CHAPTER

Changing Cultural Traditions in Europe 1300-1800

12
The Medieval World in Europe
During the ancient period, Europe was dominated by the Roman Empire which
controlled much of Europe, Turkey and Egypt for a long time. Great cities like
Rome and Alexandria flourished. The culture that had been developed in Greece
and Rome - the sculpture, painting, buildings as well as literature, philosophy and
science was of a very high order. When the Roman Empire declined after 400 AD,
there were no large empires in Western Europe. The cities too had declined and
most people lived in villages. Trade was minimal. Europe came to be dominated by
a social system called Feudalism. Under feudalism, political power was with large
warrior-landlords who controlled the villages and peasants. The peasants were
mostly 'serfs' who were bound to their lords and had to till the lands of the lords,
work in their workshop and also fight for them in wars. They also had their own
lands and sustained their families by working on them too. The lords were constantly
at war with each other and this created a lot of insecurity for the peasants. Culture
of people came to be dominated by the Roman Catholic Church which emphasised
adherence to Christian faith. It discouraged people from thinking for themselves
and asked them to believe what the priests told them. The great cultural achievements
of the Ancient period were forgotten and lost.
This situation began to change after 1300 AD. The peasants had begun to resist
and fight against serfdom and control of the lords and the Church. For example,
there was a great revolt of the peasants in England in 1381 which ended serfdom in
England. Similar movements were taking place in other countries too. The control
of the lords and the church over people had begun to change and people enjoyed
more freedom. Long distance trade
between European countries and Periods in European History
China, Arabia, India and Egypt was
reviving and many new towns and Ancient Period - upto 400 AD
cities sprung up in Europe where Medieval Period - 400 AD to 1300 AD
traders and artisans lived. Many of Early Modern Period - 1300 to 1800 AD
these cities were politically Modern Period - 1800 to present
independent and ruled themselves Note that these are rough dates.
through municipalities. Different historians may use different dates.

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 A new cultural movement began to develop in Europe which is called
Renaissance or rebirth. People began to go beyond the limits set by religious priests
and raised new questions and found
new ways of answering those
questions. Traders and adventurers You have read about the zamindari system and
set out on long voyages to find out vetti in Hyderabad state in Class VIII.
new routes and lands. New trends Compare it with 'serfdom' in Europe.
in art, painting, sculpture and How do you think trade helps in the
literature developed. Science too development of towns?
developed rapidly. People also
started questioning religious Do you think there is a greater possibility of
authorities and wanted to find knowing new ideas and trying out new things
simpler and direct ways of in towns rather than villages? Discuss.
reaching God. We will study in
detail about all this in this chapter.
Renaissance
There is a vast amount of material on European history from the fourteenth
century - documents, printed books, paintings, sculptures, buildings, textiles. Much
of this has been carefully preserved in archives, art galleries and museums in Europe
and America. Historians study these to understand what was happening and how and
why they happened.
From the nineteenth century, historians used the term 'Renaissance' to describe
the cultural changes of this period. The historian who emphasised these most was
a Swiss scholar - Jacob Burckhardt (1818-97) of Switzerland. In 1860, he wrote a
book called 'The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy', in which he called his
readers' attention to literature, architecture and painting to tell the story of how a
new 'humanist' culture had
flowered in Italian towns In the view of Burckhardt, which of these would
from the fourteenth to the
be associated with modern view and which would
seventeenth century. This
be medieval view?
culture, he wrote, was
characterised by a new belief Faith in the ability of human beings to know and
- that man, as an individual, decide for themselves
was capable of making his Faith in the Religious books and priests
own decisions and developing Faith in divine revelation
his skills. He was 'modern', in
Faith in human reason
contrast to 'medieval' man
whose thinking had been
controlled by the Church.

144 Social Studies Changing Cultural Traditions in Europe 1300-1800

The Revival of Italian Cities

With the
expansion of trade
between the
Byzantine Empire
and the Islamic
countries, the ports
on the Italian coast
revived. From the
twelfth century, as
the Mongols opened
up trade with China
and as trade with
western European
countries also
increased, Italian
towns played a
central role. They no
longer saw
themselves as part of
a powerful empire,
but as independent
city states. Two of
these - Florence and
Venice - were
republics, and many
others were court
Map 1: The Italian States.
cities, ruled by
princes.
One of the most vibrant cities was Venice, another was Genoa. They were
different from other parts of Europe - the clergy were not politically dominant
here, nor were there powerful feudal
lords. Rich merchants and bankers Locate Republics and three court
actively participated in governing the cities on the out line map of Italy.
city, and this helped the idea of
citizenship to strike root. Even when
Clergy: Members of the Church - the
these towns were ruled by military
priests, bishops, cardinals and the Pope
despots, the pride felt by the towns
people in being citizens did not weaken.

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Humanism and Universities
The literature of the ancient Greeks had reflected an interest in life. They had
been vitally interested in the world in which they lived. Later, students of the ancient
Greek literature, which dealt with the nature and interests of man, were called
Humanists. They became interested in this world rather than in a future life as the
scholars of the Middle Ages had been. Everything in nature, science, and the arts
that affected man now was important to the Humanists.
In 1453, Constantinople was overthrown, and the Turkish, or Ottoman Empire
took the place of the Eastern Roman Empire. Many of the educated men who spoke
Greek fled to Italy for safety. Some of them brought their Greek books with them.
This increased interest among Italians in the ancient Greek Literature and language
so that it became quite the fashion in Italy to know a little Greek.
Humanism started in Italy but soon spread into France, England, and the
Netherlands. Universities were established to teach new subject-law and religions.
Educated men became interested. One of the greatest of these was the Dutchman
Erasmus (1466-1536). He studied earnestly the New Testament in the original
Greek and the writings of the early Greek Christians. He criticised some of the
beliefs of the Church, which he said were based on superstition, in his book, Praise
of Folly. During the Renaissance, the
humanist scholars acquired the books
Who were the humanists, what did they
from the Arabs and retranslated them
teach?
into Greek and Latin and studied them.
Artists and Realism
The Humanist ideas extended to art and architecture too. In the sphere of visual
arts like painting and sculpture this took the form of 'realism'. Artists observed
nature, the people and places around them and sought to represent them as they
were. This was very different from the spirit of the religious art promoted by the
Church in the feudal times. The religious art emphasised religious themes and
depicting people and things according to some ideal forms. Art was supposed to
represent those ideals and not the reality around them. Now the artists of
Renaissance began to portray themes from around them, from Greek and Roman
literature which showed the feelings, power and strength of human beings. One
implication of this trend was to study the real world of nature and human beings.
Artists also began to study remains of Roman culture - their buildings, sculpture
etc. Their admiration for the figures of 'perfectly' proportioned men and women
sculpted so many centuries ago, made Italian sculptors want to continue that
tradition. In 1416, Donatello(1386-1466) broke new ground with his lifelike statues.
Artists' concern to be accurate was helped by the work of scientists. To study bone

146 Social Studies Changing Cultural Traditions in Europe 1300-1800

 structures, artists went to the laboratories of medical schools. Andreas Vesalius
(1514-64), a Belgian and a professor of medicine at the University of Padua, was
the first to dissect the human body. This was the beginning of modern physiology.
"Art" is embedded in nature; he who can extract it, has it… The
more closely your work abides by life in its form, so much the
better will it appear…No man shall ever be able to make a beautiful
figure out of his own imagination unless he has well stored his
mind by much copying from life.' - Albrecht Durer (1471-1528)

This sketch by Durer (Praying Hands) gives us a sense of Italian culture

in the sixteenth century, when people were deeply religious, but also
had a sense of confidence in man's ability to achieve near-perfection
and to unravel the mysteries of the world and the universe.

Many artists like Leonardo da

Vinci studied human anatomy
so as to make their painting and
sculpture realistic.
Painters found that
knowledge of geometry
helped them understand
perspective, and that by noting
the changing quality of light,
their pictures acquired a three
dimensional quality.
Perspective - a way of
depicting different things on
a painting so that we can feel
the depth in the painting.
This is done by showing
objects in front as larger and
objects behind as smaller.
The use of oil paint as a
medium for painting also gave
a greater richness of colour to
Fig. 12. 1: The statue ‘The Pieta’ by Michelangelo depicts
Mary holding the body of Jesus. paintings than before. In the
colours and designs of costumes in many paintings, there is evidence of the influence
of Chinese and Persian art. Thus, anatomy, geometry, physics, as well as a strong
sense of what was beautiful, gave a new quality to Italian art, which was to be called
'realism' and which continued till the nineteenth century.
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 The Church too now Leonardo da Vinci (1452-
encouraged the new art. 1519) had an amazing range of
Popes and other leaders interests from botany and
of the Church anatomy to mathematics and art.
commissioned great He painted the Mona Lisa (on
artists like Michelangelo left) and The Last Supper. One of
and Raphael to paint for his dreams was to be able to fly.
them and also design He spent years observing birds
buildings for them and in flight, and designed a flying
even make elaborate machine. He signed his name
graves and memorials for 'Leonardo da Vinci, disciple of
them. experiment'.
Architecture
The city of Rome revived in a spectacular way in the fifteenth century. The
Popes actively encouraged the study of Rome’s history. They studied the ruins of
old Roman buildings to revive the old Roman style which used tall pillars, arches
and domes in buildings. This inspired a ‘new’ style in architecture, which was actually
a revival of the imperial Roman style – now called ‘classical’. Popes, wealthy
merchants and aristocrats employed architects who were familiar with classical
architecture. Artists and sculptors were also to decorate buildings with paintings,
sculptures and reliefs. Another remarkable change was that from this time, artists
were known individually, by name, not as members of a group or a guild, as earlier.

Fig. 12.2: St Peter’s Square, Rome and the basicilca. This Church and the court in front of it
was designed by several artists including Michealngelo and Bernini. This uses many
architectural ideas from Ancient Rome.
Some individuals were skilled equally as painters, sculptors and architects.
The most impressive example is Michelangelo
Describe the different
(1475-1564) – immortalised by the ceiling he
scientific elements in the
painted for the Pope in the Sistine Chapel, the
work of sixteenth century
sculpture called ‘The Pieta’ and his design of
Italian artists. the dome of St Peter’s Church, all in Rome.

148 Social Studies Changing Cultural Traditions in Europe 1300-1800

 Filippo Brunelleschi (1337-1446), the architect who designed the spectacular
Duomo of Florence, had started his career as a sculptor. Italian architecture in the
sixteenth century copied many features of imperial Roman buildings.

The Printing Press

If people in other countries wanted to see paintings,
sculptures or buildings of great artists, they had to travel to Italy.
But in the case of the written word, what was written in Italy
travelled to other countries. This was because of the greatest
revolution of the sixteenth century – the mastery of the
technology of printing. For this, Europeans were indebted to
other people - the Chinese, who first developed paper and
printing with blocks.
Earlier, texts existed in a few hand-written copies. In 1455,
150 copies of the Bible were printed in the workshop of
Johannes Gutenberg Johannnes Gutenberg (1400-1458), the German who made the
first printing press. Earlier, a monk would have taken the same amount of time to
write out one copy of the Bible!
By 1500, many classical texts, nearly all in Latin, had been printed in Italy. As
printed books became available, it was possible to buy them, and students did not
have to depend solely on lecture-notes. Ideas, opinions and information moved
more widely and more rapidly than ever before. A printed book promoting new
ideas could quickly reach hundreds of readers. This also made it possible for
individuals to read books, since it was possible to buy copies for oneself. This
developed the reading habit among
There was no printing press in India during the people. The chief reason that the
same period. Let us suppose Krishnadeva Raya humanist culture of Italy spread
wrote a book. How do you think it would have more rapidly in Northern and
reached scholars in different parts of India? Western Europe from the end of
What do you think would have been the the fifteenth century is that printed
books were circulating. This also
reaction of kings and priests to the Printing
explains why earlier intellectual
Press? Would they have welcomed it or would
movements had been limited to
they have been worried by it?
particular regions.

A New Concept of Human Beings

One of the features of humanist culture was a weakening of the control of
religion over human life. Italians were strongly attracted to material wealth, power
and glory, but they were not necessarily irreligious. They considered the acquisition
of power, wealth and bodily pleasure as desirable and not something to be avoided.

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 There was also a concern at this time with good
manners – how one should speak politely and dress
correctly, what skills a person of culture should learn.
Humanism also implied that individuals were capable of
shaping their own lives through means other than the mere
pursuit of power and money. This ideal was closely tied
with the belief that human nature was many-sided.
Niccolo Machiavelli wrote a book on politics for
rulers of his times. He did not try to advice the rulers
about religious ideals of ruling but how real politics
functioned in society. He studied real human beings and
their actual political life. Statue of David by
Michelangelo

The Renaissance was considered a New Age, because people considered it

proper to pursue pleasure, seek wealth and comfort and also act in self interest.
This was in contrast to teachings of religions that one should not act in self
interest and forsake comfort and wealth. Do you agree with this view point of
the Renaissance humanists?

Scholars like Machiavelli began a study of human society as they were instead
of trying to just say what an ideal society should be like. Since they felt that human
beings were motivated by self interest, they studied self interest of people and how
it could be used.
The Aspirations of Women
The new ideal of individuality and citizenship excluded women. Men from
aristocratic families dominated public life and were the decision-makers in their
families. They educated their sons to take their place in family businesses or in
public life, at times sending their younger sons to join the Church. Although their
dowries were invested in the family businesses, women generally had no say in
how their husbands should run their business. Often, marriages were intended to
strengthen business alliances. If an adequate dowry could not be arranged, daughters
were sometimes sent to convents to live the life of a nun. Obviously, the public
role of women was limited and they were looked upon as keepers of the households.
The position of women in the families of merchants, however, was somewhat
different. Shopkeepers were very often assisted by their wives in running the shop.
In families of merchants and bankers, wives looked after the businesses when the
male members were away on work. The early death of a merchant compelled his
widow to perform a larger public role than was the case in aristocratic families.

150 Social Studies Changing Cultural Traditions in Europe 1300-1800

 A few women were intellectually very creative and sensitive about the
importance of humanist education. 'Even though the study of literature promises
and offers no reward for women and no dignity, every woman ought to seek and
embrace these studies' wrote the Venetian Cassandra
Fedele (1465-1558). She was one of a handful of
women who questioned the idea that women were
incapable of achieving the qualities of a humanist
scholar. Fedele was known for her proficiency in
Greek and Latin, and was invited to give orations at
the University of Padua.
Fedele's writings bring into focus the general
regard for education in that age. She was one of many
Venetian women writers who criticised the republic
'for creating a highly limited definition of freedom
that favoured the desires of men over those of
women'.
Another remarkable woman was the Marchesa
of Mantua, Isabella d'Este (1474-1539). She ruled
the state while her husband was absent, and the court
of Mantua, a small state, was famed for its
Isabella d'Este intellectual brilliance. Women's writings revealed
In what way do you think women of their conviction that they should have
those times have benefitted from economic power, property and education to
studying Greek and Roman books? achieve an identity in a world dominated by
men.

Debates within Christianity (Reformation)

Trade and travel, military conquest and diplomatic contacts linked Italian towns
and courts with the world beyond. The new culture was admired and imitated by the
educated and the wealthy. Very few of the new ideas filtered down to the ordinary
man who, after all, could not read or write.
You had seen earlier that the Church had dominated the religious and cultural
life of people in medieval times. In this process it had become very powerful and
rich and also corrupt. Humanist scholars began attacking this and questioning the
need for a priesthood and its interpretation of Christianity.
In the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, many scholars in universities in
north Europe and members of the Church too were attracted to humanist ideas.
Like their Italian colleagues, they too focused on classical Greek and Roman texts
along with the holy books of the Christians. In northern countries, the humanist
members of the Church called on Christians to practise religion in the way laid
down in the ancient texts of their religion, discarding unnecessary rituals, which
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they condemned as later additions to a simple religion.
Theirs was a radically new view of human beings as free
and rational agents. Later philosophers were to return
to this over and over again, inspired by the belief in a
distant God who created man but allowed him complete
freedom to live his life freely, in pursuit of happiness
'here and now'. Christian humanists like Thomas More
(1478 -1535) in England and Erasmus (1466-1536) in
Holland felt that the Church had become an institution
marked by greed, extorting money at will from ordinary
people. One of the favourite methods of the clergy was
to sell 'indulgences', documents which apparently freed
the buyer from the burden of the sins he had committed.
Christians came to realise from printed translations of
the Bible in local languages that their religion did not
permit such practices. Holbein-Erasmus

The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries : A Time line

1516 Thomas More's Utopia published 1569 Gerhardus Mercator prepares

1517 Martin Luther writes the Ninety-Five cylindrical map of the earth
Theses 1582 Gregorian calendar introduced by
1522 Luther translates the Bible into German Pope Gregory XIII
1628 William Harvey links the heart with
1525 Peasant uprising in Germany
blood circulation
1543 Andreas Vesalius writes on Anatomy
1673 Academy of Sciences set up in
1559 Anglican Church estabished in England, Paris
with the king/queen as its head 1687 Isaac Newton's Principia
Mathematica published

In almost every part of Europe, peasants began to rebel against the taxes imposed
by the Church. While the common folk resented the extortions of churchmen,
princes found their interference in the work of the state irritating.
In 1517, a young German monk called Martin Luther (1483-1546) launched a
campaign against the Catholic Church and argued that a person did not need priests
to establish contact with God. He asked his followers to have complete faith in
God, for faith alone could guide them to the right life and entry into heaven. This
movement - called the Protestant Reformation - led to the churches in Germany
and Switzerland breaking their connection with the Pope and the Catholic Church.
In Switzerland, Luther's ideas were popularised by Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)

152 Social Studies Changing Cultural Traditions in Europe 1300-1800

 and later by Jean Calvin (1509-1564). Backed by merchants, the reformers had
greater popular appeal in towns, while in rural areas the Catholic Church managed
to retain its influence. Other German reformers, like the Anabaptists, were even
more radical: they blended the idea of salvation with the end of all forms of social
oppression. They said that since God had created all people as equal, they were not
expected to pay taxes and had the right to choose their priests. This appealed to
peasants oppressed by feudalism.
A major achievement of the reformists was to translate the Bible into the
popular languages of the people and printing large quantities and making them
available to all people. Earlier Bible was only in Latin which ordinary people did
not understand.
The ideas of Reformation took hold of many people in Germany, Holland,
France and England. In all these countries people with diverse faith or
interpretations of Christianity emerged. Thus the monopoly of the Catholic Church
was for ever broken.
The Catholic Church itself did not escape the impact of these ideas, and began
to reform itself from within. In Spain and in Italy, churchmen emphasised the need
for a simple life and service to the
What were the issues on which the poor. In Spain, Ignatius Loyola, in an
Protestants criticised the Catholic Church? attempt to combat Protestantism, set
up the Society of Jesus in 1540. His
Do you see any similarity between the
followers were called Jesuits, whose
Bhakti movement in India and the Protestant
mission was to serve the poor and to
movement? Do you also see any
widen their knowledge of other
differences between the two of them? cultures.
Beginning of the Modern Science
The Middle Ages had accepted as authority the knowledge of the past handed
down from former generations. Most men were not interested in investigating the
world in which they lived. The few who were interested used strange mixtures of
magic and superstition. But Roger Bacon was a serious searcher for truth. He
performed some experiments with metals and chemicals and probably had a crude
microscope. He worked out theroies that suggested the practical usefulness of
many inventions that have since been made, including steamships, automobiles
and airplanes. Despite Bacon’s work, the true scientific spirit did not develop until
late in the Renaissance.
Long after Roger Bacon, a Polish astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-
1543), made use of the scientific method. He built an observatory from which he
patiently studied the heavens. He concluded that the old theory of the universe was
wrong. This theory, taught by the Hellenistic geographer Ptolemy said that the
earth is the center of the universe and the stars, sun, and planets revolve around

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it.Copernicus claimed that the earth is one of a number of planets that revolve
around the sun. The Church rejected the new theory as contrary to the teachings of
the Bible and the Church. It seemed
to rob man of his dignity because
he was no longer in the very heart
of a universe that had been made
for him.
Galileo (1564-1642), an
Italian genius, perfected a
telescope that made it possible for
him to see a ship fifty miles away
as clearly as though it were only five
miles away. This instrument also
aided in the study of astronomy.
Galileo was a very popular and
brilliant lecturer and writer.
Discussing the theories of
Copernicus, he told his audiences
how he himself had seen the moons Fig. 12.3: Galileo expalining his theories of
universe with telescope.
of Jupiter and the revolution of the
planet on its axis. For this work he was summoned to appear before a Church court,
where he was compelled to take back all his teachings or suffer long imprisonment
and probably torture. It is said that as he left the trail he was heard to mutter, “But
the earth does move.” Galileo also discovered
certain laws of the pendulum which made it Who were the chief Renaissance
possible to develop more satisfactory clocks. scientists, and what work did each
In experiments from the Learning Tower of Pisa of them contribute to science?
he proved that heavy and light objects fall at
the same speed.
Explorations of sea routes
During the Renaissance, Europeans extended their limited knowledge of
Geography. There were several reasons for this. The compass and the astrolabe,
which helped sailors the direction they were going and their location, had been
invented. Ships were improved so that they were more seaworthy. The more
thoughtful sailors now doubted that they would fall off the edge of the earth if they
went too far out to sea. Better maps were made for their guidance, too.
Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks in 1453 and the trade routes between
the West and East were closed. All these conditions stimulated an interest in
geography and willingness, sometimes even an eagerness, to explore the new sea
routes.

154 Social Studies Changing Cultural Traditions in Europe 1300-1800

 Map 2: Geographical explorations.

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 The navigators of Portugal and Spain played an important part in the
geographical explorations. Prince Henry the navigator of Portugal discovered a
sea route to western coast of Africa. Finally, Bartholomew Diaz, a very able
Portuguese navigator sailed around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern most
point of Africa. Vasco Da Gama went around Africa and landed in Calicut, India in
1498. India had finally been reached by sailing around the vast African continent.
Christopher Columbus determined to find new route to the east. He
believed that the eastern shores of Asia lay across the dark Atlantic, and so he set
out with three small ships to get there. After a long, dangerous voyage, Columbus
reached land on an island on October 12, 1492. He thought he had reached the
East Indies and called the natives, Indians. Amerigo Vespucci an Italian sailor,
followed Columbus. He confirmed that the new world discovered (America) by
Columbus was quite different from Asia.
Ferdinand Magellan a sailor of Spain made the voyage round the world with
the help of Spanish King Charles I. He crossed the Atlantic, went around the
southern tip of South America and sailing
through the straits, he reached the Pacific Read the map 2 and prepare a list
Ocean and landed at the Islands of Philippines. of exlplorations of sea routes.
This voyage was great landmark in the history
of exploration of the sea routes.
Was there a European 'Renaissance' in the Fourteenth Century?
Let us now reconsider the concept of the 'Renaissance'. Can we see this period
as marking a sharp break with the past and the rebirth of ideas from Greek and
Roman traditions? Was the earlier period (twelfth and thirteenth centuries) a time
of darkness?
Recent writers, like Peter Burke of England, have suggested that Burckhardt
was exaggerating the sharp difference between this period and the one that preceded
it, by using the term 'Renaissance', which implies that the Greek and Roman
civilisations were reborn at this time, and that scholars and artists of this period
substituted the pre-Christian world-view for the Christian one. Both arguments
were exaggerated. Scholars in earlier centuries had been familiar with Greek and
Roman cultures, and religion continued to be a very important part of people's
lives.
To contrast the Renaissance as a period of dynamism and artistic creativity,
and the Middle Ages as a period of gloom and lack of development is an over-
simplification. Many elements associated with the Renaissance in Italy can be
traced back to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It has been suggested by some
historians that in the ninth century in France, there had been similar literary and
artistic blossoming.

156 Social Studies Changing Cultural Traditions in Europe 1300-1800

 The cultural changes in Europe at this time were not shaped just by the 'classical'
civilisation of Rome and Greece. The archaeological and literary recovery of Roman
culture did create a great admiration of that civilisation. But technologies and skills
in Asia had moved far ahead of what the Greeks and Romans had known. Much
more of the world had become connected, and the new techniques of navigation
enabled people to sail much further than had been possible earlier. The expansion
of Islam and the Mongol conquests had linked Asia and North Africa with Europe,
not politically but in terms of trade and of learning skills. The Europeans learned
not just from the Greeks and Romans, but from India, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia and
China. These debts were not acknowledged for a long time because when the history
of this period started to be written, historians saw it from a Europe-centred
viewpoint.
An important change that did happen in this period was that gradually the 'private'
and the 'public' spheres of life began to become separate: the 'public' sphere meant
the area of government and of formal religion; the 'private' sphere included the
family and personal religion. The individual had a private as well as a public role.
He was not simply a member of one of the 'three orders'; he was also a person in
his own right. An artist was not just a member of a guild, he was known for himself.
In the eighteenth century, this sense of the individual would be expressed in a
political form, in the belief that all individuals had equal political rights.
Another development was that the different regions of Europe started to have
their separate sense of identity, based on language. Europe, earlier united partly by
the Roman Empire and later by Latin and Christianity, was now dissolving into
nation states, each united by a common language.
Key words
1. Feudalism 2. Serfs 3. Renaissance 4. Humanism
5. Realism 6. Reformation 7. Protestant

Improve your learning

1. Discussion on Renaissance in this chapter was mostly in the context of
_______ (England/Italy/France/Germany)
2. Write a sentence or phrase about the changes in ideas listed below during
Renaissance.
a. Humanists: from ________ to ___________
b. Books: from ____________ to ___________
c. Paintings: from ___________ to ____________
d. Human beings: from ___________ to ___________-
e. Women: from _____________ to ____________

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 3. How did printing of the Bible influence the ideas about God and Church?
4. Compare the modren Italian towns with that of the Medival towns. Do you notice
any changes in their present names?
5. Which elements of Greek and Roman culture were revived in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries?
6. Why were Italian towns the first to experience the ideas of humanism?
7. What were the features of humanist thought?
8. The following graph indicates the increase in book production. What can you tell
about it?

9. Do you agree with the following statement; "Printed books continue to dominate
our lives" Give reasons for your answer.
10. Write an account of how the world appeared different to seventeenth century
Europeans.
11. Mention two outstanding features of the renaissance architecture.

Project
1. Collect pictures of great Renaissance artists and prepare an album.
2. Prepare a play on debate between Galileo and a priest who did not believe that the
earth went around the sun.
3. Study the various ways in which we use products of the printing press today and
prepare a detailed report.

158 Social Studies Changing Cultural Traditions in Europe 1300-1800