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Chapter 3 Drag and Lift

This document discusses boundary layers under different pressure gradients. It states that a favorable pressure gradient occurs when the outer flow accelerates, thinning the boundary layer and reducing separation risk. An unfavorable or adverse pressure gradient happens when the outer flow decelerates, thickening the boundary layer and increasing separation likelihood. Examples are given of boundary layer separation in adverse pressure gradients for an airplane wing and diffuser.

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Ahmad Izzuddin
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158 views

Chapter 3 Drag and Lift

This document discusses boundary layers under different pressure gradients. It states that a favorable pressure gradient occurs when the outer flow accelerates, thinning the boundary layer and reducing separation risk. An unfavorable or adverse pressure gradient happens when the outer flow decelerates, thickening the boundary layer and increasing separation likelihood. Examples are given of boundary layer separation in adverse pressure gradients for an airplane wing and diffuser.

Uploaded by

Ahmad Izzuddin
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradients

When the flow in the inviscid and/or


irrotational outer flow region (outside of the
boundary layer) accelerates, U(x) increases and
P(x) decreases.
We refer to this as a favorable pressure
gradient.
It is favorable or desirable because the
boundary layer in such an accelerating flow is
usually thin, hugs closely to the wall, and
therefore is not likely to separate from the
wall.
When the outer flow decelerates, U(x)
decreases, P(x) increases, and we have an
unfavorable or adverse pressure gradient.
Boundary layers with nonzero pressure As its name implies, this condition is not
gradients occur in both external flows and desirable because the boundary layer is usually
internal flows: (a) boundary layer
thicker, does not hug closely to the wall, and is
developing along the fuselage of an
airplane and into the wake, and (b) much more likely to separate from the wall.
boundary layer growing on the wall of a
diffuser (boundary layer thickness 1
exaggerated in both cases).
The boundary layer along a body
immersed in a free stream is
typically exposed to a favorable
pressure gradient in the front
portion of the body and an
adverse pressure gradient in the
rear portion of the body.

The closed streamline indicates a region of recirculating flow called a separation bubble.

Examples of boundary layer separation in regions of adverse pressure gradient: (a) an


airplane wing at a moderate angle of attack, (b) the same wing at a high angle of attack (a
stalled wing), and (c) a wide-angle diffuser in which the boundary layer cannot remain
attached and separates on one side. 2
3
■ DRAG AND LIFT
• A body meets some resistance when it is
forced to move through a fluid, especially
a liquid.
• A fluid may exert forces and moments on
a body in and about various directions.
• Drag: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a
body in the flow direction.
• The drag force can be measured directly
by simply attaching the body subjected to
fluid flow to a calibrated spring and
measuring the displacement in the flow
direction. High winds knock down trees,
• Drag is usually an undesirable effect, like power lines, and even people as a
friction, and we do our best to minimize it. result of the drag force.
• But in some cases drag produces a very
beneficial effect and we try to maximize it
(e.g., automobile brakes).

4
Lift: The components of the pressure and wall shear
forces in the direction normal to the flow tend to move
the body in that direction, and their sum is called lift.
The fluid forces may generate moments and cause the
body to rotate.

The pressure and


viscous forces acting
on a two-dimensional
body and the resultant
lift and drag forces.

5
It is much easier to
force a streamlined
body than a blunt body
through a fluid.
6
Airplane wings are shaped and
positioned to generate sufficient
lift during flight while keeping drag
at a minimum. Pressures above and
below atmospheric pressure are
indicated by plus and minus signs,
respectively.

(a) Drag force acting on a flat plate parallel to the flow depends on wall
shear only.
(b) Drag force acting on a flat plate normal to the flow depends on the
pressure only and is independent of the wall shear, which acts normal to
the free-stream flow. 7
The drag and lift forces depend on the density of the fluid, the upstream velocity, and
the size, shape, and orientation of the body.
It is more convenient to work with appropriate dimensionless numbers that represent
the drag and lift characteristics of the body.
These numbers are the drag coefficient CD, and the lift coefficient CL.

A frontal
area

dynamic
pressure

In lift and drag calculations of some During a free fall, a


thin bodies, such as airfoils, A is taken body reaches its
to be the planform area, which is the terminal velocity
area seen by a person looking at the when the drag force
body from above in a direction normal equals the weight of
to the body. the body minus the
buoyant force. 8
■ FRICTION AND PRESSURE DRAG
• The drag force is the net force exerted by a fluid on a body in the direction
of flow due to the combined effects of wall shear and pressure forces.
• The part of drag that is due directly to wall shear stress is called the skin
friction drag (or just friction drag) since it is caused by frictional effects,
and the part that is due directly to pressure is called the pressure drag
(also called the form drag because of its strong dependence on the form
or shape of the body).

• The friction drag is the component of the wall shear force in the
direction of flow, and thus it depends on the orientation of the
body as well as the magnitude of the wall shear stress.
• For parallel flow over a flat surface, the drag coefficient is equal
to the friction drag coefficient.
• Friction drag is a strong function of viscosity, and increases with
increasing viscosity. 9
Drag is due entirely to friction drag for a
flat plate parallel to the flow; it is due
entirely to pressure drag for a flat plate
normal to the flow; and it is due to both
(but mostly pressure drag) for a cylinder
normal to the flow. The total drag
coefficient CD is lowest for a parallel flat
plate, highest for a vertical flat plate, and
in between (but close to that of a vertical
flat plate) for a cylinder.

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