PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Thesis submitted for the degree of

Doctor of Education
at the University of Leicester

by

Silva Krikor Karkoulian

Department of Education
University of Leicester

October 2002
 UMI Number: U601147

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.

In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.

Dissertation Publishing

UMI U601147
Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
All rights reserved. This work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.

ProQuest LLC
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346
 A b str a c t

The proper implementation of an appraisal system in an educational institution could

enhance the growth and development of its faculty members, which will positively reflect
on the whole institution. This study aims at laying the ground for a better appraisal
practice at the Lebanese American University (LAU). The study also attempts to identify
trends and areas for further development, and to provide consolidated practical advice for
universities in Lebanon. 80 faculty members filled semi-structured questionnaires at the
Lebanese American University. Furthermore, 40 faculty members were interviewed
using purposive sampling. The response rate was low (36.86%), for 80 out of the 217
responded to the distributed questionnaire. The interviews with faculty members
acknowledged the importance of mentoring and professional development at LAU. The
results showed that no formal appraisal scheme was implemented at LAU. The majority
of the respondents acknowledged that 360-degree appraisal is the most comprehensive
appraisal practice. Based on the literature review and the suggestions of interviewed
faculty members, a communication model for the performance appraisal scheme was
developed to be further tested and adopted by the university, if it yielded satisfactory
results. The researcher finally recommended the formal adoption of a performance
appraisal process at LAU.
 D edications

This work is dedicated to my parents who always offered me opportunity of choice and
incentives to pursue higher levels of learning.
 Acknowledgement
I would like to take this opportunity to thank the many people who helped me in one way
or another to finish my thesis. First, my deepest thanks go to my supervisor Dr. Hugh
Busher for his support and guidance during the production o f the thesis, and his relentless
attention to detail. Thanks for the tutors, the library staff, and the secretaries at Leicester
University.

I would like to convey my gratefulness for many of the faculty members at the Lebanese
American University who have much contributed to this thesis by their fruitful
participation in the study and provided me with very insightful points which constituted
the bulk o f the findings. Thanks to Dr. Abdul Razak Chorbaji and Miss Manal Younis
for their final touch in conducting the statistical part of the research. I, as well, appreciate
the work o f all the colleagues who offered me several excellent creative ideas. Special
thanks for Dr. Rima Bahous for taking the time and effort to read and critique the thesis
wholeheartedly. On a more personal note I thank Aysha Itani, a valued friend who has
been constant source of support. I am grateful for my graduate assistants Miss Rania Hajj
and Mr. Jad Kantar for their ceaseless assistance.

Thanks also to my family, my mother who is a constant source of inspiration and my

brother. They have always been there for me.

Finally, thanks for all who supported my ideas and provided me with the ever-needed
encouragement and potential through out the study.
 Table of Contents
Page
• Chapter One: Introduction l
■ Introduction 1
■ Objectives 2
■ Need of the Study 2
■ Key Questions 3
■ Lebanese Culture 3
■ Scope o f the Study 4
■ Site of the Study: Context and Background 4
■ The Shape o f the Thesis 8
• Chapter Two: Literature Review 12
■ Introduction 12
■ Managing Human Resources 14
■ The Organisational Culture 17
■ Supporting Professional Learning through Collaborative Process 21
■ Performance Management 23
■ Management by Objectives 25
□ Integration o f Organisational and Individual Objectives 27
■ Purposes of Appraisal 31
■ Performance Appraisal 33
■ Types o f Performance Appraisal 39
■ Using the 360 degree Appraisals and Feedback Method 47
■ Views o f Appraisal in Higher Education 52
■ Professional Development 55
■ Mentoring 59
□ Gender and Mentoring 63
■ A Model to Conclude Performance Appraisal 64
■ Conclusion 70
• Chapter Three: Methodology and Research Design 72
■ Focus and Purpose o f Investigation 72
■ Key Questions 73
■ Importance o f the Study 73
■ Research Design 74
□ Early Attempt to Design the Study 74
□ The New Research Design 75
■ Qualitative and Positivist Research 77
□ The Complementary Strengths o f Qualitative and Quantitative
Methods 78
■ Case Study 79
■ Validity and Trustworthiness in the Study 80
■ Piloting 81
□ Piloting the Questionnaire 81
□ Piloting the Interview Schedule 82
■ Sampling 82
□ Questionnaire Sampling 82
□ Interview Sampling 84
■ Ethical Consideration 85
■ Constructing the Instruments 86
□ The Questionnaire 86
□ Analysing the Questionnaire Data 87
 □ The Interview 89
□ Interview Schedule for the Main Study 90
• Chapter Four: Analysis of Findings
Existing Appraisal Scheme at LAU 94
■ The Sample Studied 95
■ Demographic and Personal Information 96
■ Purpose o f Performance Appraisal in Higher Education 98
■ Satisfaction with the Current System 103
□ Time Interval for the Appraisal Process 103
□ Comparison between Full Time and Part Time Faculty 103
■ Methods Applied in Appraising Academic Staff 106
□ Assessing the Importance o f Appraisal 108
■ Communication 111
■ Carrying out Appraisal Interviews 112
■ Performance Appraisal and Promotion 113
■ Performance Appraisal and Motivation 114
■ When Rewards Are Given 117
□ Comparison Between Full Time and Part Time Faculty 117
■ Comparing LAU Appraisal Scheme with Those of Other Universities 118
■ Feedback 119
□ Comparison Between Full Time and Part Time Faculty 119
□ Assessing the Importance o f Feedback 120
■ Collaboration and Professional Development Among Faculty Members 123
• Chapter Five: Analysis of Findings
Potential Improvements of Appraisal Scheme at LAU 126
■ Improving the Appraisal System 126
■ Who Should Carry Out the Appraisal Process 128
■ 360 Degree Feedback 130
■ Mentoring 134
□ Gender and Mentoring (male/female views) 135
□ Disadvantages of Mentoring 137
• Chapter Six:
Discussion of the existing Appraisal Scheme at LAU 139
■ Introduction 139
■ Importance o f Communication 140
■ Purpose o f Appraisal 142
■ Performance Appraisal and Promotion 143
■ Collaboration Among Faculty Members and Professional Development 144
• Chapter Seven:
Discussion of Potential Improvements in the Appraisal Scheme at LAU 147
■ Improving The Appraisal System 147
■ Mentoring 151
□ Disadvantages of Mentoring 153
■ Performance Appraisal Model 154
• Chapter Eight: Conclusion 155
■ The Importance o f the Study Findings 159
■ Limitations 160
■ Recommendations 161
■ Recommendation for Further Research 163
■ Conclusion 165
• Appendix A: The Advantages and Disadvantages of Various
Appraisal Methods
• Appendix B: The Advantages and Disadvantages of Appraisal
• Appendix C: Interview Schedule
• Appendix D: Questionnaire
• Appendix E: Factor Analysis
• Appendix F: Organisation Chart
• Appendix G: Student Evaluation of Teaching Effectiveness
• Bibliography
 List of Figures
Pages
• Figure 2-1: Good Organisational Practices 37
• Figure 2-2: 360 degree Feedback 49
• Figure 2-3: A Model o f Performance Appraisal 65
• Figure 4-1: Adoption of the Appraisal System 104
• Figure 4-2: Who Conducts Performance Appraisal 106
• Figure 4-3: Performance Appraisal Experienced by Respondents in 98/99 107
• Figure 5-1: Importance of Mentoring in Higher Education 135
• Figure 8-1: A Model of Performance Appraisal at LAU 163

List of Tables

• Table 2-1: Four Culture Typology 20

• Table 2-2: Advantages and Disadvantages o f Cultural Typology 20
• Table 2-3: Potential Conflicts Between the Organisation and the Individual 30
• Table 3-1: Classifications o f Questionnaire Respondents 83
• Table 4-1: Number o f Faculty Surveyed and Response Rate 96
• Table 4-2: Respondents Characteristics 97
• Table 4-3: Years o f Experience 98
• Table 4-4 : Purpose o f Performance Appraisal in Higher Education 99
• Table 4-5: The Regression Variables (Control) 108
• Table 4-6: Regression Output for Control 109
• Table 4-7: Performance Appraisal and Motivation 116
• Table 4-8: When are Rewards Given? 118
• Table 4-9: Feedback 119
• Table 4-10: The Regression Variables (Feedback) 120
• Table 4-11: Regression Output for Feedback 121
• Table 5-1: Who Should be Involved in AppraisingIndividual Performance? 129
• Table 5-2: Role o f the Heads of Departments in the Appraisal Process 130
 Glossary Of Terms

A Agree
AJCW American Junior College for Women
AUB American University of Beirut
BCW Beirut College for Women
CVCP Committee o f Vice Chancellor Principals
D Disagree
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
HRM Human Resource Management
LAU Lebanese American University
MBO Management by Objectives
SA Strongly Agree
SD Strongly Disagree
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
U Undecided
UCS University of California Santa Cruz
UK United Kingdom
USA United States o f America
UMI University of Michigan Index
 Chapter One
Introduction

“A careful, capable, and unbiased supervisor can

produce accurate ratings and meaningful
performance feedback with even the
crudest measuring instrument”
(Gomez-Mejia, etal., 1995, p. 267)

Introduction
Over the past decades, performance appraisal has become such a commonplace in
organisational life that virtually every company has an appraisal system. Performance
appraisal is becoming a highly interesting and provocative topic in management. Up to
now researchers and practitioners have been writing emphatically on the performance
appraisal issue. The ever-growing emphasis on performance appraisal has been
attributed to the fact that it seems impossible for supervisors or managers to effectively
manage any organisation without the adequate information on how people are
performing, and how they meet their responsibilities. Such information is necessary for
critical management functions like maintaining control of current operations and
planning for the future, making decisions about compensations and promotions.

The increasing demand for greater accountability by higher educational institutions has
led to a growing emphasis on performance appraisal for academic staff. Staff appraisal
has been considered as a highly important issue that should be effectively embraced by
academic professionals as an essential aspect of their work. As well as understanding
the effects of performance appraisal and measurement institutions also need to have an
understanding of how to design more effective systems for performance evaluation and
incentive compensation. Managers are measuring, evaluating, compensating, designing
and changing their systems constantly. The reason is that wrong appraisal schemes can
lead to inaccurate performance appraisals and therefore to low motivation,

1
commitment, and loyalty by staff (Kreitner and Kinicki, 1998; Bruns, 1992). Reid,
Barrington and Kenney (1992) confirm that lack of commitment and unclear aims are
the main reasons why “certain” appraisal schemes fail to realize hopes.

Objectives
This study investigated the existence of a formal appraisal scheme at LAU and
examined whether or not it differed from appraisal schemes at educational institutions
and large commercial organizations. A second objective was to explore faculty
members’ views and past experiences regarding the current system and their possible
suggestions and recommendations for introducing a regular and systematic appraisal
scheme. A third objective was finding or agreeing on a procedure that would ensure
that faculty development would be the key purpose of any appraisal undertaken.
Accordingly, the primary aim of this thesis is on performance appraisal as a process of
helping other learn and develop at work through participation and collaboration in an
atmosphere of mutual respect and understanding.

Need for the Study

The need for this study stems from the dissatisfaction of the researcher, being a faculty
member at LAU, with the current appraisal system. Thus, the researcher was interested
in exploring other faculty members’ views regarding the current system and their
possible suggestions for a new appraisal scheme. In the light of this, the researcher was
interested in finding out what systems of appraisal participants in LAU might prefer to
have implemented and how successfully such systems might work. This study is
considered a contributory research to the field of performance appraisal in higher
educational institutions in Lebanon. Due to the lack of relevant literature on
performance appraisal in higher educational institutions in Lebanon, the researcher
based her references on previous research conducted mostly in the UK (United
Kingdom) and in the USA (United States of America). Middlewood (1997, p .171)
pointed out “appraisal of teachers and lecturers is well established in schools, colleges
and universities in the UK, USA, Canada, and Australia”.

2
This project puts forward the case that appraisal, if properly implemented, will become
an asset when responding to the faculty members as it should improve their growth and
development. This will reflect positively on an institution implementing such forms of
appraisal since it is the staff that makes the institution and not the other way around.

Key Questions
The identified key questions generally explored how faculty members perceive the
performance appraisal at their institution. The five key questions were designed as
follows.

• Question One: How does the appraisal system work in LAU and how does it
affect faculty members’ promotion and motivation?
• Question Two: What is the role of the departments’ heads in appraisal and
what is their relationship with the present faculty members?
• Question Three: In what ways did faculty members’ think the existing
appraisal system could be improved?
• Question Four: How might professional development be used as a tool for
empowerment, growth and promotion?
• Question Five: How might faculty members’ involvement in decision making
and mentoring help promote their professional development?

Lebanese Culture
The Arab culture in general terms is characterized as heterogeneous. Arab countries
differ widely with regard to their cultural attributes such as ethnicity, sectarian, tribal,
local, and regional. As for Lebanon, it is classified as belonging to the group of Arab
countries that are close to heterogeneity for being more of a mosaic in structure and
social composition (Barakat, 1993). In the Lebanese culture and society educators have
power and prestige and are highly respected by Lebanese students and their parents
(Kibbi, 1995). The culture is influenced by religion and family values in quite different
ways than other cultures. The teacher, in Lebanon, is portrayed as almost a prophet, a

3
symbol of honor among Islam and profound in Christianity. Education is culturally
admired and considered as the path that leads to better lives and social prestige thus all
students are encouraged to pursue learning to the maximum of their abilities.
Furthermore, the Lebanese formal and serious educational atmosphere motivates the
youth to pursue higher education and achievement (Kibbi, 1995).

Scope of the Study

It was originally planned to survey 200 faculty members on the basis of convenience or
snowball sampling from four universities. To gather information, questionnaires were
distributed and interviews were carried out. Unfortunately the response rate was very
low 5%, for only 10 out of the 200 chose to participate. The researcher was then forced
to adapt a new plan, she decided to solely select LAU as the scope of her study. The
new plan entailed first, conducting semi-structured interviews with faculty members
and second, distributing the same questionnaire, which was previously launched to the
four universities, to all teaching staff members at LAU Beirut (March 1999). The
researcher distributed 217 questionnaires among LAU faculty members, out of which
80 questionnaires were received. The following constituted 36.86% of the LAU chosen
sample. Moreover, the researcher selected 40 respondents out of the original 80, with
whom to conduct the semi-structured interview. Therefore, the scale of the study was
relatively small, focusing only on LAU as the sole researched institution (Chapter 3).

Site of The Study: Context and Background

LAU is a multi-campus career-oriented institution, which prepares students for
responsible living, fully aware of the rich heritage and multiple needs of their
respective communities. The organisation’s hierarchy chart is included in Appendix F.
LAU is a private, nonsectarian, independent university similar in administration and
programs to the American universities. It offers a wide range of undergraduate and
graduate programs with English as the language of instruction. The University’s goal is
to serve the educational needs of Lebanon and the Middle East by being a community
that is intellectually stimulating and responsive to the dynamics of its environment. In

4
the pursuit of this goal, the University seeks to serve men and women from Lebanon,
the Middle East and other countries by providing equal opportunities for all to acquire a
proficiency in their chosen fields and a sense of professional ethics, without regard to
nationality, race, or religion in an international environment (LAU Catalogue 1999).
The setting of clear organisational objectives ultimately aids the University’s
achievement of its mission. The University administers an American-type curriculum
modified to local needs, which meets the standards of the U.S. chartering agency.

The university’s early days in 1835 find a reminder in an engraved column in Beirut’s
city center: “Site of the first edifice built as a school for girls in the Turkish Empire.”
The modest beginnings spawned the American School for Girls. In 1924 a two-year
program was added to the high school, providing a junior college curriculum. In 1927
the American Junior College for Women (AJCW) became a separate institution.
During 1948-49 the AJCW program was expanded into a university-level institution
under the name of Beirut College for Women (BCW). During that year, it was granted
a provisional charter by the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New
York. In 1955 the Board of Regents granted the College an absolute charter with all its
rights and privileges, including the authority to hand out BA, BS, AA, and AAS
degrees. In 1970 the Lebanese Government officially recognized BCW’s BA and BS
degrees as equivalent to the national License. Having accepted men into some AA
programs* the college changed its name to Beirut University College (BUC) in 1973.
According to the Board’s decision, BUC became a University in October 1992. In
1994, the Board of Regents in New York approved BUC’s request to change to the
Lebanese American University (LAU), reflecting further growth and the addition of
several professional schools. Interestingly, following the year 1994 the university
witnessed a period o f rapid growth, which was characterized by an increase in the
student enrolment and faculty members.

5
Currently, LAU Beirut consists of the School of Arts and Sciences and the School of
Business (see Appendix F). LAU Byblos consists of the School of Arts and Science, the
School of Business, the School of Engineering and Architecture, and the School of
Pharmacy. And LAU Sidon consists of no Schools, it is an extension of LAU Beirut.

During the academic year 1999-2000, 3118 students registered at the LAU Beirut
campus. The following students were distributed between the School of Business and
the School of Arts and Sciences. The total number of faculty members then was 217
(Spring 1999, Beirut Campus). The Byblos campus had 1662 students and 137 faculty
members, out of whom 72 were full timers and 65 were part timers. The Sidon campus
had 40 students and 7 faculty members, out of whom 5 were full timers and 2 are part
timers.

The faculty members at LAU, Beirut, Byblos, and Sidon, are appointed on either a full
time basis or on a part time basis. Full time faculty members are appointed for a period
of one academic year, while the part time faculty members are appointed for one
academic semester. Full time faculty members include the tenure faculty who are
appointed for a period of three consecutive academic years.

The conditions of service for academic staff at LAU entail:

• A certificate of health based on a comprehensive physical examination by a

Physician, subject to a verification by a physician designated by the University.

• A complete transcript of the undergraduate and graduate education.

• A complete record of work experience and a valid work permit or identity card.

6
The Full time members’ obligations to the university entail:

• Teaching duty of 12 to 14 credits per academic semester, which is the

equivalent of 4 courses with each course holding a 3-credit load. The faculty
members teaching Intensive English courses hold a teaching duty of 14 credits
per academic semester, while other faculty members only hold a teaching duty
of 12 credits per academic semester.

• Committee duty, academic advising and/or administrative tasks.

• Professional development, training and research activities.

At the Lebanese American University, in the School Business and in the School of Arts
and Sciences, academic staff members are appraised by the Chairperson, who is in turn
appraised by the Dean. The Dean is then appraised by the Vice President of Academic
Affairs.

In the evaluation of its faculty members LAU adopts different appraisal techniques.
The School of Business applies the immediate supervisor appraisal, which is
administered by the Chairperson of the School of Business. The bases for the
immediate supervisor appraisal are three factors.

• The completion of a specific number of hours per week. The required hours are
allocated between class lessons, student advising, registration, and faculty
meetings.

• The student enrolment in the given class is considered to be an important

criterion in the evaluation process.

• The number of publications achieved by the appraised faculty member.

7
The School of Arts and Sciences applies both the immediate supervisor appraisal in
addition to the student evaluation method. The immediate supervisor appraisal at the
School of Arts and Sciences follows the same process as the School of Business.
The student evaluation method (see Appendix G) and the Immediate supervisor
appraisal are administered at the School of Arts and Sciences to new part time faculty
members, the remaining faculty, who include full timers and old part timers are
evaluated on the bases of the immediate supervisor appraisal only. The student
evaluation method entails two steps.

• The filling up of questionnaire forms by students, the questionnaire is given in

class during class hours. The questionnaires are administered during the absence
of the teacher to ensure the student comfort and confidentiality. .

• The evaluation forms are then submitted, reviewed, and evaluated by the
committee on a yearly basis.

In the case of full timers, the School of Business and the School of Arts and Sciences
do not base the renewal of the faculty contract on the results of the appraisal. The
appraisal results only affect the increments the faculty receives on their monthly pay.
On the other hand, in case of part timers, the School of Business and the School of Arts
and Sciences use the appraisal results as a significant indicator on the renewal of the
contract.

The Shape of the Thesis

Chapter One introduces the aim and importance of this research to higher educational
institutions, specifically LAU, for exploring the current appraisal system and
suggesting a new effective appraisal scheme. It also presents an overview of the
University and its mission statement. The Lebanese culture is briefly discussed to see
how educators are perceived from several heterogeneous groups who in general respect
the educator because education is considered a path for better prestigious lives.

8
Chapter Two provides an overview of the literature relating to performance appraisal
with particular references to educational institutions and big organisations. It also
discusses the aims of appraisal and the advantages and disadvantages of different
appraisal systems. It covers Human Resource Management, mentoring and
concentrates on professional development, and professional learning through
collaboration processes. In addition to exploring the topics of development, the
researcher explores 360 degree feedback: how it works and how it can be integrated
into the appraisal and development process. The chapter also sheds light on using
computer-generated appraisals.

Chapter Three discusses the methodology used to obtain information, the sample size of
the questionnaire -the positivist part of the study- and the semi-structured interview-the
qualitative part of the study, and the data interpretation. This chapter reviews the
complementary strengths and weaknesses of the qualitative and the positivist researches
and the integration o f these methodologies. The researcher also discusses the ethical
considerations for conducting the study. Piloting of both the interview schedule and the
questionnaire is conducted to strengthen the validity of the study as discussed in detail.
The chapter also discusses the factor analysis conducted via SPSS (Statistical Package
for Social Sciences) to find out the dependent variables that will be used for conducting
the regression analysis.

Chapter Four provides statistical description of the studied sample including

Demographic and personal information, distribution of the participants among the LAU
Schools and their distribution according to their years of experience. This chapter also
analyzes the responses collected from the semi-structured interviews and the
questionnaire. The responses analyzed in this chapter are directly related to the existing
performance appraisal form at LAU. The following selected responses include: Purpose
of Performance Appraisal in Higher Education; Satisfaction with the Current System;
Methods Applied in Appraising Academic Staff; Communication; Carrying Out the
Appraisal Interviews; Performance Appraisal and Promotion; Performance Appraisal

9
and Motivation; When are Rewards Given; the Comparison of LAU Appraisal with
Other Universities; Feedback; and finally Collaboration and Professional Development
Among the Faculty Members. For each of the above sections, the results of the
questionnaire sample or/and the interview sample are reported and scrutinized.

Chapter Five provides statistical analysis of the responses collected from the semi­
structured interviews and the questionnaire. The responses analyzed in this chapter are
directly related to the potential improvements in the performance appraisal form at
LAU. The following selected responses include: Improving the Appraisal System; Who
Should Carry out the Appraisal Process; 360 Degree Feedback and finally Mentoring.
For each of the above sections, the results of the questionnaire sample or/and the
interview sample are reported and scrutinized.

Chapter Six discusses the results in chapter four in the context of existing literature
reviewed earlier in chapter two. The results discussed in this chapter are directly
related to the existing performance appraisal form at LAU, which include: Purpose of
Performance Appraisal in Higher Education; Satisfaction with the Current System;
Methods Applied in Appraising Academic Staff; Communication; Carrying Out the
Appraisal Interviews; Performance Appraisal and Promotion; Performance Appraisal
and Motivation; When are Rewards Given; the Comparison of LAU Appraisal with
Other Universities; Feedback; and finally Collaboration and Professional Development
Among the Faculty Members.

Chapter Seven discusses the results in chapter five in the context of existing literature
reviewed earlier in chapter two. The results discussed in this chapter are directly related
to the potential improvements in the performance appraisal form at LAU. The selected
results include: Improving the Appraisal System; Who Should Carry out the Appraisal
Process; 360 Degree Feedback and finally Mentoring. For each of the above sections,
the results of the questionnaire sample or/and the interview sample are reported and
scrutinized.

10
Chapter Eight contains of the conclusion to the study and the recommendations for
future research. This chapter also sheds light on the limitations of the study, basically
the relatively small sample size. Thus, it is recommended to conduct further research
and to explore in more detail the appraisal schemes at different universities in Lebanon.
The chapter entails a discussion of challenges to future research and tests the
effectiveness of implementing the suggested new appraisal scheme. Furthermore, the
chapter offers recommendations for a revised scheme, which may be more effective
than the one currently implemented and it explores the advisability of providing a new
appraisal system i.e. 360 degree. Finally, it wraps up with a portion on how to make an
existing system work.

11
 Chapter Two
Literature Review

Introduction
This chapter reviews the literature on appraisal, with specific references to higher
educational institutions and large organisations. The researcher defined performance
appraisal as a formally set, continuing, and systematic evaluation, which operates as a
process for motivating and aiding individuals in learning and developing professionally
through emphasis on participation, collaboration, coaching, and mentoring. In turn,
performance appraisal evaluates how well individuals perform in their duties and
responsibilities, it provides an assessment of the individual’s needs and defines the
possible potential for further development. The results of the evaluation can be used as
either a process of control or a means of empowerment, or both. The purposes of
appraisal relate to improving individual performance and to greater organisational
effectiveness. Thus, to the researcher, the ultimate goal of performance appraisal is
achieving staff development, professional development and organisational
development.

The researcher’s reliance on references in the field of higher educational institutions

and large organizations in the UK, USA, and Australia are due to the lack of relevant
literature on performance appraisal in Lebanon. According to Zikmund (1994),
generalizing and transferring results can be dangerous, since most situations and
cultures are atypical. However, even if situations are not directly comparable, a number
of insights can be gained. Moreover, according to Hantrais (1996), cross-national
comparisons serve as a method to better achieve understanding of the different
societies, their structures and their institutions.

12
This chapter discusses some aspects of Human Resource Management - the design of
formal systems within an organisation to ensure effectiveness - and strategies to
effectively manage human resources. A section of this chapter is devoted to the
discussion of performance management, whose principle phases are also explored as
essential tools available to managers for managing as well as developing employees
performance. A useful approach, which may provide a coherent structure for the
management of performance and promote reconciliation of both organisational and
individual priorities, is suggested by the framework for management by objectives
(MBO) (Robbins, 2001). The study discusses the aims of performance appraisal and
explores different approaches to appraisal schemes, their advantages and disadvantages.
The chapter reviews the means of improving performance like mentoring which
involves a partnership between an experienced and a less experienced person with the
aim to provide support, guidance and feedback. It is aimed at professional
development, which is considered an asset by various appraisal methods. One of the
most fruitful strategies for improving faculty members development involves
collaboration, which basically means working together or as part of a team to get a final
goal and this should help identify staff developmental needs. This research will center
on LAU and compare and contrast the different aspects of appraisal that are used in this
institution.

Academic work can be defined as that which is performed by academic professionals.

This work includes factors such as skill based and theoretical knowledge; standards of
training, accreditation, and professional codes of conduct (Hort, 1997). Of all the
elements that “profession” defines, the most important elements are the testing of
members’ competence; their accountability for performance and the assessment and
evaluation of performance standards (Hort, 1997). The performance appraisal of
academic staff is an important issue that should be embraced by academic professionals
as an essential aspect of their work. However, if performance is used as the execution
of any skillful process, public or private, then it is clear that all professional practices
consist of some form of performance skill. Practitioners tend to be evaluated by their

13
results, the achievement of desirable lawyers is classed as ‘good’ when they win cases,
protect clients from legal dangers, or write agreements that stand the test of time.
Architects are called ‘good’ when they make ‘good’ buildings; ‘good’ physicians, when
they produce accurate diagnoses and effective treatments. People focus on
performance in this broader sense only when they take a detached esthetic view of
practice, admiring a physician’s elegant clinical detective work. Faculty members are
classed as good when he or she is well liked by students and colleagues and provides a
high quality of service. It is in this manner of these professionals’ performance that
their distinctive knowing-in-action resides (Schon, 1983).

Managing Human Resources

According to Bush and Middlewood (1997), people are the most important
organisational resource. In the educational field, the focus on people is particularly
significant for education provides a managerial challenge. Education is targeted at the
development of human potential, moreover the development of a climate aimed at
effective learning and teaching cannot be achieved without taking into consideration the
sensitive management of people working in the schools and colleges (Bush and
Middlewood, 1997). HRM (Human Resource Management) is of critical importance in
educational management because educational organisations are service organisation
providing a service to their community, to parents, and to students. Quality of service
depends directly on the capability, commitment, and motivation of people who provide
it. The human resources available to educational organisations thereby constitute both
their most valuable asset and their greatest management challenge (O’Neill, 1994a).
The idea that organisations compete through people highlights the fact that success
increasingly depends on the ability of an organisation to manage human capital
(Sherman et al., 1998). HRM deals with the design of formal systems to ensure the
effective and efficient use of human talent to accomplish the organisational goals. The
strategic role of HRM emphasizes that the people in an organisation are the valuable
resources representing a significant investment of organisational efforts. These human
resources can be a source of competitive strength if managed effectively (Mathis and

14
Jackson, 1997). Although other resources contribute to creating organisational
competence, employees and work teams are the basic carriers of the firm’s competence
(Nordhaug, 1994). In the administrative sciences, the individual employees or
members have traditionally been conceived as the basic building blocks in firms and
other organisations, for they encompass a number of different elements that make them
unique resources to the organisation. Employee competence, consisting of individual
knowledge, skills, and aptitudes is the more basic unit of analysis than are employees,
for, it is not the stock of human bodies that is interesting but the stock of properties
embodied in these employees (Nordhaug, 1994). The basic assumption underlying
human resource management is that it is essentially a strategically driven activity. To
achieve strategic integration, organisations must have the ability to integrate HRM
issues into the organisation’s strategic plans in a coherent manner. In effect, HRM can
contribute to the overall success of the organisation and is therefore concerned with
shaping and delivering corporate strategies (Guest, 1987).

HRM is about the improvement of performance or productivity through the effective

use of human resources; always acknowledging that humans in an organisation are the
most important part of getting things done. They are a resource rather than an expense
and need to be managed to optimize both their own and institutional performance and
value (Beardwell and Holden, 1994; Riches, 1997). It may be common among human
resource professionals that human capital- the traits such as intelligence and energy that
people bring to a job, their ability to learn (aptitude, creativity, etc.), and their
motivation to share information and knowledge (team spirit and goal orientation)- is
any organisation’s most valuable resource (Fit-enz, undated). “No one gains from ad
hoc approach to managing people; to ignore them, to treat them as pawns on an
institutional chess board is neither ethical nor liberal nor any assistance towards
performance” (Riches, 1997, p.20). Riches and Morgan (1989) emphasized that human
resources differ from other types of resources in the manner of their deployment and
development. People’s performance depends not so much on their innate ability as on
the extent to which the organisation can enable them to perform at an optimum level

15
(O’Neill, 1994a). “No organisation can depend on genius; the supply is always scarce
and unreliable. It is the test of an organisation to make ordinary people perform better
than they seem capable of, to bring out whatever strength there is in its members, and to
use each person’s strength to help all the other members perform” (Drucker, 1988,
p.361).

Guest (1987) - based on the argument of Alpander (1982) and Tichy et al. (1982) - and
Storey (1996) share the view that human resources must become an integral component
of the strategic planning process of any business. Alpander (1982) and Tichy et al.
(1982), use strategy as the starting point for their analysis of human resource
management. Guest (1987) argued that in many cases, human resource planning is not
an integral part of corporate strategic planning, but rather flows from it. Because
human resources are the most variable, and the least easy to understand and control of
all management resources, effective utilization of human resource is likely to give
organisations a significant competitive advantage. Therefore, the human resource
dimension must be fully integrated into the strategic planning process (Guest, 1987).

For an educational institution the significant challenge in the area of HRM is to ensure
that the relationships which characterize the management of faculty members and staff
reflect, in both policy and practice, the underlying values of the institution (Drucker,
1988). According to Sherman et al. (1998), to build human capital in organisations,
managers must begin developing strategies to ensure superior knowledge, skills, and
experience within the workforce. Tichy et al. (1982) argue that policies on selection,
rewards, employee relations, etc. must complement each other and help towards the
achievement of strategic objectives. If human resource policies cohere, if managers
have internalized the importance of human resources, and if employees identify with
the company, the company’s strategic plans are likely to be more successfully
implemented. As well, there will be greater willingness to accept and adopt both the
changes and the unanticipated pressures at all levels of the organisation and the external
environment. Guest (1987) argued that an adaptive organisation requires certain

16
structural properties, which are both means and ends of human resource policy goals.
Therefore, the organisation must avoid rigid, hierarchical bureaucratic structures and
try to build on organic structures.

Effective HRM relies on the ability of managers to empower, motivate and retain high
quality staff within the institution. The challenge is to balance expectations of high
performance with a concern for individual welfare and development. Optimum levels
of staff performance are contingent upon effective management (O’Neill, 1994a). The
upsurge interest in human resource management has been paralleled by an enhanced
focus on strategies or tools available to managers mainly selection, induction,
mentoring, appraisal, and development. The following strategies or tools are the
principal phases of performance management. Educational institutions are faced with
opportunity choices which promote a high degree of self-determination in the training,
development and performance management of faculty members (O’Neill, 1994a).
According to Riches (1997), HRM celebrates professionalism, argues that
accountability provides room for participative arrangements in management,
emphasizes that leadership is a collegial activity, makes educational values central to
the enterprise and contests the view that management is inevitably or generally
manipulative.

The Organisational Culture

Harrison (1993) suggests that without a good fit between business goals and strategy,
HRM goals and strategy and the structure and culture of the organisation, effective
performance and productive patterns of organisational development cannot occur. To
illustrate, who receives a job offer to join the organisation, who is appraised as a high
performer, and who gets the promotion are strongly influenced by the individual-
organisation fit and whether the applicant or employee’s attitudes and behavior are
compatible with the culture. Hiring individuals whose values do not align with those of
the organisation culture will likely lead to a lower motivation, commitment and
dissatisfaction with their jobs and the organisation (Robbins, 1998). As documented by

17
Sheridan (1992), employees who are misfit have considerably higher turnover rates
than individuals who are perceived as a good fit.

Kermally (1997) defined corporate culture as shared assumptions, beliefs, values and
norms. “Culture matters. It matters because decisions made without awareness of the
operative cultural forces may have unanticipated and undesirable consequences”
(Bennis, 1999, p. 3). Culture matters because it is a powerful, latent, and often-
unconscious set of forces that determine both the individual and the collective behavior,
ways of perceiving, thought patterns and values. Cultural elements of the
organisational culture differ among different organisational settings, as different
organisations tend to do things differently. In one organisation, people may be
constantly meeting each other, there are no walls or closed doors, there is an intensity
of feeling all around. However, in another organisation it is very formal, people are
behind closed doors and conversations are hushed (Bennis, 1999). Nevertheless, the
culture of the organisation is not static and it is susceptible to being shaped by
management as well as being potentially resistant to forms of change (Bennett, 1995).
The culture of the organisation affects the way performance is measured, the way
employees are rewarded and the way they are treated by both top and senior managers,
and the way decisions, policies, values, and strategies are communicated throughout the
organisation (Kermally, 1997).

The language, rites and rituals are common organisational symbols and artifacts that
constitute the top level of an organisation’s culture. The language used by
organisational members tends to determine how the organisation views itself and the
world, the chosen words reflect and reinforce working relationships and values. The
language used directs energy and maintains the system (Hackman and Johnson, 1996).
Rituals are organisational practices performed regularly or occasionally (Trethewey,
1997). According to Deal and Kennedy (1982), companies with a strong culture go to
the trouble of spelling in extensive detail, the routine rituals they expect employees to
pursue. Rituals may prescribe and celebrate conduct that concerns communication,

18
work procedures, and special accomplishments deserving of recognition. Furthermore,
rituals can range from daily greetings to lavish cultural extravaganzas (Trethewey,
1997).

As cited in Robbins (2001) recent research by Goffee and Jones (1998) provide
interesting insights on the different organisational cultures. Four distinct cultural
typologies were identified: networked culture, mercenary culture, fragmented culture,
and communal culture. The following tables (Table 2-1 and 2-2) summarize Goffee
and Jones cultural typology.

19
 Table 2-1
Four-Culture Typology

Solidarity
Low High
Low Fragmented Culture Mercenary
Sociability Culture
High Networked Communal
Culture Culture

Table 2-2
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cultural Typology

Advantages Disadvantages

Commitment is first and There is little or no identification

Fragmented Culture foremost to individual members with the organisation. Employees
and their tasks. are judged solely on productivity
and quality of work. Excessive
critiquing of others and an
absence of collegiality.

Fiercely goal focused. People Possibly leads to an almost

Mercenary Culture are intense and determined with inhuman treatment of people who
a powerful sense of purpose to are perceived as low performers.
meet goals. The focus on goals and
objectivity leads to a minimal
degree of politicking.

Values both friendship and There is still ruthless focus on

performance. People have a goal achievement. The downside
Communal Culture feeling of belonging, it tries to of these cultures is that they often
give members a sense of consume one’s total life.
participation and gain more
accurate readings on employee
performance. Leaders tend to be
inspirational and charismatic.

Views members as family and The focus on friendship may lead

Networked Culture friends, they willingly give to tolerance for poor performance
assistance to others and openly and the creation of political
share information. cliques.

20
Supporting Professional Learning through Collaborative Process
Building a collaborative culture in which teachers are not afraid to try out new ideas
and take risks would be more effective once there is a level of trust that encourages
people to share ideas and plan with each other (Stoll, 1994). Faculty collaboration in
higher education is a cooperative endeavor that involves common goals, coordinated
effort, and outcomes of products for which collaborators share responsibility and credit
(Austin and Baldwin, 1992). Collaboration occurs when programs or projects are
jointly designed and mentored; some autonomy is sacrificed by participants; resources
are contributed; organisations are mutually benefited; administrators are actively
involved or are supportive of the relationship and maintain final decision (Ament,
1987). Being empowered as a staff member (teacher) means being part of the
educational institution which works as a community or a series of teams but which also
delegates autonomy to its members’ decision making, at least within limited spheres,
such as the classroom or the department. In turn this implies that staff are encouraged
to take initiatives that will improve the quality of the service provided, such as the
learning undertaken. Established teachers may want to become familiar with the wide
range of tasks involved in managing the educational institution (school) (Busher and
Saran, 1995).

Collaboration amongst teachers, and between teachers and their principals, has been
advanced as one of the most fruitful strategies for fostering teacher development
whereby teachers can learn from each other, share, and develop their expertise together
(Hargreaves, 1992). Teachers feel both active participants in the shaping of the agenda
and recipients of support in the task of implementation. Most heads accept that this
involves a meaningful investment in staff development programs by which present
strengths are built upon and weaknesses remedied through the acquisition of new
knowledge and skills (Hargreaves and Hopkins, 1994).

21
In schools where collaboration norms exist teachers set goals to improve instruction,
contest with and share teaching problems, make suggestions to overcome instructional
obstacles, and show mutual concern for their collective teaching performance
(Rosenholtz, 1989). Issues are confronted more openly because of the atmosphere of
trust that has grown out of closer working together (Dimmer and Metiuk, 1998).
Organisations have to be based on trust because they can only operate effectively if
there is mutual understanding between people (Drucker, 1990). Although trust requires
all parties to act in an open and honest manner it does not exclude the micro-political
processes through which participants try to influence decisions (Busher and Saran,
1995).

In the behavioral world of the university there seems to be a powerful norm of

individualism and competitiveness. Faculty members tend to think of themselves as
freestanding agents of intellectual entrepreneurship. Collaboration in groups larger
than two is rare. Donald Schon attributes the lack of collaboration to the familiarity
between the academy and its politics: “ Perhaps because the academy is familiar with
its politics, it has evolved a behavioral world based on separation of spheres of
influence and surface cordiality of relationships. Open conflict tend to be minimized
by leaving to each Professor the management of his own subject matter and courses;
and in order to avoid confrontation among faculty members, public criticism tends to be
suppressed” (Schon, 1987, p. 310).

An effective collaborative culture may not be achieved without some real conflict
(Hargreaves and Hopkins, 1994). The persistence of privacy in teaching and head
teachers feeling relatively independent in ‘their’ schools, is hardly the basis for
developing group work. Many head teachers perceive collaboration as decreasing their
power, typically because they no longer hold either the power of veto or the prerogative
of having the last word on everything. This may also affect the head teacher’s sense of
professional identity. Changes in occupational identity involve feelings of losing
control, anxiety and conflict (Campbell and Southworth, 1992).

22
The availability of time to collaborate is the most important in the process of
undertaking and then sustaining improvements in higher educational institutions
(Raywid, 1993). It has long been known that for change in any educational institution
to succeed, educators must be involved in its implementation (McLaughlin, 1991). But
unless the extra energy requirements demanded are met by the provision of time, the
change is not likely to succeed (Fullman and Miles, 1992 as cited in Raywid, 1993).
However, collaborative time alone cannot assure success. How time is used is crucial,
but finding it is necessary (Prager, 1992 as cited in Raywid, 1993). In effect many
educational institutions are experimenting with creative ways to find time for shared
reflection. According to Raywid (1993), some schools have added meeting days to the
year calendar. Other investigators have suggested that administrations of educational
institutions follow general approaches to finding collegial time: freeing up existing
time, restructuring or rescheduling or using it better. It is critical to choose the way to
provide this collaboration time that will not likely increase costs substantially. Often
teachers are willing to contribute some of their own time, but quite reasonably are
unwilling to shoulder the full cost of the system. The responsibility to provide
collaborative endeavor for school adequacy rests with schools, not individual teachers.
The time needed to examine, reflect, amend, and redesign programs is not auxiliary to
teaching responsibilities. It is absolutely central to such responsibilities, and essential
for any educational institution to succeed (Raywid, 1993).

In the light of the rising importance of employee performance, the following section is
devoted to the discussion of performance management, whose principle phases will be
explored later in this chapter as an essential tool available to managers for managing as
well as developing employees performance.

Performance Management
Performance management is the use of past performance evaluation ratings and reports
to spot trends in employee performance (Gomez-Mejia, et al., 1995). It is the total
process of observing an employee’s performance in relation to their job requirements

23
over a period of time and then making an appraisal from it. Information gained from
the process may be used to determine the relevance of individual and work-group
performance to organisational purposes, to improve the effectiveness of the unit, and to
improve the work performance of employees (Cascio, 1989).

Managing performance in an organisation involves informing employees what is

expected of them, how they are contributing, and how they improve. Only then can the
employees excel, use their abilities to the fullest, and feel connected to their
organisation (Costello, 1994).

An organisational overall performance management system begins with the

development of organisational strategy. Before any assessment of individual
performance can be conducted, the organisation’s direction must be articulated and
communicated (Grote, 1996). Performance management involves the analysis of
objectives and goals of the organisation and the departments within and ensuring that
they relate to the overall goals of the institution (Costello, 1994). Each employee’s
skills and potentials for the job should be analyzed in relation to the department goals.
The performance goals should be clearly communicated, and the expectations of each
employee clearly conveyed. This must be followed up by gaining agreement on these
goals and expectations (Costello, 1994). The cascading process of developing the
overall organisational objectives continues until every member has set specific and
measurable objectives, each of which can be ultimately related to the overall
achievement of the organisation’s strategy (Grote, 1996). In an educational setting,
Day (1995) promoted the development of self-managed personal development profiles
which are designed to foster the development of teachers as whole persons throughout
their careers. Day (1995, p. 124) quote Senge (1990, p. 307) that “there is a natural
connection between a person’s work life and all other aspects of life”. Teachers are not
technicians but teaching is bound up with their lives, their histories, and the kind of
persons they have been, and have become.

24
In the best systems, the appraisal is conducted not just by the supervisor but by the
performer as well. Appraiser and appraisee evaluate independently the degree to which
the different elements of the plan were achieved (Grote, 1996). Once the job agreed on
has been executed, the next step in the cycle is to assess how the job was done. It is
also important to recognize where performance needs to be improved and provide
employees with the necessary support to improve it (Costello, 1994). Performance
appraisal serves as a process of helping others and developing their performance
through participation in an atmosphere of mutual respect.

The performance management literature (e.g. Moorhead and Griffen, 1992) emphasized
the crucial role of supervisors in developing a two way communication system in which
subordinates are involved so that they can learn from each other in order to improve
their performance. Subordinates should consistently explicate their ability to learn
from others and assist others in their learning process. Newly hired staff members have
to be knowledgeable about the institution, thus hastening their professional growth and
development and in effect benefiting the organisation. The following leads to
commitment of all members within an atmosphere of collaboration and mutual inquiry.

Management by Objectives
A useful approach, which may promote reconciliation of both organisational and
individual priorities, and provide a coherent structure for the management of
performance, is suggested by the framework for management by objectives (MBO)
(O’Neill, 1994a). MBO is considered the most prevalent outcome appraisal approach
which asks managers to assess the results achieved by workers, such as total sales or
units produced (Gomez-Mejia et al., 2001). This management system, which also
deserves attention when considering appraisal, is a style of management where
employees are asked to participate in setting goals, and then asked to judge to what
extent the goals have been achieved. In other words, appraising performance is still an
essential part of the process (Gomez-Mejia et al., 1995).

25
The term MBO was popularized by Peter F. Drucker, a consultant, prolific writer, and a
Professor of management, who stated that objectives are needed in every area where
performance and results directly and vitally affect the survival and prosperity of the
business. Drucker (1955) in his book The Practice of Management emphasized that
any business enterprise must build a team and weld individual efforts into a common
effort. Each member contributes something different, but they all must contribute
towards a common goal to produce a whole with neither gaps nor unnecessary
duplication of effort. However, Drucker contends that in the business enterprise
managers are not automatically directed towards a common goal. This could be in part
due to three powerful factors of misdirection: the specialized work of most managers;
the hierarchical structure of management; and the differences in vision and work of
various levels of management. Therefore, MBO requires major effort and special
instruments. For example, two-way (top-bottom) communication along the
organisational hierarchy can be a healthy step towards attaining mutual understanding.
It requires both the superior’s willingness to listen and a tool especially designed to
make lower managers and workers be heard (Drucker, 1990). MBO has come a long
way of change and development, from the performance appraisal tool to an integrative
device for individual and organisational objectives, and finally to a long-range planning
instrument (Weihrich, 1985). Drucker’s MBO and the method of jointly applying
defined goals to motivate individuals was later followed in the 1900’s by the learning
organisation. According to Robbins (2001) the learning organisation has developed the
continuous capacity to adapt and change.

The learning organisation is an organisational culture where individual development is

a priority, and where individuals are empowered, motivated, sharing the feeling of
common destiny and profit, striving towards jointly defined goals, and anxious to use
every opportunity to learn from situations (Otala, 1995; Cullen, 1999). The learning
organisation has been launched as the solution to the problems of increased competition
and the quest for more rapid changes (Elkjaer, 2000). According to Senge (1990), the

26
organisations that will truly excel in the future will be the ones that discover how to
initiate people’s commitment and capacity to learn at all organisational levels.

In an educational setting, as discussed by Lumby (1997), the role of creating a learning

organisation is very important, not only in terms of making the institution itself as
effective as possible, but also in providing a role model for all other organisations.
Lumby (1997) questions the nature of the way teachers learn and the recommended
shift from an emphasis on individually based learning to a holistic and communal
approach. Lumby (1997) refers to the studies by Yinger and Hendricks-Lee (1993) and
Clark (1996) whose writings on developing teachers explore the impact of the shift in
perceptions, from an individually focused process of development to one where the
whole teacher in context of the whole organisation is the centre of planning
development. According to Busher and Saran (1995, p.l) “a vision of schools moving
into the twenty-first century is that they are rapidly becoming centres of learning, not
just for students but for all involved with the institution, including staff (both teaching
and support staff), parents and members of the local community”.

Integration o f Organisational and Individual O bjectives

In the mid-1960’s, consultants and line managers became interested in the concept of
self-control through involving subordinates in the decision and control process. They
viewed MBO as a vehicle for integrating individual and organisational objectives
(Howell, 1970). The underlying premise of this approach is that top managers do not
necessarily know best, but rather, that individuals at all levels are capable of
contributing to the success of the organisation. Another characteristic of MBO is the
concern not only for organisational objectives but also for personal development
objectives whereby employees no longer accept orders blindly; they demand a part of
the action; they want more control over their job and their life; and they want to know
where the company is going, so as to contribute to the aims of the organisation
(Weihrich, 1985).

27
According to Drucker (1955), the greatest advantage of MBO is perhaps that it makes it
possible for the organisational member to control his or her own performance. Self-
control expects stronger motivation that is, a desire to do the best rather than just
enough to get by. To be able to control performance, the employee needs to know
more than what his or her goals are.

Measuring performance is an invariable practice to supply organisational members

with a clear and common measurements in all key areas of a business. Such
measurements need to be clear, simple, and rational. An important aspect of
organisational development effort for the implementation of MBO is team building
(Atkinston, et al., 1981, as cited in Weihrich, 1985).

The essence of team building in a collaborative and participative atmosphere is the core
aspect of today’s learning organisation. Research on organisational effectiveness
indicates that a participative approach to management, rather than a hierarchical
decision-making structure, is more effective whereby the purpose and vision of the
organisation are clearly understood and supported by all its members (Worrell, 1995;
Lumby, 1997).

The implementation of MBO may fail when it is superimposed on the organisation

without the proper understanding of the existing climate. For example, according to
Weihrich (1985), it is unrealistic to expect managers who have operated for many years
under an autocratic system to suddenly become participative team members. Forcing
these drastic changes without coaching may disturb the organisational equilibrium thus
resulting in undesirable consequences (Weihrich, 1985).

According to Caruth (1986), MBO cannot be harmonious with some managerial styles.
The hierarchical structure of management and the degree of rigidness inherent in such
structure is one of the major impediments in the development of an MBO framework
(Drucker, 1955). For example, MBO is expected to fail under both authoritarian

28
conditions and a single managerial level. Accordingly, it is preferable to operate MBO
at all levels since it is perceived as an organisational philosophy. MBO approach does
not lend itself to all types of jobs. Extensive training is required for employees before
they can react positively to this philosophy (Caruth, 1986). Oberg (1991) observes that
when MBO is applied to lower organisational levels, employees are not always willing
to take part in the goal setting process since they may not want self-direction or
autonomy. The following has resulted in more coercive variations of MBO where
management is actually manipulative, and there is no real participation. Employees are
consulted, but managers end up imposing their own standards or objectives (Oberg,
1991).

Relevant to an MBO framework is what has been discussed about collegiality among
subordinates and between subordinates and their supervisors. According to Hargreaves
(1992) collegiality has been advanced as one of the most fruitful strategies for fostering
individual development. Besides, the confidence that springs from collegial sharing
and support leads to greater readiness to experiment and take risks, and with it a
commitment to continuous improvement as a recognized part of their career obligation.
Thus, it is implied that commitment to continuous improvement is a form of applied
MBO. Collegiality is also viewed as a way of security effective implementation of
externally introduced changes (Hargreaves, 1992; Campbell and Southworth, 1992).
However, collegiality has not been without its critics. Hargreaves (1992) points out
that most critiques of collegiality have focused on difficulties of implementation.
Discussion about and advocacy of collaboration and collegiality have largely taken
place within a particular perspective on human relationships: the cultural perspective.
This perspective emphasizes what is shared in human relationships such as values,
habits, norms, beliefs, etc. (Schein, 1984). Problems with this perspective have been
used to base the criticism of collegiality. Firstly, the existence of shared culture is
presumed no matter how complex and differentiated the studied organisation is.
Secondly, the theoretical and methodological emphasis on what is shared in the
organisation may exaggerate the consensus-based aspects of human relationships. In

29
some organisations, the differences and disagreements among participants are more
significant than what they happen to share (Woods, 1990).

Drucker (1955) emphasized participative goal setting, self-direction, and self-

evaluation. Although the MBO literature focuses on the integration of individual
objectives with organisational goals, in practice, organisational demands are often quite
different from individual needs and career goals. For example, the company in general
is concerned about the effective and efficient operation. These organisational concerns
are not unimportant to the individual, but they are rather secondary to the individual’s
concern for self-fulfillment and self-actualization (Weihrich, 1985). The organisation
that wants to provide career opportunities for its employees has to recognize the needs
of all employees. In most cases, the needs of some individuals are in conflict with
those of other individuals in the same organisation. The enterprise must fill all the roles
in the organisational structure. However, some roles may restrict the freedom of
individual managers who want to utilize their capabilities and potentials (Weihrich,
1985). The following table presents the potential differences between the
organisational demands and individual needs and career goals.

Table 2-3
Potential Conflicts Between the Organisation and the Individual

Organisational needs and demands Individual needs and career goals

Concern for effective and efficient Concern for self-fulfillment and self-
operation, profit, and productivity actualization
Concern for all members of the Concern for self
organisation
Need to fill the roles in the organisation Need for self-fulfillment and self-
structure actualization
Need for skills to fill all positions Interested in challenging work only
Need for some specific, well-developed Bored by routine work using specific
skills skills
Best utilization of all talents within the How to utilize own potential within or
organisation outside the enterprise
Manager to work in geographic location Location most suitable for self and family
best for the organisation
(Weihrich, 1985, p. 159)

30
The outcome approach provides clear and unambiguous criteria by which worker
performance can be judged. It also eliminates subjectivity and the potential for error
and bias especially in manufacturing firms (Smith, 1992; Gomez-Mejia et al., 2001).
Although considered to be objective, outcome measures may give a seriously deficient
and distorted view of worker performance levels as might be the case when a complex
equipment is not running properly. In this situation the best workers on the machine
will end up looking like the worst workers in terms of amount produced, that is if the
outcome measure was set to specify number of units produced within acceptable limits.
Cardy and Krzystofiak (1991) strikes an example of the same problem that occurred at
a manufacturer of automobile components. To resolve the issue, management
concluded that supervisors’ subjective performance judgements were superior to
objective outcome measures.

Managing performance not only affects the employee’s performance but also the
performance of the entire institution. As expressed by Costello (1994, p. 3): “A solid
performance management plan is essential to developing an organisation and the people
within it. An effective performance management system should serve as the corrective
and driving force behind all organisational decisions, work efforts, and resource
allocation”.

Performance appraisal serves as a process of helping others learn and develop at work
through participation and collaboration in an atmosphere of mutual respect.

Purposes of Appraisal
There are many different purposes of appraisal, to evaluate people’s performance, to
recommend a salary increase, to encourage developmental growth within a position,
e.g. if you are not appraised what is the advantage of extra effort and growth.
Appraisals will also identify the need for training (Robbins, 2001).

31
Researchers have found that the purposes of appraisal relate both to improving
individual performance and to greater organisational effectiveness (Kamp, 1994;
Kempton, 1995; Anon, 1999). In education it has been argued that “the goal of a great
appraisal system is for professional development. It is neither the ranking or grading of
teachers nor the weeding out of poor teachers, it is to create an environment where
everyone is used to the best of their abilities” (Bradley, 1992, p. 127). Bell (1992)
points out that one of the most damaging justifications for the introduction of staff
appraisal into schools has been its proposed use to screen out incompetent teachers.
This was based on the view that the teaching force needed to be cleansed of teachers
who were somewhat unqualified and who were probably responsible for the ills of the
education system. Bell (1992) refers to Bell (1988b) and Poster and Poster (1991) for
the detailed discussion of the debate concerning the justifications of introducing staff
appraisal into schools. “Effective performance measurement systems make people feel
good about themselves and self esteem is the key to productivity” (Fitz-enz, 1995 p.
263). There is nothing more rewarding than a pat on the back; in a recent newspaper
survey, more workers indicated that they felt that a simple “well done” was more
rewarding and satisfying than a bonus pay check. Positive appraisal can be a source of
congratulations, but there are also other advantages beyond the psychological benefits
mentioned by Fitz-enz (1995). These are the benefits to the organisation as a whole, to
the manager and to the employee. Firstly, the benefit to the manager is the opportunity
to discuss work, areas of confusion and identify areas requiring either coaching or
counseling. Finally, the benefits to the employee is that they have a chance to discuss
with their manager, their current roles and aspirations for the future, and agree on the
performance level required in the coming period (Kempton, 1995), (see Appendix B).

“It is quite right that appraisal should not be seen as a pursuit of the guilty” (Fiedler,
1995, p. 4). The purpose should be supporting poor performers and providing them a
positive spirit. However, in order to motivate individuals the evaluation or assessment
process needs to be continually improved, this would also ensure the accountability of

32
the individual (Beer, 1986). Normally, training involves the improvement of an
appraisal system.

Performance Appraisal
Performance appraisal may also be defined as “an on-going systematic evaluation of
how well an individual is carrying out the duties and responsibilities of his or her
current job. Additionally, it typically includes an assessment of the individual’s need
or potential for further development” (Caruth, 1986, p. 235). In simpler terms, it is an
ongoing process or activity that is systematic in nature and includes an evaluation, and
a developmental aspect (Caruth 1986; Caruth et al., 1988). According to Bell (1988a),
based on the argument by Joseph (1985), systematic appraisal would provide
knowledge about the skills and competence of individual educators.

Caruth (1986) and Gomez-Mejia et al. (1995) argued that appraisal is usually
performed annually and this is believed to be a fairly good indicator of the frequency of
conduct of appraisal in most establishments. The reaction of staff to an individual
annual interview provides a focus for career development, brings together a detailed
analysis of a department’s past performance and includes an additional academic plan
for its immediate future (Rutherford, 1988). Obviously, however, it is also possible to
conduct a formal appraisal more than once a year. Whilst a properly operating system
would provide feedback on a daily, weekly or monthly basis, and consequently a
formal appraisal would be needed no more than once per year (Caruth, 1986).

“Managers are uncomfortable when they are put in the position of playing God”
(McGregor, 1990, p.155). Levinson (1991b) seemed to disagree with this claiming that:

“I doubt very much that the failure of appraisal stems from playing God or feeling
inhuman. My own observation leads me to believe that managers experience their
appraisal of others as a hostile, aggressive act that unconsciously is felt to be hurting or
destroying the other person. The appraisal situation, therefore, gives rise to powerful,

33
paralyzing feelings of guilt that make it extremely difficult for most executives to be
constructively critical of subordinates” (p. 31).

Ironically, though, in his attempt to disclaim McGregor, he ended up rebounding in his

direction. Indeed “a hostile, aggressive act that unconsciously is felt to be hurting or
destroying the other person” appears as a fairly good exploitation of McGregor’s phrase
“playing God” (Levinson, 1991b). To play God is, after all, to exercise unlimited
power, and exercising such power does amount to hurting others (Orwell, 1984, pp.
229-230). As for “the paralyzing feelings of guilt” that stem from using or abusing
one’s power, they obviously derive from a perception of oneself as “inhuman” when
placed in situation of omnipotence. Appraisal is not just about playing God. It is a
method or technique for obtaining better results from the organisation, teams and
individuals. According to Bell (1988a), appraisal is not an opportunity to criticise any
individual’s personality or opinions, or discuss other colleagues. However, it should
focus on the individual educator’s own performance to screen out some areas that could
be improved as well as potentials for developing new skills and taking on more
demanding jobs. It can also function as an indicator for reward and promotion although
this should not be the main reason for conducting appraisals. “There are insufficient
rewards and promotions in teaching to give recognition to the wide range of staff who
deserve them” (Montgomery, 1991, p. 42). This may be achieved through managing
performance within an agreed framework of planned goals, objectives and standards
(Kempton, 1995).

Bennis remarked in 1972 and again almost 20 years later that McGregor’s theory X and
Y is a seminal one and still holds true. After viewing the way managers dealt with
employees, McGregor concluded two sets of assumptions about how work attitudes and
behaviors dominate the way managers think and how they behave in organisations.
Theory X assumes the average worker is lazy, dislikes work, and will try to do as little
as possible. Moreover, workers have little ambition and wish to avoid responsibility.
So to keep workers’ performance at high level, the manager must supervise them

34
closely and control their behavior by means of the carrot and the stick. Managers under
this assumption see little point in giving subordinates autonomy because they believe
that the workforce neither expects nor desires cooperation (Robbins, 1998; Jones et al.,
2000). In contrast, Theory Y assumes that workers are not inherently lazy, do not
naturally dislike work, and if given opportunity, will do what is good for the
organisation. The characteristics of the work setting determines whether workers
consider work as a source of satisfaction or punishment. Managers do not need to
closely control workers’ behavior in order to make them perform at a high level,
because workers will exercise self-control when they are committed to organisational
goals. Under this assumption, it is the manager’s task to create a work setting that
encourages commitment to organisational goals and provides opportunities for workers
to be imaginative and to exercise initiative and self-direction (Daft, 1997; Jones et al.,
2000). Theory X and Y define managers’ beliefs about what is an appropriate style for
working with their subordinates. Misunderstanding the needs of subordinates,
assuming, for example, that a subordinate fits within the X theory when actually he or
she fits within the Y theory, can lead to a discontented subordinate who is poorly
motivated to work. A manager assuming Theory X is likely to use traditional economic
incentives (money) to motivate employees, motivators that satisfy lower-order
physiological and safety needs. It has been also argued that whilst close supervision
and continual monitoring may increase workers’ productivity in the short run, these
management tactics can hurt employee morale in the long run (Boone and Kurtz, 1993).

Even though many managers continue to use money as a primary motivator, a number
of changes have occurred the origin of which can be traced to the Hawthorne studies,
by Elton Mayo. This led to the development of the human relations approach to
motivation. The phenomenon discovered known as the Hawthorne effect considers
subjects more productive because they feel important and appreciated and more
motivated not only due to money and job security factors (Boone and Kurtz, 1993).
The human relations approach has been incorporated in Fiedler’s contingency model
(1967), which recognises the interaction of leaders and their environments. The major

35
innovation in Fiedler’s work is that he takes into account the situation in which the
leader is working, including the relationship with subordinates as well as the style of
the leader. Fiedler’s research has shown that when the situation is particularly
favorable or unfavorable to the leader, a task-oriented leader is more effective. When
the situation is not particularly favorable, a people oriented leader is more effective
(Coleman, 1997).

Moreover, according to Baron and Greenberg (1990) many of the roles in an

organisation are assigned by virtue of the individual’s organisational position. For
example the teacher is expected to lecture and give exams. The following expectations
are usually emphasized in either the job description or the company’s manual policy.
Robbins (2001) re-emphasized the concept of role expectations and defined it, as how
others believe a person should act in a specific situation.

In the late 1960’s several theories were put forward focusing on workers motivation
and goal setting. McGregor’s X and Y theory and Fiedler’s leadership effectiveness
theory deal with stimulating superior performance. On the other hand, concept role
expectation conducts appraisal on the degree of individual behavior fitness with
expected acts. Apart from this, it is important to measure performance in order to
determine the subordinates effectiveness in contributing to the organizational activities
and success. Performance measurement has become the systematic evaluation of
subordinates with respect to their performance and their potential for development,
since most organisations appraise the performance of their employees (Kermally,
1997).

36
Kempton summarizes his definition o f appraisal in the following Figure 2-1:

Figure 2-1
Good Organisational Practices

Objectives and Strategy

Work Performance

Motivation

Performance Appraisal

Training, Coaching Pay, Promotion

Counseling,Career Succession
Development Planning

Feedback

(Kempton 1995, p. 154)

Before discussing the different types of appraisal, it is essential to highlight, in general,

some disadvantages of appraisal. The problem, of course, is that perverse effects are
inevitable: “It is widely recognized that there are many things inherently wrong with
most of the performance appraisal systems in use” (Levinson, 1991a, p. 22). For
example, sometimes poorly designed appraisal forms are used which tend to reduce
credibility. Sometimes feedback and follow-ups can be inadequate (Anon, 1999). Bell
(1988a) argues that staff appraisal, if carried out badly, would increase the level of
distrust within the educational institution and lead to a lowering of staff morale. To be
effective, appraisal must provide good feedback to the subordinates; McGregor (1957)

37
and (1990) identifies this as a problem area because, firstly, lack of communication or
inadequate communication can result in poor appraisal results. Secondly, not all
managers tend to like new procedures or methods, thus resistance to administer new
appraisal methods may arise. Another important impediment is the lack of trust in the
appraisal method. Some managers doubt the validity of appraisal (McGregor, 1957)
(see Appendix B). According to Bell (1988a), the major difficulties associated with the
introduction of appraisal relate to staff suspicion about the ability of their colleagues in
middle or senior management to carry out an effective appraisal.

According to Levinson (1991a), the problems of appraisal systems are actually

problems of management. Personnel specialists attribute the following problems to
managers reluctance to adopt new methods and the fear of irreparable damage to
subordinates self esteem. This leads to the argument that performance appraisal is not
just a technique but a process that involves both people and data. Another inadequacy
involves the fact that it is the outcome of behavior, rather than the behavior itself that is
judged.

Even though performance appraisal has disadvantages, every manager recognizes that
“like it or not, performance appraisals are here to stay” (Longenecker, 1989, p. 76).

“The main emphasis has been on identifying strengths and then enabling people to
grow from these to achieve individual and school goals. There is a concern that
paperwork should not proliferate to cover or substitute for genuine development work.
It has been noted that too often after the initiator of a scheme leaves or ceases to
participate it lapses. Often a head’s initial enthusiasm wanes after the first year and the
scheme collapses. To maintain an appraisal scheme there needs to be continuous
interest, energy and drive in order to keep it functioning in a worthwhile fashion. Many
good schemes are still in operation but just as many have fallen by the wayside and so
new initiatives and new people are needed to lead and promote them” (Montgomery,
1991, p. 45).

38
To conclude, appraisal would partially assess the faculty member’s level in meeting the
set and agreed upon goals. If conducted effectively, individual members insights on
how to improve their performance, thus contributing in raising the educational
standards.

Types of Performance Appraisal

There are many different techniques of appraisal the main of which are: Self-Review
appraisal, Immediate supervisor appraisal, Peer group appraisal, Team appraisal,
overall assessment appraisal, Upward appraisal, and the 360 degree appraisal. Each
appraisal process has its own advantages and disadvantages. The best anyone can hope
to do is to match the appropriate appraisal method to the particular appraisal goal. A
look at the various advantages and disadvantages of different appraisal methods (see
Appendix A) leads to interesting conclusions.

One commonly used appraisal technique is Self-Review, this consists of each employee
appraising his or her own performance. Employees who are best suited for this kind of
appraisal are in a position to understand the objectives that they are required to reach,
and the standards by which their performance is to be measured (Moorhead and
Griffen, 1992; Robbins, 1998). It allows the employees to add their own input to the
appraisal process, and it helps them gain insight into the causes of performance
problems (Gomez-Mejia, et al., 1995). The benefits of this appraisal technique lie in
the fact that it facilitates employee development. Employees are required to focus on
job behavior and performance, and they must identify and examine their strengths and
weaknesses. Since it is they who come up with the evaluation results, they accept the
findings more easily, and thus tend to be more pro-active. Self-appraisals also clarify
differences between the subordinates’ and the supervisor’s opinions concerning job
demands and performance. They also increase performance and reduce defensiveness
about the appraisal feedback interview (Gibson, et al., 1994). This approach tends to
lessen employee’s defensiveness about the appraisal process. A major disadvantage of

39
the self-review appraisal is that it suffers from over-inflated assessment and self-serving
bias (Vecchio, 1995; Robbins, 1998).

One way to make sure self-ratings are helpful is to combine them with the ratings of the
Immediate Supervisor. The supervisor and the subordinate fill out identical appraisal
forms and later compare the responses and discuss the agreement and disagreement
areas (Vecchio, 1995). If there is a substantial difference in opinion between the two,
communication and possibly investigation become warranted. In the application of
self-appraisal to higher education, the faculty members would appraise their own
performance with relevance to the objectives and standards of performance set by the
university. Standards of performance may include level of student enrolment in the
classroom, publications, participation in conferences, etc. In the Immediate Supervisor
an employee’s direct supervisor evaluates his or her performance (Latham & Wexley,
1981; Vecchio, 1995; Robbins, 1998). In some cases, the supervisor is in the best
position to observe an employee’s performance and in addition to this, it is the
supervisor’s duty to direct the employee’s behavior (Vecchio 1995; Robbins, 1998).
However, the supervisor may not be always capable of understanding the subordinates’
values embedded in their actions. Additional shortcomings include the bosses feeling
incapable of evaluating the unique contributions of each of their subordinates, and their
resentment of being asked to “play God” with their employees’ careers. Despite its
shortcomings, this method is used for about 95% of performance evaluations at he
lower and middle organisational levels (Latham & Wexley, 1981; Robbins, 1998).
However, in fact, the traditional “manager-to-subordinate” performance appraisal is
widely considered inappropriate for professionals. Moreover, many modem
organisations are moving away from the conventional “top-down” performance review
toward greater use of self appraisal (Meyer, 1991).

40
Whenever the immediate supervisor method is being used in combination with self­
review and still the supervisor and the subordinate cannot resolve their disagreements,
performance assessment from other sources can be used. One technique of appraisal
that may be helpful in such a case is the Peer Group appraisal. In this method, a small
team does an evaluation of each other’s performance (Kempton, 1995). These
employees are at the same level of the organisational hierarchy (Gomez-Mejia et al,
1995). Daily interaction with peers provides them with a comprehensive view of the
employees job performance. In addition using peers as raters provides the organisation
with a number of independent judgements making the evaluation more reliable.
Disadvantages of this approach consists of co-workers’ unwillingness to evaluate each
other as well as the existence of biases due to friendship or animosity (Robbins, 1998).
According to Gibson, et al. (1994), usually these evaluations are the most reliable
sources of appraisal data because peers are close to the action. However, peer
evaluations can suffer from colleagues unwillingness to evaluate one another and from
biases based on friendship or animosity (Robbins, 2001). According to Cascio (1995),
in order to reduce potential friendship bias whilst simultaneously increasing the
feedback value of the information provided, it is important to specify exactly what the
peers are evaluating. In addition, they may lack sufficient understanding of their peer’s
job, and thus be unable to provide a fair and accurate appraisal. Some managers also
believe that this method undermines their authority. The results of this method can be
compared with the supervisor and self-appraisal methods in order to spot agreement
and disagreement areas. In some cases, where supervisor’s assessment differs from
employee’s self-review, team appraisal may be used to resolve differences instead of
peer group appraisal.

An extension of the peer appraisal is Team appraisal, which involves the joint
appraisal of employee performance by two or more supervisors familiar with the
employee’s performance (Caruth et al, 1988). Whilst peers are on equal standing with
one another, they may not work closely together. In a team setting, it may be nearly
impossible to separate out an individual’s contribution. Advocates of team appraisal

41
argue that, in such, cases, individual appraisal can be dysfunctional since it detracts
from the team’s critical issues (Sherman et al., 1998). There are many cases where an
employee works for two or more supervisors or works with one but interfaces across
organisational lines with several supervisors or managers. In those cases, this type of
appraisal is more appropriate since a collective appraisal is generally more accurate and
objective than one performed by a single appraiser who did not have the chance to see
the employees’ work in all areas (Caruth et al, 1988). Team appraisal represents one
way to break down barriers between individuals and encourage their collective effort
(Sherman et al., 1998).

Other techniques of appraisal that are commonly used include Overall assessment in
which a manager writes a report on the subordinate, hopefully to provide him or her
with some guidelines. The assessment may or may not be seen and commented upon
by the employee (Kempton, 1995). This method is less structured and confining than
other forms of appraisal. It permits the appraiser to examine any aspect of
performance. Appraisers can therefore place whatever degree of emphasis on issues
they consider as important. The process is open-ended and flexible, and there is no
assumption that employee traits can be neatly dissected or scaled (Anon, 1999).
According to Oberg (1990), the biggest drawback of this appraisal technique is the
variance in the lengths of the essays and their content; because essays discuss different
aspects of one’s performance or personal qualifications, it becomes difficult to compare
or combine essay ratings. In addition, this method is time consuming, and its biggest
advantage, freedom of expression, is also its greatest handicap. Last but not least, the
appraiser’s writing skills can distort the process (Anon, 1999). The following essays
referred to by Oberg are the overall assessment reports written by the appraiser.

One appraisal technique, which differs from the previously discussed ones, is the
Upward Appraisal. Individual members or subordinates are asked to complete a
performance appraisal on their supervisors. The question is whether the organisational
appraisal procedures allow employees the opportunity to assess their managers’

42
performance (Grote, 1996). A basic idea inherent therein is that people who work
under others are the best judges of their superiors (Kempton, 1995). However,
according to Levinson (1991) most managers do not want to be evaluated by their
subordinates, the following renders upward appraisal very difficult. Vecchio (1995)
argues that subordinates often believe that they are not in the best position to observe
their supervisor’s performance. Upward appraisal will work in an organisation that has
a culture of trust and openness. Staff feel ‘empowered’ and they feel that what say
matters and will be taken seriously (Kempton, 1995). Students in higher educational
institutions might also feel empowered. Advocates of this approach suggest that
evaluations by subordinates will make supervisors more conscientious in carrying out
their responsibilities effectively. Other advantages are also attributed to this appraisal
technique, for example, since employees are much in contact with their bosses, they
tend to see performance related behavior not seen by the manager’s boss (Gibson et al.,
1994). The following may apply to students in higher educational institutions. In
addition, it requires supervisors to interact with subordinates to reinforce the
organisation’s teamwork values (Auteri, 1994; Bemadin & Beatty, 1984). However, a
supervisor may become more concerned with the issue of popularity instead of
effective performance of the work unit (Caruth, et al, 1988). Also, there may be a fear
of reprisal from a boss given an unfavorable evaluation unless anonymity is guaranteed
(Robbins, 1998). Finally, when these types of appraisals are used for pay raise and
promotion decisions, managers may start basing hiring decisions on who might rate
them favorably. That is why, the following types of appraisal are used primarily for
management development purposes (Gibson, et al, 1994).

There exists a method that combines appraisal types. 360 degree appraisals are based
on feedback from the full circle of contacts that an employee may have in performing
their job. This may include bosses, peers or subordinates such as students in
educational institutions, etc. (Schermerhom et al., 1998). 360 degree evaluations fit
well into organisations that have introduced teams, employee involvement, and total
quality management programs (Robbins, 1998). The appraisal can be a combination of

43
peer, subordinate and self-appraisal methods (Gomez-Mejia et al, 1995). These
evaluations help managers by providing a wider range of performance-related feedback
than traditional evaluations i.e. self-review. For this reason this method is quickly
gaining importance and may someday be the rule rather than the exception. In addition,
with so many employees reporting to one manager, it has become more difficult for
supervisors to judge each individual’s performance accurately. The immediate
supervisor’s assessment has become synchronous with today’s emphasis on teamwork
and participative management (Gomez-Mejia et al, 1995). However, 360 degree
appraisal must be carefully managed so that its focus remains on constructive, rather
than destructive criticism (Moorhead and Griffen, 1998). 360 degree evaluation system
will be discussed in more details next.

There is also an approach to job analysis named the Critical incidents. According to
McMahon and Carter (1990), the job analysis investigates both the current job and the
future job. Furthermore, it breaks the job to actions and analyses the relation between
every activity in the job. Critical incidents can be thus used as a method of appraisal.
It is not strictly or necessarily an appraisal technique. It could be used in any appraisal
method. It is one of the behavioral methods that have been developed to specifically
describe which actions should or should not be exhibited on the job (Sherman et al.,
1998). Its objective is to identify critical job tasks, which are important duties, and job
responsibilities that lead to job success (Sherman et al., 1998). It looks at key incidents
that were outstandingly good or bad and analyzes the critical points. Therefore, a
critical incident occurs when employee behavior results in unusual success or failure in
some part of the job. After the appraiser and the appraised have been examined, the
remedies and solutions are then sought (Kempton, 1995). This approach is excellent
for employee development and feedback (Schermerhom et al., 1998). Not only do
individuals receive meaningful feedback on their performance, but they understand
exactly what needs to be done differently in the future. The employee may not agree
with the supervisor’s standards, but there is no question about the expectation (Grote,
1996). The list of incidents recorded provides a set of examples that may be used to

44
show the employee what behavior is desirable and what behavior should be improved
(Robbins, 1998). According to Oberg (1991), jotting down incidents on a daily or
weekly basis could become like a chore to the supervisor. In addition, this technique
may result in the supervisor delaying feedback to the employee, and it is well known
that confronting an employee must be done as quickly as possible. Last but not least,
Oberg argues that since the subordinate does not participate in setting the standards, he
or she will be less motivated than if he was allowed to at least agree to the standards.

However no references were found regarding the application of these appraisal

techniques in higher education. Computer-based information searches (for material
dated 1980-2001) were conducted using the keywords Self-Appraisal, Supervisor’s
Appraisal, Peer Group, Team Appraisal, Overall Assessment, Critical Incident, and
Upward Appraisal, each paired with Higher Educational Institutions and faculty
members. The search attempts were done through the following databases: Educational
Resources Information Center (ERIC), University of Michigan Index (UMI). The
researcher also searched through some indexes at LAU Library such as the Education
Index and Business Index. The search was conducted under Performance Appraisal
and Management titles, it returned no hits. Libraries located in Lebanon were also
scanned through the web view for relevant books and articles.

One important conclusion is that appraisal can be either a process of control or a means
of empowerment, or both (Gibson, et al., 1994; Auteri, 1994; Kempton, 1995). When
upward appraisal is being used, the result is greater empowerment for employees.
However, according to Levinson (1991) most managers do not want to be evaluated by
their subordinates. Moreover, supervisors may become more concerned with the issue
of popularity instead of effective performance of the work unit (Caruth, et al, 1988).

The self-appraisal technique is similar to the upward appraisal. The similarity is due to
the fact that the self-appraisal technique also leads to employee empowerment. The self
appraisal technique allows employees to personally add input in their appraisal, the

45
personal input results in employee development since employees start gaining insight
into the real causes of performance problems (Balkin and Cardy, 1995). In the upward
appraisal the bias is present because the employees tend to present a good image of
their supervisors to please them, however, according to Robbins (1998), in the self
appraisal the bias is present because employees tend to present a positive image of
themselves.

The self-appraisal technique and the critical incident technique are both used to
facilitate employee development (Gibson et al., 1994; Schermerhom et al, 1998).
However, the critical incident technique lacks participation of the appraisee in setting
the standards for appraisal and might thus be less motivating to follow (Oberg, 1991).

The self-appraisal and the upward appraisal techniques are contrasted with the peer
group appraisal, since the appraiser is neither the supervisor, nor the employee but the
actual peers that are closest to the action. Peer group appraisal is more comprehensive
than both the self-appraisal and the upward appraisal. According to Robbins (1998),
peer group appraisal is the most reliable source of appraisal since peers are the closest
to the action and their independent judgments make the evaluations more reliable.
However, as in the self-appraisal and the upward appraisal the bias is present on the
part of the appraiser. According to Robbins (1998), biases are present due to friendship
and animosity among peers.

The overall assessment technique is less structured and confining than other appraisal
methods. Overall assessment techniques allow the appraiser to place emphasis on
specific detailed aspects of performance appraisal. However, according to Annon
(1999), it is time consuming in comparison to other appraisal techniques.

46
The immediate supervisor is used when the upward appraisal and the self-review
technique do not resolve the performance problem. Unlike the self-appraisal where the
employees evaluate their performance in relation to set standards, the immediate
supervisor appraisal entails the filling up of appraisal forms by the supervisor.

Finally, the latest appraisal technique which is the 360 degree gives a wider range of
performance-related feedback than the traditional evaluation techniques. The 360
degree appraisal combines the upward appraisal with the peer appraisal and the
immediate supervisor appraisal. Regarding possible biases, the 360 degree appraisal
appears to be a fair source of information since the appraisers biases are minimized
(Kermally, 1997).

Using the 360 degree Appraisal and Feedback Method

“What your boss, your peers, and your subordinates really think of you may sting, but
facing the truth can also make you a better manager” (O’Reilly, 1994, pp. 56).

The newness and significance of this performance appraisal version necessitates more
elaboration, with emphasis being placed on the success of implementing this appraisal
scheme in educational setting.

360 degree feedback has the ability to improve the quality of information individuals
receive in regards to the quality of their performance (Grote, 1996). It creates an
opportunity for those closest to the work (or appraisee) to evaluate how well the
appraisal has been done and whether or not it can be done better.

360 degree feedback is new in higher education. It uses information from a wide range
of sources; Deans, Chairpersons, faculty members (colleagues), and students. This
evaluation method has been recently applied to higher education institutions and
consequently there are at present no references to its application in the field (University
of Wessex, 1998). However, the system has been used in large companies. A recent

47
survey cited by Robbins (2001) shows that about 12 percent of American organisations
are using full 360 degree programs, but the trend is growing. Companies currently
using this approach include Alcoa, Du Pont, Levi Strauss, Honeywell, UPS, Sprint,
Amoco, AT&T, W.L. Gore & Associates, and General Electric. Dean (1993) quoted
Jack Welch, the CEO of General Electric’s opinion about 360 degree feedback in the
‘Managing’ section of Fortune Magazine by stating “To embed our values we give our
people 360 degree feedback with input from superiors, peers and subordinates. These
are the roughest evaluations you can get, because people hear things about themselves
they’ve never heard before. But they get the input they need, and the chance to
improve. If they don’t improve they have to go” (p. 83).

360 degree appraisal systematically gathers feedback on various aspects of the subject’s
performance and behavior. It is fast growing approach that is fed by a realisation that
there are no other ways to obtain such “vivid and specific” information. The power of
360 degree is that the manager can no longer pretend not to know how he or she is seen,
or that information is partial, since they are receiving information from all sides and
from all directions. This method is mainly seen as a staff development tool rather than
a way of determining pay (University of Wessex, 1998).

This feedback method is based on receiving information from colleagues, supervisors,

and peers, i.e. all the groups of people that the appraisee comes in close contact with
whilst performing his or her tasks (Kermally, 1997; Anon, 1998). The information can
be collected through questionnaires, and the feedback is then returned anonymously.
Although questionnaires may result in incomplete answers, misunderstood questions, or
frivolous responses (Drever, 1995), they are more preferred than interviewing. This is
because it is more feasible to use questionnaires as they are less time consuming than
interviews. Interviews are time-consuming in terms of completing the interview and
processing. With questionnaires the processing of results is more straightforward.
However, interviews give high-quality data as the interviewer can explain any
ambiguities and correct any misunderstandings (Drever, 1995).

48
In a higher education setting, the Chairperson or the Dean would then sit with the
individual to analyze the feedback. In a university setting 360 degree feedback might
be summarized in the following flow chart.

Figure 2-2
360 degree feedback

Chairperson

Students Appraisee Dean

Faculty members
Colleagues

In order to carry out performance appraisal, institutions need to develop their own
instrument since it might concentrate on specific characteristics or attributes that need
to be assessed, e.g. to measure accountability of faculty members. Parry (1995 cited in
Grote, 1996) identified the specific accountabilities that might appear in the job
description of virtually every college Professor: teaching; research; writing; counseling
students; professional development and service to the university. Therefore, the
instrument can incorporate these aforementioned criteria to measure the performance of
a faculty member in higher education.

360 degree feedback has the ability to improve the quality of information individuals
receive about their performance. With pencil and paper or on their computer each
individual fills out a lengthy anonymous questionnaire about another. Everything can
be probed: personality; the way a person deals with others; leadership skills, talents,

49
values and ethics. A week or two later, the person being assessed is given the results
and the chance to compare how his or her self-perception squares with those who know
him or her best. The Chairperson or the Dean can help the appraisee change-if
anything is required-with respect to the results. Most people will be surprised by the
results (O’Reilly, 1994), but they still have to be prepared to listen to and accept other
people’s opinion of them and willing to modify their tactics in response “Willingness
is the primary determinant of how much change will result” (Grote, 1996, p. 289).

360 degree appraisal has a sound theoretical base because it has built into it a form of
triangulation which helps to ensure the validity in data collection and reliability of
findings. Triangulation may be defined as the use of two or more methods of data
collection in the study of some aspect of human behavior. Triangular techniques in the
social science attempt to map out, or explain more fully, the richness and complexity of
human behavior by studying it from more than one stand point (Denzin, 1970;
Coolican, 1996). It is also argued that triangular techniques will help to overcome the
problem of “method-boundedness” as it has been termed (Cohen and Manion, 1994, p.
234). It is implied that 360 degree feedback is similar to the process of triangulation
since it uses information from a wide range of sources on various aspects of the
subject’s performance and behavior (see Figure 2-2). The following, minimizes bias
due to the broad spectrum of appraisers rather than an exclusive reliance on one source
(Coolican, 1996). An example could be the Immediate Supervisor appraisal whereby
bosses may feel incapable of fairly evaluating the unique contributions of each
subordinate.

The advantages of 360 degree feedback are numerous. Feedback provides a

comprehensive viewpoint on the impact an individual has over people he or she is
working with. It also gives individuals the opportunity to benchmark his or her
perception of themselves against that of others. For all extents and purposes it appears
a fair source of information as bias is minimized (Kermally, 1997) due to triangulation
and the broad spectrum of appraisers.

50
However, like all appraisal methods 360 degree evaluation has certain disadvantages.
To date there have been problems in most schemes, the process is time consuming and
to analyze the retrieved data there must be trained researchers (Longnecker, 1989;
Gomez-Mejia et al., 1995; Kermally, 1997). The decisions involved in whether to
change the manager with whom employees are not satisfied, needs careful evaluation,
e.g. if all the subordinates are happy, but the superiors are unhappy, in which direction
must the appraisal move? Also the possibility of vindictiveness by appraisees must be
addressed in a way to remove the ‘I got a bad review so I am going to give you one in
return’.

Despite these drawbacks, electronic 360 degree assessment instruments will probably
replace paper-based systems before too long (Grote, 1996). Computer-developed
assessment processes allow the input of far more raters to be collected and analyzed
than is feasible manually. They allow a large amount of variables to be included in the
collated data, they distinguish people who have known the ratee for a long time
compared with people who are of a more recent acquaintance (Grote, 1996), they
compare the appraisee’s with other colleagues, and they separate the male’s opinion
from the female’s. This can be carried out using a statistical package, for example
SPSS.

To successfully implement a 360 degree feedback system into an educational setting,

firstly the system must be carefully thought out before it is implemented. All of the
employees must be informed of how this system would work and what are the reasons
for introducing it, as knowledge usually aids compliance (Karkoulian, 2000). To
reduce the risk of prejudice and bias, 360 degree feedback can be introduced as part of
a management development initiative, and participants are encouraged to focus not only
on tasks but on relationships (Kermally, 1997). The next stage involves thorough
training of staff who will conduct the appraisals, for they need to be instructed on
collating the data, analyzing it, and promoting the system throughout the institution. It

51
is fundamental to positively market the method in order to encourage participants
openness with regard to being the appraiser and the appraisee, and ensuring that
participants are actually willing to be part of the project (Robbins, 2001).

Robert Bums said “O wad some Power the giftie gie us; To see ourseles as ithers see
us!” (Bums, 1785). 360 degree feedback provides this gift. It allows the appraisee to
see himself or herself as others see them. It is more powerful than the immediate
supervisor appraisal and can help in the development of faculty members. Most of the
participants prefer to have a multi-rater process because it minimizes bias and hence
creates a system whereby they are more fairly evaluated. The fairness of evaluation is a
highly important factor in the appraisal, since the results may affect salary increase and
promotion.

In conclusion the literatures on appraisal indicated that the most outstanding form of
appraisal is 360 degree as it eliminates bias and provides a near accurate appraisal.
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of a given appraisal
system should depend on the appraisal’s primary purpose (Gomez-Mejia et al., 1995).

Views of Appraisal in Higher Education

The best anyone can hope is to match an appropriate appraisal method to a particular
performance appraisal goal. One of the main performance appraisal goals is job
enhancement and professional growth for the individual and in effect for the
organisation as a whole. Studies have been conducted in Higher Educational
institutions; the study by Hutchinson at the University of Ulster (1995), the study at the
University of Wessex (1998), and the study by Rutherford at the University of
Birmingham (1988). The following section is designed to reference studies conducted
at higher educational institutions by Haslam, Bryman and Webb (1992; 1993a; 1993b),
and Smith (1995).

52
Smith (1995) refers to the start of appraisal in British universities as being fostered by
the Jarrett Report to the Committee of Vice Chancellors who proposed that universities
should adopt a more systematic and management style of governance. In February
1987 the ‘23rd Report’ from Committee ‘A’ of the CVCP (Committee of Vice-
Chancellors and Principals), the committee which recommends national salary scales to
the Government, stated its commitment to a systematic staff appraisal. The following
was a condition of the 1987 pay settlement. Implementation of appraisal has been
variable and studies started since then to evaluate university staff appraisal schemes in
various universities.

Staff opinion regarding the introduction of a performance appraisal system within a

university setting was examined in 1992 by Haslam, Bryman and Webb (Haslam et al.
1992). The study involved a national telephone survey of all the institutions and four in
depth case studies in selected universities, the researchers used questionnaires and
interviews with appraisers, appraisees and senior managers. They reported mixed
feelings towards the introduction with some staff being positive, whilst others felt quite
skeptical about the aims of appraisal and its implications for career development within
academia. Staff in favor of appraisal regarded the emphasis of the scheme on the
individual staff development, they expected to benefit in terms of clarifying
expectations and providing useful feedback. Moreover, they felt that systematic
appraisal may end up in greater accountability, improved motivation, and the
identification of training needs. On the other hand, the appraisal process was viewed,
by some participants, as time consuming, costly to administer, and possibly having
adverse effect on staff morale. Many noted that the appraisal process is not supported
by ample opportunities for career advancement, hence they were skeptical about its
greater efficiency potential and improved staff performance.

53
In 1993, Haslam, Bryman and Webb (1993a) conducted a study that was designed to
evaluate staff appraisal schemes as they began to operate in British universities. The
study involved a national telephone survey of all the institutions and four in depth case
studies in selected universities, the researchers used questionnaires and interviews with
appraisers, appraisees and senior managers. The study recognised the response of the
university to the need of developing staff appraisal systems and established the aims
and objectives of the schemes as well as their impact at the institution itself. The staff
that favored the introduction of an appraisal system emphasized the identification of
additional training, the potential for increased staff motivation and the need for both the
university and staff to be more accountable for their actions.

Haslam, Bryman and Webb (1993b) reviewed the “Function of Performance Appraisal
in United Kingdom Universities” at the Departments of Epidemiology and Public
Health, Leicester University UK and the Department of Social Sciences, Loughborough
University, UK. The study involved a national telephone survey of all universities and
university colleges and four in depth case studies in selected universities, the
researchers used questionnaires and interviews with appraisers, appraisees and senior
managers. The study concluded that in general university staff feel that appraisal has
little impact on their motivation, efficiency and performance: which provided a
valuable picture of performance appraisal in universities in the United Kingdom as it
displayed the concerns of the staff regarding promotion and merit awards. One possible
reason for the little observed impact may be the ambiguity of intentions surrounding
staff appraisal conduced in universities, since staff appraisal is neither a management
tool, nor a focus on staff development. However, the staff did recognise the benefits of
an appraisal system and believed that it should be included in the future planning of
departments.

An additional contemporary study titled “Staff Appraisal in Higher Education” was

conducted at Nene College, Northampton (Smith 1995). The study used questionnaires
and semi structured interviews. Questionnaires were circulated to appraisers and

54
appraisees. In the survey result, most appraisees thought that their appraisers should be
their line managers) rather than peers and that classroom observations should be
included as part of the appraisal system to create a fair result. The comparison of the
survey results with appraisal experiences in other institutions confirmed major issues of
concern, which included the importance of organizational commitment, the provision of
adequate resources, the effects on the role of department heads, the setting and
communication of clear and limited goals, the consistency of good practice, the
provision of adequate follow up to appraisal interviews and the costs incurred in the
operation of appraisal system.

Each of these articles provided useful information into the current situation of appraisal
in higher education. They highlighted key issues that were at the center of the debate
for the introduction of different appraisal methods at higher educational institutions and
gave constructive viewpoints from their respective institutions.

Professional Development
The initial point for relating professional and organisational development to
performance should be needs identification measured against performance criteria
(Riches, 1997). Professional development is one aspect of learning and a way in which
practitioners can understand the need to change. This involves continual learning,
whether formally or informally (Nicholls, 2001). Professional development may be
defined not only as an outcome of individual benefit but rather a means of facilitating
the attainment of other educational objectives (e.g. improvement in the quality of
student learning experience) (O’Neill, 1994b). Professional development has many
aspects and facets to its name. Within higher education much of the discussion relates
to learning, whether this be life-long learning, organizational learning or discipline-
based learning. Higher education concentrates on learning, both of students and
academics (Nicholls, 2001). Professional development is a continuing process that
consists of activities that enhance professional growth. It may include workshops,
conferences, researches, and consultation with peers and experts. Since its primary

55
purpose is to benefit the individual, professional development should be planned and
managed by the individual (Imel, 1990). Professional development plans also provide a
framework for the discipline and commitment needed to achieve the planned changes
inherent in any professional development program (Jones and Lowe, 1985). In an
educational setting, professional development is embedded in the reality of schools and
the educators’ work and designed with educators’ input (Clair and Temple, 1999).
According to the authors, professional development, if effective, fosters critical
reflection and meaningful collaboration. They also conclude that there is a growing
evidence that professional development approaches, which are guided by teacher input
and that view teacher learning as continual and transformative makes schools a better
place for students and staff (Clair and Temple, 1999).

Bollington, et al. (1990) highlighted the connection between appraisal and school
development. They suggest that linking appraisal and school review can result in a
more powerful school improvement strategy because teachers can set their own
appraisal within the context of the school’s appraisal. Therefore, appraisal can be
viewed as developmental (Stoll and Fink, 1996). As asserted by Bell (1988a), the
rationale behind the introduction of any staff appraisal system into a primary school is
its main intention to provide opportunities for the educator’s professional development.
According to Hutchinson (1995), staff appraisal not only ensures that every member of
staff is fulfilling their job requirements, but it actually improves their performance;
thereby, contributing to the raising of educational standards.

At this point it is important to discuss staff development and see whether there exist any
differences between staff and professional development. Staff development often has
been based on a model of individual deficiency (Shroyer, 1990). According to this
model, staff development provides faculty members with knowledge and skills they
lack. In addition, staff development has generally treated teacher learning and
improvement as an individual responsibility (Smylie and Conyers, 1991). Even though
mentoring and coaching make staff development a more collective activity, such

56
techniques continue to suggest that problems of practice and their solutions reside at the
level of the individual educator (Little, 1990). Jones and Lowe (1985) propose that
staff development provides the means for Instructors to experience continuing
education as part of a team professional. Staff development in this definition is viewed
as related to the needs of staff within a given institution. Staff development targets the
whole staff with emphasis on the priorities of the institution or functional groups on a
medium-term basis (O’Neill, 1994b). However, professional development is the
broader career and personal development of the individual (Jones and Lowe, 1985). It
targets individuals or groups having similar needs for the purpose of career-oriented
personal needs with the focus being placed on a longer-term. (O’Neill, 1994b).

The future of staff development is perceived to be set around important changes that
likely enhance its effectiveness. Instead of addressing individual deficiencies in
knowledge and skills, staff development will begin from the base of teachers’
competencies and build upon them. Another important change is the shift of staff
development from an individual to a collective endeavor based on the belief that
teachers are jointly responsible for their work and that their wisdom and experiences
are professional resources (Smylie and Conyers, 1991). Collaboratively, faculty
members can identify and define problems, study them, and craft and assess solutions.
The growing demands on educators suggest that teaching can no longer be viewed as an
individual activity. It must be considered a collective enterprise. Educators will have
to work and learn together to be successful in their classes (Smylie and Conyers, 1991).
If teachers are to meet the rapidly changing needs of their students, their practice cannot
be prescribed or standardized (Devaney and Sykes, 1988). The immediate goal of staff
development is to improve performance, whilst the ultimate goal is to improve quality
of teaching and learning (Bolam, 1987).

According to Abdal-Haqq (1996), for many years, educators have used university
course work to improve individual skills and quality for salary increases, and to meet
certification requirements. Professional development rewarded educators with personal

57
and professional growth, greater job security and career advancement. However, in
recent years we have seen growing appreciation not just for individual development but
for the potential impact of professional development on the overall educational
institution (Abdal-Haqq, 1996). Moreover, professional development is a development
perspective where the dominant center is the professional capability (O’Neil 1994b).

The performance development system requires supervisors to regard the needs of staff
development (Murdoch University, 2001). Performance development plans require
resources. These resources might include print and non-print material and staff
development opportunities like workshops and conferences (Imel, 1990). Effective
professional development occurs in a school or college environment, which encourages
individuals and groups of staff to engage in and then have successful experience of
problem solving within the institution (Holly and Southworth, 1989). This would be
followed by feedback session, which is an important aspect of successful professional
development (Smith and Bowes, 1986).
Professional development has been addressed in higher educational institutions with
more effective development planning processes. A staff development policy should be
made in order to provide opportunities for faculty members to pursue their own
learning needs as well as educational institutional needs. According to Bush and
Middlewood (1997), such a policy will ensure that time is provided for discussion,
reflection, mutual observation, curriculum development and coaching and mentoring
activities, as well as the more workshops, conferences and researches i.e. more
publications.

Based on a study by Alfano (1994), some of the USA community colleges have
developed strategies for faculty development and have tied faculty development to the
evaluation process. For example, Oklahoma Junior College has developed a novel
approach as part of a peer evaluation process. Peer coaching, which is assumed to
guarantee a non-threatening environment, is linked to a complementary staff
development program. The Minor-Preston peer coaching model allows Instructors to

58
receive direct instruction from their expert colleagues and to keep important long-term
faculty experience from being lost from the college (Minor and Preston, 1991 as cited
in Alfano, 1994). Collaborative and individual staff should be involved in identifying
their professional developmental needs. The following will in turn lead to a better
appraisal.

Mentoring
Mentoring to enhance professional preparation is not a new idea. It can be traced back
to ancient Greece and Homer’s Odyssey, where Mentor was the teacher entrusted by
Odysseus to tutor his son, Telemachus (Lattimore, 1967). This provides an image of
the wise and patient counselor serving to shape and guide the lives of younger
colleagues. This image is described in many recent definitions of mentoring (Bush,
1995). Ashbum et al. (1987, p. 1) defined mentoring as “the establishment of a
personal relationship for the purpose of professional instruction and guidance”.
Philips-Jones (1982, p. 21) referred to mentors as “influential people who significantly
help you reach your major life goals”.

Mentoring, a form of training can be defined as a relationship between an experienced

and a less experienced person in which the mentor provides guidance, support, and
feedback to the mentee (learner) (Haney, 1997). Mentorship is part of the nurturing
needed by adults at different career and life stages (Daresh and Playko, 1992a).
Mentoring is useful, especially for new faculty members, in understanding and learning
about the organisational culture (Luna and Cullen, 1995; Bierema, 1996). It is a
particularly labour-intensive and intimate form of professional induction where much
of the work is carried out on a one-to-one basis. Mentor training places trainer and
trainee in a close personal relationship, which includes feedback and negotiating the
trainee profile of professional development (Brooks, 1996). Hence, mentoring is a
means to support professional growth and development, which in turn empowers
faculty members as individuals, and thus benefits the educational institution (Luna and
Cullen, 1995; Bush and Middlewood, 1997). Luna and Cullen (1995) argue that

59
mentoring provides access to informal and formal networks of communication.
Mentoring in both formal and informal settings can be very powerful in encouraging a
climate of equal opportunities. In professional development, especially of women, it
provides individuals with someone who can give feedback, an opportunity for
discussion and critical feedback (Bush and Middlewood, 1997).

During the early 1990’s, potential value of mentoring as a feature of professional

development for educational personnel was more thoroughly appreciated (Krupp, 1984
as cited in Daresh and Playko, 1992a). Wise, mature mentors have always been around
to help new teachers learn their craft in ways that were not usually covered in teacher
training programs (Gehrke and Kay, 1984). Focus is placed, with considerable
regularity and visibility in educational institutions, on the development of formal,
structured, contrived, and institutionally supported mentoring programs. Mentorship
has become the central focus of many proposals to improve induction for beginning
educators for the potential value derived from mentoring programs. Mainly, teachers
are becoming more effective, gaining self-confidence, learning technical aspects of
their jobs, understanding better the expectations of administrators, developing
creativity, and working effectively with others (Daresh and Playko, 1992a).

In the past, mentoring typically happened when experienced people recognized and
developed new talent or when beginners sought the counsel of knowledgeable elders.
Now under the new mentoring paradigm, proteges are better educated but still need a
mentor’s practical know-how and wisdom that can be acquired only experientially.
Therefore, many organisations are instituting formal mentoring programs as a cost-
effective way to upgrade skills, enhance recruitment and retention, and increase job
satisfaction (Jossi, 1997).

In teaching institutions mentoring programs pair novice teachers with outstanding

experienced teachers who can explain school policies and practices, share methods and
materials, and help solve problems (Anon, 1995). By utilizing the knowledge of ‘old-

60
hands’, the novice can perhaps learn and be guided in quicker and easier fashion than if
left to themselves. Preliminary and concurrent training or consultancy is essential if
headteachers and teachers are to be adequately prepared for, and supported in, the tasks
of development planning or any related approach to the management of change and
school improvement (Hargreaves and Hopkins, 1994).

It is highly encouraged that mentoring programs be promoted as a way to bring

experienced headteachers together with less experienced colleagues. In the UK,
relationship between classroom teachers and headteacher is maintained, and the
headteacher is viewed as a member of the instructional team and not as an outside
administrator (O’Neill, 1994a). However, in the USA there is a tendency to look at the
role of the principal as a person allied with formal administrative responsibility quite
distinct from the roles and expectations of teachers. Despite some of the differences
among the traditional practices of educational management in the USA and the UK,
there is a common appreciation value for mentoring schemes that may be available for
individuals in the earliest stages of their careers (O’Neill, 1994a).

Daresh and Playko (1990) have found some of the most important characteristics for
effective mentors. Good mentors should be in the first place good educators and good
motivators. They should be sensible to the individual needs and stated goals of those
being mentored. That is to say mentors have to be caring and giving people who are
truly committed to the enhancement of the professional lives of beginners. Effective
mentors are able to ask right questions to those with whom they work and not just
provide right answers. Most importantly, to be effective, mentors should try to express
the desire to see people go beyond their present levels of performance, even if it might
mean that they will be able to perform better than the mentors themselves. Mainly,
mentors must accept other ways of performance, and avoid the temptation of telling
candidates that the right way to do something is ‘the way I used to do it’. According to
Montgomery (1991), even when individuals want to serve as mentors and possess all
the desirable characteristics of effective mentors, they still need additional training to

61
carry out this crucial role. Training includes activities related to the identification of
alternative leadership styles, interpersonal communication skills, and effective
instructional leadership practices. One area identified as important in training is the
area of interpersonal skills which appears to be the quality that counts most in
mentoring (Brooks, 1996). Although some mentors may be naturally equipped with the
skills of mentoring, such stock of natural talent cannot be relied on to achieve effective
mentoring. Therefore, there is a need for training which can build skills, knowledge
and qualities which are additional to those needed for effective educators but which
may enhance educator effectiveness (Sampson and Yeomans, 1994).

Given the importance of relationships in learning, none of the mentor’s roles can be
effective if the mentor lacks the ability to form appropriate helpful relationships. Help
in the educator’s role in mentoring has a very different meaning from the normal social
sense of the word. This type of help, as in helping someone to learn, has been variously
described. Williams and Burden (1997) call it ‘mediating’, Tomlinson (1995) refers to
it as ‘influencing’. Freeman’s (1990) term ‘intervention’ describes what mentors do,
since it highlights the idea that everything a mentor says, does, or even arguably is, will
make a difference to a mentee’s development. In the educator’s role, helpful behavior
might include, encouraging explicit talk about the mentee’s beliefs, and providing
selected data either from observational, theory or the mentor’s own experience. This is
designed to challenge and provide the mentee with a more complete conceptualization
of the particular teaching focus in question (Malderez and Bodoczky, 1999).

“By not mentoring, we are wasting talent” (Wright and Wright, 1987, p. 207). Faculty
mentoring focuses on developing and empowering faculty members and benefiting the
educational institution that leads to commitment within the university. In such an
institution, university wide climate for mentoring must be established with faculty
members’ assistance and input. They must be involved in the design and
implementation of strategies and plans for mentoring. Mentoring might need to address
the concerns and needs of new female and minority faculty members so that they feel

62
comfortable within the academic environment, which has implications beyond the
scope and content of this research (Luna and Cullen, 1995). Therefore, mentoring
becomes a general rule that is central to the operation of a higher institution since it is
an activity which will be of benefit to all (Wilkin, 1992). Faculty members should
strive to develop their capacity to learn from and support the learning of others.
Mentors may also guide the professional development of new faculties by promoting
reflection and fostering the norms of collaboration and shared inquiry (Feiman-Nemser
and Parker, 1992). Mentoring also provides a unique source of personalized
information that is specific for the task at hand. It may have taken the mentor two years
to come to terms with a difficult task but he or she can pass on this information and the
trainee can learn in a shorter period of time and hence improve their professional
growth.

The success of mentoring depends on the strength of the interpersonal relationships and
the informality of the process. Mentoring, both formal and informal, can be very
powerful in encouraging a climate of equal opportunities and in the mentors
professional development (Coleman, 1997). According to Kerka (1997), mentoring
supports much of what is currently known about how individuals learn, including the
socially constructed nature of learning and the importance of experiential, situated
learning experiences. Learning is most effective when situated in a context where new
knowledge and skills will be used and individuals construct meaning for themselves
within the context of interaction with others. Functioning as experts, mentors provide
authentic, experiential learning opportunities as well as an intense interpersonal
relationship through which social learning takes place (Kerka, 1998).

Gender and M entoring

As organisational diversity increases, the question whether mentoring is a vehicle for
assimilation and exclusion arises. The personal relationship at heart of mentoring can
be problematic when mentor and mentee are of different genders (Kerka, 1998).
Ensher and Murphy (1997) found that perceived and actual similarity affected the

63
amount of instrumental and psychological support mentors provided as well as the
protege’s level of satisfaction. Although there are variances within geographic regions,
ethnicities, and occurring changes, there is still a reinforced general dominant culture
regarding gender (Birge et al., 1995). As aforementioned, the emphasis of mentoring
relationships is to build significant connections between mentor and mentee.
Therefore, it is important to shed some light on how men and women communicate
differently when setting up the structures of mentoring programs. Verbal
communication is the most often identified, and differences in this area were
recognized (Birge, et al., 1995). For example, women tend to organize their talk co­
operatively, whilst men tend to organize their talk competitively (Coates, 1986). Men
and women both interrupt but they do it in different ways. Men interrupt most often in
an attempt to steer the conversation toward their own point, whilst women will interrupt
with nods and noises of affirmation most often in an attempt to support and give
encouragement to the speaker (Tannen, 1990). Therefore, when cross-gender
relationships are anticipated, gender specific styles of communication should be
introduced in orientation and training so that the mentor and the mentee have a high
potential to fully benefit from the relationship (Birge, et al., 1995).

A Model to Conclude Performance Appraisal

In any organisational setting effective communication is essential to create a general
atmosphere of understanding and to enhance employee contributions (Sherman et al.,
1998). According to Sherman et al. (1998), providing an inadequate communication
system is the most frequent mistake that companies make during implementation. It is
essential therefore to discuss a model that could support performance appraisal. Figure
2-3 summarizes the performance appraisal. The following model was designed to
support faculty members with a better understanding of performance appraisal in higher
educational institutions. The researcher developed the Performance Appraisal model on
the basis of the reviewed literature presented in this chapter. The model serves as a
conclusion to the literature review on performance appraisal

64
 Figure 2-3

A Model of Performance Appraisal

r
Mentoring

Professional
Development

Appraisee
IForm of Face to Face Performance Organisational
Appraisal Report
Appraisers Appraisal Interview Review Development

NOISE
Staff
Development

Feedback

65
The model commences with the identification of the appraiser. The main concern at this
stage is who should perform the appraisal. Interestingly, the increased number of
appraisees is expected to cancel biases and combine perspectives to end up with a
complete picture of the appraisee’s performance. Appraisees who occupy different
organizational positions tend to perceive different aspects of an individual’s
performance, when the variations are taken together the result is a more complete
appraisal (Mohrman et al., 1989; Middlewood, 1997).

The second step in the model is choosing the appropriate appraisal form, which may
include 360 degree appraisal, upward appraisal, team appraisal, peer group appraisal,
etc. According to the literature review, 360 degree could be used as the best form of
appraisal in higher educational institutions. Chairpersons, deans, supervisors, other
faculty members’ colleagues, and students are involved in the 360 degree appraisal
process (University of Wessex, 1998).

Following the selection of the appraisal form, the appraiser conducts face-to-face
interviews with the appraisee. During the interview the appraiser explores key points,
which may include:

• Achievements in personal and professional developments

• Last year’s objectives (successes, difficulties and changes, etc.)
• Skills and strengths on current job
• Other skill, abilities, and strengths
• Key objectives in the job for the next 12 months
• Development and training needs
• Obstacles
• Medium and long term development

(University of Wessex, 1998)

66
These discussion points appear to concur with the appraisal interview questions
suggested by Bell (1992, pp. 136-137) when discussing the staff appraisal in secondary
schools. The questions deal with the teacher performance in the present post.
Moreover, if the interview covers future opportunities, the areas to be explored then can
include opportunities like new tasks, more demanding jobs, and possible ways to
develop new skills.

At the performance review phase the collected information from various questionnaires
along with the results of the face-to-face interviews will be analyzed by the
Chairperson or the one in charge of this procedure and translated into a form that can be
understood by the receiver (appraisee). The performers can assess how well they are
performing through the received oral or written comments, the achieved results, and the
performance factors that contributed to their accomplishment and development (Grote,
1996).

The fifth phase of the performance appraisal cycle is the appraisee, where the
performance review is delivered to inform the appraisee about his or her performance
and potential (Grote, 1996). Some companies do not communicate the appraisal results
to the individual, despite the general conviction that subordinates have a right to know
their superior’s opinion in order to correct their weaknesses (McGregor, 1990).

This probably results in a feedback loop. At this point the appraisee transmits his or her
response to the appraiser. Feedback checks the success in understanding the message.
The appraisee responds by either changing his or her performance or by continuing to
perform in the same manner. At this stage the appraiser will observe one of these
reactions: agreement, disagreement or apathy. The appraisee might become defensive
if he or she receives a negative appraisal or criticism. However, some appraisees agree
on the appraisal result and in effect will work to improve their performance. In case of
negligence, the appraisee reacts neutrally without intending to change his or her
performance (Robbins, 2001).

67
However, if feedback is provided only during an annual performance review, it is
probably not timely enough to be effective. Moreover, a feedback that is not specific,
e.g. “good job”, will fail to make its contribution to the effectiveness of the human
performance system (Rummler and Brache, 1995, p. 72). A manager or analyst
therefore must be able to adopt the formal performance appraisal form or process. The
following will accommodate for people by getting the feedback they need when they
actually need it (Rummler and Brache, 1995).

Throughout this system noise will interfere. The term noise generally refers to the
concept of noise that is related to personality and perceptual or attitudinal individual
differences, which compound and complicate to a varying degree the ability of
individuals to trust one another. Many noises could occur during the process ranging
from emotions, to language, to selective perception, etc. The following could lead to
misunderstanding between individuals (Kreitner and Kinicki, 1998). To minimize
noise, better understanding of appraisal systems and forms by both the appraiser and
the appraisees is recommended.

The model further links appraisal to staff, professional and organisational development.
Appraisers should have a responsibility to ensure the appraisees development (Fiedler,
1995). According Mohrman et al., (1989), clear and explicit instructions on how to
conduct appraisal and how to develop performance are crucial.

The model links appraisal to professional development. The initial point relating
professional development to performance should be needs identification measured
against performance criteria (Riches, 1997). As asserted by Bell (1998a), the rationale
behind the introduction of any staff appraisal system in a primary school is its main
intention to provide opportunities for the educator’s professional development.
The performance appraisal model further links appraisal to staff development.
According to Stoll and Fink (1996), appraisal can be viewed as developmental.
Furthermore, appraisal is mainly seen as a staff development tool rather than a method
of determining pay (University of Wessex, 1998).

The model finally links performance appraisal to organisational development.

Bollington, et al. (1990) highlighted the connection between appraisal and school
development. They assume that linking appraisal to school review can result in a more
powerful school improvement strategy.

Mentoring is integrated in the performance appraisal model. Kelly et al., (1992), cited
in Coleman (1997), state that potentially a very strong link exists between mentoring
and staff development. Mentoring and coaching makes staff development a more
collective activity (Little, 1990). Moreover, mentoring is related to professional
development. According to Coleman (1997), the impact of mentoring may reach
beyond the induction process and become grounded in wider professional development.
Moreover, according to Luna and Cullen (1995), mentoring also empowers faculty
members as individuals, and thus ultimately benefits the educational institution.

The performance appraisal model may be summarized by the following quotations:

“The introduction of an appraisal system directed towards developing staff potential,

assisting in the improvement of performance and enhancing career and promotion
opportunities, thereby improving the performance of the institution as a whole” (Smith,
1995, p. 189).

“Performance enhancement through staff development and school development still for
me remain the most important targets in introducing an appraisal scheme and all the
school staff should become part of the process” (Montgomery, 1991, p.42).

69
By using the suggested model (Figure 2-3), a university could improve its performance
appraisal. In effect, appraisal provides a situation where efforts are acknowledged and
feedback on performance given. The following leads to “better understanding between
manager and staff’ (Edis 1995, p. 62).

Conclusion
Model 2-3 developed by the researcher serves as a conclusion to the literature review,
for it summarizes the performance appraisal process in addition to the outcome of the
appraisal on the organisation and its members. The literature review in turn shaped the
objectives and four of the key questions of this study. Key question one deals with the
appraisal system at LAU, and the impact of the current appraisal scheme on promotion
and motivation, which were thoroughly discussed in the literature review chapter
specifically in the section titled The Purpose of Appraisal. Moreover, key question two
dealt with the relation between appraisal and the appraisee and the role of the
department heads in the appraisal scheme, the following was covered in three sections
titled Management By Objectives, Human Resource Management, and Performance
Management. Key question four dealt with professional development as a tool for
empowerment, growth and promotion, which were in turn reviewed in the Professional
Development section. Key question five dealt with faculty members’ involvement in
decision making and how mentoring helps promote professional development, which
was also reviewed in the Mentoring section and in the Professional Development
section.

Presently, in Lebanon, no research is conducted with respect to performance appraisal

within higher educational institutions. On the other hand according to Middlewood
(1997, p. 171) “Appraisal of teachers and lecturers is well established in schools,
colleges and universities in the UK, USA and Australia”. Therefore, it is essential to
implement performance appraisal research in Lebanon. The following implementation
is expected to further improve universities and thus position higher education
institutions at the center of educational excellence. Educational institutions cannot be

70
taken seriously with claims “to have concerns for people and educational standards if it
does not apply to itself a proper consideration of its performance” (Bush and
Middlewood, 1997, p. 169).

The researcher constructed a questionnaire and conducted semi-structured interviews in

order to establish an effective appraisal system within a Lebanese university setting.
The following chapter discusses the methodology of the thesis.

71
 Chapter Three
Methodology and Research Design

This chapter details the methodology, and the sample size, and discusses the construction,
implementation and analysis of the questionnaire and the semi-structured interviews.

Focus and purpose of Investigation

The focus of this investigation is performance appraisal in higher education at LAU. As
a full-time faculty member at LAU the author was well placed to pursue discussions
about performance appraisal in higher education.

The research began in September 1998 when the first requests for interviewing were
presented to the Dean of the Business School as well as the Director of Personnel at
LAU. They were both interested in the research topic and requested a finalized copy of
the study. Permission to carry out the new plan investigation (the semi-structured
interview and the questionnaire) was sought and obtained at an early stage from the Dean
of the School of Business and from the Dean of the School of Arts and Sciences in
January 1999. This was done in order to have access and acceptance by establishing the
researcher’s ethical position with respect to the proposed research (Bell, 1987; Cohen and
Manion, 1994). All participants were informed about the purpose of the investigations as
well as the importance and aim of the study. The researcher submitted a brief outline of
the research purpose and the methodology to the participants who were informed that the
topic would later be the subject of a thesis. The consent was obtained on both the
questionnaire form and the interview schedule. This process established the researcher’s
ethical position with respect to the proposed research.

72
The primary aim of the study was to investigate the existence of a formal appraisal
scheme at LAU and examine whether or not it differed from appraisal schemes at other
educational institutions and other large commercial organizations. Furthermore, the
researcher aimed at exploring faculty members’ views and past experiences regarding the
current system and their possible suggestions and recommendations for introducing a
regular and systematic appraisal scheme.

Key Questions
The researcher identified five key questions. The identified key questions generally
explored how faculty members perceive the performance appraisal at their institution.

• Question One: How does the appraisal system work in LAU and how does it
affect faculty members’ promotion and motivation?
• Question Two: What is the role of the departments’ heads in appraisal and
what is their relationship with the present faculty members?
• Question Three: In what ways did faculty members’ think the existing
appraisal system could be improved?
• Question Four: How might professional development be used as a tool for
empowerment, growth and promotion?

• Question Five: How might faculty members’ involvement in decision making

and mentoring help promote their professional development?

Importance of the Study

The study contributes to research in the field of performance appraisal in higher
educational institutions in Lebanon. Due to the lack of relevant literature on performance
appraisal in higher educational institutions in Lebanon, the researcher based her
references on previous researches conducted mostly in the U.K. and USA. Therefore, the
lack of such research in Lebanon gave the topic its priority to the researcher.

73
One of the main motives for conducting this research was the dissatisfaction of the
researcher, being a faculty member at LAU, with the current appraisal system. Thus, the
researcher was interested in investigating whether other faculty members held the same
views. The importance of this research is that it can ascertain the intentions of
participants to share their experiences. This case study would open new horizons for
researchers to further what might be a more effective appraisal system.

As an American Institution, LAU provides theoretical as well as practical applications of

management concepts that have been created in the Western Hemisphere but are being
applied in the Arab world. The interest in taking this particular example is to access the
applicability of such western created models to a higher educational setting especially in
Lebanon.

Research Design

Early Attem pt to D esign the Study

When approaching this project in September 1998, the intention was to carry out a
blanket survey of academic and academic related staff in four universities in Lebanon on
the subject of faculty members appraisal and review scheme, to identify the attitudes of
staff to the scheme, to investigate whether there were links between those attitude
variables such as years of service, sex. It was planned to survey 200 faculty members on
the basis of convenience or snowball sampling from the following universities: Lebanese
American University, American University of Beirut, Kaslik University, and Notre Dame
University. The choice of these four universities was based on the decision to select
universities that follow the American system. The selection of the sample was based on
choosing the nearest individuals as respondents and continuing in that manner until the
required sample size was reached. This method was chosen because, according to Cohen
and Manion (1994), “captive audiences such as pupils or student teachers often serve as
respondents in surveys based on convenience sampling” (p.88).

74
To gather information, questionnaires were distributed and interviews were carried out.
Unfortunately, despite knowing few of the respondents personally and despite
approaching faculty members more than once, there was a very low response rate to the
questionnaire. Two hundred faculty members were mailed a package containing the
questionnaire as well as the cover letter describing the importance and aims of the study.
They also received a postage paid envelope to return the questionnaire. The participants
were informed that they would remain anonymous, and all the information would be
treated in the strictest confidentiality. The Deans of the four universities were promised a
copy of the study. Two weeks later a follow-up visit took place, asking non-respondents
to participate in the study. Still the response rate was very poor and only 10 out of the
200 chose to participate.

The initial design of the study also included a plan to interview a sample of thirty
educators chosen from the above-mentioned universities. According to Cohen and
Manion (1994), there is no clear-cut answer for the correct sample size because this
depends upon the purpose of the study and the nature of the population under study.
They suggest a sample size of 30, which is considered by many as the minimum
requirement if the researcher plans to use statistical analysis on the data. However,
techniques are available for the analysis of samples below thirty (Cohen and Manion,
1994). Another reason for choosing such a minimum sample size was the expense and
time required for conducting the necessary research. In addition, university staff are not
available at all times, and sometimes cannot be reached. Therefore, the estimated
average time required per interview was six hours taking into consideration commuting
time. For 30 interviews, this makes a total of 180 hours. With a very poor response rate
from universities reaching only 10 out of 200, a change of plan had to be implemented
(January 1999).

The New Research Design

The new plan entailed, first, distributing the questionnaire to all teaching staff members
at LAU Beirut and second, conducting semi-structured interviews with faculty members
(March 1999). The intention was to gain a greater response level. Besides, it was easier

75
to arrange meetings with fellow faculty members than with members at neighboring
universities. This sample was thought to allow a higher rate of response based on the
expectation that most of the contacted fellow faculty members would respond, thus the
level of response would allow for more reliable findings. However, by restricting the
sample to only one university, the researcher would no longer be able to generalise from
the findings. The plan was implemented and 217 teaching staff members were
approached and given the questionnaire. By July 2000 the response level was extremely
poor (20), however, with consecutive follow-up visits by the researcher the level of
response increased but the level of compliance was still poor (40). During July 2000,
with the appraisal results being presented in the faculty contract as increments and
adjustment for the academic year 2000-2001, it was anticipated that most of the faculty
members would be then induced to participate in the questionnaire due to heightened
awareness of the topicality of the subject. The researcher approached the respondents
with follow up visits thus taking advantage of the heightened awareness and in
September 2000 after consecutive follow up visits, the sample size reached 80.

Part of the research design was an investigation to collect and explore a variety of
educators’ viewpoints and opinions. The following was based on their past and personal
experiences concerning the performance appraisal of academic staff at the university. As
such, the methodology was designed to elicit and analyze participants’ viewpoints in an
effort to find or agree on a procedure that would ensure that faculty development would
be the key purpose of any appraisal undertaken.

This study was organized into three interrelated stages:

• An initial round of discussion with a range of responsible bodies, including the

Dean, Chairperson, Professors and Instructors.

• Distribution of a questionnaire to LAU faculty members.

• Visiting the 40 participants in order to undertake in-depth interviews and to check

and cross-validate information gathered in the questionnaires.

76
This research was designed to draw on the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative
data. Accordingly, the researcher adopted a questionnaire that comprised quantitative
methods through the use of attitude questions and ranking scales. The questionnaire was
in turn followed by a semi-structured interview, which was qualitative in nature. The
combination of both research methods was adopted because various methods tend to
complement each other.

Qualitative and Positivist Research

The thesis is actually within the interpretive paradigm because the researcher was
interested in understanding the faculty members’ views concerning the current
performance appraisal at LAU. The study shed light on participants’ views regarding
appraisal.

Positivist research de-emphasizes individual judgment while stressing the use of

established procedures, thus, resulting in more precise and generalisable results
(Coolican, 1996). Positivist research is deductive in nature, therefore, researchers deal
directly with operationalisation, manipulation of empirical variables, prediction and
testing. This type of research places great emphasis on methodology, procedure, and
statistical measures of validity (this is also true for qualitative research). It should be well
organized to show the progression from choice of methodology and procedures to data
collected, as well as from statistical tests to findings and finally conclusion (Nachmias
and Frankfurt-Nachmias, 1996). Positivist research techniques include quantifying
phenomena by using various tools to help them such as questionnaires, social surveys or
structured interviews. This enables researchers to undertake a large-scale comparative
analysis.

According to Bell (1993, p. 91), qualitative research (e.g. interview) “can yield rich
material and can often put flesh on the bones of questionnaire responses” It searches for
meanings and views held by people. Qualitative research itself represents a field of
inquiry covering numerous disciplines, fields, and subject matter (Denzin & Lincoln,
1994). This type of research consists of different methods of interpretation that do not

77
favor any methodology over another and generates theory from participants’ views. This
makes it extremely hard to define, but also available for use across many disciplines. The
fact that it is interdisciplinary makes qualitative research very important and useful to all
(Denzin & Lincoln, 1994).

The Complementary Strengths o f Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

Clearly stated approaches (research types) are complementary and techniques may be
employed simultaneously in a study (Burgess, 1985; Coolican, 1996). They may be
linked in an effort to better understand what is happening, because combining both
methods causes the disadvantages of qualitative methods to be overcome by the
quantitative methods and vice versa. The researcher gets richer details if he or she uses
two methods, since one method can corroborate or confirm the result of the other
(Coolican, 1996). Both qualitative and quantitative researchers “think they know
something about the society worth telling to others, and they use a variety of forms,
media and means to communicate their ideas and findings” (Becker, 1986, p. 122). It
overcomes the abstraction or generalization in quantitative studies through strategic
comparison across cases and rich depiction (Anon, undated). On the other hand, Bogdan
and Biklen (1992) argued that when using the two methods at the same time it is likely to
end up with a “big headache”. As pointed out by Burgess (1993) there are some
obstacles to methodological integration in social research the greatest of which could be
the sheer lack of capacity to draw on methods other than the one in which one was
originally trained (Biklen & Boghdan, 1992; Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). Another related
barrier to integration is the tendency of the various social science disciplines or sub­
disciplines to exalt the virtues of their dominant methods and disparage those of other
fields (Burgess, 1993).

78
Case Study
This research is a case study because it examines the characteristics of an educational
phenomenon - performance appraisal - in a particular setting (LAU). According to Bell
(1993), the case-study approach is particularly appropriate for individual researchers
because it gives an opportunity to study in some depth one aspect of the problem. The
purpose of such studies is to probe deeply and to analyse intensively the multifarious
phenomena that constitute the life cycle of the unit examined with a view of establishing
generalizations about the wider population to which that unit belongs (Cohen and
Manion, 1994). Case studies are usually carried out within a limited time scale, though
some studies are carried out over a long period of time, for example three years (Bell,
1993).

According to Simons (1996, p. 225 as quoted in Bassey 1998b, p. 5) “one of the

advantages cited for case studies is its uniqueness, its capacity for understanding
complexity in particular contexts”. However, a corresponding disadvantage often cited is
the difficulty of generalising from a single case. Although it is always dangerous to
generalize from case studies because of the contextually bound nature of the study and
the limited sample of views sought, according to Bassey (1998b), fuzzy generalization
may be possible. This focuses on the transferability of the findings to other contexts.
Researchers need to probe the degree to which such findings fit or how far can they be
generalized from the case studied to other situations (Miles and Huberman, 1994). Miles
and Huberman (1994) referred to three levels of generalization by Firestone (1993): from
sample to population (less helpful for qualitative studies), analytic (theory-connected),
and case-to-case transfer. The generalizing process is more like translating, refuting, or
synthesizing two or more studies of similar phenomena with careful interpretation (Noblit
and Hare, 1988 as cited in Miles and Huberman, 1994). Generalization requires
connection-making either to unstudied parts of the original case or to other cases so as to
examine the transferability of the conclusions of the original study. In this context, Miles
and Huberman (1994, p.279) cited the relevant queries to be asked during a generalizing
process or transferability of the findings.

79
Validity and Trustworthiness in the Study
To evaluate performance appraisal systems in a higher educational institution, the
researcher used the questionnaire and the semi-structured interview. The use of two
research tools in this study was intended to provide a degree of triangulation in the
analysis of responses and to deepen further the findings of the questionnaires by
decreasing the biases in each method when used on its alone (Denzin, 1970; Coolican,
1996). According to Cohen and Manion (1994), triangular techniques in the social
sciences attempt to map out or explain more fully the richness and complexity of human
behavior. The following is achieved by studying it from more than one standpoint and, in
doing so, by making use of collected data. Exclusive reliance on one method may bias or
distort the researcher’s picture of the particular slice of reality under investigation.

The questionnaires were checked for content validity. This type of validity refers to the
subjective agreement among professionals that a scale logically appears to accurately
reflect what it purports to measure. The content of the scale appears to be adequate
(Zikmund, 1994). Content validity was checked by asking those who read the interview
whether or not the questions asked served the purpose of allowing a proper measurement
of what was to be found. Furthermore, reliability was checked by administering the
interview twice. Reliability is the degree to which the measures are free from error and
hence result in consistent results (Zikmund, 1994). A reliability test was statistically
conducted using SPSS to determine the extent to which the items in the questionnaire
relate to each other, especially for the newly constructed questionnaires. The test yields
an overall index of the repeatability or internal consistency of the scale as a whole. A
model to check the reliability is Alpha, which is a model for internal consistency, based
on the average inter-item correlation (SPSS version 9). The reliability for all the
variables from the Likert scale type questions (question 5 consisting of 17 points;
question 6 of 16 points; and question 8 of 6 points) was satisfactory. The result of
standardized item alpha = 0.8947 showed an overall reliability of the questionnaire. The
questionnaire used was constructed by the researcher based on the review of literature,
that is to say this research is a contributory research in this field.

80
Piloting
Piloting any empirical research is essential to strengthen the validity of a study. Advance
planning and preparation is all very well but there is no complete substitute for
involvement with the ‘real’ situation when the feasibility of what is proposed in terms of
time, effort and resources can be assessed (Robson, 1993). Care has to be taken in
selecting question types, in question writing, in the designing, piloting, and in distributing
and returning of questionnaires (Bell, 1993). Piloting is an important part of any research
whether using a questionnaire or an interview. Piloting is done in order to check that all
questions are clear and in order to remove any items (questions) which do not yield
usable data. Piloting helps the investigator throw up some of the inevitable problems of
converting the research design into reality. Some methods and techniques necessarily
involve piloting in their use. (E.g. in the development of a structure questionnaire or a
direct observation instrument) (Robson, 1993). According to Yin (1989), pilot tests help
investigators refine their data collection plans with respect to both the content of the data
and the procedures to be followed. Piloting is a ‘laboratory for the investigators,
allowing them to observe different approaches on a trial basis’ (Yin, 1989, p. 74).

Piloting the Questionnaire

The questionnaire was piloted in February 1999 with ten academic staff members, one
administrative staff member (outside the faculty body) and one computer staff member.
In addition, the researcher obtained help from an advisor at Leicester University (Dr.
Hugh Busher). The participants were informed of the reasons for conducting the pilot
study. Whilst piloting, reliability was checked by administering the instruments twice,
the researcher allowed two weeks between the first and the second time in order to test
for the stability of the results (Zikmund, 1994). Content validity was checked by asking
those who read the questionnaires whether or not the questions served the purpose of the
research. The check for validity led to the addition of questions seven through eleven in
the questionnaire. Some changes in the wording were made, for example, the words
“how useful” were changed to “in what sense”, and some questions were divided into two
or more to avoid double questions (see Appendix D).

81
Piloting the Interview Schedule
The interview schedule was piloted in January 1999 with three academic staff members,
two full-timers and one staff member, in addition to one pilot test conducted outside the
faculty body. The piloting process identified a number of important points. The pilot
study was carried out and presented as a third assignment in the EdD Program at
Leicester University - Module: RM04: Advanced Research titled “Performance Appraisal
in Higher Education”.

The pre-interviews with selected key participants assisted the researcher to focus on
particular areas that were previously unclear (see Appendix C). In addition, pilot
interviews were also used to test certain questions. Furthermore, this initial time frame
allowed rapport with participants and established effective communication patterns. By
including some time for the review of records and documents, the researcher may
uncover some insight into the shape of the study that previously was not apparent
(Denzin and Lincolin, 1994).

Sampling

Questionnaire Sampling
For the questionnaire based survey, the researcher adopted a different form of sampling,
using the whole population of full-time and part-time LAU faculty members (academic
year 1999). The researcher distributed questionnaires to all of the 217 LAU faculty
members (March 1999). 80 questionnaires were received out of the 217 distributed
questionnaires. The following constituted 36.86% of the chosen sample. The
classification of the respondents is presented in Table 3-1 below.

82
 Table 3-1
Classifications of Questionnaire Respondents

Department Position Full Time Part Time

Business School Professor 4
Associate Professor 2 2
Assistant Professor 6
Lecturer 2
Instructor 4 14
Arts and Sciences School Professor 4
Associate Professor 10
Assistant Professor 10
Instructor 16 6
Total 54 26

The non-response error may cause the sample to be less than perfectly representative
(Zikmund, 2000). The low response rate, 36.86% of the chosen sample, may mean that
the full range of views held by LAU faculty members are not represented in this study.
According to Durauti (1997), depending on the history of the community, members may
have distrustful attitudes towards interactions, such as interviews, especially when these
involve taking notes or audio taping whilst talking to them. When a culture does not
have a speech event in its repertoire, local notions of giving information or learning must
be taken into consideration for understanding members’ reactions to the researcher’s
attempt to conduct an interview or ask them to fill out a questionnaire (Durauti, 1997). In
Lebanon, people generally, do not like to read very much; they are socially driven people
who enjoy talking and socializing with others in a loose way rather than filling out
documents, especially when asked to write their own viewpoints (Karkoulian, 1999).
Consequently the interview seemed to elicit a better response rate than the questionnaire.
The interviews allowed the researcher a lot more flexibility, and permitted her to reach
results that could not have been reached with a questionnaire.

83
Interview Sampling
According to Miles and Huberman (1994), qualitative researchers usually work with
small samples of people, nested in their context and studied in depth. Positivist
researchers tend to work with large samples in their search for statistical significance.

Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where an experienced

individual selects the sample based upon his or her judgment about some appropriate
characteristic required of the sample members. The researcher selects a sample to serve a
specific purpose, even if this makes the sample less than fully representative (Zikmund,
1994). Such sampling is appropriately used where findings of small-scale studies are not
intended to be generalised beyond the group in question (Cohen and Manion, 1994).

Purposive sampling was chosen for the semi-structured interviews. Whilst preparing for
the Ed.D. degree (November 1997), the researcher engaged in a series of small scale
studies whereby colleagues were sent a questionnaire or approached for interviewing.
Through this, the researcher discovered those individuals who showed interest and
cooperation in her research. The researcher approached 40 out of the 80 questionnaire
respondents in this study. They were in turn asked to voluntarily participate in the semi­
structured interview section of the research. The 40 approached respondents agreed. 36
of the 40 interviewees were faculty members, the remaining four being made up of two
Deans and two administrative members of staff. The 36 faculty member respondents
were divided equally between the School of Business and the School of Arts and
Sciences. They included 20 full-time and 16 part-time faculty members. In addition, the
two Deans and the two administrative members of staff were also interviewed. The
purpose of choosing equally from different schools was to provide the researcher with
different viewpoints around the same research questions, which provided a useful
comparison.

However, the disadvantage of purposive sampling, according to Cohen and Manion

(1994), is the possibility of deliberate selection of individuals whose views are likely to
match those that the researcher was searching for.

84
Ethical Considerations
Social scientists generally have a responsibility not only to their profession in its search
for knowledge and quest for truth, but also for the subjects they depend on for their work
(Cohen and Manion, 1994).

Fundamental ethical issues such as confidentiality, informed consent, anonymity, the

right to privacy and knowledge and deception concerning the purpose of the investigation
and potential damaging consequences of the research should be fully taken into
consideration in the overall research design (Cohen and Manion, 1994). The participants
were informed that they would remain anonymous and all the information would be
treated with the strictest confidentiality. The anonymity of all participants is preserved in
this research by allocating numbers to questionnaires, because most participants refused
to use their names or even their initials. In case of the interviews, interviewees were
informed that although the findings may be published, no names or coding symbols
would be used for the purpose of this research, only titles (i.e. Instructors, Assistant
Professors, Associate Professors, and Professors). These measures gave faculty members
more comfort to participate in the study.

Preserving confidentiality means that although researchers know who provided the
information or are able to identify participants from the given information, they will in no
way make the connection known publicly; the boundaries surrounding the shared secret
will be protected (Cohen and Manion, 1994). However, according to Bell (1993), when
the researcher conducts investigations in his/her institution, the close contacts with the
institution itself and the colleagues may make objectivity difficult to achieve.

85
Constructing the Instruments

The Questionnaire
Question designing can range from open-ended questions to close-ended questions and
can be structured, distributed and analyzed in many different methods to meet the
researcher’s specific needs (Bell, 1993). Open-ended questions ask respondents to give
an answer in his or her words, which presents some topic or problem requiring an answer.
Closed questions consist of alternatives to choose from. It is much easier to code,
tabulate, and interpret standardized responses. However, some respondents, whose
answers do not belong to any of the fixed alternatives, may be forced to choose an
alternative they do not mean (Zikmund, 1994). Open-ended questions are more difficult
to interpret and analyze due to the uniqueness of each answer. Questionnaire results are
judged primarily by their relevance to the study to ensure that all necessary information
was obtained and by their accuracy to check that the information is reliable and valid, that
is to say it can be trusted for having a strong base (Zikmund, 1994).

The questionnaire designed for this study used rating scales for some questions. One of
the main purposes of scaling is to develop a one-dimensional scale on which individuals
or variables can be given scores. Their scores on the particular scale can then be related
to other measures of interest. The scaling model designed for the questionnaire was the
Likert scale. According to Youngman (1979), the most common rating system, using
usually five response categories, is the Likert scale. For this study the 5 point Likert
scale was used whereby respondents were asked to indicate their opinion on a 1 to 5 scale
(where 1= SD, 2 = D, 3 = U, 4 = A, 5 = SA). According to Bourque and Clark (1994,
p.72), “the 5-point Likert scale signifies strong agreement or approval”. Individuals are
presented with a list of statements about a single topic and are instructed to respond to
each statement in terms of their degree of agreement or disagreement. Thus, this scaling
model involves a single type of stimuli and a single type of response (Mclver and
Carmines 1994). As Youngman stated, “the more personal nature of such items makes
the semantic differential a useful device for examining individual reactions over a broad
range of personal involvement” (Youngman, 1978, p. 11). However, problems with

86
measurement can possibly occur, since there is a tendency for the rater to give a middle
rate. This is termed the central tendency (Kermally, 1997).

In order to research how faculty members at LAU perceive the advantages and
disadvantages of performance appraisal, a questionnaire was constructed consisting of 12
questions with varying subsections (see Appendix D) using Likert scale and multiple
choice questions. This was piloted as was discussed earlier. Questions 5, 6 and 8 were
presented in the form of a statement, respondents being required to choose one of five
alternatives to indicate their degree of agreement with the statement.

1 = Strongly Disagree (SD)

2 = Disagree (D)
3 = Undecided
4 = Agree (A)
5 = Strongly Agree (SA)

Analysing the Questionnaire D ata

Every response is given a point value, and the respondent’s score is determined by adding
the point values of every statement in such a way that valid and reliable differences
among individuals can be represented (using SPSS) (Gay and Diehl, 1992; Bell, 1993;
Mclver and Carmines, 1994).

A factor analysis via SPSS was conducted to screen out the dependent variables. The
researcher ended up with 11 dependent variables for this study, each of the 11 dependent
variables will be defined and discussed in the following chapters (see Appendix E).

The variables are: Feedback, Control, Motivation, Support, Reward, Procedure, Needs,
Environment, Money, Promotion, and Training.

87
Feedback was measured with six questions (e.g. “Feedback is received periodically by
the appraisee”, “Performance appraisal provide feedback to employees as to how well
they are doing their job”, etc.) (See Appendix E). The results of these six questions were
inputted into the SPSS and averaged giving a single value.

Control was measured with two questions (e.g. “Performance appraisal serves as a tool
for control”, etc.). Again it was averaged to a single value as previously calculated for
Feedback. Motivation was measured using three questions dealing with motivation (e.g.
“Interest in work is a motivator”, “Success in performing a job is a motivator”, etc.). The
amount of Support was measured using four items dealing with the heads of departments
(e.g. “Heads of departments should take an active part in helping and supporting staff in
the department to carry out their research”, etc.).

Reward was measured with two questions (e.g. “Rewards motivate performance”, etc.).
Procedure was also measured with two questions (e.g. “Further systematic procedures
for the appraisal of individuals for their professional development are necessary”, etc.).
Needs were measured with two questions (e.g. “The needs of academic staff are
considered before rewards are given"” etc.). Again, using SPSS, it was averaged to a
single value as previously calculated for every dependent variable. Environment was
measured with three questions (e.g. “The organisational environment is considered before
rewards are given”, “Managers are friendly with the staff’, etc.).

Money was measured with five questions (e.g. “Money is a measure of

accomplishment”, etc.). Promotion was measured with four questions (e.g.
“Performance appraisal serves as a basis for deciding on promotions” etc.). Training
was measured with five questions (e.g. “Performance appraisal identifies those who have
potential for training”, etc.). Each item was again cast on a five-point Likert scale, and
averaged to a single value as calculated for every dependent variable.

88
The significance for all the variables was satisfactory, (i.e. above 0.4) except for the
question “The University should provide training for heads of departments” which was
0.381. Therefore, no further consideration was given to this question in accessing the
dependent variable training.

The Interview
Interviews generally enable a greater level of flexibility that cannot be reflected in a
questionnaire since people’s thoughts and ideas can be followed and discussed further.
On the other hand, questionnaires give respondents the opportunity to complete the
questions themselves and to contemplate their answers before filling in the form.
Interviews provide initial responses with little thought as an instant response. Further,
interviews are time consuming and there is always the danger of bias, but they can
provide rich material and clarify things much more than questionnaires (Bell, 1993;
Drever, 1995).

The type of interview designed for this research is the semi-structured interview, which
has a mix of closed, and open ended questions. It is filled with prompts and probes, the
former encouraging broad coverage, the latter exploring answers in depth (Cohen and
Manion, 1994) (see Appendix C). A semi-structured interview in general is the favorite
methodological tool for a qualitative researcher, for it allows greater depth than other
methods and the opportunity for response is extensive (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994).
However, its main disadvantage is that it is prone to subjectivity and bias on the part of
the interviewer. However, bias, though not completely avoidable, can be significantly
decreased through awareness and self-control (Bell, 1993; Cohen & Manion, 1994;
Drever, 1995). The research interview has been defined as a two person conversation
initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant
information, and focused by him or her on content specified by research objectives of
systematic description, prediction, or explanation (Cannell & Kahn, 1968). An interview
provides a chance to follow up ideas, probe responses, and investigate motives and
feelings. There is also the possibility of explaining any ambiguities, correcting any
misunderstandings and probing for clarification whenever the answers are not clear (Bell,

89
1993). As a distinctive research technique, the interview may serve three purposes.
Firstly, it may be used as the principle means of collecting information having direct
bearing on the research objective. Secondly, it may be used either to test hypotheses or to
suggest new ones; or as an explanatory device to help identify variables and relationships.
Thirdly, the interview can be used in conjunction with other methods to undertake
research (Cohen & Manion, 1994).

The interview allows the researcher a greater level of flexibility that cannot be reflected
in a questionnaire. Thoughts and ideas can be followed and discussed further. Besides,
the usage of both quantitative and qualitative methods was for the better. Flexibility was
essential since the interviewee had much to contribute in the conversation. The
interviewees contribution would have been lost if the interviewer had not been able to
deal with the spontaneous feelings of the respondents by showing concern and respect for
their views.

Interview Schedule fo r the main study

The interview schedule was administered in a face-to-face setting (Bell, 1993) where the
purpose of the research was explained and participants were given the opportunity to ask
questions. The interviews started with general questions about the subject under
investigation. According to Bell (1993), as a rule the more general questions should be
asked first. As the interview progressed, the questions that this research intended to
explore became more structured and specific.

The interview was limited to 14 questions (see Appendix C) each was related to the key
research questions being asked, which dealt firstly with the appraisal system at the
institution. These questions were important because they were the main issues raised
during the pilot study. The researcher wanted to assess other faculty members’ views
about these issues, thus the researcher chose these as key questions in the interview. The
interview commenced by questioning interviewees about whether any formal appraisal
system was already adopted by the University or their Department / School.
Interviewees, aware of the appraisal system were asked about the appraisal method

90
followed and the frequency of its application i.e. annually, semiannually, etc. At this
stage interviewees were asked about their views regarding the importance of appraisal in
higher educational institution and whether it is an essential activity for professional
development, motivation, and promotion. Another main concern to the researcher was to
know whether the appraisal method applied served its purpose in stimulating faculty
motivation. So the interview next focused on this, exploring whether the appraisal results
were communicated and the way they are being communicated at LAU and whether
discussions about job duties and responsibilities, and follow-ups are conducted.
Interviewees were also questioned about their views regarding the importance of
feedback in the appraisal process. They were also asked if appraisal played a part in their
promotion. Part time faculty members employed at different universities were asked to
compare between both evaluation processes.

After questioning the interviewees about the importance of appraisal and the system
currently in use at the university, they were asked to suggest ways for improving or
changing the present appraisal system, that is to say which appraisal method they
suggested should be employed at LAU. In addition, they were asked who they believe
should carry out the appraisal. The researcher defined the different appraisal techniques
included in the study to those interviewees who did not have a complete view of the
appraisal techniques. Most of the participants suggested 360 degree appraisal as a
substitute to the present system. In the light of the response, the researcher was interested
to raise few questions about 360 degree appraisal of which was whether this appraisal
scheme would be time consuming and costly. The last two questions of the interview
were aimed at assessing the interviewees’ views on professional development - as a tool
for empowerment, growth, its importance for promotion, and whether it could be
assessed through collaboration - and mentoring - its importance in higher educational
institutions, advantages and disadvantages.

The interviews were tape recorded (after the respondent’s permission) and subsequently
transcribed, and the transcripts were subjected to qualitative analysis. According to Bell
(1993), tape-recording interviews is one means devised for recording responses of a less-

91
structured approach. Analyzing responses from the transcript tape recordings can be
useful to check the wording of any statement the researcher might wish to quote and to
check that the notes are accurate. Drever (1995, p.60) states, “one big advantage of
transcription is that most people regard a transcript as providing a true record of the
original interview”. The researcher was aware of smiling and nodding to the
interviewees for assurance, but at the same time the researcher was alert not to ask
leading questions or add personal comments thus biasing the interview. The participants
were encouraged to answer all the interview questions honestly and were assured of
complete anonymity. The respondents were also invited to amend or modify the
transcript of their interview when deemed necessary. Interviewees’ agreements were
obtained to include quotations from the transcript in the form and context presented.

The duration of each interview was restricted to around 45 minutes, due to the size of the
research budget in terms of time and expenses. According to Drever (1995), a semi­
structured interview usually takes about 45 minutes to an hour to complete. Add to this,
the time for courteous social chatting. In this study it was only possible to hold one
interview per morning or afternoon. Besides, the researcher being an Instructor
interviewing other faculty members had to search for common free time lengthy enough
to accommodate a 45 minutes interview. Moreover, some faculty members were not
ready to spend this much time either, because they do not have the time during their hard
working day or, because they are not interested in spending this much time answering
questions.

Analysing the interview data depends on the structure of the interview format. For
example, the structured interview, which enables the researcher to tick or circle
previously prepared questionnaire or checklist, can be dealt with by simply coding and
counting the responses using methods similar to those used in the questionnaire (Bell,
1993; Drever, 1995). In this research, the tape-recorded interviews were transcribed, and
the transcripts were subjected to qualitative analysis. The researcher listened to the tapes
and counted the participants responses, when dealing with mentoring for example the
researcher carefully ticked and counted the times were the participants focused on

92
mentoring as a topic of interest. The context of the searched word, in this example
mentoring, was also reported. The following enabled the researcher to transform the
vocally recorded opinions of the participants from the tapes to written and documented
text cases. The text cases were then analyzed and reported. The researcher then
recognized and summarized the text to match the research questions, and to find common
views among the interviewees and to generate theory or patterns of knowledge from
among the views of the participants. Responses to the closed-ended questions in the
interview were also codified by the researcher. Coding the data is essential in order to
ensure that the data can be viewed in a comprehensive manner (Hitchcock and Hughes,
1989).

The following chapter aims to analyze the responses harvested from the survey by
presenting the interview and the questionnaire results.

93
 Chapter Four
Analysis of Findings
Existing Appraisal Scheme at LAU

The purpose of this chapter is to evaluate the effectiveness of the appraisal scheme for
faculty members at LAU. The researcher wanted to divide her analysis of the data
using the following three conditions.

• The employment status of the respondents, meaning whether the respondents

are full time or part time faculty members.

• The school the respondents reported to, meaning whether the respondents
belonged to the School of Business or to the School of Arts and Sciences.

• The gender of the respondents.

The researcher found statistical significance between the faculty members’

employment status and their responses, for part time faculty members responded
differently than the part time faculty members.

However, the researcher found no statistical significance between the schools the
faculty members reported to and their responses, for both faculty members had either
similar or identical results. The following may be due to the fact that the new part
time faculty members, who experienced the student questionnaire appraisal technique
at the School of Arts and Sciences, refused to participate in the study. Due to the lack
of statistical significance, the researcher disregarded the school the faculty members
belonged to in her analysis of the findings.

The new staff in the School of Arts and Sciences refused to take part in the
questionnaire. They did not explain the reason behind their refusal, however, two of
them clearly pointed out to the fact that they are new in the School and they need
more time to become familiar with the system before taking responsibility and sharing
information publicly.

94
Finally, regarding gender the researcher found statistical significance and diverse
opinions only when studying mentoring in relation to the faculty members’ gender.

According to the Chairperson of the Business School, academic staff members are
appraised by the Chairperson of their department or school, who is in turn appraised
by the Dean of the department (Interview Transcript, January 1999). The Dean is
then appraised by the Vice President of Academic Affairs, thus creating a defined
hierarchy. “The evaluation of the faculty is the gathering of information for
understanding and improving performance as well as judging its quality” (Rifkin,
1995, p. 1). Therefore, the responsibilities of both the Chairperson and the Dean are
to appraise subordinates. To bring about this effectively, the supervisor needs to be
skilled enough in the leadership and human relations functions such as motivation,
face-to-face communication, training, coaching and appraising.

There were five key questions within the interview and the questionnaire.

• Question One: How does the appraisal system work in LAU and how
does it affect faculty members’ promotion and motivation?
• Question Two: What is the role of the departments’ heads in appraisal and
what is their relationship with the present faculty members?
• Question Three: In what ways did faculty members’ think the existing
appraisal system could be improved?
• Question Four: How might professional development be used as a tool
for empowerment, growth and promotion?
• Question Five: How might faculty members’ involvement in decision
making and mentoring help promote their professional development?

The Sample Studied

The sample is composed of full-time and part-time faculty members at LAU and they
are divided between the Business School, and the Arts and Science School because
they apply different appraisal practices. The researcher distributed questionnaires to
all 217 full-time and part-time faculty members and a semi-structured interview was
conducted with 40 faculty members as well as Likert ranking scale questions in a

95
form of questionnaire. Out of the 217 distributed questionnaires, 80 were received,
which constituted 36.86% of the chosen sample.

Table 4-1 shows the number of faculty members in each of the Schools (the Business
School and the Arts and Sciences School), the distribution of returned questionnaires
and the response rate as the ratio of respondents in each school to the head count of
that school. It is worth noting that LAU consists of these two schools where the Arts
and Sciences School is sectioned to four divisions (the Natural Science Division, the
Humanities Division, the Social Science Division and the Education Division).

Table 4-1
Number of Faculty Surveyed and Response Rate

Headcount Respondents Percentage

Business School 63 34 53.96%
Arts and Sciences School 154 46 29.87%
217 80

The highest response rate, defined here as the ratio of respondents in each school to
the head count of that school, came from the Business School (53.9%). But out of the
sample (80) more faculty members from the Arts and Sciences School responded, as
shown in Table 4-2.

Demographic and Personal Information

There was an equal distribution (50%) of the respondents by gender. Regarding the
marital status, 77.5% were married, 17.5% were single, and the remaining were
divorced.

Table 4-2 presents the demographic and personal information. 47.5% of the
respondents were Instructors and 20% were Assistant Professors. Associate
Professors constituted 17.5%, Professors 10% and Deans 2.5% of the sample.

96
 Table 4-2
Respondents Characteristics

Frequency Percentage (%)

Gender
Male 40 50
Female 40 50
80 100
Marital Status
Single 14 17.5
Married 62 77.5
Divorced _4 5.0
80 100
Level in the Organisation Hierarchy
Deans 2 2.5
Professors 8 10
Associate Professors 14 17.5
Assistant Professors 16 20
Lecturers 2 2.5
Instructors 38 47.5
Total 80 100

Divisions and Schools

Business 34 42.5
Arts and Science 46 57.5
80 100

The percentage of respondents according to the schools- defined by the ratio of

respondents from each school to the total number of respondents (80)- was relatively
higher for the Arts and Sciences (57.5%) in comparison to the Business School
(42.5%).

97
The distribution of the participants according to their years of experience is presented
in Table 4-3.

Table 4-3
Years of Experience

Years Frequency Percentage (%)

1-5 14 17.5
6-10 32 40
11-15 14 17.5
16-20 8 10
21-25 8 10
25 and more 4 5
Total 80 100

A summary of the insights gained from the interviews and the results of the
questionnaire will follow.

The rest of the chapter related to the current appraisal scheme at LAU is designed as
follows: Purpose of Performance Appraisal in Higher Education; Satisfaction with the
Current System; Methods Applied in Appraising Academic Staff; Communication;
Carrying Out Appraisal Interviews; Performance Appraisal and Promotion;
Performance Appraisal and Motivation; When Rewards are Given; Comparing LAU
Appraisal with Those of Other Universities; Feedback; and Collaboration and
Professional Development Among Faculty Members.

Purpose of Performance Appraisal in Higher Education

In an attempt to study the awareness of the purpose of performance appraisal, the
following table (Table 4-4) presents the agreements and disagreements to the
statements that were asked in the questionnaire, a sample of which is presented below.
Respondents were asked to indicate their opinion on a 1 to 5 scale (where 1= SD, 2 =
D, 3 = U, 4 = A, 5 = SA). The frequencies of the responses in the 5 categories to each
selected 9 propositions are indicated in Table 4-4.

98
 Table 4-4
Purpose of Performance Appraisal in Higher Education

Please circle the number which reflects your opinion o f the following statements

SD=Strongly Disagree D=Disagree U=Uncertain A=Agree SA=Strongly Agree

SD D U A SA

a- Performance Appraisal tries to enhance 4 10 22 32 12

performance by identifying improving or
developing areas in which employees have
a deficiency.

b- Performance Appraisal identifies those who have 2 14 22 30 12

potential for promotion to positions of greater
responsibility and vice versa.

c- Performance Appraisal identifies those who have 2 18 26 32 2

potential for training.

d- Performance Appraisal determines the need for 8 22 26 24 -

disciplinary action.

e- Performance Appraisal stimulates motivation. 6 16 24 30 4

f- Performance Appraisal serves as a tool for control. 6 10 24 32 8

g- Performance Appraisal serves as a basis for 2 26 10 28 14

determining salaries.

h- Performance Appraisal serves as a basis for 8 12 22 22 16

deciding on promotion.
i- Performance Appraisal provides opportunities 8 12 14 34 12
for growth and advancement.

j- Performance Appraisal uses job descriptions 8 22 26 18 6

as measurable criteria

k- Performance Appraisal uses job specification 4 22 28 20 6

as a measurable criterion

1- Performance Appraisal enhances understanding 8 22 20 22 8

between the supervisor and the subordinate

m- Performance Appraisal provides feedback to 8 2 12 40 18

employees as to how well they are
doing their job

n- Performance Appraisal results are 20 14 10 26 10

communicated by the superior

o- The supervisor conducts face-to-face 32 24 12 8 4

interview with the appraisee

p- Feedback is received periodically by the 26 8 20 20 6

appraisee

q- The supervisor comments verbally on 22 22 24 12 -

performance, filling out forms later

99
For the above statements the first and second categories were combined as Disagree,
the forth and fifth categories were combined as Agree. An examination of the above
responses shows that there seems to be awareness among most faculty members
regarding the purpose of performance appraisal, as a major tool for measuring and
enhancing performance. 55% (44 out of 80) agreed on the purpose of appraisal as a
method to enhance performance by improving weak areas, however 17.5% disagreed.
Regarding the importance of appraisal in identifying potential promotion, there was a
52.5% consensus. The participants showed the same percentage of agreement that
performance appraisal serves as a basis determining salaries. 57.5% of the
participants acknowledged that appraisal is essential for providing potentials of
growth and advancement to faculty members who are identified by the appraisal as
being capable of undertaking training for professional development purposes. There
was also 42.5% agreement that appraisal identifies those who have the potential for
training. 50% of the respondents agreed that performance appraisal provides feedback
to employees as to how well they are doing their job; however, 27.5% disagreed and
another 27.5% agreed that performance appraisal enhances mutual understanding
between the supervisor and the subordinate. Moreover, 32.5% of the respondents
agreed that performance appraisal results are communicated by their supervisor, but
still 32.5% of the respondents strongly disagreed that feedback is received
periodically by their appraisee and 27.5% strongly disagreed while another 27.5%
disagreed that the supervisor comments verbally on performance. In relation to
communication, feedback, and verbal comments, 70% of the respondents strongly
disagreed or disagreed with the question stating that the supervisor conducts face-to-
face interviews with the appraisee.

When asked about the importance and purpose of appraisal in a higher educational
institution, the Dean of the Business School at LAU, argued:

“Appraisal is an essential part of the university’s commitment to developing

its staff and delivering high quality service. It ensures that individual staff
members are clear about their responsibilities and they can have an
opportunity to discuss any issues that they need in meeting these
responsibilities” (Interview Transcript, January 1999).

100
The Chairperson of the Business School stated that there are some criteria on which
faculty members are evaluated. The LAU’s Instructors and Professors are required to
complete a certain number of working hours per week. Clearly, part of this time is
allocated for teaching students whereas the remaining is usually dedicated for office
hours, advising, registration, and meetings. Enrolment of students is considered by
senior staff an important criterion. As pointed out by the Chairperson of the Business
School,

“The class size is considered as a criterion in appraising individual faculty

members since this would reflect the performance of the faculty as perceived
by the enroled students. A full or high class enrolment for a faculty would be
an indication that she or he has a better performance than another whose
classes have a lower enrolment level” (Interview Transcript, January 1999).

Therefore, at LAU enrolment class size is assumed to be based on the reputation of

the Instructor. Besides, this reputation has a strong effect on his or her appraisal. If a
student does not like faculty member; then, the class size will be smaller than that of a
more favored member. Although the Instructor with the higher-class size will not be
given more of an increment, the one with the abnormally low enrolment will get less.
One of the interviewed Instructors criticized this basis for evaluation:

“Appraising us on the basis of class size is not fair since most students tend to
avoid faculty members who are known to be more strict especially in setting
grades although they could be more academically qualified than others”
(Interview Transcript, February 1999).

The Chairperson of the Business School commented that “as part of the appraisal
process, LAU students were previously asked to fill in a teacher evaluation form,”
(see Appendix G) “however, the results turned out to be biased as students aimed at
pleasing their Instructors rather than truly evaluating them in an effort to obtain higher
grades” (Interview Transcript, January 1999). According to the Dean of Arts and
Sciences:

“This form-filling scheme is still being practiced, and a committee reviews the
questionnaire every year.... As part of the promotion criteria, faculty members
are assigned tasks such as conferences, council memberships, services on
campus (e.g. editing academic journals, advising students and participating in
registering the students etc.) and services outside campus (e.g. giving
workshops or participating in conferences etc.), as well as local and
international publication of work” (Interview Transcript, July 1999).

101
In response to question four of the interview schedule, exploring the importance and
purpose of appraisal in higher education (see Appendix C), an Assistant Professor
commented:

“The benefits of appraising faculty members will give an opportunity to

recognize achievement, by addressing the weaknesses and identifying the
development needed” (Interview Transcript, April 1999).

The importance of a performance appraisal system in higher education, according to

38/40 faculty members, is that it allows achievements to be recognized, and the
amount of work is also accounted for. The weaknesses can therefore be addressed
and any needed developments can be identified.

Another Professor’s comment was:

“An evaluation system is extremely important for good Instructors or

Professors. You feel that the work we put in is accounted for and appreciated”
(Interview Transcript, April 1999).

An Associate Professor emphasizing the role of a leader for an effective appraisal

system stated:

“It is the role of the leader to identify and recognize good from poor
performers. To accomplish this, a leader must work with all performers in
order to assess their strong and weak points. Performance appraisal is
important to screen out talented people and those successful in their jobs. The
type of leadership influences the way in which the leader determines the
performance of the individuals in the different departments. Every leader
differs in his assisting and motivating employees” (Interview Transcript,
March 2000).

Faculty members at LAU deemed performance appraisal as necessary. One faculty

member stated:

“An organisation cannot have a fully functioning human resource system

without having a well-developed effective system for appraising
performance...and it is very useful” (Interview Transcript, March 1999).

102
The necessity of an effective system of appraisal was emphasized by another
Instructor whose argument was:

“If the university lacks a carefully structured appraisal system, the

performance of faculty members would tend to be judged arbitrarily and
informally. What is important is that such judgment could be somewhat unfair
and inaccurate thus leading to motivational problems” (Interview Transcript,
April 1999).

Satisfaction with the Current System

Time Interval fo r the A ppraisal Process
The most common interval for the appraisal process for each member of faculty was
annual. 67.5% of the faculty members in the sample stated that the process took place
annually. However, 15% stated that the process took place semi-annually. The
remainder stated that appraisal took place at intervals of less than one year, often for
new faculty members.

Comparison Between Full Time and P art Time Faculty

Data for this topic was gathered from the 80 participants who completed the
questionnaire. The first step followed by the researcher after piloting the
questionnaire and the interview schedule was to examine whether the University has a
formal appraisal system. As a result 92.5% agreed that a performance appraisal
system is adopted by the university and only 7.5% disproved any adoption of such
systems.

Results were also distributed based on the status of the faculty members, i.e. full-time
or part-time as presented in the following Figure (Figure 4-1). It was found that
96.3% of the full-timers (52 out of 54) agreed that LAU has an appraisal system as
compared to 84.6% of the part-timers (22 out of 26).

103
 Figure 4-1
A doption o f the A ppraisal System
Full tim e/P art tim e Sam ple
60
52
50

40
ig, 30
22
20

10
2 4
0 --------------- — , □ FuUtime
Adopted Not Adopted ■ Parttime

Faculty interviews conducted in 1999-2001 revealed a high level of dissatisfaction

over the 1998-2000 performance appraisal system. In the interview study, 30 out of
the 40 interviewed faculty members indicated that they were disappointed with
appraisal and evaluation method An full time Assistant Professor complained that:

“There seems to be no clear evaluation system. Faculty members have no idea

regarding the exact criteria of their evaluation. I would like to recommend (if
the university would ever improve its appraisal system) the involvement of
faculty members in setting the criteria of evaluation” (Interview Transcript,
February, 1999).

Four faculty members seemed to be unaware of the presence of a specific appraisal

system within the institution. Their unawareness of the presence of an appraisal
system was perhaps due to the lack of communication.

There was a general agreement, among the 40 interviewees, on the importance of

appraisal in higher education. One interviewee emphasized that “evaluation of faculty
members’ performance should be an essential activity because the prestige of a
successful university flows from the individual faculty and staff’ (Interview
Transcript, March 1999). However, at LAU 18 full-time faculty members were

104
concerned about the evaluation process since performance appraisal is solely used for
the purposes of making decisions about tenure or promotion. 10 of the part-time
faculty members were most concerned about the appraisal procedure as consequently
it determines whether they are re-hired or dismissed at the end of their contract; this is
especially true when the Instructor holds a masters degree.

According to a full-time Assistant Professor:

“LAU gives equal increments to almost all members of staff, regardless of

performance. For example in the academic year 1998-1999 a 3% (out of 5%)
rating was given to almost all faculty members. In 1999-2000, the increment
was 2% for Instructors and 3% for Professorial rank. This clearly results in
lower morale for those employees that gave more effort than others”
(Interview Transcript, July 2000).

Faculty members generally agreed that rewards for excellent performance were not
adequate: many received high salary increases, most of which were not better than
those given to average or low performers. Outstanding performance was not even
clearly identified.

One part-time Instructor found the idea of performance appraisal amusing stating that:

“Superiors in general do not listen, and in addition, no one was informed of

how well they were doing or how they could improve their performance
instead of waiting till the faculty is forced out of the university for one reason
or another” (Interview Transcript, January 1999).

It is clear that part-timers are less aware of the existence of the appraisal system
adopted by the university. This could be due to the fact argued by a part-time
Associate Professor:

“Part-timers do not receive increments based on the evaluation, but they

receive specific rates and since no communication is made for the results of
the appraisal, most of the part-timers would be unaware of their evaluation”
(Interview Transcript, March 1999).

105
Methods Applied in A ppraising A cadem ic Staff
Chapter two discussed numerous ways or processes to measure employee
performance, each o f which has its own advantages and disadvantages. The third and
fourth questions were designed to know the degree to which faculty members are
aware of the evaluation method in their respective divisions or schools. Results
indicated that different techniques are adopted at LAU. The School of Business
applied the immediate supervisor appraisal, while the School o f Arts and Sciences
applied both the supervisor appraisal and the student evaluation. The School o f Arts
and Sciences appraised the new part time faculty by means o f the Student evaluation
and the immediate supervisor appraisal, while the full time faculty and the old part
time faculty are appraised only by means o f the immediate supervisor appraisal. The
responses in (Figure 4-2) reflect that the Supervisor Appraisal is used at LAU.

Figure 4-2
W ho Conducts Perform ance A ppraisal

70

60

50
&
g 40

f 30
fa
20
10

0
Im m ediate Peers U pw ard Self O th e r No Answer
S upervisor A ppraisal A ppraisal

The highest percentage of the responses - 58 out o f 80 - (72.5% o f the questionnaire

sample) corresponded to the Immediate Supervisor method o f appraisal, whilst other

106
methods received a response rate of either 5% or 7.5%. The difference in responses
could be partially due to the fact that there is confusion among faculty members
regarding the appraisal system at LAU. Moreover, the difference in responses might
be due to the old part timers’ confusion at the School of Arts and Sciences, since they
have previously experienced the student appraisal during their first year of service.
Besides, four of the interviewed part-timers are actually unaware of their appraisal.

The seventh question was designed to identify which method of performance

appraisal was experienced by the questionnaire respondents during the academic year
1998/1999. As aforementioned earlier, the lack of a formally set appraisal method
results in faculty experiencing different informal appraisal methods. The responses in
Figure 4-3 represent the type or types of performance appraisal schemes experienced
by respondents at LAU.

Figure 4-3
Performance Appraisal Experienced by Respondents in 98/99

F igure 4-3
80
70
60
oC 50
ss □ Yes
O"
40
8 30
u. 20 ■ No

10
-GS
Appraisal Student Observation by Interview with
ByColleague Questionnaire Colleague Dean or Head
M ehtod Experienced 98/99

To find out whether performance appraisal served its purpose in stimulating employee
motivation and whether the leader is successful and has the skill to conduct fair and
objective appraisal, the researcher conducted a regression analysis.

107
A ssessing the Importance o f Appraisal
The researcher chose to build a model that predicts the factors that are most likely to
be associated with explaining the variability of the dependent variable(s) chosen for
the study.

The dependent variable designed to assess the importance and effectiveness of

appraisal is Control (see Chapter Three). It was measured with two statements in the
questionnaire, for example “Performance appraisal serves as a tool for control”. To
investigate the factors that are most likely to be associated with control, a regression
analysis was conducted using control as the dependent variable, and fifteen variables
were taken as independent. Those variables are motivation, support, reward,
procedures, needs, environment, money, promotion, training, feedback, gender,
marital status, title, department, and, years. (The description of these variables based
on the questions used is presented in Chapter Three). These variables are shown
below in Table 4-5. The results of the regression analysis are presented in Table 4-6:

Table 4-5
The Regression Variables (Control)

Independent Variables (15) Dependent Variable

- Feedback - Control
- Motivation
- Support
- Reward
- Procedures
- Needs
- Environment
- Money
- Promotion
- Training
- Gender
- Marital Status
- Title
- Department
- Years

108
 Table 4-6
Regression Output for Control

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error o f the Estimate

1 0.607 0.369 0.221 0.8305

ANOVA
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 25.811 15 1.721 2.495 0.006

Residual 44.139 64 0.690
Total 69.950 79

Coefficients

Unstandardized Standardized t Sig.

Coefficients Coefficients
B Std.Error Beta
(Constant) 3.112 1.166 2.669 0.010

MOTIVATION -0.438 0.184 -0.369 -2.375 0.021*

SUPPORT 0.187 0.172 0.133 1.087 0.2
REWARD 2.537E-02 0.124 0.026 0.205 0.839
PROCEDURES 0.282 0.166 0.201 1.696 0.095
NEEDS -6.836E-02 0.195 -0.062 -0.350 0.728
ENVIRONMENT 0.220 0.167 0.197 1.320 0.192
MONEY -0.137 0.194 -0.128 -0.707 0.482
PROMOTION 0.228 0.150 0.197 1.520 0.133
TRAINING 0.309 0.185 0.276 1.675 0.099
GENDER -0.482 0.259 -0.258 -1.864 0.067
MARITAL STATUS -0.179 0.270 -0.088 - 0.664 0.509
TITLE -7.552E-02 0.080 -0.151 -0.940 0.351
DEPARTMENT -0.203 0.080 -0.318 -2.531 0.014*
YEARS 1.087E-02 0.013 0.099 0.835 0.407
FEEDBACK -2.972E-04 0.166 0.000 -0.002 0.999

Dependent Variable: CONTROL

* significant at 0.05 significance level

109
The regression analysis yields the following equation for determining the dependent
variable, control:

Control = 3.112- 0.438(Motivation) - 0.203(Department)

Significance (0.021) (0.014)

The factors that proved to be significant in relation to control are motivation and
department. The other tested variables were not found to have a significant
relationship with control; therefore, further research is recommended to test for such
correlations. The negative sign of the coefficients for both variables indicates that
there is a negative correlation between the dependent variable, control, and the
independent variables, motivation and department. This suggests that for an effective
management, appraisals should be used for development rather than controlling
purposes. It also suggests that individuals cannot be well motivated in a close
controlled atmosphere. Trust, openness, and development need to take the lead. The
department factor can be used to represent the type of supervision applied. The high
levels of control would imply a directive rather than a participative approach, thus
negatively affecting the degree of participation, trust, and openness.

The regression equation proved to be significant at the 0.05 significance level (95%
confidence) with an F-value of 2.495 and a significance of 0.006 (Table 4-6). The
coefficient of determination R2 for this regression analysis is 0.369 meaning that
36.9% of the variation in the dependent variable is explained by variations in the
independent variables. An R2 of 0.369 is considered to be an acceptable level for the
regression to be significant as long as this research is for attitudinal purposes. 63.1%
of the explanation cannot be attributed to the regression analysis but to other factors
beyond the scope of this study. Thus, further research is needed to verify the
significance of the result.

The perceptions of the 40 interviewed participants at LAU were generally positive

towards the concept of performance appraisal, but as aforementioned they were
disappointed by the way appraisal is conducted. They agreed that appraisal improves
individual performance, increases motivation, and benefits the organisation.
However, only when the goals are clear and understandable; will the system be time-
cost effective.

110
Communication
The interviewed faculty members (40) were asked about the communication of the
appraisal results in the current appraisal scheme, and about their suggestions for better
communication. All the participants showed their dissatisfaction with the current
appraisal system, which can be traced to the lack of communication between the
Deans, the Chairs and the faculty members.

An Instructor commented that:

“The faculty members lack the necessary evidence to realize their weaknesses
and the techniques to improve them effectively. This could be due in part to
the lack of negotiation between the appraiser and the appraisee” (Interview
Transcript, June 2000).

For a better appraisal system, an Associate Professor suggested:

“The result of the appraisal should be communicated to the faculty concerned

to reemphasis the positive and improve the negative” (Interview Transcript,
April 1999).

An Instructor claimed:

“The Department Chairperson must have clear discussions with the faculty
member who was evaluated as well as other faculty members from the same
department so as to clarify and judge every possible aspect of his or her own
performance” (Interview Transcript, April 1999).

Another Instructor stressed the need of continuous negotiation between the appraiser
and the appraisee for the sake of a better understanding of improvement:

“ ...There should be a negotiation between the appraisee and appraiser, there

should be evidence in order to better understand how we can
improve...Discuss the past and the future...It should include the support of
our Dean and the empowerment of the faculty members....” (Interview
Transcript, March 1999).

Ill
This also echoes another Instructor’s remark regarding the need for negotiation:

“Appraisers should highlight and negotiate what was good as well as poor
performance. And in effect, suggest ways for improving performance in the
most effective manner. It is also important not to deny the power and
importance of faculty members in making any change successful. They
should be engaged in the process of appraisal rather than just be the subject of
evaluation / judgment” (Interview Transcript, May 1999).

A properly designed and implemented appraisal scheme contributes, by improving

communication and clarifying expectations to prevent misunderstandings.

Carrying Out Appraisal Interviews

It is necessary for the appraiser and the appraisee to be honest and to conduct face-to-
face discussions. They should discuss the current job, plan the upcoming year and
decide whether support is needed. This should be part of the communication and the
on going process and should not be done only when appraising.

All of the 40 participants agreed that the supervisor-employee discussion produce

mutual understanding and agreement concerning job duties and responsibilities as
well as standards of performance. Furthermore, it formulates a contract between the
participants, which is a self-corrective reflective approach to learning as well as work
accomplishing.

There was also a strong support for the proposition (40 out of 40) that all academic
staff should have an annual interview where their performance over the past year and
their aspiration for the future could be discussed. Emphasis was mostly placed on the
role of communication and collaboration in improving performance and clarifying the
appraisal standards on which faculty members are evaluated. When asked about his
opinion in this respect, an Assistant Professor complained:

“Nobody had ever taken the time to ask me how I was doing? How I can
improve my work? The Head of the Department does not discuss my work
with me. I’ll be motivated if I knew that my work will be taken into account
when evaluation takes place and it should be face-to-face interview with my
supervisor, because that will give me the opportunity to talk professionally
about my personal work and plans” (Interview Transcript, May 1999).

112
In response to such complaints, a Dean answered:

“LAU is growing very quickly, and there is a lot to do, for example: meetings,
committees...Everything is done in groups, committees...Now we don’t have
the time to meet face-to-face with every faculty member when we appraise
them. However even when the opportunity arises to evaluate the appraisees,
the appraiser is met with a wall of bias and is consequently very difficult to
judge. This is why the criteria should be based on quantitative measures (i.e.
publications etc.)” (Interview Transcript, July 1999).

An Instructor highlighted a negative aspect of face-to-face interviews if not

professionally conducted. He claimed:

“The interviewee may become defensive when given negative remarks and put
under stress. In effect, a negative appraisal might create a personal conflict
between the Chairperson and the appraised faculty member” (Interview
Transcript, April 1999).

The overall discussion with faculty members identified appraisal as a key part in the
academic leadership and a key process in the overall management of the department.

Performance Appraisal and Promotion

From the interviews, 25 of the sample felt that appraisal should play a part in
promotion procedures and merit pay awards.
An Instructor, when asked about the importance of performance appraisal in
determining career advancement and promotions, argued that she could not see a
relationship between career advancement and the appraisal process. She claimed:

“Performance appraisal will not improve promotions and it will increase the
work load of the staff members, and it is clear that I am not going to be
promoted unless I finish my Ph.D. degree...” (Interview Transcript, March
1999).

The results of the semi-structured interview indicated low levels of satisfaction with
the promotion and workload of the full time faculty members as aforementioned.
Faculty members should engage in research work, publications and thus improve their
professional development in order to be promoted.

113
Karkoulian (1999) previous study highlighted the University’s effort in solving the
promotion problems especially in the case of women. Despite some criticism from
various faculty members, LAU is in fact an institution that is making an effort to
change the situation much in the same manner as some researchers have suggested.
For example, LAU has made an effort to solve the promotion problem. Women had
difficulties in obtaining a post-graduate degree due to the fact that they had to take
time away from their families to go to another country to study, LAU helped by
offering them a chance to obtain such a degree in Lebanon. This is due to the
agreement it made with Leicester University. Anyone willing to obtain a doctorate in
education can do so without having to go to England to study. The courses are taught
at LAU, in Beirut Campus, by the faculty members of the University of Leicester. In
other words, and in the opinion of over 80% of those interviewed, despite some
shortcomings, LAU is a good institution to work for. In fact many of the university’s
administrators saw themselves as privileged to be working in an institution that does
not discriminate against women. Not denying the societal need of marriage, faculty
members at LAU also affirmed the notion that women could assume public
professional lives (Karkoulian, 1999).

In the year 2000, and for the first time, the criteria for promotion was clarified to
faculty members at LAU. On March 13, 2000 the Vice President of Academic Affairs
at LAU, in the faculty meeting in Beirut Campus, addressed the faculty members
about promotion. A faculty member who wants an Associate Professorial or a
Professorial rank should be judged by the peer committee’s criteria. The decisions on
promotion and tenure tend to be based primarily on a faculty member’s record of
publication in refereed journals and on the participation in International conferences.
Now faculty members are aware of the need to integrate research, teach and serve
students.

Performance Appraisal and Motivation

After the appraisal is completed, supervisors have to reward their employees. In
general, they tend to attribute rewards to ability and skill when evaluating employees’
performance. Before rewards are granted, special considerations have to be taken, for
example, the needs of faculty members and the kinds of rewards given (Robbins,
2001). Rewards are of two kinds: intrinsic rewards, which originate from the job

114
itself and include job enrichment, and extrinsic rewards, which originate from outside
the job, and include increments from the conducted study (Robbins, 2001).

Data was collected to find the kind of rewards given for good performance and
whether they are considered as motivators to faculty members in improving their
performance. Although rewards are granted, they do not seem to be motivating as
they should be, perhaps because they are not provided immediately after the
appraisal. Rewards at LAU are salary increments (percentage increase on the basic
salary). The following table reflects the situation where faculty members are asked in
the questionnaire about their agreement, concerning whether “Rewards are given
immediately after Appraisal”. Table 4-7 displays the responses to five selected
statements about motivation and rewards at LAU.

115
 Table 4-7
Performance Appraisal and Motivation

Please circle the number which reflects your opinion o f the follow ing statements.

SD D U A SA

a- Rewards should motivate performance 2 16 12 26 24

b- Rewards are given immediately after completing 8 42 18 6 6

appraisal (at LA U)

c- Desire to accomplish should be a motivator 2 4 2 42 30

d- Interest in work is a motivator 2 2 2 36 38

e- Success in performing a job is a motivator 2 2 2 26 48

f- Money is a measure o f accomplishment 2 18 18 38 4

g- Rewards are attributed to ability 4 16 26 24 10

h- Rewards are attributed to skill 6 12 28 22 12

i- The needs of academic staff are considered 10 16 42 10 2

before rewards are given

j- Type of job is considered before rewards are given 8 24 34 14 -

k- The organisational environment is considered 6 26 34 12 2

before rewards are given

1- Managers are friendly with the staff 2 14 10 40 14

m- Managers allow employees to write their 24 34 2 14 6

comments on appraisal forms

n- Managers encourage better employee education 8 14 20 30 8

o- Managers threaten employees with job loss 16 30 12 14 8

p- Managers offer employees moral support 4 12 18 40 6

Results in the above table show that there was a significant agreement on what
motivates performance. 90% of the questionnaire sample (72 out of 80) considered
the desire to accomplish as a motivator. Moreover, 92.5% agreed that interest in work
as well as success in performing a job are motivators. A relatively lower percentage,
62.5%, agreed that rewards motivate performance. This decrease in agreement,
relative to the other motivators could be attributed in part to the result that rewards are

116
not given immediately after the appraisal (Table 4-7). Moreover, 47.5% of the
respondents agreed that money is a measure of accomplishment. 50% agreed that
managers offered moral support and 37.5% agreed that managers actually encourage
better employee education; however, only 17.5% agreed that managers allow
employees to write their own comments on appraisal forms.

According to an Assistant Professor:

“Delay in receiving rewards would be demotivating to faculty members in

general, thus negatively affecting their performance. In order to have effective
performance appraisal, rewards must be given directly after evaluation so as to
reinforce behavior and stimulate individual motivation” (Interview Transcript,
March 1999).

From the results of the interview and the questionnaire, it can be inferred that faculty
members are motivated by money, interest in their work, recognition, and success in
their job. Therefore, managers have to integrate both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
in a successful way to stimulate subordinates’ motivation and consequently enhance
performance.

When Rewards Are Given

Comparison Between Full Time and P art Time Faculty
The researcher was interested to know the views of the full-time and part-time faculty
members regarding whether rewards are given immediately after appraisal. In the
following table (Table 4-8) results show that 55.5% of the 54 full-timers disagreed,
and 76.9% of the 26 part-timers held the same view. Among the part-timers only
7.7% strongly agreed that rewards were given immediately after appraisal. Knowing
that part-timers do not receive increments based on the appraisal, the researcher was
interested to know the reason behind their agreement. The researcher interviewed a
part-time Instructor who made a point that “ whenever a part -timer is always called
back to lecture, this in itself could be a reward and an indication that she or he is
doing well”.

117
 Table 4-8
When are Rewards Given?

Rewards are given imm ediately after com pleting appraisal:

Faculty members Head Count SD D U A SA

Full-time 54 4 26 14 6 4
Part-time 26 4 16 4 — 2

Comparing LAU Appraisal Scheme with Those of Other Universities

Three of the interview participants being or have been lecturers at different
universities either in Lebanon or outside, compared the appraisal scheme at LAU with
those at other universities.

Another full time Assistant Professor emphasized the ‘trio’ system of appraisal used
in most U.S. Universities:

“I am not sure how academically oriented it is. At general U.S. schools in

a higher educational institution, where I have been active for the past six
years, publications, teaching evaluations, and committees served have
been used as criteria. In fact, most U.S. schools that I know of (hundreds’)
use the ‘trio’ system” (Interview Transcript, May 1999).

A part time lecturer who had been evaluated differently due to her employment in
different institutions reveals the difference between her evaluation experience at LAU
and another university in Lebanon:

“At LAU, the Instructor is appraised by the supervisor according to criteria

established by the supervisor himself or herself. These criteria are not
communicated to the Instructor, or the result of the appraisals; however, as an
Instructor, I can tell by the first choice, that as soon as I get courses to teach in
the following semester, I will understand that I am doing a good job. This
works if the Instructor is doing well and the supervisor realizes that. However
this system or the lack of it, would create a lot of misunderstanding and
misjudgment. At the other university, we are evaluated according to
evaluation forms filled by the students towards the end of the semester. The
results once obtained by the Dean’s office are sent to us with a copy of the
questionnaire and a diagram showing and explaining to us how the results are
obtained. The Business School faculty members are also compared to other
“scores” obtained by the educators in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. To
me, this is very effective because it shows and motivates me to do a better job!
The results are also communicated to my direct supervisor i.e. the director of
Business School who, based on the results, will hire us the next semester”
(Interview Transcript, June 1999).

118
One of the part time faculty members (lecturer at both LAU and at X University in
Lebanon) commented:

“At X University appraisal is not conducted however at LAU I think there is

some kind of appraisal but not direct and not communicated to faculty
members especially part-timers. But we can indirectly access how we are
appraised by being in the first place called again to lecture. Besides, being
assigned upper level courses could be an indication that our performance is
evaluated and accordingly we are given such offers. But again there is no
direct communication of the feedback especially on negative performance”
(Interview Transcript, April 2001).

Feedback
Comparison Between Full Time and P art Time Faculty

Feedback was measured with six questions (e.g. “Feedback is received periodically by
the appraisee”, “Performance appraisal provide feedback to employees as to how well
they are doing their job”, etc.).

The researcher was interested to know the views of the full-time and part-time faculty
members regarding whether Feedback is received periodically by the appraisee. Table
4-9 results shows that 37% of the 54 full-timers strongly disagreed and disagreed,
while 69.2% of the 26 part-timers held the same view. The difference in response
rates reflects the fact that part timers receive little or no feedback in comparison to the
full time faculty.

Table 4-9
Feedback

Feedback is received periodically by the appraisee:

Faculty members Head Count SD D U A SA

Full-time 54 12 8 16 14 4
Part-time 26 14 — 4 6 2

119
A ssessing the Im portance o f Feedback
To investigate the factors that are most likely to be associated with feedback, a
regression analysis was conducted using feedback as the dependent variable, and
fifteen variables were taken as independent. The independent variables are control,
motivation, support, reward, procedures, needs, environment, money, promotion,
training, gender, marital status, title, department, and, years (The description of these
variables based on the questions used is presented in Chapter Three). These variables
are presented in Table 4-9. The results obtained from the regression analysis are
presented in Table 4-10.

Table 4-10
The Regression Variables (Feedback)

Independent Variables (15) Dependent Variable

- Control - Feedback
- Motivation
- Support
- Reward
- Procedures
- Needs
- Environment
- Money
- Promotion
- Training
- Gender
- Marital Status
- Title
- Department
- Years

120
 Table 4-11
Regression Output for Feedback

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 0.813 0.661 0.582 0.63

ANOVA
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F
Sig.
1 Regression 49.062 15 3.271 8.320
0.000
Residual 25.160 64 0.393
Total 74.222 79

Coefficients

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta t Sig
(Constant) -0.974 0.920 -1.059 0.294
CONTROL -1.694E-04 0.094 0.000 -0.002 0.999
MOTIVATION 0.225 0.142 0.185 1.583 0.118
SUPPORT 8.460E-02 0.131 0.058 0.646 0.521
REWARD -4.162E-02 0.094 -0.041 -0.445 0.658
PROCEDURES 0.315 0.122 0.219 2.585 0.012*
NEEDS 0.231 0.145 0.202 1.597 0.115
ENVIRONMENT -9.916E-02 0.127 -0.086 -0.780 0.438
MONEY 0.542 0.130 0.491 4.155 0.000*
PROMOTION -0.207 0.112 -0.175 -1.848 0.069
TRAINNING 0.176 0.141 0.152 1.249 0.216
GENDER -0.287 0.197 -0.149 -1.454 0.151
MARITAL STATUS 0.197 0.203 0.094 0.970 0.335
TITLE -8.575E-02 0.060 -0.166 -1.426 0.159
DEPARTMENT 6.017E-02 0.063 0.091 0.954 0.344
YEARS 2.081E-02 0.010 0.185 2.184 0.033*

Dependent Variable: FEEDBACK

* significant at 0.05 significance level

121
The regression analysis yields the following equation for determining the dependent
variable feedback:
Feedback = -0.974 + 0.315(Procedure) + 0.542(Money) + 0.0208(Years)
Significance (0.012) (0.000) (0.033)

The factors that proved to be significant in relation to feedback are: procedure,

money, and years. The rest of the tested independent variables were found to have no
significant relationship with feedback. Thus, further research is recommended. The
positive sign of the coefficients of the variables, procedure, money, and years,
indicates that there is a positive correlation between these variables and feedback in
the appraisal process. The regression equation proved to be significant at the 0.05
significance level (95% confidence) with an F-value of 8.320 and a significance of
0.000 (Table 4-10). The coefficient of determination R2 for this regression analysis is
0.661 meaning that 66.1% of the variation in the dependent variable is explained by
variations in the independent variables. An R of 0.661 is considered to be significant.
33.9% of the explanation cannot be attributed to the regression analysis but to other
factors beyond the scope of this study. Thus, further research is needed to verify the
significance of the result.

When the interviewees were asked about the importance of feedback in the appraisal
process an Associate Professor said:

“When performance appraisal is used as a process to provide feedback to

faculty members on how they are doing in order to maintain or improve
performance, provided that all participants involved in the process understand
this purpose, there will be less resistance to it because the focus is
developmental in nature” (Interview Transcript, February 1999).

An Assistant Professor insisted on the need for feedback and for faculty members’
involvement in setting the criteria for evaluation. She commented:

“I think that feedback is very essential in the appraisal process and it should be
communicated face-to-face so that the faculty member has the chance to
defend himself or herself in case there are any misunderstanding and to
discuss the negative performance and the ways of improving it. I think that if
we as faculty members are involved in setting the criteria of the evaluation
(MBO) or even be informed about it at some point, we would be more inclined
to improve our performance as much as possible to meet the mutually set
criteria” (Interview Transcript, April 2001).

122
A part time Instructor added:

“If performance appraisal is well understood and if the development process is

participative, the lack of technique argument will be diminished” (Interview
Transcript, March 1999).

Collaboration and Professional Development Among Faculty Members

The participants in the interview were asked to briefly express their views on
professional development. The responses were received as follows: 29 of the 40
participants thought that it would involve extra work and collaboration within the
department. They were aware that professional development in higher educational
institution would involve additional publications in refereed journals. They also
realised that this would result in a better service to students by using up to date
technology and visual aids. This improved service reflects on the institution and thus
leads to increased professional development and to increased faculty member
satisfaction.

When asked about the attitude of faculty members toward professional development,
a faculty member said that, “Professional development motivates the handling of
more responsibilities that leads to empowerment” (Interview Transcript, June 1999).

When asked about their opinions in participating in a conference or a seminar, only

five out of the forty participants reported that they had participated in or are preparing
for one. They agreed that through collaboration they would achieve professional
development in their career since as one faculty members puts it “collaboration will
lead to more research and likely to more publications” (Interview Transcript, May
1999). Those who had not participated or were not planning to participate in
conferences said that they lack the time to do research since they are teaching a full
load, i.e. 12 credits. Part-timers, most of who work outside the university, also claim
that they do not have the time for collaboration. 20 of the full-timers commented that
collaboration is a time consuming process. They suggested a course exemption in
return for research work; that is, “a full-time faculty member should teach only nine
credits instead of twelve besides undergoing a collaborative research project”
(Interview Transcript, May 1999).

123
Two interviewed faculty members worked collaboratively at the Business School on a
management conference at LAU (June 2nd and 3rd, 2000). The program brought
together experts, professionals, researchers, practitioners, and leaders from Lebanon,
the Arab world and the international community. Moreover, these two faculty
members were involved in a collaborative project conducted at the Business School.
The following had a positive impact on their professional development.

As regards professional development, 29 faculty members approved that it is an

important issue especially for promotion, which involves personal growth and self­
empowerment.

One full-time Professor said that:

“Staff development will create new learning opportunities for faculty members
and suggest new roles and responsibilities for them” (Interview Transcript,
July 1999).

In the same regard, another Instructor stressed that:

“It is essential to identify research and practice that may be useful to the
educational institution in planning and conducting professional development”
(Interview Transcript, May 1999).

One of the interviewed Associate Professors highlighted the importance of

coordination of faculty development activities within the university:

“In order to make the most efficient use of human and material resources
throughout the university, there should be a coordination of faculty
development activities among the university schools” (Interview Transcript,
April 1999).

Universities should be backed up with sufficient opportunities for career development

and advancement. One Instructor remarked:

“Appraisal should be linked with career development, so far, appraisal process

seems largely detached from the main activity of the university” (Interview
Transcript, March 1999).

124
An Instructor concluded the interview by highlighting the importance of professional
development:

“Professional development should be of main concern to every faculty

member especially in higher education. Investment in professional
development can lead changes in the way of teaching and in research”
(Interview Transcript, July 2000).

However, two part-timers had a different point view regarding collaboration and
professional development. They emphasized its importance in higher educational
institutions but stressed on the fact that their status as part timers at LAU and the fact
that they are short of time makes it almost impossible to join hands and collaborate
with faculty members.

A part time instructor said that:

“We are in need for professional development to prosper and develop in the
educational field. But between my job outside the university, the classes, the office
hours, and the necessary class preparation it just seems impossible to spare any time
for collaboration and professional development” (Interview Transcript, May 1999).

Another part time instructor also noted the following:

“I teach at two different universities other than LAU, and this requires great effort and
dedication. I believe collaboration and professional development will be time
consuming, and will hinder our academic performance in class” (Interview Transcript,
May 1999).

The following chapter is designed to further analyze the findings of the study directly
related to the potential improvements of the appraisal scheme at LAU.

125
 Chapter Five
Analysis of Findings
Potential Improvements of Appraisal Scheme at LAU

After examining the Performance Appraisal scheme implemented at LAU, the researcher
was interested in investigating the sort of appraisal scheme, which participants might
prefer. The purpose of this chapter is to present and discuss the findings recommended
by the respondents for improving the current appraisal scheme at LAU.

This research considers the possibility of using 360 degree appraisal, which is new in
higher education. It uses information from a wide range of sources; from superiors, peers
and subordinate staff. This evaluation method has been recently applied to higher
education institutions and consequently there are at present no references to its
application in the field (Chapter Two).

The chapter is designed as follows: Improving the Appraisal System; Who Should Carry
out the Appraisal Process; 360 Degree Feedback; and Mentoring.

Improving the Appraisal System

When it comes to improving the present appraisal system, one of the interviewed
Instructors said:

“The evaluation should be carried out by the students, and the results and scores
obtained by the Dean of Business School with some sort of appraisal by the direct
supervisor. The criteria should be decided upon by a committee from all
departments and should apply to all of the different positions at different levels,
i.e. standard evaluation for the Instructor, one for Assistant Professor, one for
Associate Professor and one for full Professor. The Instructor should have a copy
of these criteria and the exact job description in his contract. Once the
evaluations are done, the results should be communicated back to the faculty
member with a comparison to other faculty members in the same position and
teaching the same course” (Interview Transcript, June 1999).

126
Another Instructor, whilst commenting on the same issue, stressed the need for a
systematic appraisal system:

“The appraisal system should be carried out very objectively to avoid subject bias
in formal appraisal habits by applying MBO as a tool to keep the appraiser and
appraisee informed about the criteria of appraisal. And of course the system, to
be implemented, should guarantee feedback and establish a clear link between
feedback, rewards, and punishment” (Interview Transcript, May 1999).

During the Arab Conference on Information Technology (ACIT’2000, October 31st -

November 2nd), the researcher had the opportunity to learn about the appraisal schemes
applied in a university in Austria. The researcher asked the Keynote Speaker Professor
Johann Gunther about the issue. He said that students have to evaluate the lecturer online
following each class and accordingly the lecturers are rated. If they receive a low rating
for three consecutive times, they will be automatically fired.

With regard to the objectivity of appraisal, a part time Instructor suggested:

“Just as some final exams of students are evaluated using the multiple scoring
method, it is more objective to have more than one score or source of evaluation.
In the academic setting, these are the peers, previous students, direct head of
departments and/or coordinator and above all oneself, based on a set of criteria.
And the evaluation is either done by filling out a set form or written freely by the
evaluators” (Interview Transcript, May 1999).

When asked about how performance appraisal schemes continue to be monitored and
evaluated, a part time Assistant Professor suggested:

“The performance appraisal scheme should be compared with schemes carried out
elsewhere (for example at AUB). The needs and the view points of the faculty
members should be discussed resulting in an updated scheme” (Interview
Transcript, June 1999).

The frequency of appraisal was also of concern in the interviews. 32 of the faculty
members agreed that conducting appraisal annually would be appropriate if feedback is
provided on continuous basis throughout the academic year.

127
Who Should Carry out the Appraisal Process
There are a wide variety of viewpoints regarding who should carry out the appraisal
process. According to the Deans and Chairpersons, appraisal is within their job
description. However, only 5% of the questionnaire sample (4 out of 80) reported that
the Department Head should conduct and should be responsible for the appraisal process
(Table 5-1). In large departments it is impractical for the head of the school or division to
perform all the review.

One approach to appraisal is the 360 degree feedback form of appraisal, which gives the
appraisee the opportunity for feedback from senior staff, peers and subordinates. Since it
comes from several sources, the information is very powerful and can be very useful
because the diversity of the appraisees tends to eliminate the possible biases. 360 degree
appraisal is a unique process whereby managers can receive feedback on their skills and
effectiveness. Department heads should also have their performance reviewed by the
same process, thus leading to a better commitment in higher educational institution, as
discussed in Chapter Two.

Respondents were given five suggestions (Yes/ No) to reflect their opinion on who
should be involved in appraising them. The frequencies of the responses in the five
categories to each of the five suggestions are shown in Table 5-1.

The data reported in table 5-1 indicates that there was considerable disagreement on who
should be involved in appraising individual performance, but 60% of respondents asked
for the involvement of students, colleagues, subordinates, Deans, etc. (360 degree
appraisal). This statement contradicts the job description of the Deans and the
Chairpersons.

128
 Table 5-1
Who Should be Involved in Appraising Individual Performance?

Please tick who should be involved in appraising individual performance?

Yes Percentage
a- the individual academic concerned 15 18.8%
b- A senior member (not the head of department) 7 8.8 %
c- The head of the department 4 5.0 %
d- The students, colleagues, subordinates, Deans, etc. 48 60.0 %
(360 appraisal)
e- Others 6 7.5 %

Further opinions of the 80 participants are presented in Table 5-2 below. The results
indicate that 92.5% of the 80 respondents agreed that further systematic procedures for
the appraisal of individuals are necessary for professional development. Besides such
procedures for the appraisal of departments were deemed necessary by 72.5% of the
respondents. Regarding the role of department heads in helping and supporting staff, 85%
agreed that they should take an active part in assisting faculty members in the
development of their teaching skills (e.g. discussing course materials). 90% agreed on the
same role of the heads of departments to develop their research (e.g. give advice with
research proposals). For the heads of departments to perform their roles effectively, it
was agreed by 65% of the respondents that the university should provide training for the
heads of departments as well. There was a significant agreement of 90% on the
importance of an annual interview whereby faculty members discuss with supervisors
their performance over the last year and their aspiration for the future that the academic
staff should have an annual interview.

129
 Table 5-2
Role of the Heads of Departments in the Appraisal Process

Please circle the number which reflects your opinion of the following statements

SD D U A SA
a- Further systematic procedures for the appraisal
of individuals for their professional development
are necessary. - 2 4 42 32

b- Heads of departments should take an active part

in helping and supporting staff in the department
to develop their teaching (e.g. discussing course
materials or attendingclasses). - 8 4 42 26

c- Heads of departments should take an active part

in helping and supporting staff in the department
to develop their research (e.g. advising in research
proposal). 4 4 48 24

d- All academic staff should have an annual interview

at which their performance over the last year and
their aspiration to the futurecould be discussed. - 2 6 48 24

e- Further systematic procedures for the appraisal

of departments for their professional development.
are necessary 4 2 16 38 20

f- The University should provide training for heads

of departments 2 14 12 28 24

360 Degree Feedback

A few participants in this study were already familiar with the concept of 360 degree
appraisal and thus offered comment. An Instructor insisted that:

“Top level administration support and commitment to change the actual appraisal
scheme including the necessary resource allocation for 360 degree appraisal
implementation is vital to the success of performance appraisal implementation.
It is important to recognize that changing the actual performance appraisal into
360 degree feedback in higher education is a major process. And when the
purpose of performance appraisal for the University is determined,
communicating this information to all participants is crucial” (Interview
Transcript, May 1999).

130
Another Instructor commented:

“It is important to note that implementing a 360 degree appraisal scheme in higher
education is a major change. Thus a consideration of changing process
implementation, especially when applied to higher education is necessary. Hence
keeping faculty members informed as well as involved in the change process
contributes to more effective problem posing and solving” (Interview Transcript,
May 1999).

One of the interviewed Assistant Professors stressed that:

“Keeping all members not only informed but also involved in the change process
contributes to more effective problem posing and solving. Thus emphasizing on
communication is vital to learning” (Interview Transcript, June 1999).

According to an Instructor:

“Students and faculty members are closer to the appraisee than the Chairperson or
the Dean of a school. Therefore, if universities use 360 degree appraisal, there
will be an opportunity for those closest to the employee (appraisee) to evaluate
how well faculty member is doing and whether or not it can be done better”
(Interview Transcript, July 1999).

Another Instructor added:

“In my opinion I believe the faculty appraisal should not only be in the hands of
the Chairperson or Dean or even students, for the former is not involved in every
aspect of the faculty involvement i.e. teaching, coaching, mentoring, researching
etc. and the latter may not be mature enough or judge the faculty on the one
aspect such as grading or personal liking etc. A 360 degree appraisal would
confirm the evaluation of the faculty by different groups and so might eliminate
biases. Suggested groups: students, colleagues in frequent contact with the
faculty member (and/or teaching a multi section course), Chairperson, Dean or it
could be graduating students (similar to exit interview) evaluating the program,
school and Professors to minimize biases and to improve the system of
appraising” (Interview Transcript, July 1999).

131
According to an Associate Professor:

“If 360 degree appraisal scheme is carefully introduced and assessed, then faculty
members will realize their full professional potential by providing them with
better job satisfaction, and better career development as it will allow them to
improve within their own chosen field” (Interview Transcript, June 2000)

So far the findings indicated that faculty members want to be more involved in the
appraisal process. The following can be achieved by implementing the 360 degree
feedback, which, as stated by an Assistant Professor, “allows for people from all
hierarchies to put their point across and lets individuals from all levels to be heard”
(Interview Transcript, May 1999).

Regarding the aspect of faculty members evaluation, another faculty member insisted
that: “Class enrolment and grading should never be a part of appraisal by which faculty
members are judged and their performance being evaluated.”

The same Instructor, when asked about who should appraise, said:

“Our department is not using a real scientific method for appraising and I don’t
believe that one person can play God especially when he or she is not observing
your teaching methods or using an effective appraisal scheme such as 360 degree
feedback, whereby many are involved in evaluating the individual faculty
member” (Interview Transcript, April 1999).

One of the main issues raised during the interviews, concerning the implementation of the
360 degree appraisal scheme, was the core contribution of the system -if well
implemented- to the development of faculty members’ performance in pursuit of
achieving the University’s objectives.

132
One of the interviewed Instructors reported that:

“Many of the 360 degree feedback benefits accrue to those using the process for
the development of the faculty’s performance. Each one of us will have the
opportunity to assess the information to see how he or she is performing. It is
also important to note that it is up to the faculty member alone to improve
performance by either accepting the evaluation being positive or negative or just
ignoring any negative feedback and resisting changes” (Interview Transcript,
January 2000).

Another Instructor, added:

“If a 360 degree appraisal scheme is carefully introduced and assessed, then
faculty members will realize their full professional potential by providing them
with better job satisfaction, and better career development as it will allow them to
improve within their own chosen field.” .... “Higher educational institutions
should encourage flexibility and change, by applying 360 degree appraisal, which
appears to achieve a sense of departmental commitment to the process”
(Interview Transcript, June 1999).

The result gained using 360 degree feedback is more powerful than the immediate
supervisor appraisal and thus can help in the development of faculty members. 33 of the
40 participants prefer to have a multi-rater process since it minimizes bias and hence
creates a system whereby they are more fairly evaluated. One of the interviewees
insisted that “the fairness of evaluation is a highly important factor in the appraisal
process, as the results would lead to a better job satisfaction and better career
development. They may also affect salary increase, as a better appraisal may lead to
promotion” (Interview Transcript, December 1999).

20 faculty members out of the 40 participants agreed that implementing a 360 degree
feedback in higher education is a costly and time consuming process because of
collecting and analyzing data from various sources involved in the evaluation. Analyzing
the retrieved data requires well- trained appraisers.

133
Mentoring
Despite the fact that there are no formal mentoring programs at LAU, the researcher was
interested in assessing how faculty members perceive the importance of mentoring in
higher educational institutions. One of the interviewed full-time Professors emphasized:

“Mentoring and professional development are highly associated since mentoring

offers support by providing individuals with someone who can give feedback,
guide and support. However, at LAU there are no apparent mentoring programs.
It should be included in the job description of the full time faculty members. For
more successfully implemented mentoring programs, training should be provided
for mentors as well because they should have the ability to listen, personal
qualities of openness and accessibility” (Interview Transcript, January 2000).

One of the interviewed Instructors when discussing the importance of mentoring

commented that: “Mentoring should focus on development and empowerment of faculty
members and not only on helping new faculty members” (Interview Transcript, January
2000).

When asked about the mentor/protege relationship one Instructor said that:

“Serving as a mentor will bring newly hired faculty members together with old
faculty members (mentors). This type of arrangement would provide faculty
members an opportunity to talk with each others, collaborate and learn from each
others research findings if any” (Interview Transcript, July 2000).

Another Instructor commented:

“The relationship should be based on trust and confidentiality or else it will fail
especially if unsuitable mentors are appointed” (Interview Transcript, May 1999).

A third Instructor added:

“Mentors should be good listeners as well as effective in sharing ideas and giving
advice. Needless to say the mentor should be good in generating solutions for any
problem that might arise while training the new faculty members” (Interview
Transcript, August 2000).

134
In effect, as one interviewed Assistant Professor put it:

“Those who receive the support of mentors will be more goal-directed,

increasingly serious about the importance of detail, self-confident, reflective, and
certain about their commitment to educational leadership as a continuing career
goal” (Interview Transcript, July 1999).

Gender and Mentoring (male/female views)

The researcher was interested to know the views of male and female faculty members
regarding the importance of mentoring in higher educational institutions. Results
presented in Figure 5-2 show that both male and female faculty members held almost
similar views, whereby 45 % of the male faculty members (18 out of 40) and 40 % of the
female faculty members (16 out of 40) agreed that mentoring is an important issue in
higher education. However, 20% of the females and 30% of the males disagreed.

Figure 5-1
Importance of Mentoring in Higher Education Male/Female Sample
20 - 18
- ..........
16 —
14
1 5 ------------------------------------------- F I ------ ------------------------------
12
10

#n
2
II II II □
2

ol .

SD D U A SA ------------
□ male
Agreement
■ female

135
The researcher raised also the issue of gender and mentoring during the interview to
investigate whether the personal relationship at the heart of mentoring can be problematic
when mentor and mentee are of different genders. Three faculty members, two males and
a female gave interesting and different viewpoints. The female Instructor when asked
about her preference regarding the gender of the mentor commented that:

“As long as the mentoring programs are formal, which also means formal
relationship between the mentor and the mentee, I think the gender issue would
not be problematic. But we can’t deny that sometimes the informality of the
relationship is essential for its success, thus leading to effective mentoring
programs. If this is the case, I prefer a female mentor but who is also well
qualified to be a good mentor. However, in my opinion, women sometimes abuse
their powers if they are put in a position of power, that is to say they become
bossy especially if their mentees are also females. Sometimes women who reach
good positions tend to be sympathizing and try to be most helpful as means to
securing their positions” (Interview Transcript, May 2001).

While a male Assistant Professor, referring to his experience outside the University, said:

“I had both types of mentors and found that gender preferences were never an
issue in the mentoring relationships. What really governed the relationships was
the drive to achieve my own progress and mostly the organisation preferences. I
think what matters is having mentors who are well qualified and most effective in
developing and strengthening proficient relationships with their mentees. For
LAU I believe the future would be clearer if mentoring programs are implemented
in the first place. As a faculty member, I had never felt secure in my position due
to the lack of such mentoring which could be the ideal thing in any educational
institution. At least in the meantime the University should provide us with clear
guidelines” (Interview Transcript, May 2001).

A male Instructor raised an interesting viewpoint regarding the difference in

communication between male and female. His comment was:

“Men tend to steer the conversation in a way to force their points, while women
most often try to be in a position to help and give encouragement sometimes by
showing their agreement to the raised views during a conversation. Therefore,
specific styles of communication should be of main concern in mentoring
programs so that the such differences would not dramatically affect the
effectiveness of the mentoring relationships” (Interview Transcript, May 2001).

136
D isadvantages o f M entoring
Despite the numerous benefits arising from mentoring programs, accruing to both the protege
and the mentor, there are still certain disadvantages: Mentoring is quite demanding in terms of
the emotional support that mentors have to give the trainees.

When asked about the disadvantage of mentoring a full time Assistant Professor said:

“Mentoring programs could be time consuming for full time faculty members
who have to teach a minimum of 12 credits per semester equivalent to 4 courses
on an average. So if for example I am chosen to be a mentor, I would ask for
decreasing my teaching load to 9 credits” (Interview Transcript, January 2000).

An Instructor asked to comment on this issue attributed the disadvantages of mentoring to

the potential problems arising between mentor and protege. He mentioned that:
“mentoring relationships unfortunately do not always succeed as expected. For example,
the new educator may expect too much from the mentor and may be demanding detailed
answers and solutions to all his questions and problems” (Interview Transcript, July
1999).

Another Instructor member added:

“Some mentors may be reluctant in letting the trainees become independent and
this situation may be unhealthy for the new faculty members and the institution as
a whole” (Interview Transcript, July 2000).

Based on the literature review, the researcher designed a model to support performance
appraisal. The model was then reviewed by participants in order to integrate their
suggestions. One of the interviewed Assistant Professor suggested the insertion of
mentoring. She asserted:

“Mentoring is a vital step in the performance appraisal process. Higher

educational institutions, including LAU, should implement mentoring. Mentoring
is a building block in the development and progression of both the appraiser and
appraisee. Mentoring will eventually lead to both professional development and
staff development. All of which will lead to the development of the educational
institution as a whole” (Interview transcript, July 2001).

137
Using the views and information gained from participants, the researcher integrated
mentoring and all participants eventually suggested the implementation of this model at
LAU. Their rationale, as echoed by a full time Instructor, was:

“By using the suggested model, the University could improve its communication
channels. In effect, appraisal will provide a situation where efforts are
acknowledged and feedback on performance given, thus leading to a better
understanding between supervisors and faculty members” (Interview Transcript,
July, 2001).

The following chapter is designed to further analyze the findings of the study based on
the documented literature review (Chapter Two).

138
 Chapter Six
Discussion of the Existing Appraisal Scheme at LAU

Introduction
The first step in conducting this research was to assess the extent to which faculty
members were aware of the appraisal system followed at the University. The research
revealed that 92.5% of the questionnaire sample (74 out of 80) reported application of
such systems. In general it can be implied from the responses that the Supervisor
Appraisal is used at the School of Arts and Sciences and the School of Business.
However, Supervisor Appraisal alone does not give accurate information related to
employee’s actual performance since the supervisor is not always in the best position to
observe an employee’s (subordinate) performance (Latham & Wexley, 1981; Vecchio,
1995). In other organisations this method is used for about 95% of performance
evaluations at the lower and middle organisational levels (Robbins, 1998).

The researcher also found that faculty members’ awareness varied between full-timers
(96.3%) and part-timers (84.6%), whereby part-timers seemed to be less perceptive of the
adopted appraisal system. One of the reasons for this difference in perception could be
that part-timers, unlike full-timers do not receive salary increases according to their
performance evaluation, since they receive specific set rates. Besides, the lack of
communicating the results of appraisal could in part explain part-timers’ unawareness of
their evaluation. This lack in communicating the evaluation’s results to almost all faculty
members could be an attribute for the faculty members’ unawareness (7.5%) of the
presence of an appraisal system in the institution.

139
Importance of Communication
37% of the 54 full-timers either disagreed or strongly disagreed, and 69.2% of the 26
part-timers strongly disagreed regarding the fact that feedback is received periodically at
LAU. Moreover, the findings of the regression analysis showed that feedback is
significantly correlated with three variables, procedures, money, and years of experience.
The positive and significant relationship with procedures could be attributed to
systematic and well-developed appraisal procedures promoting timely and effective
feedback. This in turn is likely to lead to higher levels of achievement, which is reflected
in the earnings. Finally, the level of seniority represented by the variable ‘years of
experience’ can also play a role in deriving more timely feedback. People with a higher
seniority level may know more about the procedures. At the same time, they probably
have a higher opportunity for getting an informal feedback from the supervisors
concerned.

This finding fits in with the appraisal literature that performance feedback has been
shown to positively influence learning. Appraisals, by providing feedback to employees,
serve as vehicles for personal and career development (Cascio, 1989, p. 309). Feedback
also verifies the importance of supervisor-employee communication for effective
management. Ongoing feedback about performance is a formative evaluation process
that creates a valuable learning environment (Jablin, 1979).

All the interviewed faculty members were dissatisfied with the lack of communication
and emphasized the importance of communicating the appraisal results to faculty
members. As commented by most participants, the supervisors (Deans and Chairpersons)
should have clear and frequent discussions with the appraisee to reinforce the positive
and focus on improving the negative aspects of his or her performance. They also
suggested further discussions with other faculty members of the same department as a
way to fairly judge every aspect of the appraisee’s performance. Oberg (1991) indicated
that the lack of communication results in employees not knowing the standards by which
they are being rated, and in turn results in an inefficient appraisal system for management
decisions, organisational development, or other purposes. Kempton (1995) argues that

140
nothing is being achieved when the appraisal process involves little listening and no
feedback. “It seems like a pointless waste of time and resources when the activity is not
being respected” (p. 157). A person who knows by which standards he or she is being
judged, even if he or she thinks the standards are too high, knows specifically how to
perform differently if he or she wants a higher rating next time (Oberg, 1991). The
results of the interviews presented in Chapter Four show that faculty members were not
informed about the result of the evaluation, in addition to the fact that no face-to-face
interviewing was done.

Findings from the interviews showed that all participants emphasized the importance of
face-to-face discussions between the appraiser and the appraisee. According to the
interviewees, face-to-face interviews should discuss the current job, standards of
performance, weaknesses, improvements, and future plans. They believed that such
discussions would produce mutual understanding and agreements concerning job duties
and responsibilities based on the mutually discussed and agreed upon standards of
performance. Elliott (1993, p. 176) considers that, “Individual teachers cannot
significantly improve their practices in isolation without opportunities for discussion with
professional peers and operating in a significant role relationship to them”. Hutchinson
(1995) argues that the discussion of the evidence in the appraisal interview would be
directed at better understanding, and at how the practice might be improved.

There was an agreement among the interviewees on the role of communication and
collaboration in enhancing performance. Their rationale was that effective
communication and collaboration would lead to mutual understanding between the
faculty members and the supervisors on the appraisal standards. In order to bring about
real changes in faculty members’ morale, senior staff need to provide clear objectives as
well as a “listening ear” (Caudron, 1996, p. 26).

Among all participants, there was strong support for conducting annual interviews. To be
most effective, performance appraisals must be a continuous process of frequent
communication, with the purpose of the evaluation clearly documented and

141
communicated to those involved (Fortunato and Waddell, 1981). This also concurs with
the findings of Rutherford (1988) who found a strong and positive reaction of staff to the
suggestions for an individual annual interview, providing a focus for career development,
and bringing together a detailed analysis of a department’s past performance with an
academic plan for its immediate future.

Purpose of Appraisal
Participants in this study thought that performance appraisal is a major tool to assess,
evaluate, and recognize achievements, as well as address weakness and show ways to
improve performance (Refer to Table 4-4 for the statistical figures). The result of the
regression analysis, with control as the dependent variable in the appraisal process
showed a significant negative correlation with Motivation (see Table 4-6). This
emphasizes that appraisal in not for controlling individuals because in a close controlling
atmosphere, individuals cannot be well motivated. High levels of control would imply a
directive rather than a participative approach, which would negatively affect the
effectiveness of a communication.

Almost all the participants in the interview sample said that any organisation could not
have a fully functioning human resource without having a well-developed effective
system of appraisal. They said that the effective system had to be developmental in
nature since it provides opportunities for growth and advancement, and it develops areas
where faculty members have deficiencies. Bradley (1992, p. 127) said that, “the goal of a
great appraisal system is for professional development. It is not about the ranking or
grading of teachers nor is it about the weeding out of poor teachers, it is to create an
environment where everyone is used to the best of their abilities”. “Effective
performance measurement systems make people feel good about themselves and self
esteem is the key to productivity” (Fitz-enz, 1995 p. 263). One participant commented,
“it could be more rewarding and satisfactory to hear a gratitude for good performance
like a simple ‘well done’ than a bonus pay cheque” (Interview Transcript, March 2000).

142
Performance Appraisal and Promotion
Robbins (2001) argues that supervisors tend to reward their subordinates after the
appraisal is completed, based on their abilities and skills that have been recognized from
the performance evaluation. 62.5% of the questionnaire sample (50/80) in this study
agreed that rewards, if properly and immediately given after appraisal, motivate
performance. However, 62.5% believed that rewards at LAU were not given immediately
after the appraisal, a situation that could, according to the viewpoints of the interviewees,
demotivate faculty members and in effect negatively affecting their performance. Faculty
views on this reflected their employment status. 55.5% of the full-timers and 76.9% of
the part-timers believed that rewards are never given directly after evaluation. Delay in
rewards could have affected the faculty members’ perception of the relationship between
appraisal and their promotion and rewards, which are not effectively acting as incentives
to improve performance. Thus, appraisal would appear to have little effect on motivation
and performance. This concurs with the findings of Haslem et al. (1993b, p. 479) who
pointed out “over half felt that appraisal had not improved their motivation or
performance, but they did not feel that their morale had deteriorated as a result of
appraisal implementation”. They concluded that in general university staff feel that
appraisal had little impact on their motivation, efficiency and performance.

The findings showed that most of the interviewed faculty members (25 out of 40) agreed
that appraisal should play a role in promotion procedures and merit pay rewards. As
argued by McGregor (1990), supervisors cannot escape making judgements about
subordinates. Without such evaluations, salary and promotion policies cannot be
administered fairly. According to Montgomery (1991), appraisal can function as an
indicator for reward and promotion although this should be neither the main reason for
conducting appraisals nor should this be given without a full appraisal. “Appraisal
functions for reward and promotion still remain purposes to which appraisal should not
be directed although neither should be given without a full appraisal. There are
insufficient rewards and promotions in teaching to give recognition to the wide range of
staff who deserve them” (Montgomery, 1991, p. 42). Appraisals should support
personnel decisions to promote outstanding performers; to weed out marginal or low

143
performers; to train, transfer, or discipline others; and to justify merit increases (or no
increases). In short, appraisal serves as a key input for administering a formal
organisational reward and punishment system (Cascio, 1989). However, a few
participants (5/40), during the interview, could not see any relationship between career
advancement and the appraisal process. They argued that performance appraisal would
not improve promotions but it would add to the workload of the faculty members.
Rowan (1995) argues that the appraisal system is developmental, not deficiency seeking.

Collaboration Among Faculty Members and Professional Development

Collaboration was perceived as an important process by a limited number of participants
in this study. Five faculty members out of forty agreed that through collaboration they
would achieve professional development in their career, since collaboration will lead to
more research and probably to more publications. Collaboration among faculty
members, and between them and their principals, has been advanced as one of the most
fruitful strategies for fostering teacher development whereby educators can learn from
each other, share, and develop their expertise together (Hargreaves, 1992). Teachers like
to be both active participants in the shaping of the agenda of change and recipients of
support in the task of implementation. According to Woodbume (1958), when the
administration is in touch with faculty needs and concerns and when the faculty members
are consulted regarding administrative policies, a committed climate is created and this
two-way communication may prevent any internal conflicts and breakdowns.

One of the main issues of collaboration was raised by an Assistant Professor concerning
the additional costs needed to provide the collaboration time. He questioned if the cost of
collaboration will act as an impediment in fostering effective collaboration. Raywid
(1993) emphasized the availability of time to collaborate as the most important in the
process o f undertaking and then sustaining improvements in higher educational
institutions. Unless extra energy requirements are met by the provision of time, a change
in any educational institution is not likely to succeed (McLaughlin, 1991; Fullman and
Miles, 1992 as cited in Raywid, 1993).

144
Participants in this study, commenting that collaboration is a time consuming process,
suggested being exempted from teaching a course in return for carrying out research
work. In this case a full-time faculty member should teach only nine credits instead of
twelve besides taking part in a collaborative research project. Many educational
institutions are experimenting with creative ways to find time for shared reflection. For
example, meeting days could be added to the yearly calendar. However, Prager (1992 as
cited in Raywid, 1993) argued that collaborative time alone could not assure success.
How time is used is crucial, but finding it is more necessary. Raywid (1993) and other
investigators have identified the following general approaches to finding collegial time:
freeing up existing time, restructuring or rescheduling it, or using it better. It is critical to
choose the way to provide this collaboration time that is not likely increase costs
substantially. Often educators are willing to contribute some of their own time, but quite
reasonably are unwilling to shoulder the full cost of the system. The responsibility to
provide collaborative endeavor for school adequacy rests with schools, not individual
educators. The time necessary to examine, reflect on, amend, and redesign programs is
neither auxiliary to teaching responsibilities, nor is it released time from them. It is
absolutely central to such responsibilities and essential for any educational institution to
succeed (Raywid, 1993). Bemardin and Beatty (1984) recognize the necessary
commitment of time and effort on the part of the members of the organisation. Without
this commitment, no performance appraisal system will work effectively. They note that
once appraisers become comfortable with the system, the required effort should be
reduced.

The interviews showed that the full-time faculty members believed that professional
development is essential because it involves growth and empowerment of the individual.
29 of the 40 interviewed faculty members approved that professional development is an
important issue especially for promotion, which involves personal growth and self­
empowerment. As highlighted in the merit-based pay plans guidelines of the University
of California Santa Cruz (UCS), performance appraisal is intended as a means of
measuring and enhancing individual, team, and institutional performance, fostering
professional development and career growth, and aiding in the determination of merit

145
increases (UCSC, 2000-01). The faculty members in LAU also insisted that any
appraisal process to be implemented in the University had to be highly directed towards
the development of the faculty members. Abdal-Haqq (1996) found there has been a
growing appreciation for the potential impact of professional development on the overall
educational institution, not just individual development.

The issue of time was of main concern in the discussion about professional development
with faculty members. Part-time faculty members commented that there is not enough
time for professional development since they are working outside the university as well.
All the interviewees suggested that the University should provide substitutes and
educators aides so that faculty members can attend staff development activities and work
together. Faculty-to-faculty partnership is also important to induct new faculty members
and provide experienced Instructors and Professors opportunities to help each other and
implement new strategies. Such requirements/demands led Montgomery (1991) to reflect
on the resourcing of appraisal and staff development.

However, the same participants argued that professional development would involve
extra work and collaboration within the department. They were aware that professional
development in higher educational institutions involves additional publications in
refereed journals. But the fact that publication is one of the criteria for promotion could
encourage faculty members to improve their performance. Faculty members to be
promoted should engage in a research work and publications thus improving their
professional development. There was a realization that this would result in a better
service to students by using up-to-date technology and visual aids (Karkoulian and
Busher, 2000). Such an improved service would reflect on the institution, thus leading to
increased professional development and hence satisfaction of the faculty with their job.

The following chapter will present the discussion of the faculty members’ proposal on
how to improve the appraisal scheme at LAU.

146
 Chapter Seven
Discussion of Potential Improvements in the Appraisal Scheme
at LAU

Improving the Appraisal System

Out of the 80 respondents, 92.5% agreed that further systematic procedures were
necessary for appraisal. The frequency of appraisal was also of concern in the interviews.
Moreover, 90% of the questionnaire sample agreed that all academic staff should have an
annual interview, where their performance over the last year and their future aspiration
could be discussed. The question, who should carry out the appraisal, was as well of
major concern to the participants, 60% of the respondents- questionnaire sample -
suggested the involvement of students, colleagues, subordinates, Deans and Chairpersons
(i.e. 360 degree appraisal) in appraising faculty members’ performance. This concurred
with Grote’s opinion that “the quality movement has been a strong force in promoting the
notion that those closest to the work are in the best position to evaluate how well it is
being done and how it can be done better” (Grote, 1996, p. 292).

Participants in this study - in both the questionnaire samples and the interview - who
insisted on the need for a major change in the appraisal process, emphasized the
importance of involving faculty members in the change process. Their rationale was that
their active participation would contribute to more effective problem posing and solving
as well as increasing their commitment to initiate and accept change.

Most of the participants in the interviews stressed the need for a systematic appraisal
system and emphasized that the appraisal system should be conducted objectively and
should guarantee feedback. They also emphasized that results should be continuously
communicated to the faculty members and compared to the results of other faculty
teaching the same courses. 32 faculty members in the interview sample suggested that it
would be more appropriate to conduct the appraisal annually with feedback being
provided on a continuous basis throughout the academic year. According to Caruth

147
(1986) and Gomez-Mejia et al. (1995), appraisal is usually performed annually, and this
is believed to be a fairly good indicator of the frequency of conducting appraisal in most
establishments. A study by Rutherford (1988) showed that staff found the annual
appraisal acceptable. The rationale was that an individual annual interview would
provide a focus for career development, would bring together a detailed analysis of a
department’s past performance, and would include an additional academic plan for its
immediate future. Obviously, however, it is also possible, as pointed out by Caruth
(1986), to conduct a formal appraisal more than once a year, but when the appraisal is
providing feedback on a daily, weekly or monthly basis, a formal appraisal would be
needed no more than once per year.

The interviews in this study also reflected the same agreement among participants on
implementing the 360 degree appraisal system. All the participants held that changing
the actual performance appraisal into 360 degree feedback in higher education would be a
major process. 33 out of the 40 interviewed faculty members preferred a multi-rater
process since it minimizes bias. It allows those closest to the appraisee, like colleagues
and students, to evaluate how well a postholder is performing and in what ways it could
be improved. During the interviews, some participants stressed that the fairness of
appraisal is important, as good results might lead to better job satisfaction and career
development.

Participants thought that the 360 degree appraisal offered a more comprehensive view of
the appraisee’s work. They emphasized that it is more objective to have more than one
source o f evaluation. This concurs with the views of Kermally (1997) and Canaan (2000)
that a 360 degree assessment provides a comprehensive summary of an employee’s skills,
abilities, styles and job-related competencies, because feedback is collected from all
around an employee, from his or her supervisors, subordinates, and peers. This feedback
has the ability to improve the quality of information that individuals receive in regards to
the quality of their performance (Grote, 1996). Each of the usual feedback providers - an
employee’s supervisor, subordinate, peers- offers unique perspectives on the employee’s
performance and potential.

148
The overall agreement amongst participants for improving the current system to a more
systematic appraisal process gave rise to the views on change in higher education. Most
of the interview participants emphasized, as echoed by a faculty member, that top
administration should support and be committed to changing the actual appraisal scheme
and keeping all members not only informed but also involved in the change process. As
Guskin (1996) points out, managers, university leaders and administrators are constantly
forced to face the future by being proactive in creating the necessary changes to improve
their institution in the most effective and least painful ways. By implementing the
appropriate changes university leaders can enable their institutions to become more
flexible and innovative. “Change, by definition, requires creating a new system, which in
turn always demands leadership” (Kotter, 1995, p. 60).

The presence of leadership is of primary importance as it is the leader who will notice the
need for major change to take place. It is also the leader who will have to lead such a
change towards success. A successfully implemented change requires a thorough
understanding of the use of power as a tool in the survival of an organisation. Some of the
interviewees stressed the power and importance of faculty members in making any
change successful. Thus, they have to be engaged in the appraisal process and not just be
the subject of the evaluation. Martorana and Kuhns (1975) suggested that by
encouraging subordinates to be fully participative, leadership will provide an
environment where employees feel they are working for themselves; thus, committed to
the change process itself. Power-coercive strategies versus participant involvement
“assume power to be located in the hands of a few ‘management’ who achieve change by
manipulating organisational conditions such as rewards, sanctions, sources of information
and relationships among the participants” (Martorana and Kuhns, 1975, p. 165). Guskin
(1996) as well addresses this point by arguing that change in any university requires “a
partnership and a shared purpose between faculty and administrators in which
universities are more responsive to students and societal needs whilst maintaining the
commitment to academic freedom and unencumbered pursuit of knowledge” (Guskin,
1996, p. 28). This combination of a compassionate approach with a defined path should
create a productive atmosphere.

149
This section suggests, as indicated by the participants in this study, that higher
educational institutions should encourage flexibility and change by applying 360 degree
appraisal, which appears to achieve a sense of departmental commitment to the process of
change. The findings indicated that the faculty members want to be involved in the
appraisal process- 360 degree appraisal- whereby people from all levels of the institution
come together to suggest their opinion, individuals from all levels would be heard.

Although all participants supported the 360 degree appraisal, they were aware of the cost
of implementing this system. 20 out of the 40 interviewed faculty members agreed that
implementing the 360 degree feedback is a costly and time consuming process in terms of
the wide range of data collected and analyzed. This concurs with the findings of Haslam
et al. (1993a) that “the majority of staff believed that appraisal had been both time
consuming and costly for the university as a whole and generated immense amounts of
paper work” (p. 219). Smith (1995) also argued that although appraisal of performance is
intended to generate benefits, many of these benefits are of a long-term nature. One of
the disadvantages of this system as agreed upon by many authors as Longnecker (1989),
Gomez-Mejia et al. (1995), and Kermally (1997) is that the process is time consuming in
terms of collecting and analyzing a wide range of data. Besides, there must be trained
appraisers to analyze the retrieved data. Another inconvenience with this system is that
careful evaluation is needed for making the decision of changing the manager with whom
employees are not satisfied (Gomez-Mejia et al., 1995; Kermally, 1997).

However as argued by Grote (1996) there are ways to tackle the costs of this system.
Electronic 360 degree assessment instruments will probably replace paper-based systems
before too long. Computer-developed assessment processes allow far more appraisers to
be collected and analyzed than is feasible manually. They also allow for a large amount
of variables to be included in the collected data to distinguish people who have known
the appraisee for a long time compared to people who are of a more recent acquaintance
(Grote, 1996 p. 290), or separate the male’s opinion from the female’s. This can then be
taken into account during analysis using for example an SPSS package.

150
Mentoring
Results of the semi-structured interview showed that faculty members emphasized the
importance of mentoring in higher educational institutions. Mentoring offers support by
providing individuals with someone who can give feedback, guide, and support aimed at
professional growth and development. Mature mentors have always been around to help
new teachers learn their craft in ways that were usually not covered in teacher training
programs (Grehrke and Kay, 1984). As a means to support professional growth and
development, mentoring also empowers faculty members as individuals, and thus
ultimately benefits the educational institution (Luna and Cullen, 1995; Bush and
Middlewood, 1997). Besides, according to Feiman-Nemser and Parker (1992), mentors
may also guide the professional development of new faculty members by promoting
reflection and fostering the norms of collaboration and shared inquiry.

All the participants supported the view that formal mentoring programs should be
included in the job description of full time faculty members. Moreover, they believed
that mentoring relationships would help faculty members’ work effectively with others.
Such appreciation among faculty members for the value of mentoring schemes was also
perceived in previous studies conducted in the UK and in the USA based on the literature
by O ’Neill (1994a). Although some differences existed between the traditional practices
of educational management in the USA and the UK, there was still a common
appreciation of the value of mentoring schemes that may be available for individuals in
the earliest stages of their careers. It was strongly encouraged that mentoring programs
be promoted as a way for bringing experienced head-teachers together with less
experienced colleagues (O’Neill, 1994a).

The mentor/protege relationship was of concern to the researcher and the participants
who emphasized the importance of such relationship in providing a climate of equal
opportunities for all faculty members to collaborate effectively and learn from each
other’s studies and researches. This concurs with Coleman (1997), who suggests that the
success of mentoring depends on the strength of the interpersonal relationships and the

151
informality of the process. Functioning as experts, mentors provide authentic,
experiential learning opportunities as well as an intense interpersonal relationship through
which social learning takes place (Kerka, 1998). One of the participants’ views was that
the relationship between the mentor and the mentees should be based on trust and
confidentiality or else it would fail, especially if unsuitable mentors were appointed.
Mentoring, formal or informal, can be very powerful in encouraging a climate of equal
opportunities and in the professional development of the mentees. According to Kerka
(1997), mentoring supports much of what is currently known about how individuals
learn, including the socially constructed nature of learning and the importance of
experiential, situated learning experiences.

To avoid the failure of mentoring programs due to unqualified mentors, the participants
emphasized some of the characteristics of effective mentors. This concurred with the
literature of Daresh and Playko (1990; 1992a) who have found some of the most
important characteristics for effective mentors. The literature on mentoring has widely
discussed the qualifications of mentors (Chapter Two). Shea (1992) for example
provides some suggestions about the skills of mentors that are helpful to the mentoring
process. He pinpoints that mentors should have the capability of envisioning the future,
listening carefully and giving suitable feedback. It is also necessary to assign mentors
who are well qualified in informing and communicating with their trainee. In England
and Wales, the mentor qualities that were valued most by new head teachers were the
ability to listen in addition to the personal qualities of openness and approachability
(Bolam et al., 1995).

To make mentoring programs more successful, it was suggested by the interviewees that
training be provided for mentors. This concurs with the argument of Montgomery (1991)
that even when individuals want to serve as mentors and possess all the desirable
characteristics of effective mentors, they still need additional training to carry out this
crucial role. One area identified as important in training is the area of interpersonal skills,
which appears to be the quality that counts most in mentoring (Brooks, 1996). Sampson
and Yeomans (1994) in the same token argue that although some mentors may be

152
naturally equipped with the skills of mentoring, such stock of natural talent cannot be
relied on to achieve effective mentoring. Therefore, there is a need for training, which
can build skills, knowledge, and qualities which are additional to those needed for
effective educators and which may enhance educator effectiveness.

The researcher also raised the issue of gender and mentoring during the interviews for
according to Kerka (1998), as organisational diversity increases, the question arises
whether mentoring becomes a vehicle for assimilation or exclusion. The personal
relationship at the heart of mentoring can be problematic when mentor and mentee are of
different genders. Ensher and Murphy (1997) found that perceived and actual similarity
affected the amount of instrumental and psychological support mentors provided as well
as the protege satisfaction. Coates (1986) commented that women tend to organize their
talk co-operatively, whilst men tend to organize their talk competitively. Tannen (1990)
found that men and women both interrupt but they do it in different ways. Men interrupt
most often in an attempt to steer the conversation toward their own point, whilst women
will interrupt with nods and noises of affirmation most often in an attempt to support and
give encouragement to the speaker. Therefore, as suggested by Birge, et al (1995), when
cross-gender relationships are anticipated, gender specific styles of communication
should be introduced in orientation and training programs so that the mentor and the
mentee have a high degree of potential to fully benefit from the relationship.

D isadvantages o f M entoring
Results of the interviews showed that faculty members were aware of certain problems
that would arise from mentoring programs in educational institutions. This reverberates
the concern of Daresh and Playko (1992b) about proteges independence; “mentoring can
be potentially harmful to growth if and when proteges develop too great a reliance on
mentors, who are expected to provide all possible questions” (p. 112). One of the
comments by faculty members was that sometimes mentors tend to be reluctant in letting
the trainees become independent, a situation that may be detrimental for the new faculty
and the institution as a whole. Daresh and Playko (1992a) have referred to this problem,
in their discussions about the characteristics of effective mentors, and emphasized that

153
mentors should try to express the desire to see people go beyond their present levels of
performance, even if it might mean that they are able to perform better than mentors
themselves.

The above findings suggest that faculty members at the time of this study were neither
able to realize their areas o f deficiency nor able to improve and enhance their
performance. This is due to the lack of a formal appraisal system that provides clear and
frequent feedback and mentoring support for staff development. With no frequent and
effective feedback, the appraisal process lacks its vital function and purpose, which is, the
development of people in the organisation. Such development leads to improving job
performance and acquiring new skills and knowledge by the individuals. This qualifies
them for broader responsibilities, more rewarding job enrichment and promotion.

Performance Appraisal Model

The literature review in this study concluded with a model of performance appraisal
(Chapter Two, Figure 2-3). The implementation of this, it is argued, will provide faculty
members with a better understanding o f their performance. The faculty members
feedback on the suggested model was taken into consideration by the researcher leading
to the introduction of the mentoring model.

The following chapter presents the conclusion to this study along with the limitations of
the study, recommendations for implementing a systematic appraisal scheme at the
University, and recommendations for further research.

154
 Chapter Eight
Conclusion

This research examined the existence of an appraisal scheme at LAU. Furthermore, the
researcher explored the faculty members’ views regarding the current system and
examined the possible suggestions and recommendations proposed by the faculty
towards the introduction of a more regular and systematic appraisal. The study
included a literature review of appraisal systems, discussing its advantages and
disadvantages, with main emphasis placed on 360 degree appraisal. Moreover, the
literature focused on performance management and discussed the processes of
mentoring, professional development, and supporting professional learning through a
collaborative process.

The key research questions were explored through interviews and questionnaires.

• Question One: How does the appraisal system work in LAU and how does it
affect faculty members’ promotion and motivation?
• Question Two: What is the role of the departments’ heads in appraisal and
what is their relationship with the present faculty members?
• Question Three: In what ways did faculty members’ think the existing
appraisal system could be improved?
• Question Four: How might professional development be used as a tool for
empowerment, growth and promotion?
• Question Five: How might faculty members’ involvement in decision making
and mentoring help promote their professional development?

155
Key Question One: How does the appraisal system work in LAU and how does it affect
faculty members’ promotion and motivation?

The study showed that faculty members at the School of Arts and Sciences and the
School of Business, who participated in this research, viewed performance appraisal as
a major tool to assess, evaluate, and recognize achievement, as well as to address
weakness and improve performance. The findings indicated that the current appraisal
practices at LAU vary across its schools. The faculty members of the Business School
are evaluated only by the supervisor. However, in the Arts and Sciences School, two
different evaluation methods are applied. The supervisors appraisal is applied to all
faculty members, while the student appraisal method is applied to only the new part
time faculty members, the results are then evaluated by a committee that reviews the
questionnaire every year. However, both faculty respondents are not satisfied with the
appraisal systems adopted by their schools because they believe that supervisors and
students should not be the only parties involved in the evaluation process. It was also
found that in both schools rewards are not given immediately after the appraisal. This
was considered to be demotivating to faculty members, thus negatively affecting their
performance in general.

Key Question Two: What is the role of the departments’ heads in appraisal and what is
their relationship with the present faculty members?

The department heads are solely responsible for the evaluation of faculty members.
However, the department heads do not communicate the results of the evaluation to the
present faculty. The lack of communication results in faculty dissatisfaction. Moreover,
department heads at LAU do not have clear and frequent discussions with the
appraisee. At LAU, there are no mutually discussed and agreed upon standards of
appraisal.

156
Key Question Three: In what ways did faculty members’ think the existing appraisal
system could be improved?

Respondents were, in general, of the opinion that further procedures, for the appraisal
of individuals, are necessary. They noted the value of involving the individual faculty
member in the process, developing a two-way communication system and providing
continuous feedback thus creating a mutual learning between supervisors and faculty
members, and among faculty members, in order to improve performance. Negotiation
between appraisee and appraiser is deemed important since it is aimed at better
understanding and generating ideas of how practice might be improved. This interview
must include the aspects that are relevant to the work of the individual. Follow-ups
should also take place, in order to reconsider past and future events. All the
participants suggested, that annual face-to-face interviews should be conducted with
adequate follow-ups. The major issues of concern include the importance of setting
clear goals and communicating them to the appraisees in order to ensure the appraisers’
commitment to the scheme. There was a general agreement among faculty members
that the University should develop a new systematic appraisal scheme - conducted
annually - with feedback being provided on a continuous basis throughout the academic
year as well as annual interviews for discussing their performance during the previous
year and their inclinations for the future.

It became apparent in the course of discussion that there was a general dissatisfaction.
Despite the different views about performance appraisal in this research, there were
several issues that concerned the faculty members. The issues include:

• The importance of setting clear goals and communicating them to the appraisees.
• The importance of the appraisers commitment to the scheme.
• The importance of the appraisal interview since it gives an opportunity to discuss
problems with the Deans of Schools.
• The provision of adequate follow-up to the appraisal interview.

157
Key Question Four: How might professional development be used as a tool for
empowerment, growth and promotion?

Most of the interviewees agreed that appraisal should play a role in setting promotion
and merit pay rewards, for they are believed to motivate performance. Professional
development was viewed to be essential as it involves growth and empowerment of the
individual member, and for the appraisal process to be implemented it has to be highly
directed towards the development of the faculty. But there was an overall consent that
professional development might need full allocation of time, whilst faculty members
are either full-timers teaching a minimum of 12 credits per semester, or part-timers
working outside the university. There was also awareness of the importance of
collaboration in achieving professional development, although most of the participants
agreed that collaboration would be time-consuming.

Key Question Five: How might faculty members’ involvement in decision making and
mentoring help promote their professional development?

This study elucidated the importance of mentoring, as perceived by faculty members,

although the University has no formal mentoring programs. It was suggested that
mentoring should be included in the job description of the faculty members because
mentoring is perceived as essential for professional development and growth. The
participants also emphasized on having effective mentors whom would be continuously
trained, if the mentoring programs were to be more successfully implemented to serve
their developmental purpose. The issue of gender in mentoring was investigated as
well to see whether the relationship between mentors and mentees could be problematic
when both parties are of different gender. Distinct views were held in this regard.
Besides, it was found that the faculty members were aware of certain disadvantages of
mentoring such as being quite demanding in terms of the emotional support that
mentors have to provide for the mentees who may tend to be dependent by expecting
much from their mentors. In this case mentoring may not succeed as expected.

158
With respect to faculty members’ involvement in decision making, most participants
suggested the involvement of students, colleagues, subordinates, Deans and
Chairpersons, that is to say, they suggested the 360 degree appraisal as the new
appraisal scheme. They held that this system would provide the opportunity for those
closest to the appraisee to evaluate his or her performance. Besides, feedback is
collected from all who have frequent contact with the faculty member, thus improving
the quality and objectivity of the information and minimizing biases. Although most
participants suggested this appraisal scheme, they agreed that implementing the system
would be costly and time consuming in terms of the wide range of data collected and
analyzed. Besides appraisers involved in the system should be well trained to assure
that they are well qualified to provide the most effective evaluation aimed at
professional development.

The Importance of the Study Findings

This study has shown the need for performance appraisal as one of the major and
critical subjects in Human Resource Development in higher educational institutions. Its
implementation needs a lot of care and attention in order to serve its growth and
developmental purpose. No studies appear to have been carried out which attempt to
evaluate the effectiveness of such schemes at LAU or at any other higher educational
institutions in Lebanon. Yet, appraisal is part of mainstream management and the idea
of appraisal within the university was supported by this study.

The need for this study stems from the lack of a formal and systematic appraisal
scheme followed at LAU since feedback, face-to-face interviews, and mentoring, are
not available to faculty members and neither professional development nor
organisational development are achieved under the current appraisal scheme. In light
of this the researcher was interested in conducting such a study.

159
 This thesis has identified the benefits resulting from the implementation of a formal and
systematic appraisal scheme. The benefits will affect the individual faculty members
and the university.

The benefits accruing to the individual are the result of:

• Better assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of ones performance.

• Better communication.
• Benefiting from mentoring within the process.
• A consistent approach in managing the individual.
• Feeling of commitment or greater sense of belonging to the institution.

The benefits accruing to the University the benefits are:

• Motivated staff.
• Better understanding of the faculty members’ abilities and potentials and how to
fortify such potentials.
• Better planning for improvements in performance.
• A better learning organisation within a collaborative atmosphere.

(University of Wessex, 1998)

Limitations
It is important to acknowledge the limitations of this study. This research is a single
case study and did not cover all universities in Lebanon, for reasons stated earlier;
therefore generalization is not possible from this study. Nonetheless, according to
Bassey (1998a), fuzzy generalization may be possible. These assume that if the readers
of a study carried out in one location find resonance with the findings of their own
location, then they could, with considerable care, draw lessons from the study and
apply them to their own situations. It is with the hesitancy that the researcher has
offered the observations from the findings of this study.

Another limitation was the relatively low response rate (36.86%) as only 80 out of the
217 faculty members participated in the study. The non-response error may cause the
sample to be less than fully representative and so the findings cannot be drawn to the

160
whole population of higher educational institutions. However, as previously discussed,
the conclusions of this study might be transferred to other similar cases (Chapter
Three). This could be done after the researcher had examined the degree to which the
findings fit or how far can they be generalized from the case studied to other situations.

Recommendations
It is suggested that the University adopt a formal performance appraisal form or process
through which supervisors accommodate for faculty members to get the feedback that
they need and when they need it. If feedback is provided only during an annual
performance review, it is probably not timely enough to be effective. Therefore, as
previously pointed out, feedback should be given on a continuous basis where both
supervisors and faculty members communicate and discuss the results of their appraisal
and discuss ways to improve their performance in the most efficient way. Faculty
members should also have opportunities to compare their performance with their
colleagues and learn from each other’s experiences.

Attempts to implement any organizational change could be faced by supervisors’

resistance, which is usually attributed to the following causes: a normal dislike of
criticizing a subordinate, the lack of skill needed to handle the interviews. However, as
pointed out by McGregor (1990), resistance could be due to a dislike of new
procedures, and its accompanying changes or the mistrust of the validity of the
appraisal instrument, therefore programs have been designed to help convince
appraisers of these systems.

The researcher recommends the implementation of the suggested Performance

Appraisal Model at LAU (Chapter Two, Figure 2-3). The following recommendation is
based on the fact that the researcher displayed the Performance Appraisal Model to the
80 faculty members that participated in the study. The participants suggested the
implementation of the model at LAU, since it included the elements that were lacking
in the appraisal they experienced. The participants were enthusiastic regarding the
presence of feedback, face-to-face communication, and mentoring, moreover, they

161
supported that the implementation of the model might lead to achieving professional
development and thus the development of LAU to become a leading university in the
region.

The success of implementing the new appraisal scheme supported by the suggested
model could be affected by the supervisors’ endorsement of this change.
Administratively the Deans of the Schools need to support the planning and the
implementation of the system. The planning process should include faculty members
as a major group of end-users. For effectively implementing the model, it is also
advised that firstly, for supervisors, and any of the faculty members, to be involved in
the evaluation process, they should attend meetings and seminars about performance
appraisal. This would allow them to become more aware of the importance of
measuring faculty members’ performance and of its effect as a motivating tool.
Consequently, this will result in a more accurate, fair, and objective evaluation and will
reflect positively on individual performance. Secondly, when performance is
measured, using 360 degree appraisal, it is better to be related to measurable criteria.
This will enhance common understanding between the Dean, Chairpersons and faculty
members. 360 degree appraisal, if well implemented, would minimize bias. Thirdly,
after identifying appraisees’ weaknesses, appraisers have to try their utmost potential to
develop, and train them in order to ensure that every lecturer’s skills, knowledge, and
interest are developed and used as fully as possible. This can be done by means of
collaboration between the supervisors and the faculty members and among faculty
members as well, such as attending conferences, doing researches and publications
collaboratively. In effect, faculty members will feel more committed and would try to
prove their abilities. Eventually, this will contribute greatly to their performance.
Fourthly, performance appraisal proves to be influenced by the leadership style,
whereby the Deans and Chairpersons are the ones who give credit to good work and
rewards to faculty members. It is also suggested that rewards be given immediately
after appraisal so as to reinforce behavior and stimulate individual motivation.

162
Following these recommendations may pave the way to believing more in the
effectiveness of appraisal as a motivating tool based on the leader’s skill in carrying out
an effective performance appraisal scheme. In addition to achieving more satisfaction,
it allows individual faculty members to enjoy doing their jobs collaboratively.

Recommendation for Further Research

Figure 8-1

A Model of Performance Appraisal at LAU

Appraiser^ w Performance w Appraisees

Review

N O IS E

In comparison with the proposed model in Chapter two, the performance appraisal
model, currently experienced by appraisees at LAU, lacks face-to-face interviews,
mentoring, and the feedback loop. Moreover, the current appraisal model does not
result in professional development, organizational development, or staff development.
Nevertheless, both models pass through a performance review stage and thus include a
transfer of information from the appraiser to the appraisee. Finally, both models include
noise, which is related to personality and perceptual or attitudinal individual
differences.

163
Although, there exists an evidence base for implementing the Performance Appraisal
model at LAU, further research is still needed on mentoring, and on the application of
the proposed model on higher educational institutions. The following is due to the fact
that the study conducted by the researcher at LAU was on a small scale and thus a
larger scale study is still needed from other universities in order to generalize beyond
LAU. As aforementioned, there exists a need to study the proposed model back in
chapter two and evaluate its possible implications on higher educational institutions.
Moreover, the researcher recommends conducting a pilot study on mentoring followed
by an evaluation o f its impact on the current appraisal process at higher educational
institutions. The following pilot study might also consider evaluating the impact of the
current appraisal processes on professional development, orgaisational development
and staff development.

In relation to future research on performance appraisal, it would be constructive to

explore in more detail the appraisal schemes at the different universities in Lebanon
and the readiness o f these universities to adopt the 360 degree appraisal scheme. The
results from the relatively large sample could enable the researcher to generalize from
the case studies. Moreover, the relationship between the success of higher educational
institutions and the performance appraisal process might be further clarified. The
researcher suggests for further research studying the transferability of the study
conclusions to other contexts. This requires careful examination and interpretation of
some queries and criteria suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994, p. 279) before
generalizing the findings from the sample to the population, or transferring them to
other case studies o f similar phenomena.

Further research is also recommended to study if the previously mentioned

recommendations, about the performance appraisal scheme at higher educational
institutions, when followed result in an effective appraisal. Further research is
suggested as well to study the success of implementing the 360 degree appraisal at
LAU whereby the supervisors and faculty members are ready to be involved in the
process given the changes that have to be made for implementing such scheme.

164
The independent variables in the regression analysis, motivation and department, need
to be further studied in relation to the dependent variable, control, in order to verify the
findings o f this study. More research is also needed to identify correlations between
control and the different factors associated with it, such as feedback, support, reward,
procedures, needs, environment, money, promotion, training title and years of teaching
and other demographic factors such as gender and marital status.

Conclusion
From this study I have learned a lot about conducting research in higher education. But
one always feels that there is still more to investigate in order to have a clearer and
more complete picture about the field of investigation. Sometimes the more research
one conducts, the more one feels in need to know, and the more one can initiate new
areas for further inquiry. Although the findings of this single research could be
incomplete, it could and would lead to improvement and change of the current appraisal
scheme at LAU.

However, if I were to repeat this study, I would probably tackle the research part
somewhat differently. For example, I would not pursue or rely heavily on the
quantitative research part as I found it difficult and tricky to do so. This in part was due
to the fact that most Lebanese people, in general, do not report back in writing or filling
out questionnaires. Although one might suggest that a sample of 80 is rather
satisfactory for this case study, it took me around two years to get this feedback after
frequent follow-ups. As for the qualitative part of this study, I would probably go more
in depth into interviewing and discussing most of or all of the issues under investigation
with a wider sample o f interviewees. On the other hand, if I were to reflect for a while
on this study, I might question some of the results and findings further. Though I tried
in this study to investigate the same issue from various angles, I still need to investigate
the honesty o f the interviewees and whether their responses were complete and non­
biased.

165
Personally I would like to shed light on two events which reflect the contribution of my
research on the higher educational community in Lebanon. In July 2001, the Dean of
the Communication Faculty at the Lebanese University requested my official
consultation regarding the implementation of 360 degree appraisal at the University.
This was in part triggered by the Lebanese Government’s recent recognition of the
impact appraisal has on higher education. At LAU, during a faculty meeting at the
Business School (November 2001), I was approached by the Dean to assist in reviving
the student evaluation of faculty members. The revival of the student evaluation was
required by the Vice President of Academic Affairs as a mandatory appraisal at LAU.
As stipulated starting January 2002 the appraisal system at LAU will comprise of the
immediate supervisor appraisal and the student evaluation.

166
 SPECIAL NOTE

This item is tightly bound

and while every effort has

been made to reproduce the

centres force would result

in damage.
 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Various A ppraisal Methods

Advantages D isadvantages
- Staff feel em powered (1) - Supervisor may becom e more concerned with the issue o f popularity
- Evaluation by subordinates w ill make supervisors more conscientious in instead o f the effective performance o f the work unit (9)
Upward A ppraisal carrying out their responsibilities (6) - Fear o f reprisals (4)
- Em ployees tend to see performance related behavior not seen by the - Subordinates believe that they are not in the best position to evaluate
managers boss (6) their supervisor (10)
- It requires supervisors to interact with subordinates in such a way so as to - M anagers may base their hiring decisions on their idea o f who would
reinforce the organisation’s team work value (7-8) rate them favorably (6)
- E xcellent for em ployee developm ent and feedback (3) - Jotting dow n incidents on a daily or w eekly basis could becom e like a
- The incidents list may be used to indicate to em ployees desirable and chore to the supervisor (5)
Technique undesirable behavior (4) - It delays feedback to em ployees (feedback should be prompt) (5)
- N ot participating in standard setting makes the subordinate less
motivated to follow them (5)
- Are the m ost reliable sources o f appraisal data because peers are closest to - Peers may be biased due to friendship or anim osity (4)
the action (4) - Peers may lack sufficient understanding o f their peers job and thus be
- Independent judgm ents make the evaluations more reliable (4) unable to provide a fair and accurate appraisal (6)
- Daily interaction with peers provides them with a com prehensive view o f
em ployee job performance (4)
- It allow s em ployees to add their own input to the appraisal process (11) - E m ployees tend to present a positive image o f them selves whenever
- It helps em ployees gain insight into the causes o f performance problems possible (4)
(11)
- It facilitates em ployee developm ent (6)
— - B ecause em ployees com e up with the results, they are more likely to
accept the findings easily (6)
-It clarifies differences between the subordinates and supervisors opinions
concerning job demands and performance (6)
- It gives mangers a m uch wider range o f performance related feedback than - Managers may hear personal com m ents on sensitive topics and this may
traditional evaluation (12) be threatening (12)
- In som e cases, the supervisor is in the best position to evaluate em ployees - The supervisor is not always in the best position to observe performance
T r n «->V *»/ f t / v f / l , C t V M /v m ,<, m... ..
iciic o u p e r vISpf performance (10-4) (10-4)
- B osses often feel incapable o f evaluating the unique contributions o f
each o f their em ployees (4-13)
- Managers often do not want to play “G od” (4-13)

- Provides clear and unam biguous criteria by which worker performance can - O utcom es measures though objective, may give a distorted and deficient
be judged (11) view o f worker performance levels (11)
- Elim inates subjectivity and the potential for bias and error that go with it - It can be incom patible with som e managerial styles (14)
(11) - Its installation is time consum ing (14)
- Promotion o f the appraiser as som eone who facilitates performance rather - It does not lend itself to all types o f jo b s (14)
than som eone w ho critics it (14) - Em ployees may be unw illing to participate in it (2)
- Increased em ployee m otivation due to their participation in goal setting
(14)
Information in the above table was collected from following sources:

1- Kempton, 1995
2- Oberg, 1990
3- Schermerhom, Hunt, Osborn, 1998
4- Robbins, 1998
5- Oberg, 1991
6- Gibson, Evancevich and Donnelly, 1994
7- Auteri, 1994
8- Bemardin and Beatty, 1984
9- Caruth, Noe and Mondy, 1988
10- Vecchio, 1995
11 - Balkin and Cardy, 1995
12-Moorhead and Griffin, 1998
13 - Latham and Wexley, 1981
14-Caruth, 1986

Kempton, 1995 based on research findings

Oberg, 1990 based on literature review and the researcher’s opinion
Schermerhom, Hunt, Osbom, 1998 based on the researchers opinions
Robbins, 1998 based on research findings and literature review
Oberg, 1991 literature review and the researcher’s opinion
Gibson, Evancevich and Donnelly, 1994
Auteri, 1994 based on the researchers opinions
Bemardin and Beatty, 1984 based on the researchers opinions
Caruth, Noe and Mondy, 1988 based on literature review and the researchers opinions
Vecchio, 1995 based on the researchers opinions
Balkin and Cardy, 1995 based on literature review and the researchers opinions
Moorhead and Griffin, 1998 based on literature review
Latham and Wexley, 1981 based on literature review and the researchers opinions
Caruth, 1986 based on literature review and the researchers opinions

168
 SPECIAL NOTE

This item is tightly bound

and while every effort has

been made to reproduce the

centres force would result

in damage.
 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Appraisal

___________________Advantages_________________ _________________Disadvantages_______________
- It increases motivation (1) - Criticizing subordinates is something that managers dislike (3)
- Gives the supervisor and subordinates a chance to discuss some - Managers do not handle training interviews properly as they
work issues (2) often have inadequate training (3)
- It gives an opportunity to concentrate on work activities and goals - New procedures or methods are often disliked by managers (3)
(2) - The validity o f appraisal is doubled by some managers (3)
-It identifies and corrects any significant problem (2)
-It encourages better future performance (2)
- It allows the recognition of employee work efforts (2)
- It allows managers and their subordinates to recognize individual
training and development needs (2)
- It provides a way to check the efficiency of the organisation’s
recruitment and induction practice (2)
- It includes benefits to the organization (4)
- It includes benefits to the employees (4)
- It includes benefits to the managers (4)

Information in this table was collected from following sources:

-1- Montgomery and Hadfield, 1989

-2- Kempton, 1995
-3- McGregor, 1957
-4 Wessex University, 1998

Montgomery and Hadfield, 1989 based on literature review

Kempton, 1995 based on research findings
McGregor, 1957 based on research findings and researchers opinion
Wessex University, 1998 based on research findings

169
 Appendix C
Interview Schedule
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this interview. I assure you that the details of this
interview will remain confidential and will not be passed on to a third party.

1. Is there any performance evaluation system adopted at the University / Department /

School?

2. Which appraisal method is adopted by the university in appraising academic staff?

3. How often is the appraisal conducted, is it annually, semiannually, etc.?

4. Based on your experience at the university, in your opinion, do you believe that
appraisal is an important issue in higher education? Is it an essential activity for
professional development, motivation, promotion, etc.?

5. Do you think that the appraisal method applied served its purpose in stimulating
employee motivation?

6. How are the appraisal results communicated?

a. _____________ Face-to-face interview,

b. _____________ Discussions about job duties and responsibilities,
c. _____________ Follow ups

7. In your opinion what is the importance of feedback in the appraisal process and how
does it help in improving performance?

8. Do you think that appraisal should play a part in promotion?

170
9. Do you lecture at a different university(ies)? If yes, would you please make a
comparison between the evaluation processes followed at those universities.

10. After questioning about the importance of appraisal and the system applied at the
university, I would like to know your suggestions if any for ways to improve or
change.

11. In your opinion who should carry out the appraisal process?
a. ___________ The individual academic concern
b. ___________ A senior member
c. ___________ Head of Department
d. ___________ A departmental committee

12. From our brief discussion about the various appraisal techniques especially the 360
degree appraisal do you think that this appraisal technique would be time consuming
and costly.

The last two questions of the interview are aimed at assessing your views on professional
development - as a tool for empowerment, growth, its importance for promotion, and
whether it could be assessed through collaboration - and mentoring - its importance in
higher educational institutions, advantages and disadvantages as well.

13. As regards professional development, do you think it is an essential tool for

empowerment of faculty members, growth, promotion, and to what extent
collaboration in necessary for professional development?

14. In your opinion, what is the importance of mentoring in higher educational

institutions, its advantage and/or disadvantages?

Thank you very much for taking part in this interview and giving up your time.

171
Dear colleagues,

Being enrolled in Ed.D. program at Leicester University, England, I am interested to

investigate about how Universities and Colleges measure performance of academic staff
and how incentive compensation systems are developed and used.

I am sending you a questionnaire concerning performance appraisal at Higher Education.

A tick can answer most of the items and to my estimation it will not take more than half
an hour to complete. The result of this confidential survey will form an important part of
evidence in my thesis in Ed.D. program. You will support my survey by returning the
completed questionnaire in the freepost envelope at your earliest convenience.

Thanks for your cooperation.

Sincerely yours,

Silva Karkoulian
Instructor o f Accounting
Business School
Lebanese American University

172
 Appendix D
Questionnaire (after piloting)
Performance Appraisal

I would be most grateful if you would please answer the questions below. The
information you provide will be treated with the strictest confidentiality and all the
participants will be offered the opportunity to remain anonymous.

Please answer the questions below:

Gender: □ Male □ Female

Marital status: □ Single □ Married □ Divorced □ Widowed

Job Title: __________________ _______________

Department you work in: __________________________________

Years o f experience in present job:____________________________________

1. Is there any performance evaluation system adopted at your university?

□ Yes □ No
If yes, please proceed to question 2.

2. The process of performance appraisal in the university takes place

Annually □
Semi-annually □
Within intervals o f less than a year □
Other, please specify____________________

3. The performance appraisal is conducted by:

The immediate superior D
Peers (a group at the same level) □
Subordinates □
Yourself (Self-evaluation) □
Other, please specify ____________________

173
4. Method used by your university in appraising academic staff.

□ The evaluator writes a report on your performance. (Overall assessment)

□ The appraiser evaluates you based on key incidents (i.e. Outstandingly
good or bad) in the period. (Critical incident technique)
□ The evaluator appraises your performance based on how well you have
accomplished mutual set objectives. (MBO)
□ You evaluate each other in a small group and the members of the group
are at the same level in the institution. (Peer group appraisal)
□ The subordinate evaluates the supervisor. (Upward appraisal)
□ You appraise your own performance. (Self-appraisal)
□ The appraiser evaluates you based on feedback from the full circle of
contacts that you have in performing your job. (360-degree evaluation)
□ The appraiser is your direct supervisor. (The immediate supervisor)
Please specify the actual method practiced if none of the above apply:

5. You are kindly requested to circle the answer that best describes the situation in your
institution.
l=SD=Strongly Disagree
2=D=Disagree
3=U=Uncertain
4=A=Agree
5=SA=Strongly Agree
SD D U A SA
a. Performance Appraisal tries to enhance 1 2 3 4 5
performance by identifying improving or
developing areas in which employees
have a deficiency

b. Performance Appraisal identifies those who 1 2 3 4 5

have potential for promotion to positions of
greater responsibility and vice versa

c. Performance Appraisal identifies those who 1 2 3 4 5

have potential for training.

d. Performance Appraisal determines the need 1 2 3 4 5

for disciplinary action

e. Performance Appraisal stimulates subordinate 1 2 3 4 5

motivation

f. Performance Appraisal serves as a tool for 1 2 3 4 5

control

174
g. Performance Appraisal serves as a basis for 1 2 3 4 5
determining salaries

h. Performance Appraisal serves as a basis for 2 3 4 5

deciding on promotions

i. Performance Appraised provides opportunities 2 3 4 5

for growth and advancement

j. Performance Appraisal uses job description as 2 3 4 5

measurable criteria

k. Performance Appraisal uses job specification 2 3 4 5

as a measurable criterion

1. Performance Appraisal enhances mutual 2 3 4 5

understanding between the supervisor and the
subordinate

m. Performance Appraisal provides feedback 2 3 4 5

to employees as to how well they are doing their
job

n. Performance Appraisal results are 2 3 4 5

communicated by the supervisor

o. The supervisor conducts face-to-face interview 2 3 4 5

with the appraisee

p. Feedback is received periodically by the appraisee 2 3 4 5

q. The supervisor comments verbally on 2 3 4 5

performance, filling out forms later

175
6- Please circle the answer most related to conditions at your institution.

l=SD=Strongly Disagree
2=D=Disagree
3=U=Un certain
4=A=Agree
5=SA=Strongly Agree

D U A SA
a. Rewards motivate performance 2 3 4 5

b. Rewards are given immediately after completing 2 3 4 5

appraisal

c. Desire to accomplish is a motivator 2 3 4 5

d. Interest in work is a motivator 2 3 4 5

e. Success in performing a job is a motivator 2 3 4 5

f. Money is a measure of accomplishment 2 3 4 5

g. Rewards are attributed to ability 2 3 4 5

h. Rewards are attributed to skill 2 3 4 5

i. The needs o f academic staff are considered 2 3 4 5

before rewards are given

j. The type o f job is considered before rewards 2 3 4 5

are given

k. The organizational environment is considered 2 3 4 5

before rewards are given

1. Managers are friendly with the staff 2 3 4 5

m. Managers allow employees to write their 2 3 4 5

comments on appraisal forms

n. Managers encourage better employee education. 2 3 4 5

176
o. Managers threaten employees with job loss 1 2 3 4 5

p. Managers offer employees moral support 1 2 3 4 5

7- Please tick which of the following methods of performance appraisal you experienced
During 1998/9 academic year? Yes No
- Detailed criticism or advice on course content or
teaching materials from a colleague___________________ ___ ___
- Information from a student questionnaire on your
course or teaching ___ ___
- Observation o f your teaching by a colleague followed
by detailed criticism or advice ___ ___
- An interview with the head of department or dean
on some or all aspects o f your academic performance ___ ___

8- Please circle the number which reflects your opinion of the following statements

l=SD=Strongly Disagree
2=D=Disagree
3=U=Uncertain
4=A=Agree
5=SA=Strongly Agree

SD D U A SA
a. Further systematic procedures for the appraisal
o f individuals for their professional development
are necessary 1
b. Heads o f departments should take an active part
in helping and supporting staff in the department
to develop their teaching abilities/methods
(e.g. discussing course materials or
attending classes) 1
c. Heads o f departments should take an active part
in helping and supporting staff in the department
to carry out their research (e.g. advising in research
proposal) 1
d. All academic staff should have an annual interview
at which their performance over the last year and
their aspirations for the futurecould be discussed 1
e. Further systematic procedures for the appraisal
o f departments for their professional development
are necessary (i.e. departmental appraisal) 1
f. The University should provide training for heads
o f departments

177
9- Please tick who should be involved in appraising individual performance?
Yes No
a. The individual academic concern
b. A senior member (not the head of department)
c. The head o f department
d. A departmental committee
e. Other specify______________________________ ____________________

10. Which method of appraisal do you believe to be most appropriate for your
institution?

11. What in your belief are the criteria most appropriate for use in your own appraisal?

12. If you wish to add any comments related to the contents and/or intent of this
questionnaire, please use the space below.

Thank you for completing the questionnaire. Now please place this form in the freepost
envelope provided to you and return it to the address indicated on the envelope.
 Appendix E
Factor Analysis

179
 SPECIAL NOTE

This item is tightly bound

and while every effort has

been made to reproduce the

centres force would result

in damage.
 Communalities

Initial Extraction
Performance Eval
1.000 .676
Systems
Perf. Appraisal Time 1.000 .697
Perf Appraisal Conducted 1.000 .865
Method of Appraisal 1.000 .792
Enhance performance 1.000 .746
Promotion high position 1.000 .841
training 1.000 .834
Disciplinary Action 1.000 .660
Motivation 1.000 .890
control 1.000 .846
Salaries 1.000 .859
Promotion decision 1.000 .786
Growth 1.000 .883
Job Description 1.000 .929
Job specification 1.000 .911
Understanding 1.000 .725
feedback provided 1.000 .807
Communicate results 1.000 .845
interview 1.000 .824
feedback received 1.000 .907
comments 1.000 .791
Reward Mot Performance 1.000 .815
Rewards given 1.000 .797
desire motivator 1.000 .823
Interest Motivator 1.000 .875
Success Motivate 1.000 .870
Money 1.000 .819
Rewards Ability 1.000 .854
rewards Skill 1.000 .825
Needs 1.000 .831
Job Type 1.000 .922
Environment 1.000 .756
Manager Friendly 1.000 .744
Comment 1.000 .832
better Education 1.000 .730
Job Loss 1.000 .871
Moral Support 1.000 .813
Appraisal By Colleague 1.000 .824
student Questionnaire 1.000 .839
Observation 1.000 .634
Interview 1.000 .760
Systematic Procedures
1.000 .755
needed
Head Dept Active 1.000 .880
Head Dept Research 1.000 .775
Annual Interview 1.000 .834
Further Syst. Procedures
1.000 .892
Needed
Train Head 1.000 .840
involved 1.000 .692
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
 Total Variance Explained

Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

% of Cumulativ % of Cumulativ
Component Total Variance e% Total Variance e%
1 11.290 23.521 23.521 11.290 23.521 23.521
2 4.457 9.286 32.807 4.457 9.286 32.807
3 4.059 8.456 41.263 4.059 8.456 41.263
4 3.127 6.514 47.778 3.127 6.514 47.778
5 2.599 5.415 53.193 2.599 5.415 53.193
6 2.407 5.015 58.208 2.407 5.015 58.208
7 2.104 4.383 62.591 2.104 4.383 62.591
8 1.910 3.979 66.570 1.910 3.979 66.570
9 1.648 3.433 70.003 1.648 3.433 70.003
10 1.539 3.206 73.209 1.539 3.206 73.209
11 1.396 2.909 76.118 1.396 2.909 76.118
12 1.337 2.786 78.904 1,337 2.786 78.904
13 1.142 2.379 81.283 1.142 2.379 81.283
14 .989 2.060 83.342
15 .917 1.909 85.252
16 .867 1.807 87.058
17 .826 1.722 88.780
18 .685 1.426 90.206
19 .644 1.341 91.547
20 .570 1.188 92.735
21 .524 1.092 93.828
22 .447 .931 94.759
23 .411 .857 95.615
24 .357 .743 96.359
25 .318 .662 97.021
26 .291 .606 97.626
27 .236 .491 98.117
28 .216 .450 98.567
29 .188 .392 98.959
30 .106 .221 99.180
31 .101 .210 99.390
32 8.846E-02 .184 99.574
33 7.353E-02 .153 99.728
34 5.554E-02 .116 99.843
35 3.848E-02 8.017E-02 99.923
36 1.915E-02 3.989E-02 99.963
37 1.345E-02 2.801 E-02 99.991
38 4.151E-03 8.648E-03 100.000
39 6.074E-16 1.265E-15 100.000
40 4.211E-16 8.772E-16 100.000
41 2.770E-16 5.770E-16 100.000
42 9.346E-17 1.947E-16 100.000
43 4.524E-17 9.425E-17 100.000
44 -1.258E-16 -2.621 E-16 100.000
45 -2.975E-16 -6.197E-16 100.000
46 -3.783E-16 -7.881 E-16 100.000
47 -4.516E-16 -9.408E-16 100.000
48 -8.569E-16 -1.785E-15 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

181
 Component Matrix3

Component
1 2 3 4 5 6
Performance Eval .320
-.194 .539 6.148E-02 -5.482E-02 -7.576E-02
Systems
Perf. Appraisal Time -.464 .369 -.242 -.305 -9.335E-02 -.170
Perf Appraisal Conducted -.259 .389 -.435 -.345 1.259E-02 -.331
Method of Appraisal -3.084E-02 .243 -.230 -.141 .399 .429
Enhance performance .495 .361 -8.636E-02 -.385 .233 6.925E-02
Promotion high position .566 -1.991E-02 .311 -.464 -.217 .198
training .600 .215 .225 -.508 2.763E-02 -.118
Disciplinary Action .334 .285 .366 -5.851 E-02 -.326 .344
Motivation .170 .470 .242 -.308 .180 -.142
control -.171 .515 .251 -.119 .382 -2.602E-02
Salaries .114 -.292 .610 -4.489E-02 -.312 -4.732E-02
Promotion decision .531 -4.663E-02 .349 -4.074E-02 -.150 -3.647E-02
Growth .624 .319 .406 4.098E-02 .184 -.219
Job Description .716 .314 .415 6.437E-02 -4.796E-02 .142
Job specification .685 .183 .430 1.998E-02 -2.910E-02 .156
Understanding .771 .229 3.696E-02 -1.169E-02 .125 5.268E-02
feedback provided .799 .180 1.991 E-02 1.323E-02 -1.155E-02 -5.834E-02
Communicate results .651 .279 -.439 8.287E-02 6.508E-02 .155
interview .491 .289 -.242 -.248 -4.108E-02 .168
feedback received .689 .148 -.488 3.694E-02 9.119E-02 .283
comments .341 -9.799E-02 -.297 -.235 3.746E-02 9.577E-02
Reward Mot Performance .186 -1.158E-02 .457 .236 .290 -.440
Rewards given .348 9.465E-03 -9.315E-02 4.139E-02 .178 -.692
desire motivator .709 -.336 .238 1.478E-02 .291 .125
Interest Motivator .579 -.530 .186 .297 -4.592E-02 .268
Success Motivate .555 -.537 .146 .152 .312 .177
Money .440 .109 .345 .153 -.105 -.327
Rewards Ability .860 2.780E-02 -2.511 E-02 -6.783E-02 2.306E-02 1.411 E-02
rewards Skill .853 8.058E-02 -2.998E-02 -2.687E-02 8.482E-02 2.157E-02
Needs .489 -.118 -.318 -3.270E-02 -.461 -.180
Job Type .547 -.250 -.217 2.408E-02 -.599 .115
Environment .476 -.404 -.103 .291 6.005E-02 -.117
Manager Friendly .469 -.429 -.289 .189 .213 -.152
Comment .555 7.359E-02 -.203 -.349 .158 -.222
better Education .380 -.239 -.194 9.947E-02 .416 -.279
Job Loss -.423 1.113E-02 .541 -.154 -.154 -2.160E-02
Moral Support .710 -7.030E-02 -.320 .150 .135 -2.551 E-02
Appraisal By Colleague -.308 .249 -3.666E-02 .295 8.743E-02 .126
student Questionnaire -.307 4.273E-02 .181 -.271 .198 2.863E-02
Observation -.168 1.692E-02 .122 .172 .314 .559
Interview -.354 3.050E-02 .256 .180 .543 .144
Systematic Procedures
-.190 .136 -9.741 E-02 .432 .139 .114
needed
Head Dept Active .276 .534 -.144 .438 -.358 3.927E-02
Head Dept Research .354 .437 -.313 .306 -.211 -.137
Annual Interview 9.559E-02 .430 .279 .617 -.166 -.111
Further Syst. Procedures
-3.084E-02 .558 -.244 .608 3.288E-02 -1.755E-02
Needed
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

182
 Component Matrix8

Component
1 2 3 4 5 6
Train Head -7.716E-02 .452 .400 .281 4.617E-02 -.152
involved .195 .148 -.216 4.786E-02 9.163E-02 .115
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

183
 Component Matrix3

Component
7 8 9 10 11
Performance Eval
.142 -2.243E-02 .288 3.639E-02 -.283
Systems
Perf. Appraisal Time -7.169E-02 .201 9.281 E-03 -.228 .203
Perf Appraisal Conducted -.203 -.221 8.210E-02 -2.034E-02 .103
Method of Appraisal -5.240E-02 -.295 -.322 .269 .196
Enhance performance .268 -.105 -.195 6.263E-03 -.166
Promotion high position .206 6.783E-02 1.284E-02 -7.319E-02 .200
training -7.467E-02 5.820E-02 -.226 -7.929E-02 -.189
Disciplinary Action 7.397E-02 .142 -7.646E-02 8.280E-02 -6.035E-02
Motivation .307 .295 -.150 .278 .299
control .260 .347 .130 8.309E-02 .306
Salaries 5.304E-02 7.218E-02 .432 .261 9.502E-03
Promotion decision .413 -.344 .228 -3.513E-03 9.719E-02
Growth -5.840E-02 2.829E-02 -.272 4.498E-02 .162
Job Description -.187 -5.650E-02 -.174 -.210 -6.160E-02
Job specification -.250 -5.317E-02 -1.469E-02 -.341 -1.036E-03
Understanding 3.017E-02 -.123 .137 .140 -1.039E-02
feedback provided .153 -.112 2.059E-02 -9.576E-02 .236
Communicate results -5.182E-02 -.168 .205 -.149 -.101
interview -.201 9.371 E-02 .414 -2.300E-02 -.164
feedback received 9.263E-02 -7.971 E-02 3.384E-02 -.208 8.258E-03
comments .600 .209 6.573E-02 -.152 -.253
Reward Mot Performance .200 -.215 -7.136E-02 1.831 E-02 -.168
Rewards given .158 -.247 2.077E-02 .107 -.202
desire motivator -.117 -2.645E-02 5.988E-02 .127 3.039E-02
Interest Motivator 4.526E-02 .142 -9.879E-02 -8.216E-02 .150
Success Motivate -5.490E-02 -1.418E-02 5.857E-02 .195 2.737E-02
Money -.450 2.395E-03 .237 .176 -.163
Rewards Ability -.226 5.408E-02 1.956E-02 -7.572E-02 -4.357E-02
rewards Skill -.262 -1.560E-02 5.260E-02 6.902E-02 -2.150E-02
Needs .136 .187 1.768E-02 .387 .105
Job Type 4.317E-02 .221 -.243 .153 -6.950E-02
Environment .144 .269 -7.621 E-02 -.296 .215
Manager Friendly 9.260E-02 .176 .222 -.130 .127
Comment -.174 .202 .381 -.134 -2.423E-02
better Education -9.701 E-02 .404 -.166 -9.245E-02 -8.937E-03
Job Loss .236 .107 .233 -.325 .161
Moral Support .171 -.123 9.046E-02 6.254E-02 .166
Appraisal By Colleague 6.767E-02 -.223 .389 5.558E-02 .431
student Questionnaire -.470 .558 2.060E-02 8.770E-02 1.441 E-02
Observation -.101 -4.108E-02 3.510E-02 .115 -.102
Interview 4.830E-02 5.698E-02 1.367E-02 5.314E-02 -4.290E-02
Systematic Procedures -9.956E-02 -.385
.332 .376 3.377E-02
needed
Head Dept Active -9.073E-02 .148 -.242 -.149 .163
Head Dept Research 9.596E-02 -2.354E-02 -.168 .308 -4.064E-03
Annual Interview -.130 3.279E-02 2.480E-02 .116 3.061 E-02
Further Syst. Procedures .189 -.145 .118
-7.463E-02 .164
Needed
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

184
 Component Matrix3

Component
7 8 9 10 11
Train Head .246 7.106E-02 -6.224E-02 -.123 -.291
involved 9.647E-02 .361 .163 .481 -.113
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

185
2£Dg / / QrgaMmMQ<l&<kit JooAm M . / Appendix F L.A.U.

Drganization Chart

Vice President
for Student
Affairs

Dean of Dean of Dean of Director of Director of Director of

Student S tu d en t S tu d en t Continuing Continuing Continuing
Services Services Services Education Education Education
Beirut Byblos Sidon Beirut Byblos Sidon
VllW M ia a i’.i eMi.BWIWHgP

Director Director Director

of of of
Admissions Admissions Admissions

Testing Services
Director Director Director Supervisor
of of of
Gui dance Guidance Gui dance

Registrar Registrar Registrar

Director Director Director

of of of
Finandal Finandal I Finandal
Aid Aid Aid
WBBWWWWSW*

Student Student f Student

Housing Housing Housing
Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor
jaw,«.»wiitu.)inL',w)

\/ /
lese American University Last Modified: 05/03/00 18:45:17

186
 L.A.U. 38

Drganization Chart

Vice President
for
Development

Director Director Director of

Director of
of of Development, Development,
Publications Alumni Affairs Middle East
North America
i & Europe

1 / Administration / Qmam'gabon Chart Too Level /

lese American University Last Modified: 05/03/00 18:45:17

187
>me / / VPFA / L.A.U.

Organization Chart

Assistant
Vice President
for
Administration
■w isph ssp p p iM s p p ss ii!*

Directors of Directors of
Directors of
Campus Human
Purchasing
Services Resources

3 Cam puses 3 Cam puses

3 Cam puses
ip^iipp^appaipy

S / Administration / Organization Cfetrt Too Level / VPfA /

nese American University Last Modified: 05/03/00 18:44:35

188
Home / / V£FA / L.A.U.

Organization Chart

Director of
Pfenning
& Physical
Plant

1 :
¥ '
Operations Projects
Engineers Engineers
1
3 Cam puses 1 3 Campuses
I-
&

'€ / Administration / Organization Chart Too tev&t / VPFA /

nese American University Last Modified: 05/03/00 18:44:35

189
 SPECIAL NOTE

This item is tightly bound

and while every effort has

been made to reproduce the

centres force would result

in damage.
 L.A.U.

anization Chart

Director of
Information
Technology
ft Systems

.......... r .......

Manager Manager
Information Information
System s Technology

m&/
srican University Last Modified: 05/03/00 18:44:34

190
Organization Chart

Assistant
Vice President
for Finance

Comptroller

Director of
Grants 8t Associate Financial
Contracts Comptrollers Planning
Officer
&. Budget
3 Cam puses
agSWKBBffijlPWIP^

3me / Administration / Organization Chart Fog Lave; / VPFA /

ibanese American University Last Modified: 05/03/00 18:44:34
dome / / L.A.U. ffi

Organization Chart

President

Director of Vice President

Internal for Finance &
Audit Administration

' ■'!

A ssistant
Vice Director of
I
Director of
Assistant
Vice
President Information Planning President for
for Finance Technology : ; 8t Physical Administration
8t System s Plant

me / / Qsmmmm.QirntlM.umi /
}anese American University Last Modified: 05/03/00 18:44:33

192
Home / Administration / Organization Chart Too Level / L.A.U. I S

Organization Chart

Vice President
for Academic
Affairs
Assistant Vice
President

Academic Academic Academic Dean of

Deans, Beirut Deans, Byblos ^ Deans, Sidon Directors of
Graduate Libra ry/LRC
- A rts & ScL Studies Directors
- Arts & - A rts & of Institutes
S c ien ce s - B u sin ess Beirut
S cien ces
- B u sin ess
S tu d ies All Byblos
- Eng. & Arch. - B u sin ess
S tu d ies S tu d ies Campuses Sidon
- Pharmacy

Chairs Chairs Chairs f

?U»W8WM!BWiaMWBK
Distant (
Learning
Director, Director,
In stitu te for Center for
W om en's S p onsored
S tu d ies in t h e Research &
Arab World D evelop m en t

r>e / Administration / Qmamzatitm Chart Top Level /

tanese American University Last Modified: 05/03/00 18:44:3^

193
 L .H .U . w ««r

Organization Chart

BOARD i
i
- ............................. *

PRES IDE NT

Director of Internal
Legal Counsel
Public Relations Auditor

Vice President ! Vice President Vice President 1 Vice President

<
£
for Academic 1 for Finance &. 1 for for Student
Affairs I
Administration Development Affairs

Click on the links at the bottom to see more of the chart.

ig / Administration /
anese American University Last Modified: 05/03/00 18:44:34

194
 Appendix GI

Student Evaluation of Teaching Effectiveness

Teacher Evaluated: S. Karkoulian

Course Number: 4223A

Students Enrolment: 43

Students responded: 29

A B C D E Response Score

1) Organization of Subject-Matter 12 15 00 00 00 02 3.44

2) Keeping Time 25 02 01 00 00 01 3.85

3) Apparent Knowledge o f Subject 13 13 02 00 00 01 3.39

4) Ability to Explain 14 07 07 00 00 01 3.25

5) Ability to Encourage Thinking 09 11 05 01 02 01 2.85

6) Fairness in Testing 08 15 04 01 00 01 3.07

7) Speaking ability 12 09 04 03 00 01 3.07

8) Opportunity for Questions & Discussion 20 05 03 00 00 01 3.60

9) Attitude toward Students 17 06 03 00 02 01 3.28

10) Personality of Instructor 18 06 02 00 01 02 3.48

11) Office Hours 20 04 03 00 00 02 3.62

12) Use o f Blackboard 17 06 03 01 00 02 3.44

Average Score = 3.36

195
 Bibliography

Abdal-Haqq, I. (1996) Making Time for Teacher Professional Development. ERIC

DIGEST, [online]. Washington, D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and
Teacher Education. Available at:
<http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed400259.html> [Accessed 27
March 2000].

Alfano, K. (1994) Recent Strategies for Faculty Development. ERIC DIGEST, [online].
Los Angeles CA.: ERIC Clearinghouse for Community Colleges. Available at:
<http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed371807.html> [Accessed 6 June
2001].

Alpander, G. (1982) Human Resource Management Planning. New York: AMACOM.

Ament, R. R. (1987) Collaboration in Adult Education.Overview. ERIC Digest.

[online].Columbus, Ohio: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational
Education. Available at:
< http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed28209.html> [Accessed 27
March 2000].

Anon, (1995J Reconceptualizing Professional Teacher Development. ERIC Digest.

[online]. Washington, D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher
Education. Available at:
< http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed383695.html> [Accessed 27
March 2000].

Anon, (1999) Archer North’s Performance Appraisal: The Complete Online Guide.
[online]. Available at: <www.performance-appraisal.com.> [Accessed 12 Dec.
1998].

196
Anon, (undated) Lebanese American University: reserve collection for Leicester
University, manuscript, Focusing and Bounding the Collection of Data.

Ashbum, E.A., Mann, M., and Purdue, P.A. (1987) “Teacher Mentoring” ERIC
Clearinghouse on teacher education, paper presented at the Annual Meeting of
the American Educational Research Association, Washington, DC.

Atkinston, S.R., Beck, L.S., and Courtright, B.A. (1981) “Team Building: An Important
Element in Work Planning and Performance Review” Proceedings. IX Annual
Management bv Objectives State of the Art Conference. Washington, pp. 1-6
(cited in H. Weihrich (19851 Management bv Objectives: Productivity through
MBO. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.)

Austin, A.E. and Baldwin, R.G. (1992) Faculty Collaboration. Enhancing the Quality of
Scholarship and Teaching. ERIC Digest, [online]. Washington, D.C.: ERIC
Clearinghouse on Higher Education; George Washington University. Available
at: <http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed347958.html> [Accessed 27
March 2000}.

Auteri, E. (1994) “Upward Feedback Leads to Culture Changes” HR Magazine, vol.39

no.6, pp.78-84.

Barakat, H. (1993) The Arab World: Society. Culture, and State. California: University of
California Press.

Baron, R.A and Greenberg, J. (1990) Behavior in Organizations: Understanding and

Managing the Human Side of Work (3rd ed.). Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon, a
Division of Simon and Schuster.

Bassey, M. (1998a) “Fuzzy Generalisation and Professional Discourse” Research

Intelligence, vol. 63, pp. 20-24.

197
 (1998b) “Fuzzy Generalisation : An Approach to Building Educational
Theory” a paper presented at the British Educational Research Association
Annual Conference, The Queen’s University of Belfast 27 August 1998, pp. 1-10.

Beardwell, I. and Holden, L. (1994) Human Resource Management: A Contemporary

Perspective. London: Pitman.

Becker, H.S. (1986) Doing Things Together. Evanston, II: Northwestern University
Press.

Beer M. (1986) “Performance Appraisal” in J.W. Lorsch (Ed.) Handbook of

Organizational Behavior. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

Bell, J. (1987) Doing Your Research Project. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

(1993) Doing Your Research. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Bell, L.A. (1988a) Management Skills in Primary Schools. London: Routledge.

(1988b) The Appraisal of Staff in Schools: A Practical Guide. London:

Routledge, in L.A. Bell (1988a) Management Skills in Primary Schools. London:
Routledge.

_______ (1992) Managing Teams in Secondary School. London: Routledge.

Bennett, H. (1995) “ Choose Your Own” Management in Education, vol.9, no.4,

pp. 15-17.

Bennis, W. (1991) “Chairman Mac In Perspective” in Appraising Performance Appraisal.

Boston: Harvard Business Review Paperback, pp.7-11.

198
 (1999) The Corporate Culture Survival Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc.

Bemardin, H.J. and Beatty, R.W. (1984) Performance Appraisal: Assessing Human
Behavior at Work. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Bierema, L.L. (1996) “How Executive Women Learn Corporate Culture” Human
Resource Development Quarterly, vol.7. no.2. pp. 145-164.

Bogdan R. and Biklen S.K. (1992) Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction
to Theory and Method (2nd ed.) Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Birge, J., Bowman, K., and Peterson, B. (1995) Gender and Mentoring: White Paper,
[online]. Available at:
<http://www.csf.colorado.edu/mail/serviceleaming/95/mar95/0089.html>
[Accessed 23 November 2000].

Bolam, R. (1987) What is Effective INSET?, Paper addressed to the Annual Members
Conference of the National Foundation for Educational Research.

Bolam, R., McMahon, A., Pocklington, K., and Weindling, D. (1995) “Mentoring for
New Headteachers: Recent British Experience” Journal of Educational
Administration, vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 29-44.

Bollington, R., Hopkins, D., and West, M. (1990) An Introduction to Teacher Appraisal:
A Professional Development Approach. London: Cassel.

Boone, L.E. and Kurtz, D.L. (1993) Contemporary Business (7th ed.) Forth Worth: The
Dryden Press.

199
Bourque, L.B. and Clark V.A. (1994) “Research Practice” in M. S. Lewis-Beck (Ed)
International Handbook of Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences.
(vol.6) London: Sage Publications, pp. 1-88.

Bradley, H. (1992) “ Getting the Best out of Appraisal” Journal of the Educational
Research Network of Northern Ireland, vol.6, pp.127-135.

Brooks, V. (1996) “Mentoring the Interpersonal Dimension” Teacher Development.

February, pp. 5-10.

Bruns, W.J. Jr. (ed.) (1992) Performance Measurement. Evaluation, and Incentives.
Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Burgess, R.G. (1985) Field Method in Study of Education. Oxon: Imago Publishing.

_______ (1993) Research Methods: Issues in Sociology. Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson and
Sons, Ltd.

Bums, R. (1785) To A Louse . Champaign, Illinois: Project Gutenberg [online].

Available at: <http://www.electricscotland.com/bums/louse.html.> [Accessed 10
March 2000].

Bush, T. (1995) “Mentoring for Principals: Pre-Service and In-Service Models”

Singapore Journal of Education, vol. 15, no.l, pp. 1-13.

Bush, T. and Middlewood, D. (1997) Managing People in Education. London: Paul

Chapman Publishing.

Busher, H. and Saran, R. (1995) “Managing Teachers as Professionals in Schools” in H.

Busher and R. Saran (Eds.) Managing Teachers as Professionals in Schools.
London: Kogan Page Limited, pp. 187-205.

200
Campbell, P. and Southworth, G. (1992) “Rethinking Collegiality: Teachers’ Views” in
N. Bennett, M. Crawford, and C. Riches (Eds.) Managing Change in Education:
Individual and Organizational Perspectives. London: Paul Chapman Publishing
Ltd., pp. 61-79.

Canaan, (2000) “360-Degree Feedback: The Whole Story” The General Manager, vol.8,
no. 69 & 70, pp. 25-27.

Cannell, C.F. and Kahn, R.L. (1968) “Interviewing” in G. Zlindzey and A. Aronson
(Eds.) The Handbook of Social Psychology. Research Methods, vol. 2. New
York: Addison Wesley.

Cardy, R.L. and Krzystofiak, F.J. (1991) “Interfacing High Technology Operations with
Blue Collar Workers: Selection and Appraisal in a Computerized Manufacturing
Setting” Journal of High Technology Management Research, vol. 2, pp. 193-210.

Caruth, D. (1986) Compensation Management for Banks. Boston: Bankers Co.

Caruth, D., Noe III, R.M., and Mondy, R.W. (1988) Staffing Contemporary
Organizations. New York: Greenwood Press Inc.

Cascio, W.F. (1989) Managing Human Resources: Productivity. Quality of Work Life.
Profits (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

(1995") Managing Human Resources: Productivity. Quality of Work Life.

Profits (4nd ed.). Singapore: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Caudron, S. (1996) “Keeping Spirits Up When Times are Down” Personnel Journal.
August, pp. 26-31.

201
Clair, N.A. and Temple, C. (1999") Professional Development for Teachers in Culturally
Diverse Schools. ERIC Digest, fonlinel. Washington, D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse
on Languages and Linguistics. Available at:
< http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed383695.html> [Accessed 10
September 2001].

Clark, D. (1996) Schools as Learning Communities. London: Cassell.

Coates, J. (1986) Women. Men, and Language. New York: Longman.

Cohen L. and Manion L. (1994) Research Methods In Education (4th ed.) London:
Routledge.

Coleman, M. (1997) “Managing Induction and Mentoring” in T. Bush and D.

Middlewood (Eds.) Managing People in Education. London: Paul Chapman
Publishing, Ltd., pp. 155-168.

Coolican H., (1996) Introduction to Research Methods in Statistics and Psychology.

London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Costello, S.J. (1994) Effective Performance Management. New York: McGraw-Hill

Companies, Inc.

Cullen, J. (1999) “Socially Constructed Learning: A Commentary on the Concept of the

Learning Organisation” The Learning Organization, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 45-52.

Daft, R.L. (1997) Management (4th ed.). Orlando: The Dryden Press.

Daresh, J.C. and Playko, M.A. (1990) “Mentor Programs: Focus on the Beginning
Principal” NASSP Bulletin, vol. 74, no. 527, pp. 73-77.

202
 (1992a) “Mentoring for Headteachers: a review of Major
Issues” School Organization, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 145-152.

(1992b") Leader Helping Leaders. New York: Scholastic

Inc.

Day, C. (1995) “Leadership and Professional Development: Developing Reflective

Practice” in H. Busher and R. Saran (Eds.) Managing Teachers as Professionals in
Schools. London: Kogan Page Limited, pp. 109-130.

Deal, T.E. and Kennedy, A.A. (1982") Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of
Corporate Life. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Dean, J. (1993) “Managing” Fortune. Dec. 19, p.83.

Denzin, N. (1970) The Research Act in Sociology: A Theoretical Introduction to

Sociological Methods. London: The Butterworth Group.

Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln, Y.S. (1994) Handbook of Qualitative Research. California:
Sage Publications Inc.

Devaney, K. and Sykes, G. (1988) “Making a Case for Professionalism” in A. Lieberman

(Ed.) (1988) Building a Professional Culture in Schools. New York: Teachers
College Press.

Dimmer, T. and Metiuk J. (1998) “The Use and the Impact of OFSTED in a Primary
School” in P. Earley (Ed) School Improvement after Inspection? London: Paul
Chapman Publishing Ltd., pp.51-61.

Drever, E. (1995") Using Semi-Structured Interviews in Small-Scale Research. A

Teacher’s Guide. Edinburgh: SCRE Publication.

203
Drucker, P. (1955) The Practices o f Management. London: Heinemann Ltd.

________ (19881 Management. London: Pan Books.

________ (1990) Managing the Non-Profit Organization. London: Butterworth

Heinemann.

Durauti, A. (1997) Linguistic Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Edis, M. (1995) Performance Management and Appraisal in Health Services. London:

Kogan Page Ltd.

Elliot, J. (1993) “What Have We Learned from Action Research in School-based

Evaluation” Educational Action Research, vol.l, no.l, pp.175-187.

Elkjaer, B. (2000) “We Now Think More in Terms of Efficiency.. .A Case Study of the
Development of a Learning Organization” [online]. Available at:
<http://ktru- main.lancs.ac.uk/pub/ol3.nsf/NoteIDs/NT00002146/$FILE/elkjaer.pdf>
[Accessed 21 September 2001].

Ensher, E.A. and Murphy, S.E. (1997) “Effects of Race, Gender, Perceived Similarity,
and Contact on Mentor Relationship” Journal of Vocational Behavior, vol. 50,
no. 3, pp. 460-481.

Feiman-Nemser, S., and Parker, M.B. (1992) “Mentoring in Context: A Comparison of

Two U.S. Programs for Beginning Teachers” NCRTL Special Report. East
Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning, Michigan State
University.

204
Fiedler, F.E. (1967) A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New York: McGraw Hill.

Fiedler, B. (Ed.) (1995) “ Taking Stock after the First Round” Management in Education.
vol. 9, no.4, pp.3-4.

Firestone, W.A. (1993) “Alternative Arguments fo r Generalizing from Data as Applied to

Qualitative Research,” Educational Researcher, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 16-23.

Fitz-enz, J. (1995) How to Measure Human Resources Management. New York:

McGraw-Hill, Inc.

________ (undated) “Quantifying the Economic Value of the Most Common Human
Capital Initiatives is No Longer a Mystery” [online]. Available at:
< http://208.55.100.185/HRpubs/roireview.html > [Accessed 23 November 2000].

Fortunato, R.T. and Waddell, D.G. (1981) Personnel Administration. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

Freeman, D. (1990) “Intervening in Practice Teaching” in J.C. Richards and D. Nunan

(Eds.) Second Language Teacher Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, pp. 103-117.

Fullan, M. and Miles, M. (1992) “Getting Reform Right: What Works and What
Doesn’t” Phi Delta Kappan. June, pp. 745-752 (cited in M.A. Raymid (1993)
“Finding Time for Collaboration,” Educational Leadership. September,
pp. 30-34).

Gay, L.R. and Diehl, P.L. (1992) Research Methods for Business and Management. New
York: Macmillan Publishing Company.

205
Gehrke, N.J. and Kay, R.S. (1984) “The Socialization of Beginning Teachers Through
Mentorprotege Relationships” Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 35, no. 3, pp.
21-24.

Gellerman, S.W. and Hodgson, W.G. (1990) “Cyanamid’s New Take on Performance
Appraisal” in Manage People. Not Personnel. Boston: Harvard Business Review,
pp.247-256.

Gibson, J.L., Evancevich, J.M., and Donnelly, J.H. Jr. (1994) Organizations: Behavior,
Structure. Processes (8th ed.) Burr Ridge 111: Irwin Inc.

Goffee, R. and Jones, G. (1998) The Character of a Corporation. New York: Harper
Business.

Gomez-Mejia, L., Balkin, D., and Cardy, R. (1995) Managing Human Resources.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

_______ (2001) Managing Human Resources (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Grote, D. (1996) The Complete Guide to Performance Appraisal. New York: AMACOM,
a division o f American Management Association.

Guest, D. (1987) “Human Resource Management and Industrial Relations” Journal of

Management Studies, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 503-521.

Guskin, J.E. (1996) “Facing the Future: the Change Process in Restructuring
Universities” Change, vol.28, no.4, pp. 28-30.

Hackman, M.Z. and Johnson, C.E. (1996) Leadership: A Communication Perspective

(2nd ed.). Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc.

206
Haney, A. (1997) “The Role o f Mentorship in the Workplace” Workplace Education

Hantrais, L. (1996) Comparative Research Methods. Social Research Update.

[online]. University of Surrey. Available at:
< http://www.soc.surrev.ac.uk/sru/SRU 13.html> [Accessed 15 April 2002].

Hargreaves, A. (1992) “Contrived Collegiality: the Micropolitics of Teacher

Collaboration” in N. Bennett, M. Crawford, and C. Riches (Ed) Managing
Change in Education: Individual and Organizational Perspectives. London: Paul
Chapman Publishing Ltd., pp. 80-94.

Hargreaves, D.H. and Hopkins, D. (Eds.) (1994) Development Planning For School
Improvement. London: Cassel Villiers House, pp. 1-23.

Harrison, R. (1993) Human Resource Management: Issues and Strategies. London:

Addison-Wesley Publishers Ltd.

Haslem, C., Bryman, A., and Webb, A.L. (1992) “ The Introduction of University Staff
Appraisal” Public Money and Management. April/June, pp. 55-63.

_______ (1993a) “The Impact of Staff Appraisal in Universities” Higher Education

Management, vol.5, no.2, pp. 213-221.

_______ (1993b) “ The Function of Performance Appraisal in UK Universities” Higher

Education, vol.25, pp. 473-486.

Hitchcock, G. and Hughes, D. (1989) Research and the Teacher: A Qualitative

Introduction To School-based Research. Routledge: London.

Holly, P. and Southworth, G. (1989) The Developing School. Lewes: Falmer Press.

207
Hort, L. (1997) Performance Appraisal and Management of Academic Staff [online].
Available at: < nteunat@nteu.org.au> [Accessed

Howell, R.A. (1970) “Managing by Objectives-A Three Stage System” Business

Review, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 89-94.

Hutchinson, B. (1995) “Staff Appraisal: Personal, Professional and Organizational

Development” Educational Management and Administration, vol.23, no.l, pp.
47-57.

Imel, S. (1990) Managing Your Professional Development: A Guide for Part-Time of

Adults. ERIC Digest, [online]. Columbus, Ohio: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult,
Career, and Vocational Education. Available at:
<http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed321155.html> [Accessed 27
March 2000].

Jablin, F. (1979) “Superior-subordinate Communication: the State of Art” Psychology

Bulletin, no. 86, pp. 1201-1222.

Jones, E.V., and Lowe, J. (1985) “Adult Education Staff Development: Program
Research and Implementation” Adult Literacy and Basic Education, vol.9, no.2,
pp. 80-86.

Jones, G.R., George, J.M., and Hill, W.L. (2000) Contemporary Management (2nd ed.)
Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill.

Joseph, K. (1985) Speech to the North of England Education Conference. 4th January,
Chester (cited in L. (1989) Management Skills in Primary Schools. London:
Routledge).

208
Jossi, F. (1997) “Mentoring in Changing Times,” Training and Development, vol. 51, no.
8, pp. 50-54.

Kamp, D. (1994) Successful Appraisal in a Week. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Karkoulian, S. (1999) “Women and Work/Life Conflict at the Lebanese American

University” Paper presented at Leicester University (Assignment II, Ed.D.
program).

Karkoulian, S. and Busher, H. (2000) “Using Electronic Communication in Higher

Education to Enhance the Curriculum,” Proceeding of The 2000 Arab
Conference on Information Technology. Zarka Private University, Jordan, Oct.
31st-N o v 2 nd, pp. 216-228.

________ (2000) “Leadership and Power”, a paper presented at Leicester University

for the course ‘Managing for Quality’ Ed.D. program.

Kelly, M. and Beck, T., Thomas, ap, J. (1992) “Mentoring as a Staff Development
Activity” in M. Wilkin (Ed.) Mentors in Schools. London: Kogan Page, (as
cited in M. Coleman (1997) “Managing Induction and Mentoring” in T. Bush and
D. Middlewood (Eds.) Managing People in Education. London: Paul Chapman
Publishing, Ltd., pp. 155-168.

Kempton, J. (1995) Human Resource Management and Development. New York: St.
Martin’s Press.

Kerka, S. (1997) “Contructivism, Workplace Learning and Vocational Education” ERIC

DIGEST, no. 181. Columbus: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and
Vocational Education. (ED 407 083)

209
_______ (1998) New Perspectives on Mentoring. Eric Digest, [online]. Columbus, OH.:
ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education. Available at:
<http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed418249.html> [Accessed 27
March 2000].

Kermally, S. (1997) Managing Performance. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Kibbi, I. (1995) “Lebanese and American Educational Differences: A Comparison”

Education, vol. 15, no.3, pp. 441-445.

Kotter, P.J. (1995) “Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail” Harvard
Business Review March/April, pp.60.

Kreitner, R. and Kinicki, A. (1998) Organizational Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Krupp, J-A (1984) Mentor and Protege Perceptions of Mentoring Relationships in an

Elementary and Secondary School in Connecticut, Paper presented at the Annual
Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, as
cited in J .C. Daresh and M.A. Playko (1992) “Mentoring for Headteachers: a
review of Major Issues” School Organization, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 145-152.

Latham, G.P. and Wexley, K.N. (1981) Increasing Productivity Through Performance
Appraisal. New York: Addison Wesley.

Lattimore, R.A. (1967) The Odvssev of Homer. New York: Harper and Row Publishers.

Layman, J.A. (1994) “360° Feedback Can Turn on You” Fortune. Nov.28, p.45.

Levinson, H. (1991a) “Thinking Ahead” in Appraising Performance Appraisal. Boston:

Harvard Business Review Paperback, pp.21-27.

210
________ (1991b) “Management by Whose Objectives? in Appraising Performance
Appraisal. Boston: Harvard Business Review Paperback, pp.21-27.

Little, J.W. (1990) “The Mentor Phenomenon and the Social Organization of Teaching”
Review of Research in Education, vol. 16, pp. 297-351.

Longenecker, C.O. (1989) “Truth or Consequence: Politics and Performance Appraisal”

Business Horizons. Nov/Dec. pp.76-82.

Lumby, J. (1997) “The Learning Organisation” in T. Bush and D.

Middlewood (Eds.) Managing People in Education. London: Paul Chapman
Publishing, Ltd., pp. 31- 42.

Luna, G. and Cullen, D.L. (1995) Empowering the Faculty: Redirected and Renewed.
ERIC Digest, [online]. Washington, D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher
Education; George Washington University, Graduate School of Education and
Human Development. Available at:
< http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digest/ed399888.html > [Accessed 27
March 2000].

Malderez, A. and Bodoczky, C. (T999I Mentor Courses: A Resource Book for Trainer-
Trainers. Cambridge: Cambridge University.

Mathis, R.L. and Jackson, J.H. (1997) Human Resource Management (8th ed.). New
York: West Publishing Company.

Martorana, S.V. and Kuhns, E. (1975) Managing Academic Change. Interactive Forces
and Leadership in Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

McGregor, D. (1957) “An Uneasy Look at Performance Appraisal” Harvard Business

211
 Review. May-June, pp. 89-94.

_______ (1990) “An Uneasy Look at Performance Appraisal” in Manage People.

Not Personnel. Boston: Harvard Business Review, pp. 155-165.

Mclver, J.P. and Carmines, E.G. (1994) “Basic Measurements” in M. S. Lewis-Beck (Ed)
International Handbook of Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences.
vol.4. London: Sage Publications, pp. 139-171.

McLaughlin, M. (1991) “The RAND Change Agent Study: Ten Years Later” in A.R.
Odden (Ed.) Education Policy Implementation. Albany: State University of New
York Press.

McMahon, F. and Carter, E. (1990) The Great Training Robbery. London: The Falmer
Press.

Meyer, H.H. (1991) “ A Solution to the Performance Appraisal Feedback Enigma”

Academy of Management Executive, vol. 1, no.5, pp. 68-76.

Middlewood, D. (1997) “Managing Appraisal” in T. Bush and D. Middlewood (Eds.)

Managing People in Education. London: Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.,
pp.170-183.

Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded
Sourcebook. (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Minor, J.F. and Preston, K.M. (1991) Peer Coaching at the Junior College Level:
Developing a Non-Threatening Environment” Presented at the National
Conference on the Adult Learner (Columbia, SC, May 26-29,1991). (ED 339
410) as cited in K. Alfano (1994) Recent Strategies for Faculty Development.
ERIC DIGEST, [online]. Los Angeles CA.: ERIC Clearinghouse for Community

212
 Colleges. Available at:
<http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed371807.html> [Accessed 6 June
2001].

Mohrman, A.M., Jr., Resnick-West, S.M., and Lawler III, E.E. (1989) Designing
Performance Appraisal Systems. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Montgomery, D. (1991) “Positive Appraisal: A Critical Review of Ten Years Work”

Management in Education, vol. 5, no. 3, pp.41-45.

Moorhead G. and Griffen R. W. (1992) Organizational Behavior. Boston: Houghton

Mifflin Company.

_______ (1998) Organizational Behavior. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Murdoch University (2001) Human Resources Policy and Procedures Manual, [online]:
Available at: <wwwadmin.murdoch.edu.au/hr/staff/pdev/policy/PD0001.html>
[Accessed 15 July 2001].

Nachmias, C.F. and Nachmias, D. (1996) Research Methods in the Social Sciences
(5th ed.). New York: St. Martin’s Press Inc.

Nicholls, G. (2001) Professional Development in Higher Education: New Dimensions

and Directions. London: Kogan Page.

Noblit, G.W. and Hare, R.D. (1988) “Meta-enthnography: Synthesizing Qualitative

Studies,” Qualitative Research Methods Series, vol. 11. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
(as cited in M.B. Miles and A.M. Huberman (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis: An
Expanded Sourcebook. (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications)

Nordhaug, O. (1994) Human Capital in Organizations. New York: Oxford University

213
 Press, Inc.

Oberg, W. (1990) “ Make Performance Appraisal Relevant” in Manage People, Not

Personnel. Boston: Harvard Business Review, pp.233-246.

_______ (1991) “Make Performance Appraisal Relevant” in Appraising Performance

Appraisal. Boston: Harvard Business Review, pp.47-53.

O’Neill, J. (1994a) “Managing Human Resources” in T. Bush and J. West-Bumham

(Eds.) The Principles of Educational Management. London: Longman Group
U.K. Ltd., pp. 199-221.

_______ (1994b) “Managing Professional Development” in T. Bush and J. West-

Bumham (Eds.) The Principles of Educational Management. London: Longman
Group U.K. Ltd., pp. 285-308.

O’Reilly, B. (1994) “ 360° Feedback Can Change Your Life” Fortune. Oct.17, pp.55-58

Orwell, G. (1984) Nineteen Eighty-Four. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Otala, M. (1995) “The Learning Organization: Theory and Practice” Industry and Higher
Education, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 157-164.

Parry, S. (1995) “27 Ways to Increase Transfer of Training” a speech at the National
Speakers’ Association Convention, Atlanta, Georgia, (cited in D. Grote (1996)
The Complete Guide to Performance Appraisal. New York: AMACOM, a
division of American Management Association, p. 83

Philips-Jones, L. (1982) Mentors and Proteges. New York: Arbor House.

214
Poster, C. and Poster, D. (1991) Teacher Appraisal: A Guide to Training. London:
Routledge, in L. A. Bell (1992) Managing Teams in Secondary School. London:
Routledge.

Prager, K. (1992) “Collaborative Planning Time for Teachers” Brief to Principals #2.
University of Wisconsin: Center on Organization and Restructuring of Schools
(cited in M. A. Raywid, (1993) “Finding Time for Collaboration” Educational
Leadership. September, pp. 30-34).

Raywid, M.A. (1993) “Finding Time for Collaboration,” Educational Leadership.

September, pp. 30-34.

Reid, M.A., Barrington, H., Kenney, J. (1992) Training Interventions. Managing

Employee Development. (3rd ed.) London: Institution of Personnel Management.

Riches, C. (1997) “Managing for People and Performance” in T. Bush and D.

Middlewood (Eds.) Managing People in Education. London: Paul Chapman
Publishing Ltd., pp. 15-30.

Riches, C. and Morgan, C. (1989) Human Resource Management in Education. Milton

Keynes: Open University Press.

Rifkin, T. 0995") The Status and Scope of Faculty Evaluation. ERIC Digest [online]. Los
Angeles, C.A.: ERIC Clearinghouse for Community Colleges. Available at:
<file:///Al/ed385315.html> [Accessed 11 Sept. 1999].

Robbins, S.P. (1998) Organizational Behavior: Concepts. Controversies. Applications

(8th ed.) New Jersey: Prentice-Hall International, Inc.

________ f200U Organizational Behavior: Concepts. Controversies. Applications

215
 th
(9 ed.) New Jersey: Prentice-Hall International, Inc.

Robson, C. (1993) Real World Research. Oxford: Blackwell.

Rosenholtz, S.J. (1989) Teachers’ Workplace: The Social Organization of Schools. New
York: Longman.

Rowan, D. (1995) “The Round Year” Management in Education, vol.9, no.4, pp.7-8.

Rummler, G.A. and Brache, A. P. (1995) Improving Performance. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass Inc. Publishers.

Rutherford, D. (1988) “ Performance Appraisal: A Survey of Academic Staff Opinion”

Studies in Higher Education, vol.13, no.l, pp.89-101.

Sampson, J. and Yeomans, R. (Eds.) (1994) Mentorship in the Primary School. London:
Falmer Press.

Schein, E.H. (1984) “Coming to a New Awareness of Organisational Culture” Sloan

Management Review. Winter, pp. 3-16.

Schermerhom, J.R., Hunt, J.G., and Osborn, R.N. (1998) Basic Organizational Behavior.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Schon, D.A. (1983) The Reflective Practitioners: How Professionals Think in Action.
New York: Basic Books.

________ (1987) Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Inc., Publishers.

216
Senge, P.M. (1990) The Fifth Discipline. The Art and Practice of the Learning
Organization. New York: Doubleday Currency.

Shea, G.F. (1992) Mentoring. London: Kogan Press.

Sheridan, J.E. (1992) “Organizational Culture and Employee Retention” Academy of

Management Journal. December, pp. 1036-56.

Sherman, A., Bohlander, G., and Snell, S. (1998) Managing Human Resources (11th ed.)
Ohio: South-Western College Publishing.

Shroyer, M.G. (1990) “Effective Staff Development for Effective Organization

Development” Journal of Staff Development, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 1-2.

Simon, H. (1996) “The Paradox of Case Study,” Cambridge Journal of Education, vol.
26, no. 2, pp. 225-240 (as cited in M. Bassey (1998b) “Fuzzy Generalisation : An
Approach to Building Educational Theory” a paper presented at the British
Educational Research Association Annual Conference, The Queen’s University of
Belfast 27 August 1998, pp. 1-10).

Smith, R. (1995) “Staff Appraisal in Higher Education - A Study of Performance

Review at Nene College, Northampton” Higher Education, vol.30, pp. 189-205.

Smith, R.M., and Bowes, S.G. (1986) “Self-Directed Staff Development for ABE
Teachers: A Case Study” Adult Literacy and Basic Education, vol. 10, no.2,
pp.80-89.

Smith, R.W. (1992) “Moving Managers to a Higher Plan of Performance” Business

Forum. Fall, pp. 5-6.

Smylie, M.A. and Conyers, J.G. (1991) “Changing Conceptions of Teaching Influence:

217
 the Future of Staff Development” Journal of Staff Development, vol. 12, no. 1,
pp. 12-17.

Storey, J. (1996) Blackwell Cases in Human Resource and Change Management. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishers.

Stoll, L. (1994) “School Effectiveness and Scholl Improvement: A Meeting of Two

Minds” in D.H. Hargreaves and D. and Hopkins (Eds.) Development Planning
For School Improvement. London: Cassel Villiers House, pp. 129-140.

Stoll, L. and Fink, D. (1996) Changing Our Schools. Buckingham: Open University
Press.

Tannen, D. (1990) You Just Don’t Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New
York: Bellantine Books.

Tichy, N., Fombrun, C. and Devanna, M. A. (1982) “Strategic Human Resource

Management” Sloane Management Review. Vol. 23, No. 2, Winter, pp.47-61.

Tomlinson, P. (1995) Understanding Mentoring: Reflecting Strategies For School-Based

Teacher Preparation. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Trethewey, A. (1997) “Organizational Culture” in P.Y. and Byers (Ed.) Organizational

Communication: Theory and Behavior. London: Allyn and Bacon, pp.203-234.

UCSC (2000-01) Guidelines: Administration of the University of California Santa Cruz

Merit-Based Pay Plans, [online]. Available at:
<http://www2.ucsc.edu/comp/merit/00guides.html> [Accessed 18 September
2001].

University of Wessex (1998) Appraisal in UK University, [online]: Available at:

218
 <www.bris.ac.uk/Depts/Sdev/Ph-appra.htm> [Accessed 15 July 1998].

Vecchio, R.P. (1995) Organizational Behavior. (3rd ed). Orlando: Dryden Press.

Weihrich, H. (1985) Management by Objectives: Productivity through MBO. New York:

McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Wilkin, M. (ed.) (1992) Mentoring Schools. London: Kogan Page.

Williams, M. and Burden, R.L. (1997) Psychology for Language Teachers: A Social
Constructivist Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Woods, P. (1990) Teacher Skills and Strategies. New York: Flamer.

Woodbume, S.L. (1958) Principles o f College and University Administration.

California: Stanford University Press.

Worrell, D. (1995) “The Learning Organization: Management Theory for the Information
Age or New Age Fad?” Journal of Academic Librarianship. vol. 21, no. 5,
pp. 351-357.

Wright, C.A., and Wright, S.D. (1987) “Young Professionals” Family Relations, vol.36,
no.2, pp. 204-8.

Yin, R.K. (1989) Case Study Research: Design and Methods (2nd ed.). Washington D.C.:
Cosmos.

Yinger, R. and Hendricks-Lee, M. (1993) “Working Knowledge in Teaching” in C. Day,

J. Calderhead, and P. Denicolo (Eds.) Research on Teacher Thinking. London:
Falmer Press.

219
Youngman, M.B. (1979) Analysing Social and Educational Research Data. London:
McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Zikmund, W.G. (1994) Business Research Methods (4th ed). New York: The Dryden
Press, Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

___________ (2000) Business Research Methods (5th ed). New York: The Dryden
Press, Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

220