 1341-1354.
doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.6.1341
Selmeczy, D., & Dobbins, I. G. (2014). Relating the content and confidence
of recognition judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Yonelinas, A. P. (2002). The nature of recollection and familiarity: A review
Memory, & Cognition, 40, 66-85. doi: 10.1037/a0034059 of 30 years of research. Journal of Memory and Language, 46(3),
441-517. doi: 10.1006/jmla.2002.2864
Sene, A. S., Lopes, E. J., & Rossini, J. C. (2014). Falsas memórias e tempo
de reação: estudo com o procedimento de palavras associadas. Yonelinas, A. P., & Parks, C. M. (2007). Receiver operating characteristics
Psychologica, 57, 25-40. doi: 10.14195/1647-8606_57_1_2 (ROCs) in recognition memory: A review. Psychological Bulletin,
133(5), 800-832. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.133.5.800

Estudos de Psicologia, 21(2), abril a junho de 2016, 92-103

102
Hypotheses in human memory research

Antônio Jaeger, Doutor em Psicologia pela Universidade Federal

do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Pós-doutorado em Psicologia na
Universidade de Washington em St Louis (WASH-U/EUA), Pós-
doutorado em Biociências na Universidade de São Paulo (USP) e
Pós-doutorado em Psicologia na Pontifícia Universidade Católica do
Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), é Professor Adjunto na Universidade
Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG). Endereço para correspondência:
Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, UFMG, Departamento de Psicologia.
Fone: (31) 3409-6279. E-mail: antonio.jaeger@gmail.com

Cesar Alexis Galera, Doutor em Psicologia Experimental pelo

Instituto de Psicologia da Universidade de São Paulo, Pós-Doutorado
na Concordia University (Montreal, Québec, Canadá), é Professor
Titular da Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto,
Universidade de São Paulo (FFCLRP-USP). E-mail: algalera@usp.br

Lilian Milnitsky Stein, Doutora em Psicologia

Cognitiva pela University of Arizona (EUA) e
Pós-doutorado em Psicologia na Universidad de Barcelona
(UB/Espanha), é Professora Titular do Programa de Pós-
graduação em Psicologia da Pontifícia Universidade Católica
do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS). E-mail: lilian@pucrs.br

Ederaldo José Lopes, Doutor em Psicobiologia pela Universidade de

São Paulo (USP/, Ribeirão Preto, SP), Pós-Doutorado em Filosofia da
Mente e Ciências Cognitivas na Universidade Federal de São Carlos
(UFSCAR/São Carlos, SP), é Professor Titular do Instituto de Psicologia,
Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU). E-mail: ederaldo@ufu.br

Recebido em 14.Mai.15
Revisado em 07.Abr.16
Aceito em 30.Jun.16

Estudos de Psicologia, 21(2), abril a junho de 2016, 92-103

103
View publication stats