Determination of the Effects of Temperature, on Thermal Radiation

The main objective of the study was to observe the effects of different parameters on the emission of thermal
radiation. The three parameters tested were temperature, view factor, and shielding. Radiation has various
applications in various industries such as in the medicinal field, in pollution prevention, in and the food industry.
The experimental value for the Stefan-Boltzmann constant was determined to be 2 x 10-9 W/m2-K, which is a
96.31% deviation from the literature value. The geometric effects in the form of the view factor were also studied.
A graph of the experimental view factor against the width between the two apertures used in the test was
constructed in the study. Lastly, the emissivity of Styrofoam, aluminium foil, and car insulation were determined
using the corrected Stefan-Boltzmann equation for grey bodies. The magnitudes of the values were 0.15, 0.03, and
0.12, respectively. Hence, it is concluded that the aluminium emits the lowest amount of heat, followed by the
insulation, and the Styrofoam. The experimental data can be improved by addressing the conditions of testing.
Aside from this, other parameters such as distance and observation of other industrially relevant materials can
improve the understanding of the theory and application.

Keywords: Thermal Radiation, Radiometer, Aluminium Foil, Styrofoam, Car Insulation

1 Introduction light, radio waves, etc.) Thermal radiation falling on
an object will be partly absorbed, partly reflected and
Heat exchangers are equipment used to transfer heat partly transmitted. The proportions depend primarily
from a hot phase to a cold phase. Chemical engineers on the characteristic of the receiver but temperature
utilize a variety of heat exchangers and all of these and wavelength of the radiation can also affect the
cannot characterized by one design. Heat Exchangers proportions to a lesser extent.
can be classified according to the mechanism of heat
transfer used. Shell Heat exchangers use conduction A black body is material assumed to absorb all
and convection while some heat exchangers use the incident radiation. It also emits radiation at the
mechanism of thermal radiation. maximum rate possible for any object with the equal
size and shape subjected to the same temperature.
Radiation heat transfer is the least understood Black bodies do not naturally occur in nature but
mechanism of heat transfer but it is explainable in some materials can be assumed to approach its perfect
terms of the dualistic theory. Radiation, is the mode of behavior (Foust, 1980).
energy transfer due to emission of photons and
transmission through electromagnetic waves. This The heat transfer by radiation can be described by the
mechanism of heat transfer does not require a medium Stefan-Boltzmann law showed below:
and can occur is vacuum conditions (Colorado State
University). Radiation interacts with matter and is
emitted and received as discrete particles called
qb = σ(Tr4 - Ts4) (1)
photons. As energy is emitted through photons, the
energy of the body decreases. This energy is then
transmitted with radiation having the property of an where qb is the rate of radiation emitted by a black
electromagnetic wave (Foust, 1980). body per unit area, Tr and Ts are the temperatures of
the radiator and the surroundings, respectively. The
All matter receive and give off energy in the form of proportionality constant σ is called the Stefan-
electromagnetic waves in various forms (e.g. thermal,
Boltzmann constant with a value of 5.67 x 10-8
W/m2K4. As mentioned before, a variety of chemical process
equipment used in different industries use radiation as
For a non-black body, the rate of absorption and mechanism for heat transfer. Examples of these are
emission will not be the same. For a black body, Steam Boilers, Rotary Kilns, Petroleum Plant Stills
and Blast Furnaces, which are widely used in
obtaining valuable metals from ores. It is therefore
important to understand the mechanism of how these
qsurroundings to black body = qblack body to surroundings = (2)
equipment work.
eb
Additionally, the materials used to study the effects of
where eb is the rate at which thermal energy is shielding are used in real life for different insulation
transferred to and from the black body. applications. Automotive insulations are installed to
prevent the heat generated in the engines from
For a non-black body reaching more sensitive parts of the automobile like
qsurroundings to body =eb (3a) the electrical wirings (Moretti et. al., 2015). Extruded
polystyrene foams (XPS), on the other hand are
qabsorbed by body = αeb (3b) commonly used as building insulations (in the roof,
floor and walls). However, due to the low thermal
qreflected by body = (1-α)eb (3c) stability and flammability of XPS insulation materials,
they can pose serious fire risks and have caused major
fire disasters before (Jiao & Sun, 2014). Aluminium
where α is the fraction of radiation absorbed by the is also commonly used as an insulator. Aluminium-air
body. If we define e as the rate of absorption of a non systems are effective insulators against radiation
black body, because of air’s low thermal conductivity and bright
e = αeb= ϵeb (4) aluminium’s low emissivity (Mason, 1933). Thus, it
α=ϵ is important to study how these materials act when
exposed to thermal radiation.
Equation 4 is known as the Kirchoff’s law. This
defines ϵ, which accounts for the difference between a 2 Materials and Methodology
real body and a black body. Therefore, for a non-
black body, 2.1 Materials and Apparatus

For this experiment, in order to facilitate the

qb = σϵ(Tr - Ts )
4 4
(5) conditions for proper observation of radiative effects,
the experiment was conducted inside a dark room. In
this room, a thermal radiation setup was prepared as
All the equations presented so far assumes that the shown in the figure below.
surface emitting heat sees only the surface receiving
heat (black/non-block body), all the radiation emitted
reached the receiving surface and none bounced back
to emitter. In real life, and in this experiment, this
condition cannot be assumed thus a geometric factor
which relates the energy that struck the receiver to the
total energy emitted (Foust, 1980).

This study was conducted observe the effects of the

source temperature, geometry (aperture width) and Figure 1: Thermal Radiation Setup
shielding (with aluminium foil, automotive insulation
and polystyrene foam) to the heat transfer by As can be seen, for the thermal radiation setup, a
radiation. transformer, heat source, black plate, radiometer, and
aperture plate were required. Aside from the thermal the radiometer shield being repeated for three trials
radiation setup, 5x5 sheets of aluminium foil, each.
Styrofoam, and roof insulation were also used.
C. Effect of Shielding
For radiometer setup, it must be noted that after every
voltage change and removal or reattachment of the The final parameter that was tested for this experiment
radiometer shield required approximately between 10- was the effect of shielding. The voltage of the setup
15 minutes. was first set to its maximum value. The aperture plates
were then removed while the holder was ensured to be
250 mm away from the heat source. The radiometer
2.2 Methodology was then attached to the radiometer before placing
A. Effect of Temperature Styrofoam sheet on the aperture plate holder. The
radiometer reading was then recorded as the zero
For the first part of the experiment, the effect of
offset. The radiometer shield was then removed and
temperature on thermal radiation was investigated.
the corresponding radiometer reading recorded. The
Initially, with the radiometer shield firmly placed on
procedure was then repeated for two additional trials.
the radiometer, the voltage was set to ¼ of the
The entire procedure was then repeated for both the
maximum voltage. Both temperature and radiometer
aluminium foil sheet and the insulation sheet.
readings were then recorded and were set as the zero
offset. The radiometer shield was then removed with
the radiometer reading now read once again. The 3 Results and Discussion
radiometer shield was then returned and the entire
process was repeated for two more trials. The entire As will be analysed in this portion of the paper, the
procedure was then repeated for ½ of the maximum the three parameters that were tested, temperature,
voltage, ¾ of the maximum voltage, and finally for aperture width, and shielding, all have a profound
the maximum voltage. effect on the thermal radiation emitted by a body.
Using the setup shown in Figure 1, it is possible to
B. Effect of Aperture Width obtain radiometer readings for the various cases of
For the second part of the experiment, the effect of varying parameters. However, before using this data
aperture width on thermal radiation was investigated. to determine the effects of thermal radiation, it is
Unlike with the earlier procedure, the radiometer important that an offset value first be determined. This
shield was first removed from the setup. The holder is equivalent to calibrating the device in order to
was then moved to ensure that it was 250 mm away lessen the effects of radiation readings due to other
from the heat source. The voltage level was then set to unnoticed parameters. Thus, the corrected radiometer
its maximum values wherein both temperature and reading can be determined as below:
radiometer readings were recorded. The aperture
plates were then attached and ensured to be upright 𝑞𝑞 (??)
and secured. The aperture plates were then adjusted so = 𝑞𝑞 − 𝑞𝑞
as to ensure no space or gap was situated between
them. The radiometer shield was then attached and the
corresponding radiometer reading was then recorded. where qc is the corrected radiometer reading, qr is the
The radiometer shield was then removed and the actual radiometer reading, and qo is the offset reading
corresponding radiometer reading was then once again obtained from reading the radiometer when attached
recorded. This step of attaching and removing the with the shield.
radiometer shield was then repeated for two more
trials. The aperture plates were then adjusted so that Using this corrected reading, it is now possible to
they were 10 mm apart and the process of attaching correlate experimental heat fluxes with the varying
and removing the radiometer shield was repeated for parameters that were tested. As expected, and based
three trials. This adjusting of the aperture plates was from the Stefan-Boltzmann law, temperature has a
repeated two additional times, again in additional 10 substantial effect on the amount of radiation emitted.
mm increments, with the attachment and removal of
 introduced a huge effect on the experimental value of
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
Possible sources of error for this experiment. thus
leading to a different value for the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant, are many. The first is that the dark room
itself could not be fully closed. This is due to the
socket being located outside of the room. As such, the
plug of the radiometer setup prevents the door from
fully closing. What this entails is that the stray light
from outside the room enters and therefore will affect
the radiation readings. In relation to this, the dark
Figure 1: Stefan-Boltzmann Fit of Trial 1 room itself is not fully dark. This is due to the
windows not being fully sealed allowing for the entry
of stray light. These two factors become even more of
a factor as the experiment was conducted in the
morning. As such, as the experiment proceeds and
time goes on, the intensity of the light from the sun
also increases.
Radiation may also not have been the only heat
transfer that occurred during the experiment. Firstly, it
is possible that conduction contributed a significant
factor to the loss of heat as the black plate could have
easily conducted heat away from itself and onto the
setup instead. This effect is further magnified if the
black plate itself is highly conductive. Secondly,
Figure 2: Stefan-Boltzmann Fit of Trial 2
convection may have been a significant factor as well.
Drafts, which may have entered the room either
through the open fan or through the slightly ajar door,
could have affected the heat flux and the readings
obtained.
Aside from the aforementioned sources of error, it is
also possible that the heat produced from the heat
source affected the ambient temperature as well. This
is to be expected as the experiment was conducted
over the course of five hours. Thus, even if the rate of
heat transfer between the air and heat source is to be
small, due to the amount of time the two were
exposed to one another, by thermal equilibrium, the
Figure 3: Stefan-Boltzmann Fit of Trial 3 air will still receive a portion of heat and thus
The data obtained shows that the radiative heat flux is experience an increase in temperature.
approximately proportional to the difference between Another explanation for the errors in the fitting of the
the temperature of the source with the temperature of data is that the view factor was not taken into account.
the surroundings when both are raised to the 4th For an ideal radiative set-up wherein the black body is
power. However, as can be seen, the linearity of all completely surrounded by the absorbing body, then
three graphs are below the recommended threshold of this can be safely ignored as the view factor would
0.99. In fact, the obtained experimental value of result in a value of one. However, this is not the case.
Stefan-Boltzmann obtained is approximately 2 x 10-9 As the radiometer is only able to absorb a certain
W/m2-K. As such, this represents a 96.31% deviation amount of the radiation emitted, as dictated by the
from the theoretical Stefan-Boltzmann constant value geometric relationship between the two, the view
of 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K. As such, experimental errors
factor needs to be accounted for. However,
determining the view factor can be a tedious task and
may necessitate the use of graphs or geometric
derivations. Related to this, the emissivity of the
material also needs to be accounted for. Although
approximated as a black body, the black plate is not
an actual black body and so it is not a perfect emitter.
Therefore, for more accurate results, it is important
that the true emissivity of the body be determined.
For the 2nd part of the experiment, the effect of
aperture width on thermal radiation was determined.
During this portion of the experiment, aperture width
Figure 6: Corrected Heat Flux vs Aperture Width of
was varied for a specific temperature. Variations in
Trial 3
heat flux recorded were then read.
As can be seen, increasing aperture width correlates
with increasing heat flux due to radiation. This can be
explained simply as an effect of the mechanism of
heat transfer. As radiation travels and hits a particular
object, a portion of the radiation is absorbed,
transmitted, reflected. When the object itself comes to
emit a portion of the absorbed radiation, its emissivity
thus ensures the amount that will be received by the
succeeding body, in this case the radiometer.
A second perspective is to think of it in terms of view
factors. If an object is blocking the path of the
radiation, then less of the radiation will hit the desired
Figure 4: Corrected Heat Flux vs Aperture Width of object. However, if one were to open an opening, an
Trial 1 aperture, then more of the radiation is able to reach
the radiometer. The view factor, as mentioned
previously, can be determined in many ways. One of
these ways is to use heat flux data obtained. Assuming
that the Stefan-Boltzmann law applies and that the
black plate is a perfect black body, then the following
expression can be obtained.

𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞(𝑞4𝑞 − 𝑞4𝑞 ) (??)

where qc is the corrected heat flux, F is the view
factor, 𝜎is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, Tr is the
recorded temperature of the black body and Ts is the
temperature of the surroundings. (Cengel and Ghajar,
Figure 5: Corrected Heat Flux vs Aperture Width of 2015)
Trial 2
It is then possible to obtain experimental values for
the view factor using the obtained experimental
Stefan-Boltzmann constant as shown below:
 Material Experimental Theoretical
Emissivity Emissivity

Aluminum Foil 0.03 0.04

Car Insulation 0.12 0.10

Styrofoam 0.15 0.60

Theoretically, the emissivity of aluminium foil, car

insulation, and Styrofoam are approximately 0.04,
Figure 7: Average View Factor vs Aperture Width 0.10, and 0.60 respectively. (Infrared-Thermography)
(The Engineering Toolbox) (Reflectix Inc.) Slight
Although seemingly linear, the lack of data points and deviations are present for aluminium foil and car
the many possible sources of error as stated previously insulation theoretical values but the value for
means that a linear trend cannot be completely Styrofoam is noticeably much different. The
concluded. However, as a general trend based on assumption that view factor is equal to one may be a
experimental information gathered, it would seem that faulty assumption in this case. Another possible
the aperture is linearly proportional to the radiative reason for the error is the difference in thicknesses of
heat flux up until a certain point, in this case 40 mm, the materials with Styrofoam being noticeably much
where it begins to taper off and begins to resemble a thicker than the other measured materials. Aside from
more logarithmic trend. However, this must be proven this, it is important to note that emissivity is a function
via further experimentation. Furthermore, the view of material, manufacturing, and temperature and so
factor at 50 mm exceeds the limiting value of one so the same type of material may exhibit different
errors and assumptions during experimentation, such emissivity at different conditions.
as assuming a perfect black body, cannot be neglected
and must be fixed in future iterations of the
experiment. 4 Conclusion and Recommendation
As the last part of the experiment, the relationship The experiment was largely focused on observing the
between shielding and heat flux was determined. varying parameters which affect the thermal radiation
Unlike with aperture width, the material type has no emitted by a body. More specifically, the parameters
effect on view factor as view factor is a purely were effect of temperature, aperture width, and
geometric parameter. However, what it does have an shielding. The Stefan-Boltzmann constant was
effect on is the emissivity. Each material has its own calculated from the plot of the difference between the
emissivity. By assuming that view factor is temperature of the surroundings and the temperature
approximately equal to one, this emissivity can be of the source, raised to the fourth power versus the
determined in much the same way as with the corrected thermal radiation. The value was determined
determination of view factor with the equation being to be 2 x 10-9 W/m2-K, which is a 96.31% deviation
slightly modified to change view factor into from the literature value.
emissivity, 𝜖 .
The second part of the experiment was concerned with
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞(𝑞4𝑞 − 𝑞4𝑞 ) (??) the effect of the view factor on radiation. Essentially,
the apertures reduced the thermal radiation which
reached the radiometer because of its own interception
of the heat flux. Based on the version of the Stefan-
Using the above equation and the experimental
Boltzmann equation, which takes into account the
Stefan-Boltzmann constant calculated, the emissivity
geometric quantity corresponding to the fraction of
of the different materials were calculated as follows
radiation intercepted, the experimental view factor for
Table 1: Experimentally Determined Emissivity each system can be read from the graph produced.
Lastly, the emissivity of three materials were
compared against each other. Emissivity is the ratio of
the radiation emitted by a body over the radiation Mason, R. (1933). Thermal Insulation with
emitted by a black body at the same temperature. Aluminium Foil. Ind. Eng. Chem., 25 (3), 245–
Using the Stefan-Boltzmann law with the emissivity 255. doi: 10.1021/ie50279a002
correction factor for grey bodies, the experimental Moretti, J.P. et al. (2015). Recycling scrap automotive
value was determined for Styrofoam, aluminium foil, heat shield insulation material. doi:
and car insulation as 0.15, 0.03, and 0.12, 10.1007/s10163-013-0222-x
respectively. For aluminium foil and insulation, the The Engineering Toolbox. (n.d.). Emissivity
calculated magnitudes were relatively similar to the Coefficient of some Common Materials
literature data; however, the data Styrofoam resulted Reflectix Inc. (n.d.). Reflective Technology
in skewed values in comparison. This is likely due to Performance Information
the errors occurred during the trials along with the
different testing conditions.

For the most part, the experiment was able to describe

the effects of the different parameters on the thermal
radiation emission. However, for subsequent
experiments, it is important that the errors present
during this set-up be avoided. As such, a more
appropriate dark room is recommended to avoid stray
radiation from affecting the results. It is also
recommended that the room have proper non-
convective temperature control so as to prevent
changes in ambient temperature thus ensuring a better
quality set of trials. For further experimentation, it is
also recommended that different materials with
significant industrial and commercial applications,
such as glass panes for windows or textiles for
clothing apparel, be studied in order to develop newer
and better products in more diverse fields. Another
recommendation is to determine the effects of
distance on the radiation absorbed. This can help in
obtaining the heat and radiative properties of different
absorbers and emitters.

References
Cengel Y, Ghajar A. (2015). Heat and Mass Transfer:
Fundamentals & Applications. 5th ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Colorado State University, Walter Scott Jr. College of
Engineering. (n.d.). Heat Transfer Mechanisms.
https://www.engr.colostate.edu/~allan/heat_trans
/page4/page4f.html
Foust, A. S. (1980). Principles of unit operations. New
York: Wiley.
Infrared-Thermography (n.d.) Emissivity Values for
Common Materials
Jiao, L., & Sun, J. (2014). A Thermal Degradation
Study of Insulation Materials Extruded
Polystyrene. Procedia Engineering, 71, 622-
628.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.04.089