Intro Met 1

CONTENTS
LECTURE 1: RADIATION PROCESSES...........................................................................................4

1.1: ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION.......................................................................................4
1.1.1: WAVE MODEL....................................................................................................................5
1.1.2: PARTICLE MODEL.............................................................................................................5
1.1.3: THE NATURE OF RADIATION..........................................................................................6
1.2: INSOLATION............................................................................................................................8
1.3: HEAT TRANSFER..................................................................................................................10
1.4: DEPLETION OF SOLAR RADIATION..................................................................................11
1.4.1: DISPERSION.....................................................................................................................11
1.4.2: SCATTERING....................................................................................................................12
1.4.3: REFLECTION....................................................................................................................12
1.4.4: ABSORPTION....................................................................................................................13
1.5: GREENHOUSE EFFECT......................................................................................................13
1.6: RADIATION (HEAT) BALANCE IN THE ATMOSPHERE....................................................14
1.6.1: TERRESTRIAL (EARTH) RADIATION...........................................................................14
1.6.2: ATMOSPHERIC RADIATION...........................................................................................15
1.6.3: HEAT BALANCE AND TRANSFER IN THE ATMOSPHERE........................................16
1.6.4: GLOBAL HEAT BALANCE (INTRODUCTION TO HEAT FLUXES)............................16
1.7: TEMPERATURE....................................................................................................................18
1.7.1: DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATION..............................................................................18
1.7.2: DIURNAL VARIATION OF SOLAR AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATION.......................18
1.7.3: SEASONAL AND ANNUAL TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS........................................19
LECTURE 2: ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATIONS...........................................................................23
2.1: ELEMENTS OF CIRCULATION...........................................................................................23
2.1.1: STATIC EARTH.................................................................................................................23
2.1.2: ROTATING EARTH...........................................................................................................24
2.1.3: GENERAL (PRIMARY) CIRCULATION..........................................................................25
2.2: WIND THEORY......................................................................................................................26
2.2.1: WIND FORCES (FORCES ACTING ON MOVING AIR).................................................27
2.2.2: PRESSURE GRADIENT....................................................................................................27
2.2.3: HORIZONTAL PRESSURE GRADIENT..........................................................................27
2.2.4: VERTICAL PRESSURE GRADIENT................................................................................28
2.2.5: PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE......................................................................................28
2.2.6: CORIOLIS EFFECT...........................................................................................................28
2.2.7: CENTRIFUGAL FORCE...................................................................................................29
2.2.8: FRICTIONAL FORCE.......................................................................................................29
2.3: WIND TYPES..........................................................................................................................30
2.3.1: GEOSTROPHIC AND GRADIENT WIND.......................................................................30
2.3.2: CYCLOSTROPHIC WIND................................................................................................33
2.4: MOVEMENT OF WIND AROUND ANTICYCLONES..........................................................34
2.5: MOVEMENT OF WIND AROUND CYCLONES...................................................................34
2.6: SECONDARY CIRCULATION...............................................................................................35
2.7: THERMAL CIRCULATIONS..................................................................................................35
2.7.1: OTHER LOCAL WINDS...................................................................................................39
2.7.2: MONSOON WINDS..........................................................................................................40
2.8: BOUNDARY LAYER WINDS..................................................................................................41
2.8.1: FACTORS AFFECTING DAYTIME WARMING..............................................................42
2.8.2: FACTORS PROMOTING RADIATION INVERSION FORMATION..............................43
2.8.3: FRICTION IN THE BOUNDARY LAYER - INTERNAL FRICTION..............................43
2.8.4: FRICTION IN THE BOUNDARY LAYER - EDDY VISCOSITY.....................................43
2.8.5: SMALL-SCALE EDDIES IN THE ATMOSPHERE..........................................................43
2.8.6: TURBULENCE (THERMAL) IN THE BOUNDARY LAYER..........................................45
2.8.7: HOW THE BOUNDARY LAYER EVOLVES...................................................................45
LECTURE 3: AIR MASSES.................................................................................................................48
3.1: MEANING OF AIR MASS......................................................................................................48
3.2: SOURCE REGIONS...............................................................................................................48
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George Njagga Stafford
3.3: CLASSIFICATION OF AIR MASSES.....................................................................................49
3.4: MODIFICATION OF AIR MASSES.......................................................................................50
LECTURE 4: FRONTS.........................................................................................................................51
4.1: TYPES OF FRONTS..............................................................................................................51
DEFINATION:
Meteorology (from the Greek meteõros meaning "high in the air") is the subject that studies the
chemical and physical properties of the atmosphere together with its fields of motion, mass and
moisture.
Weather denotes the short-term (hours to a few days up to about a week) behaviour of the
atmosphere, generally with the connotation of applying to local or regional parts of the Earth. The
conditions use to describe weather varies from - Sunny, cloudy, rain, warm, windy, ---. Thus, each
place is said to have a set of particular conditions, which tend to change over short time spans.
Climate refers to much longer time frames and describes the common characteristics of weather in
broader parts of the Earth's globe. It applies to wider regions and depends on geographic location
and conditions, time of year and other factors. Climate is thus tied to:
1) The larger, longer variation in typical or average weather in a region are determined by the
seasons - which in turn depend on the location of the Earth, with its tilted axis, as it rotates around
the Sun in an annual cycle.
2) The range of conditions expressed in the day to day weather variations and extremes in such
properties/variables as temperatures, wind regimes, extent of cloud cover and, duration and types of
rainfall/snowfall.
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LECTURE 1: RADIATION PROCESSES
1.1: ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Sometimes abbreviated EMR takes the form of self-propagating waves in a vacuum or in matter. EM Radiation
has an electric and magnetic field component which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of energy propagation.
Figure 1: Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation
EMR is classified into types according to the frequency of the wave; these types include (in order of increasing
frequency): radio waves, microwaves, infrared (far & near) radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays
and gamma rays. Of these, radio waves have the longest wavelengths and Gamma rays have the shortest. The
behaviour of EMR depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower
frequencies have longer wavelengths. A small window of frequencies, called visible spectrum or light, is sensed
by the eye of various organisms.
EMR carries energy and momentum, which may be imparted when it interacts with matter. Hence, Radiation is
energy that travels and spreads out as it goes--
Visible light has a spectrum that

ranges from 0.40 to 0.70
micrometers (µm).
Figure 2: Electromagnetic spectrum with light highlighted
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EM radiation exhibits both wave and particle properties at the same time. The wave characteristics are more
apparent when EM radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances, and the
particle characteristics are more evident when measuring small distances and timescales. Both characteristics
have been confirmed in a large number of experiments.
1.1.1: WAVE MODEL
When light is shone through a prism because of the

wavelength dependant refractive index of the prism
material (Dispersion), the Light disperses into a
visible spectrum.
Rainbows give a fine natural display of this array of

colors that appear when the Sun shines on falling
raindrops or by watching the spray from a garden
hose with the Sun being at the back of the observer.
Figure 2-I: Depicts white light being separated into different frequency waves.
An important aspect of the nature of light is frequency. The frequency of a wave is its rate of oscillation and is
measured in hertz, the SI unit of frequency; where, one hertz is equal to one oscillation per second. Light
usually has a spectrum of frequencies which sum together to form the resultant wave. Different frequencies
undergo different angles of refraction.
A wave consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is
called the wavelength. Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves the size
of buildings to very short gamma rays which are smaller than an atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely
proportional to wavelength, according to the equation:
Where; υ is the speed of the wave (“c” in a vacuum, or less in other media), f is the frequency (measured in
cycles per second or Hertz), and λ is the wavelength (measured in meters). As waves cross boundaries between
different media, their speeds change but their frequencies remain constant.
The energy in electromagnetic waves is sometimes called radiant energy.
1.1.2: PARTICLE MODEL
Because energy of an EM wave is quantized, in the particle model of EM radiation, a wave consists of discrete
packets of energy, or quanta, called photons. The frequency of the wave is proportional to the magnitude of the
particle's energy. Moreover, because photons are emitted and absorbed by charged particles, they act as
transporters of energy. The energy per photon can be calculated from the Planck–Einstein equation:
Where; E is the energy, h = 6.626 × 10-34 J·s is Planck's constant, and f is frequency.
1.1.3: THE NATURE OF RADIATION
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All objects above the temperature of absolute zero (-273.15° Celsius) radiate energy to their surrounding
environment. This energy, or radiation, is emitted as electromagnetic waves that travel at the speed of light (~ 3
x 108ms-1). Many different types of radiation have been identified. Each of these types is defined by its
wavelength. The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation can vary from being infinitely short to infinitely long.
Figure 2 illustrates the various spectral colour bands that make up light. The Sun emits only a portion (44 %) of
its radiation in this zone. Solar radiation spans a spectrum from approximately 0.1 to 4.0 micrometers with the
bulk ranging from 0.35 to 0.75 µm. The band from 0.1 to 0.4 micrometers is called ultraviolet radiation [shorter
than violet]. About 7 % of the Sun's emission is in this wavelength band and are extremely important because
of their high energy per photon. Thus, ultraviolet light is very energetic (capable of breaking apart stable
biological molecules and causing sunburn and skin cancers). About 48 % of the Sun's radiation falls in the
region between 0.71 to 4.0 micrometers. This band is called the [near infrared (0.71 to 1.5 micrometers) and far
infrared (1.5 to 4.0 micrometers) below the red].
The amount of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body is directly related to its temperature. If the body is a
perfect emitter (black body), the amount of radiation given off is proportional to the 4 th power of its
Temperature as measured in Kelvin units. This natural phenomenon is described by the Stephan-Boltzmann
Law. The following simple equation describes this law mathematically:
According to the Stephan-Boltzmann equation, a small increase in the temperature of a radiating body results
in a large amount of additional radiation being emitted.
In general, good emitters of radiation are also good absorbers of radiation at specific wavelength bands. This is
especially true of gases and is responsible for the Earth's greenhouse effect. Likewise, weak emitters of
radiation are also weak absorbers of radiation at specific wavelength bands. This fact is referred to as
Kirchhoff's Law. Some objects in nature have almost completely perfect abilities to absorb and emit
radiation. We call these objects black bodies. The radiation characteristics of the Sun and the Earth are very
close to being black bodies.
The wavelength of maximum emission of any body is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature. Thus,
the higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength of maximum emission. This phenomenon is often called
Wien's Law. The following equation describes this law:
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Wien's law suggests that as the temperature of a body increases, the wavelength of maximum emission becomes
smaller. According to the above equation the wavelength of maximum emission for the Sun (5800 Kelvin) is
about 0.5 micrometers (µm), while that for the Earth (288 Kelvin) is ~ 10.0 µm.
A graph that describes the quantity of radiation that is emitted from a body at particular wavelengths is
commonly called a spectrum. The following two graphs describe the spectrums for the Sun and Earth.
SUN
Figure 3-2: Spectrum of the Sun.
EARTH
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Figure 3-2: Spectrum of the Earth.
The Sun emits most of its radiation in a wavelength band between 0.1 and 4.0 micrometers (µm); whereas,
Earth emits most of its radiation in a wavelength band between 0.5 and 30.0 micrometers (µm).
The above graphs illustrate two important points concerning the relationship between the temperature of a body
and its emissions of electromagnetic radiation:
1. The amount of radiation emitted from a body increases exponentially with a linear rise in temperature (see
above Stephan-Boltzmann's Law).
2. The average wavelength of electromagnetic emissions becomes shorter with increasing temperature (see
above Wien's Law).
1.2: INSOLATION
Stands for: INcoming SOLar RadiATION. Is the rate at which Solar radiation is received by a unit horizontal
surface at any point on or above the Earth’s surface. Various components of Earth's atmosphere absorb
ultraviolet and infrared Solar radiation before it penetrates to the surface, but the atmosphere is quite
transparent to visible light.
There are a wide variety of differences in the amounts of radiation received over the various portions of Earth’s
surface. These differences in heating are important and must be measured or otherwise calculated to determine
their effects on the Weather.
Insolation controls the vegetation that grows and therefore the environment that develops. It affects Weather
and Climate, the development of soils, the rate of weathering, the ability to develop agriculture, and therefore
population density.
Hence, absorbed by land, oceans, and vegetation at the surface, the visible light is transformed into heat and re-
radiates in the form of invisible infrared radiation.
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If that was all to the story, then during the day Earth would heat up, but at night, all the accumulated energy
would radiate back into space and the planet's surface temperature would fall far below zero very rapidly. The
reason this doesn't happen is that Earth's atmosphere contains molecules 'Greenhouse Gases' that absorb the
heat and re-radiate the heat in all directions. This reduces the heat radiated out to space such that the Earth
enjoys temperatures suitable for our active and complex biosphere.
The average amount of Solar energy flow as shortwave irradiance reaching the outermost edge of the
atmosphere is defined as the solar constant (varies in cycles - Sunspot activity). This has a value of 1370 W/m 2
(note: Watts has time in its definition, so it describes a flow rate). The solar constant can also be expressed in
terms of heat energy flow and is ~ 2.0 calories per square centimetres per minute (cal cm -2 min-1) or ~ 2.0
langleys min-1.
N/B: SOLAR RADIATION RECEIVED AT THE TOP OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE IS INFLUENCED
BY THE ROLE OF FIVE FACTORS;
1. Solar Output (Solar Constant).

2. Sun-Earth distance (Earth’s Orbital parameters).
3. Latitudinal distribution/difference (Length of day, Inclination of Sun’s rays).
4. The Atmosphere's Optical Depth (The amount of insolation depleted while passing through the
atmosphere).
5. Albedo (Reflectivity).
However, the Temperature at the Earth’s surface or any location within is as a result of the above factors
including any of the others below:
i. Altitude (Elevation) and Aspect (Terrain slope).

ii. Land-Water contrast.
iii. Ocean Currents.
Altitude is the height of a point on the Earth’s surface above the Sea Level. The higher we go, the lesser the
mass of air in a column of atmosphere due to decreasing pressure. The atmosphere reduces the amount of
radiation that eventually reaches the surface by as much as 52 to 57 %. Because of this, we may infer that very
high Elevations receive more direct radiation than locations at Sea level, particularly in clear conditions.
At higher Elevations, there is a greater loss of radiation to space due to low density of the overlying air, which
absorbs little outgoing terrestrial radiation. For this reason, higher elevations are cooler.
Aspect refers to the angle at which the radiation impacts upon a surface. The larger the angle of incident
radiation, the smaller the radiation intensity received by the surface.
Land-Water Contrast; due to differences in their thermal (heat) capacities which affects not only the albedo,
water has the tendency of storing the radiation it receives, whereas land quickly loses it to the atmosphere.
The Specific Heat of a substance plays a tremendous role in Meteorology because it is tied directly to
temperature changes. The specific heat of land surfaces varies, though the difference between places is not as
great as between land and water. Dry sand or bare rock has the lowest specific heat. This difference in specific
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heat is another cause for differences in temperature for areas with different types of surfaces even when they are
only a few kilometers apart; this difference is important in understanding the horizontal transport of heat
(advection).
Ocean circulation (thermohaline) transfers massive amounts of energy around the world by carrying surplus
heat away from the low latitude oceans (heat source) towards high latitudes (heat sinks). Given the tremendous
volume of water in the oceans and the ability of water to hold heat, the oceans store more energy than the
atmosphere and release it more slowly. The thermal capacity of the oceans imparts a moderating effect on
global temperatures. Ocean Currents also play their part since they carry warm and cold water along coast
lines, modifying air masses passing over them in effect influencing both the Weather and Climate. Land
surfaces cannot hold heat as water does and so experience greater extremes of temperatures.
1.3: HEAT TRANSFER
The atmosphere is constantly gaining and losing heat. Wind movements are constantly transporting heat from
one part of the world to another. It is due to the inequalities in gain and loss of heat that the air is almost
constantly transporting heat from one part of the world to another. It is due to the inequalities in the gain and
loss of heat that the air is almost constantly in motion. Wind and Weather directly express the motions and heat
transformations methods. In Meteorology, one is concerned with four methods of heat transfer. These
methods are; Radiation, Convection, Conduction and Advection.
The term “Radiation” as dealt with above, refers to the process by which
electromagnetic energy is propagated through space. All of the heat received by
Earth is through this process. It is the most important means of heat transfer. Solar Radiation is defined as the
total electromagnetic energy emitted by the Sun. The Sun having an extremely hot surface temperature, emits
short wave radiation while the Earth with a much cooler temperature (15°C average) reradiates the Sun’s
energy or heat as long wave radiation.
CONDUCTION: - Is the transfer of heat from warmer to colder matter by contact. It is a means by which air
close to the surface of Earth heats during the day and cools during the night. However, it is of secondary
importance in heating the atmosphere.
Short wave radiation is absorbed by the Earth's surface during the day and heats up the ground. The hot ground
(surface) transfers this energy (Heat) to the atmosphere by conduction due to the hot air molecules very near
the surface. See diagram (a) below
(a) (b)
CONVECTION: - Is the method of heat transfer in a fluid resulting in the transport and mixing of the
properties of that fluid. However, in Meteorology, the term convection is normally applied to vertical transport
of air by thermals. Convection occurs regularly in the atmosphere and is responsible for the development of air
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turbulence. See diagram (b) above. Cumuliform Clouds which leads to thunderstorms and showers is a
manifestation of the presence of sufficient moisture and strong vertical convection. N/B: Warmer, less dense
air rises and is replaced by descending cooler, denser air, which acquires heat.
ADVECTION: - Is a form of convection, in which the transfer/ transport of heat and other atmospheric
properties is horizontal. Horizontal transfer of heat is achieved by motion of the air from one latitude and/or
longitude to another. It is of major importance in the exchange of air between polar and equatorial regions.
Since large masses of air are constantly on the move somewhere on Earth’s surface and aloft, advection is
responsible for transporting more heat from place to place than any other physical motion. Transfer of heat by
advection is achieved not only by the transport of warm air, but also by the transport of water vapour (moisture)
that releases heat when condensation occurs.
1.4: DEPLETION OF SOLAR RADIATION
If the Sun’s radiation was not filtered or depleted in some manner, our planet would soon be too hot for life to
exist. We must now consider how Sun’s heat energy is both dispersed and depleted. This is accomplished
through dispersion, scattering, reflection and absorption.
1.4.1: DISPERSION
Earlier it was learned that Earth’s axis is inclined at an angle of 23.5°. This inclination causes the Sun’s rays to
be received on the surface of Earth at varying angles of incidence, depending on the position of Earth. When the
Sun’s rays are not perpendicular to the surface of Earth, the energy becomes dispersed or spread out over a
great area (refer to the diagrams on Seasonal & Annual Temperature variation on pages 19 to 22). If the
available energy reaching the atmosphere is constant and is dispersed over a greater area, the amount of energy
at any given point within the area decreases, and therefore the temperature is lower.
Dispersion of insolation in the atmosphere is caused by the rotation of Earth. It also takes place with the seasons
in all latitudes, especially in the latitudes of the polar areas.
1.4.2: SCATTERING
About 25% of the incoming solar radiation is scattered or diffused by the atmosphere. Scattering is a
phenomenon/process that occurs when solar radiation passes through the air and some of the wavelengths are
dispersed in all direction by molecules of gases, suspended particles and water vapour. These suspended
particles then act like prism and produce a variety of colours. Various wavelengths and particle sizes result in
complex scattering effects that produce the blue sky (Rayleigh scattering). Scattering is also responsible for the
red Sun at Sunrise and Sunset, varying cloud colours and a variety of optical phenomena.
Scattering always occurs in the atmosphere, but does not always produce dramatic settings. Under certain
radiation wavelength and particle size conditions all that can be seen are white clouds and a whitish haze. This
occurs when there is a high moisture content (large particle size - Mie scattering) in the air and is called diffuse
reflection. About two-thirds of the normally scattered radiation reaches Earth as diffuse sky radiation.
1.4.3: REFLECTION
Is the process whereby light bounces off a surface at an angle equal to the angle of incidence at which it initially
strikes the surface. Hence the EM waves simply bounce back. The percentage of the insolation that is reflected
from a surface is known as its albedo. Albedo; the degree of whiteness or reflectivity is the ratio of light
reflected to light received. Earth’s average Albedo varies from 30 to 38 %. However, Earth reflects an average
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of 31 % of insolation back into space. Thus, it varies from place to place depending on the composition of the
surface.
In calculating the Albedo of Earth, the assumption is made that the average cloudiness over Earth is 50%. All
surfaces do not have the same reflectivity; consequently, they do not have the same Albedo. The table below
gives the albedo for different materials.
Table 1: Typical Values of Earth’s Albedo
SURFACE TYPE REFLECTIVITY %
Snow Fresh > 75
Snow Old 50 - 70
Soil, dark 5 - 15
Soil, moist 10 - 20
Soil, dry Clay 20 - 35
Soil, dry Sand 25 - 45
Road, tarred 5 - 10
Desert 25 - 30
Savanna, Wet season 15 - 20
Savanna, Dry season 25 - 30
Forest 5 - 15
Crop fields green 5 - 20
Water, solar elevation greater than 40° 2-4
Water, solar elevation less than 30° 6 - 40
Cumuliform Cloud Overcast 70 - 90
Stratus Cloud 500 to 1000ft thick 59 - 84
Altostratus Cloud 39 - 59
Dark Skin 16 - 22
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Blond Skin 43 - 45
1.4.4: ABSORPTION
Earth and its atmosphere absorb about 69% of the insolation. Land and water surfaces of Earth
absorb 46% of this insolation. Ozone, Carbon dioxide and Water vapour directly absorb19%. These gases
absorb the insolation at certain wavelengths. For example, ozone absorbs only a small percentage of the
insolation. The portion or type the ozone does absorb is critical since it reduces ultraviolet radiation to a level
where animal life can safely exist. The most important absorption occurs with carbon dioxide and water vapour,
which absorb strongly over a broader wavelength band. The remaining 4% are absorbed by Clouds, which are
the most important absorbers of radiation at essentially all wavelengths. In sunlight clouds reflect a high
percentage of the incident solar Radiation and account for most of the brightest of Earth as seen from space.
There are regions, such as areas of clear skies, where carbon dioxide and water vapour are at a minimum and
so is absorption. These are called atmospheric window and allows insolation to pass through the atmosphere
relatively unimpeded.
1.5: GREENHOUSE EFFECT
The atmosphere conserves the heat energy of Earth because it absorbs radiation selectively. Most of the Solar
radiation in clear skies is transmitted to Earth’s surface, but a large part of the outgoing Terrestrial radiation is
absorbed and reradiated back to the surface. This is called the Greenhouse Effect. A greenhouse permits most
of the insolation to pass through the glass roof and sides, and to be absorbed by the floor, ground or plants
inside. These objects reradiate energy at their temperatures of about 300 K, which is a higher temperature than
the energy that was initially received. The glass absorbs the energy at these wavelengths and sends part of it
back into the greenhouse, causing the inside of the structure to become warmer than the outside. The
atmosphere acts similarly, transmitting and absorbing in somewhat the same way as the glass. If the greenhouse
effect did not exist, Earth’s temperature would be ~ 30 to 35°C cooler than the
15°C average temperature we now enjoy, because the insolation would be reradiated back to space. However,
the atmosphere is not a contained space like a greenhouse because there are heat transport mechanisms such as
winds, vertical currents and mixing with surrounding and adjacent cooler air.
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This process is popularly known as the
greenhouse effect. Glass in a
greenhouse is transparent to solar
radiation, but opaque to terrestrial
infra-red radiation. The glass acts like
some of the atmospheric gases and
absorbs the outgoing energy. Much of
this energy is then re-emitted back into
the greenhouse causing the
temperature inside to rise.
Consequently, the gases in the
atmosphere which absorb the outgoing
infra-red radiation are known as
greenhouse gases and include carbon
dioxide, water vapour, nitrous oxide,
methane and ozone.
Figure 4: Schematic Representation of
the Greenhouse Effect
1.6: RADIATION (HEAT) BALANCE IN THE ATMOSPHERE
The Sun radiates energy to Earth, Earth radiates energy back to space and the
atmosphere radiates energy also. As indicated in figure 5, a balance is maintained
between incoming and outgoing radiation. This section of the lecture explains the
various radiation processes involved in maintaining this critical balance and the
effects produced in the atmosphere (refer to figure 6 also). We have learned that an
object reradiates energy at higher temperature. Hence, the more the Sun heats Earth,
the greater the amount of heat energy reradiates. If this rate loss/gain did not balance,
Earth would become continuously colder or warmer.
1.6.1: TERRESTRIAL (EARTH) RADIATION
Radiation emitted by Earth is entirely long wave radiation. Most of the terrestrial
radiation is absorbed by water vapor in the atmosphere and some by other gases
(about 9% is radiated directly to outer space). This radiant energy is reradiated in the
atmosphere horizontally and vertically. Horizontal flux (flow or transport) of energy
need not be considered due to a lack of horizontal temperature difference. The
vertical, upward or downward, flux is of extreme significance. Convection and
turbulence carry aloft some of this radiation. Water vapor, undergoing the
condensation-precipitation-evaporation cycle (hydrological cycle), carries the
remainder into the atmosphere.
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1.6.2: ATMOSPHERIC RADIATION
The atmosphere reradiates to outer space most of the terrestrial radiation (about 40%)
and insolation (about 20%) that it has absorbed. Some of this re-radiation is emitted
Earthward and is known as counter-radiation. This radiation is of great importance in
the greenhouse effect.
The atmosphere is kept in motion and develops its Weather/Climate characteristics

primarily through energy input as heat (thermal energy). Heat actions produce various
temperatures. Temperature variations give rise to differences in pressure (hence
development of pressure gradients that drive gases into motions that include wind)
and volumes. The dominant source of heat affecting the atmosphere come from solar
irradiation or insolation (heat added from internal Earth flow adds a small amount to
the land/ocean bottom surface).
Figure 5: Mean Annual Heat Balance of the Earth-Atmosphere System
Figure 5; shows incoming radiation reacting with a wide variety of "targets" and a
partitioning of the heat energy to various recipients such as the ground, water bodies,
vegetation, air gases, clouds, etc. some of the radiation is returned to and through the
atmosphere as long wave radiation.
1.6.3: HEAT BALANCE AND TRANSFER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
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Earth does not receive equal radiation at all points as indicated in figure 6 - 8. The
rotation of Earth provides equal exposure to sunlight but latitude and dispersion do
affect the amount of incident radiation received. The poles receive far less incident
radiation than the equator. This uneven heating is called differential insolation.
Due to this differential insolation the tropical atmosphere is constantly being supplied
heat and the temperature of the air is thus higher than in areas pole-ward. Because of
the expansion of warm air, this column of air is much thicker and lighter than over the
poles. At the poles Earth receives little insolation and the column or air is less thick
and heavier. This differential in insolation sets up a circulation that transports warm
air from the tropics pole-ward aloft and cold air from the poles equator-ward on the
surface (refer to figure 11 a & d). Some of the radiation makes several trips, being
absorbed, reflected or reradiated by Earth or the atmosphere. Insolation comes into the
atmosphere and all of it is reradiated. How many trips it makes does not really matter.
The direct absorption of radiation by Earth and atmosphere including the re-radiation
into space balances. If the balance did not exist; then, Earth with its atmosphere over a
period of time would steadily gain or lose heat. Although radiation is considered the
most important means of heat transfer, it is not the only method. There are others such
as conduction, convection and advection as mentioned earlier that also play an
important part in meteorological processes.
1.6.4: GLOBAL HEAT BALANCE (INTRODUCTION TO HEAT FLUXES)
Figure 6; illustrates the annual values of net Shortwave and net Longwave radiation from
the South Pole to the North Pole. On closer examination of this graph one notes that the
lines representing incoming and outgoing radiation do not have the same values.
From 0 - 35 ° latitude North and South incoming Solar radiation exceeds outgoing
Terrestrial radiation and a surplus of energy exists. The reverse holds true from 35 - 90°
latitude North and South and these regions have a deficit of energy. Surplus energy at low
latitudes and a deficit at high latitudes results in energy transfer from the equator to the
poles. It is this meridional transport of energy that causes atmospheric and oceanic
circulation. If there were no energy transfers the poles would be 25° Celsius cooler, and
the equator 14° Celsius warmer!
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Figure 6: Balance between average Net Shortwave and Longwave
Radiation from 90° North to 90° South.
The redistribution of energy across the Earth's surface is accomplished primarily through
three processes: sensible heat flux, latent heat flux, and surface heat flux into
oceans. Sensible heat flux (heat that can be sensed or felt) is the process where heat
energy is transferred from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere by conduction and
convection. This energy is then moved from the tropics to the poles by advection,
creating atmospheric circulation. As a result, atmospheric circulation moves warm
tropical air to the polar regions and cold air from the poles to the equator. Latent heat
flux “hidden heat” moves energy globally when solid and liquid water is converted into
vapor. This vapor is often moved by atmospheric circulation vertically and horizontally to
cooler locations where it is condensed as rain or is deposited as snow, releasing the
heat energy stored within it (recall Water Cycle – water vapour is a very important carrier
of energy on Earth). Finally, large quantities of radiation energy are transferred into the
Earth's tropical oceans. The energy enters these water bodies at the surface when
absorbed radiation is converted into heat energy. The warmed surface water is then
transferred downward into the water column by conduction and convection. Horizontal
transfer of this heat energy from the equator to the poles is accomplished by ocean
currents.
The following equation describes the partitioning of heat energy at the Earth's surface:
Q* = H (Sensible heat) + L (Latent heat) + S (Surface heat flux into soil or water)
16
1.7: TEMPERATURE
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles that make up
the substance or a measure of the average molecular motions in a system, and has
units of (degrees F, degrees C, or K).
1.7.1: DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATION
The cycle of temperature during a 24-hour period is called the daily march of
temperature. Under clear skies, maximum incoming radiation is received at noon in
the middle and lower latitudes, but it takes 2 - 4 hours for the Earth (including both
the land and ocean) to heat up in response. We termed this time delay, the lag of
maximum.
Minimum occurs just about Sunrise while maximum occurs between 2 - 4 p.m. Figure
7 depicts that the increase from minimum to maximum temperature takes a shorter
time than the fall from the maximum to the minimum. The figure also shows the daily
range of temperature, which indicated the difference between the highest and lowest
temperature.
1.7.2: DIURNAL VARIATION OF SOLAR AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATION
A plot of the diurnal variation of Earth-emitted terrestrial radiation has a similar trend
to that of the diurnal temperature trend (refer to figure 7 below). Whereas, insolation
commences at Sunrise, peaks by noon and shuts off at Sunset. Outgoing radiation on
the other hand reaches it’s minimum around dawn; while, it attains its maximum
about 2 to 4 hours after noon. Hence, not coincident with the incoming radiation peak.
This lag is the result of several factors, most important of which is the effects of
thermal uplifting and winds that carry heat upwards and slows down the surface
temperature rise until mixing in mid-afternoon produces the hottest time of the day.
The net radiation determines whether the surface temperature rises, falls, or remains
constant:
17
Net radiation = Incoming Solar - Outgoing Long wave
If the net radiation > 0, surface warms (6 AM to 2-4 PM)
If the net radiation < 0, surface cools (2-4 PM to 6 AM)
1.7.3: SEASONAL AND ANNUAL TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS
Figure 8 shows that, the magnitude of temperature is large at the equator than in the
mid and high latitudes. Besides, the equator has two maxima but the Mid - and High
-latitudes have only one maximum. In addition, the maximum temperature at any
given latitude occurs some time after the presence of the overhead Sun. Hence, it
takes 1 to 1.5 months for the Sun’s heat to be realized by the Earth and its atmosphere.
Figure 8: Annual Insolation received over selected latitudes during NH Summer
N/B: What governs the seasons is the Earth's axial tilt and hence, the amount of
solar radiation reaching the ground.
Similarly, we define the cycle of temperature during a 12 month period as the Annual
March of temperature. We have already seen that the time difference between the
strongest insolation and the highest temperature is term the lag of maximum.
The Annual range of temperature therefore is the difference between the average
temperatures of the warmest and coldest months. Whereas, the annual range of
temperatures is greatest over continental than over coastal stations. Due to the large
18
land surface but small water surface in the northern Hemisphere, summers are very
warm and winters very cold. On the contrary, the difference in summer and winter
temperatures in the Southern Hemisphere is smaller.
N/B: To establish why the Earth's axial tilt is the prime cause of seasonal variation,
Let start first with this diagram below:
In this simplified diagram, the sphere has a vertical rather than tilted axis (top to
bottom). Note that at the equator, the length of the path of sunlight through an
atmosphere of uniform thickness and identical density distribution is the shortest of all
rays. That path length increases systematically moving to either pole.
The shorter the Sun’s ray path, the less is the interaction between the insolation and
anything in the atmosphere that deflects, absorbs, or re-radiates the irradiance. Thus a
greater proportion of radiation hits the surface or reacts in the troposphere. The result
is increased warming (maximum at the equator). As the path lengthens poleward, the
amount of radiation reaching the surface and lower atmosphere decreases; thus,
producing progressively less warming poleward. The mean (and maximum)
temperatures will therefore be lessened going from low to high latitudes.
Now, examine the case where the axis is tilted 23.5° towards the Sun. The effect is to
move the North American continent (or Eurasia) clockwise downward towards the
equator and hence into regions of shorter path-lengths. Mid-latitudes and even polar
regions receive more insolation and thus become warmer. This warming during this
position of the pole and times of year close to this orientation leads to summer
conditions. Vegetation commences annual growth as the conditions approach; sub-
polar and polar ice undergoes some degree of melting.
19
Then consider the reverse case, a 23.5° tilt away from the Sun at the time of winter
solstice:
In this situation lands and oceans in the southern hemisphere move upward into the
path patterns where the lengths through the atmosphere decrease and more radiation
hence, warming reaches these areas. This is the condition for southern hemisphere
summer. Northern lands and seas have also moved upwards into the zones of greater
path lengths and hence surface-troposphere temperature decreases. This is northern
winter.
At the Equinoxes, the Earth's equator lies directly beneath the solar point. Between
Summer and Winter solstices the equator swipes a total of 2 times 23.5° (or 47°) over
this six month period (the same occurs in the opposite direction between Winter and
Summer. This oscillation accounts for the seasons. At intermediate times the heating
20
patterns relative to the Earth's geography tend, on average, to fall between the
extremes. In either hemisphere, this next diagram applies.
In the summer case, the angle between a direct line to the Sun and the nearby horizon
(where Earth's surface meets the atmopheric base in the line of sight) is higher than in
the winter case. This simply means that the Sun appears higher in the sky at Noon in
Summer than in Winter. This is depicted thusly:
The last two diagrams indicates two things: 1) a higher Sun angle will also lengthen
the time in 24 hours in which the Sun shines at a given place; and 2) the more
concentrated solar beam leads to greater warming of an area. At the two Equinoxes,
the length of day at the Equator is equal to the length of night (neglecting dawn and
dusk effects due to light scattering). In the northern hemisphere's progression from
Winter to Summer the duration of daylight goes from a minimum to a maximum (as it
does for the southern hemisphere cycle 6 months apart). The further north one goes in,
say, North America during any given day, the length of daylight (summer) or darkness
(winter) increases as the season progresses. In Arctic regions, in mid-summer the Sun
is always above the horizon ("perpetual" daylight) but in the winter months, polar
regions may experience total diurnal darkness. (Same is true for the southern
hemisphere).
N/B: There is a lag effect that tends to delay the hottest days to the July/August
months and the coolest days to the January/February months in the Northern
hemisphere.
21
LECTURE 2: ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATIONS
Scales of Atmospheric Motion: Categorized according to Size.
Macroscale (Planetary/Global scale) - Longwaves in the westerlies, ITCZ
Synoptic scale (Weather Map scale) - Cyclones, Anticyclones, Jet streams, Fronts
Mesoscale - Thunderstorms, Tornadoes, Land and Sea breeze
Microscale - Turbulence, Wind gust
Table 1: Length and Time scales for a number of Atmospheric Systems.
System Length Scale Time Scale
small eddies 0.1 - 1 m 1s
dust devils 1 - 10 m 10 s
gusts 10 -100 m 100 s
tornadoes 100 m 100 s
cumulonimbus cloud 1 km 10 - 60 min
fronts, squall lines, land/sea breeze 10 - 100 km 1 - 12 hr
hurricanes 100 km 2 - 5 days
Synoptic Cyclones/ Anticyclones 1000 km 3 days - 2 wks
Planetary waves, ITCZ 10000 km 1-12 mon
2.1: ELEMENTS OF CIRCULATION
Temperature differences cause pressure differences, which in turn cause air

movements. The following sections show how air movements work and how they
evolve into the various circulations—Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary. To explain
the observed wind circulation over Earth, three basic steps are used:
 The first step is to assume Earth does not rotate and is of uniform surface; that
is, all land and water bodies inclusive.
22
 The second step is to rotate Earth, but still assume a uniform surface.
 The third step is to rotate Earth and assume a non-uniform surface.
2.1.1: STATIC EARTH
The circulation on a non-rotating Earth is referred to as the thermal circulation

because it is caused by the difference in heating. The air over the equator is heated
and rises (low pressure); while over the poles the air is cooled and sinks (high
pressure).
Figure 9: Hadley Single Cell (Simple Circulation)
2.1.2: ROTATING EARTH
In thermal circulation, the assumption was made that the Earth did not rotate, but of
course this is not true. The rotation of Earth causes a force that affects thermal
circulation. This rotation results in the deflection to the right of movement in the
Northern Hemisphere, and to the left of the movement in the Southern Hemisphere.
This force is called the Coriolis force. The Coriolis force is not a true force. It is an
apparent force resulting from the west-to-east rotation of Earth. The effects, however,
are real. The most important phenomena are that this force also deflects winds to the
right in the Northern Hemisphere. Therefore, it is important to understand how this
force is produced. As Earth rotates, points on the surface are moving eastward (from
west to east) past a fixed point in space at a given speed. Points on the equator are
moving at approximately 1,000 miles per hour (1,600 km/h), points on the poles are
not moving at all, but are merely pivoting, the points somewhere between are moving
at speeds between 1,000 and zero miles per hour depending upon their relative
position. Refer to view A in figure 10.
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A B C
Figure 10: Earth’s Rotation and influence of the Coriolis Force
Assume that a missile located at the North Pole is launched at a target on the equator.
The missile does not have any eastward lateral velocity, but the target has an eastward
velocity of 1,000 (1060) miles per hour 1,600 (1700 km/h). The result is that the
missile appears to be deflected to the right as the target moves away from its initial
position. Refer to view B of figure 10. A similar condition assumes that a missile
located on the equator is launched at a target at the North Pole. The missile has an
eastward lateral velocity of 1,000 miles per hour, while the target on the pole has no
lateral velocity at all. Once again the missile appears to be deflected to the right as a
result of its initial eastward lateral velocity. Refer to view C of figure 10. Due to
Earth’s rotation and the Coriolis Effect, the simple circulation now becomes more
complex as shown in figure 11. The complexity resulting from the interplay of the
Coriolis Effect with the flow of air is known as the Theory.
2.1.3: GENERAL (PRIMARY) CIRCULATION
According to the 3-cell theory, Earth is divided into six circulation belts—three in the
Northern Hemisphere and three in the Southern Hemisphere. The dividing lines are
the equator - 00°, latitude 30°N / S, and 60°N / S latitude. The general circulation of
the Northern Hemisphere is similar to those of the Southern Hemisphere. (Refer to
figure 11 a-d during the following discussion).
24
(c) (d)
Figure 11: Idealized Pattern of the General Circulation Model (3-Cell Theory)
First, note the tropical (Hadley) cell of the Northern Hemisphere that lies between the
equator and 30°N latitude. Convection at the equator causes the air to heat and rise.
When it reaches the upper portions of the troposphere, it tends to flow toward the
North Pole. By the time the air has reached 30°N latitude, the Coriolis Effect has
deflected it so much that it is moving eastward instead of northward. This results in a
piling up of air (convergence) near 30°N latitude and a descending current of air
(subsidence) toward the surface which forms a belt of high pressure. When the
descending air reaches the surface where it flows outward (divergence), part of it
flows pole-ward to become part of the mid-latitude cell; the other part flows toward
the equator, where it is deflected by the Coriolis Effect and forms the northeast trades.
The mid-latitude (Ferrel) cell is located between 30° and 60°N latitude. The air, which
comprises this cell, circulates pole-ward at the surface and equator-ward aloft with
rising currents at 60° (polar front) and descending currents at 30° (high-pressure belt).
However, in general, winds both at the surface and aloft blow from the west. The
Coriolis Effect easily explains this for the surface wind on the pole-ward moving
surface air. The west wind aloft is not as easily explained. Most authorities agree that
this wind is frictionally driven by the west winds in the two adjacent cells. The polar
cell lies between 60°N latitude and the North Pole. The circulation in this cell begins
with a flow of air at a high altitude toward the pole. This flow cools and descends at
the North Pole and forms a high-pressure area in the Polar Regions. After reaching the
surface of Earth, this air usually flow equator-wards and is deflected by the Coriolis
Effect so that it moves from the northeast. This air converges with the pole-ward flow
from the mid-latitude cell and is deflected upward with a portion circulating pole-
ward again and the remainder equator-ward. The outflow of air aloft between the
polar and mid-latitude cells causes a semi-permanent low-pressure area at ~ 60°N
latitude. To complete the picture of the World’s General Atmospheric Circulation, we
must associate this prevailing wind and pressure belts with some basic characteristics.
In the vicinity of the equator is a belt of light and variable winds known as the
doldrums; within which lies the ITCZ. On the pole-ward side of the doldrums are the
25
trade winds; the predominant wind system of the tropics. These easterly winds are the
most consistent on Earth, especially over the oceans. Near 30°N and 30°S latitudes
lies the Sub-tropical High-pressure belts. Winds are light and variable. These areas
are referred to as the horse latitudes. The prevailing westerlies, which are on the pole-
ward side of the Subtropical High-pressure belt, are persistent throughout the mid-
latitudes. In the Northern Hemisphere, the direction of the westerlies at the surface is
from the southwest. In the Southern Hemisphere, westerlies are from the northwest.
This is due to the deflection area resulting from the Coriolis Effect as the air moves
pole-ward. Pole-ward of the prevailing westerlies, near 60°N and 60°S latitudes lies
the belt of low-pressure known as the polar front zone. Here, converging winds result
in ascending air currents and consequently poor weather.
2.2: WIND THEORY
Wind is Air in motion. Newton’s first two laws of motion indicate that motion tends to
be in straight lines and only deviates from such lines when acted upon by another
force or by a combination of forces. Hence, Air tends to move in a straight line from a
high-pressure area to a low-pressure area.
Buys Ballot's law states that; in the Northern Hemisphere a person who stands with
his/her back facing the wind has high pressure on the right and low pressure on the
left. In the Southern Hemisphere, the reverse is true.
2.2.1: WIND FORCES (FORCES ACTING ON MOVING AIR)
There are four basic forces that affect the directional movement of air in our
atmosphere: Pressure Gradient force (PGF), the Coriolis Effect, Centrifugal force,
and Frictional force. These forces, working together, affect air movement. The forces
that are affecting it at that particular time determine the direction that the air moves.
Also, the different names given to the movement of the air (Geostrophic wind,
gradient wind, etc) depends on what forces are affecting it.
2.2.2: PRESSURE GRADIENT
26
The rate of change in pressure in a direction
perpendicular to the isobars is called pressure
gradient.
Air moves along pressure gradients from

conditions of high pressure to lower pressure;
warm air rises, cold air sinks; movements of air
are influenced also by the motion of the Earth
itself, as well as other forces.
The dominant cause behind movement of air in

near horizontal conditions is the pressure
gradient. As seen in this diagram, if a high is
next to a low and the rate of pressure drop, as
indicated by the spacing of isobars (lines of
equal pressure) of different values, is fairly wide,
the pressure gradient is small so that the wind
moving towards the low moves more slowly
than when the isobars are closely-spaced (higher
gradient and faster wind flow).
Figure 12: Pressure Gradient
2.2.3: HORIZONTAL PRESSURE GRADIENT
The horizontal pressure gradient is steep or strong when the isobars determining the
pressure system are close together. It is flat or weak when the isobars are far apart.
2.2.4: VERTICAL PRESSURE GRADIENT
If isobars are considered as depicting atmospheric topography, a high-pressure system

represents a hill of air, and a low-pressure system represents a depression or valley of
air. The vertical pressure gradient always indicates a decrease in pressure with
altitude, but the rate of pressure decrease (gradient) varies directly with changes in air
density with altitude.
2.2.5: PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE
The variation of heating (and consequently the variations of pressure) from one
locality to another is the initial factor that produces movement of air or wind. The
most direct path from high to low pressure is the path along which the pressure is
changing most rapidly. The rate of change is called the pressure gradient. Pressure
gradient force is the force that moves air from an area of high pressure to an area
of low pressure. The velocity of the wind depends upon the pressure gradient. If the
pressure gradient is strong, the wind speed is high. If the pressure gradient is weak,
the wind speed is light. (See figure 12). Generally, the flow of air is from the area of
high pressure to the area of low pressure, but it does not flow straight across the
27
isobars. Instead the flow is circular around the pressure systems. Pressure gradient
force (PGF) causes the air to begin moving from the high-pressure to the low-pressure
system. Coriolis (deflective) force and Centrifugal force then begin acting on the flow
in varying degrees. In this example, frictional force is not a factor.
2.2.6: CORIOLIS EFFECT

The wind actually blows parallel to
isobars above any frictional level.
Therefore, other factors must be
affecting the wind flow; one of these
factors is the rotation of Earth. A
particle at rest on Earth’s surface is in
equilibrium. If the particle starts to
move because of a pressure gradient
force, its relative motion is affected by
the rotation of Earth. If a mass of air
from the equator moves northward, it is
deflected to the right, so that a south
wind tends to become a southwesterly
wind. In the Northern Hemisphere, the
result of the Coriolis Effect is that
moving air is deflected to the right of
its path of motion. This deflection to
the right is directly proportional to the
speed of the wind; the faster the wind
speed, the greater the deflection to the
If Pressure gradient force were the only force right, and conversely, the slower the
affecting wind flow, the wind would blow at right wind speed, the less the deflection to
angles across isobars (lines connecting points of the right. Finally, this apparent
equal barometric pressure) from high to low deflective force is stronger at the Polar
pressure. Regions than at the equator.
2.2.7: CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
According to Newton’s first law of motion, a body in motion continues in the same
direction in a straight line and with the same speed unless acted upon by some
external force to act otherwise. Therefore, for a body to move in a curved path, some
force must be continually applied. The force restraining bodies that move in a curved
path is called the centripetal force; it is always directed toward the centre of rotation.
Newton’s third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Centrifugal force is the reacting force that is equal to and opposite in direction to the
centripetal force. Centrifugal force, then, is a force directed outward from the centre
of rotation. High- and low-pressure systems can be compared to rotating discs.
Centrifugal effect tends to fling air out from the centre of rotation of these systems.
This force is directly proportional to the wind speeds, the faster the wind, the stronger
the outward force. Therefore, when winds tend to blow in a circular path, centrifugal
effect (in addition to pressure gradient and Coriolis Effects) influences these winds.
2.2.8: FRICTIONAL FORCE
28
The actual drag or slowing of air particles in contact with a solid surface is called
friction. Friction tends to retard air movement. Since Coriolis force varies with the
speed of the wind, a reduction in the wind speed by friction means a reduction of the
Coriolis force. This results in a momentary disruption of the balance. When the new
balance (including friction) is reached, the air flows at an angle across the isobars
from high pressure to low pressure. (Pressure gradient force is the dominant force at
the surface.) This angle varies from 10° over the Ocean to more than 45° over rugged
terrain. Frictional effects on the air are greatest near the ground, but the effects are
also carried aloft by turbulence. Surface friction is effective in slowing the wind to an
average altitude of 3,000 feet (~ 900 meters) above the ground. Above this level,
called the gradient wind level the effect of friction decreases rapidly and may be
considered negligible. Air above 1 km normally flows parallel to the isobars.
Winds near the surface are affected by friction. Geostrophic wind blows parallel to the
isobars because the Coriolis force and pressure gradient force are in balance. However
it should be realized that the actual wind is not always Geostrophic -- especially near
the surface.
The surface of the Earth exerts a frictional drag

on the air blowing just above it. This friction can
act to change the wind's direction and slow it
down -- keeping it from blowing as fast as the
wind aloft. Actually, the difference in terrain
conditions directly affects how much friction is
exerted. For example, a calm ocean surface is
pretty smooth, so the wind blowing over it does
not move up, down, and around any features. By
contrast, hills and forests force the wind to slow
down and/or change direction much more.
As we move higher, surface features affect the wind less until the wind is indeed
Geostrophic. This level is considered the top of the boundary (or friction) layer. The
height of the boundary layer can vary depending on the type of terrain, wind, and
vertical temperature profile. The time of day and season of the year also affect the
height of the boundary layer. However, usually the boundary layer exists from the
surface to about 1-2 km above it.
29
In the friction layer, the turbulent friction that the Earth exerts on the air slows the
wind down. This slowing causes the wind not to be geostrophic. As shown on the
right diagram above, this slowing down reduces the Coriolis force; while, the pressure
gradient force becomes more dominant. As a result, the total wind deflects slightly
towards lower pressure. The amount of deflection the surface wind has with respect to
the geostrophic wind above depends on the roughness of the terrain. Meteorologists
call the difference between the total and Geostrophic winds ageostrophic winds.
2.3: WIND TYPES
Since there is a direct relationship between pressure gradient and wind speed and
direction, we have a variety of wind types to deal with. We discuss below the
relationship of winds and circulations, the forces involved, and the effect of these
factors on the general circulation.
2.3.1: GEOSTROPHIC AND GRADIENT WIND
On analyzed surface weather charts, points of equal pressure are connected by drawn
lines referred to as isobars, while in upper air (Contour) analysis; points of equal
heights are connected and called iso-heights. The variation of these heights and
pressures from one locality to another is the initial factor that produces movement of
air, or wind. When a unit of air moves with no frictional force involved, the
movement of air is parallel to the isobars. This wind is called a Gradient wind. When
the isobars are straight, so only Coriolis and pressure gradient forces are involved, it is
termed a Geostrophic wind. Let’s consider a parcel of air from the time it begins to
move until it develops into a Geostrophic wind. As soon as a parcel of air starts to
move due to the pressure gradient force, the Coriolis force begins to deflect it from
the direction of the pressure gradient force. (See above/below diagrams). The Coriolis
force is the apparent force exerted upon the parcel of air due to the rotation of Earth.
This force acts to the right of the path of motion of the air parcel in the Northern
Hemisphere (to the left in the Southern Hemisphere). It always acts at right angles to
the direction of motion. In the absence of friction, the Coriolis force changes the
direction of motion of the parcel until the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient
force are in balance. When the two forces are equal and opposite, the wind blows
parallel to the straight isobars (left diagram). The Coriolis force only affects the
direction, not the speed of the motion of the air. Normally, Coriolis force is not greater
than the pressure gradient force. In the case of super-gradient winds, Coriolis force
may be greater than the pressure gradient force. This causes the wind to deflect more
to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, or toward higher pressure. Under actual
conditions, air moves around high and low pressure centres toward lower pressure.
Now let’s consider the flow of air from the area of high pressure to the area of low
pressure, but, as we mentioned previously, it does not flow straight across the isobars
(or isoheights). Instead, the flow is circular around the pressure systems. The Coriolis
force commences deflecting the path of movement to the right (Northern Hemisphere)
or left (Southern Hemisphere) until it reaches a point where a balance exists between
the Coriolis and the pressure gradient force. At this point the air is no longer deflected
and moves forward around the systems. Once circular motion around the systems is
established, then centrifugal force must be considered. Centrifugal force acts outward
from the centre of both the highs and the lows with a force dependent upon the
velocity of the wind and the degree of curvature of the isobars. However, the pressure
30
gradient force is acting towards the low; therefore, the flow in that direction persists.
When the flow is parallel to the curved portion of an analysis, it is a G radient wind.
When it is moving parallel to that portion of the analysis showing straight flow, it is a
Geostrophic wind. We defined pressure gradient as being a change of pressure with
distance. This means that if the isobars are closely spaced, then the pressure change is
greater over a given distance; it is smaller if they are widely spaced. Therefore, the
closer the isobars, the faster the flow. Geostrophic and gradient winds are also
dependent, to a certain extent, upon the density of the atmosphere and the latitude. If
the density and the pressure gradient remain constant and the latitude increases, the
wind speed decreases. If the latitude decreases, the wind speed increases. If the
density and the latitude remain constant and the pressure gradient decreases, the wind
speed decreases. If the pressure gradient and the latitude remain constant and the
density decreases, the wind speed increases. If the density increases, the wind speed
decreases. True Geostrophic wind is seldom observed in nature, but the conditions are
closely approximated on upper-level charts.
Geostrophic Wind : winds balanced by the Coriolis and Pressure Gradient forces
An air parcel initially at rest will move from high pressure to low pressure because of
the pressure gradient force (PGF). However, as that air parcel begins to move, it is
deflected by the Coriolis force to the right in the northern hemisphere (to the left on
the southern hemisphere). As the wind gains speed, the deflection increases until the
Coriolis force equals the pressure gradient force. At this point, the wind will be
blowing parallel to the isobars. When this happens, the wind is referred to as
geostrophic.
Gradient Wind: non-geostrophic winds which blow parallel to isobars.
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Geostrophic winds exist in locations where there
are no frictional forces and the isobars are striaght.
However, such locations are quite rare. Isobars are
almost always curved and are very rarely evenly
spaced. This changes the geostrophic winds so that
they are no longer geostrophic but are instead in
gradient wind balance. They still blow parallel to
the isobars, but are no longer balanced by only the
pressure gradient and Coriolis forces, and do not
have the same velocity as geostrophic winds.
When isobars are curved, there is a third force -- the centrifugal force. This apparent
force pushes objects away from the center of a circle. The centrifugal force alters the
original two-force balance and creates the non-geostrophic gradient wind.
In this case, the centrifugal force acts in the same direction as the Coriolis force. As
the parcel moves north, it moves slightly away from the center -- decreases the
centrifugal force. The pressure gradient force becomes slightly more dominant and
the parcel moves back to the original radius. This allows the gradient wind to blow
parallel to the isobars.
Since the pressure gradient force doesn't

change, and all the forces must balance,
the Coriolis force becomes weaker. This
in turn decreases the overall wind speed.
This is where the gradient wind differs
from the geostrophic winds. In this case
of a low pressure system or trough,
the gradient wind blows parallel to
the isobars at a less than geostrophic
(subgeostrophic) speed.
This also applies to high-pressure systems as well. This time the centrifugal force is
pushing in the same direction as the pressure gradient force, and when it gets slightly
further away from the center, the centrifugal force again reduces, but this time that
makes the Coriolis Force more dominant and the air parcel will move back to its
original radius -- again with the end result being wind blowing parallel to the isobars.
32
Since the pressure gradient force still
doesn't change, the Coriolis force must
again adjust to balance the forces.
However now it becomes stronger, which
in turn increases the overall wind speed.
This means that in a high pressure
system or ridge, the gradient wind
blows parallel to the isobars faster than
geostrophic (supergeostrophic) speed.
2.3.2: CYCLOSTROPHIC WIND
- cyclo means "cyclone" or low-pressure system and strophic means "turning". In

some atmospheric conditions, the radius of rotation becomes so small that the
centrifugal force becomes quite strong in comparison with the Coriolis force. This is
particularly true in low latitudes where the Coriolis force is quite small. In this case,
the pressure gradient force is nearly balanced by the centrifugal force alone. When
this occurs, the wind is said to be cyclostrophic. By definition, a cyclostrophic wind
exists when the pressure gradient force is balanced by the centrifugal force alone.
Cyclostrophic flow therefore is a balance which occurs when the horizontal
pressure gradient and centrifugal forces push equally in opposite directions. These
forces are important in a small, short-lived, sharply curved, windy and spinning low-
pressure system. In other words, this balance describes situations in which the turning
of the wind, not the Earth, is the dominant effect.
The flow can be either cyclonic or anti-cyclonic with a circular motion as a result of
the centrifugal force. However, the pressure gradient force always points inward,
making the center of circulation an area of low pressure. Since only two forces are
considered, there are certain assumptions that are to be made. The flow must be
frictionless, always parallel to the height contours. The following picture illustrates
cyclostrophic flow:
When we assume that a flow is cyclostrophic in nature, the coriolis force is defined as
being zero.
There are some real world applications to cyclostrophic flow. Small scale circulations,
such as waterspouts and dust devils are small enough so that the coriolis force can be
33
neglected. Tornados typically have a cyclonic circulation associated with them,
because the rotation of the mesocyclone that spawns the tornado is cyclonic.
However, waterspouts and dust devils are not as constrained to the weather systems
that spawn them. Both of these circulations have been observed to be both cyclonic
and anti-cyclonic.
2.4: MOVEMENT OF WIND AROUND ANTICYCLONES
The movement of gradient winds around anticyclones is affected in a certain manner

by the pressure gradient force, the centrifugal force, and the Coriolis force. The
pressure gradient force acts from high to low pressure, and the Coriolis force acts
opposite to the pressure gradient force and at right angles to the direction of
movement of the parcel of air. The centrifugal force acts at right angles to the path of
motion and outward from the center about which the parcel is moving. In the case of a
high-pressure center, the pressure gradient force and the centrifugal force balance the
Coriolis force.
2.5: MOVEMENT OF WIND AROUND CYCLONES
As in the case of anticyclones, the pressure gradient force, the centrifugal force, and
the Coriolis force affect gradient winds around cyclones, but the balance of the forces
is different. In a cyclonic situation the Coriolis force and the centrifugal force
balance the pressure gradient force. Centrifugal force acts with the pressure gradient
force when the circulation is anticyclonic and against the pressure gradient force when
the circulation is cyclonic. Therefore, wind velocity is greater in an anticyclone than
in a cyclone of the same isobaric spacing. It has been determined that, given the same
density, pressure gradient, and latitude, the wind is weaker around a low-pressure cell
than a high-pressure cell. This is also true for gradient and Geostrophic winds. The
wind we observe on a synoptic chart is usually stronger around low cells than high
cells because the pressure gradient is usually stronger around the low-pressure cell.
2.6: SECONDARY CIRCULATION
The circulations caused by the effect of Earth’s surfaces, its composition and contour,
are known as secondary circulations. These secondary circulations give rise to winds
that often cancel out the normal effect of the great wind systems. There are two
factors that cause the pressure belts of the primary circulation to break up into closed
circulations of the secondary circulations. They are the non-uniform surface of the
Earth (mechanical effect) and the difference between heating and cooling of land and
water. The surface temperature of Oceans changes very little during the year.
However, land areas sometimes undergo extreme temperature changes with the
seasons. In the winter, large high-pressure areas form over the cold land and the low-
pressure areas form over the relatively warm Oceans. The reverse is true in summer
when highs are over water and lows form over the warm land areas. The result of this
difference in heating and cooling of land and water surfaces is known as the thermal
effect. Circulation systems are also created by the interaction of wind belts of pressure
34
systems or the variation in wind in combination with certain distributions of
temperature and/or moisture. This is known as the dynamic effect. Most of the
systems are both created and maintained by a combination of the thermal and
dynamic effects.
2.7: THERMAL CIRCULATIONS
As discussed earlier, winds blow because of differences in atmospheric pressure.

Pressure gradients may develop on a local to a global scale because of differences
in the heating and cooling of the Earth's surface. Heating and cooling cycles that
develop daily or annually can create several common local or regional thermal wind
systems. Many mesoscale phenomena are the result of a thermal circulation:
Thermal circulation - a circulation generated by pressure gradients produced by

differential heating thermal circulations tend to be shallow - do not extend up
through the depth of the troposphere.
The basic circulation system that develops is described in the generic illustrations
below.
Figure 13-1: Cross-section of the atmosphere with uniform horizontal atmospheric pressure.
In this first diagram (Figure 13-1), there is no horizontal temperature or pressure

gradient and therefore no wind. Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude as
depicted by the drawn isobars (1000 to 980 millibars). In the second diagram
(Figure 13-2), the potential for solar heating is added which creates contrasting
surface areas of temperature and atmospheric pressure. The area to the right
receives more solar radiation and the air begins to warm from heat energy
transferred from the ground through conduction and convection. The vertical
distance between the isobars becomes greater as the air rises. To the far left, less
radiation is received because of the presence of cloud, and this area becomes
35
relatively cooler than the area to the right. In the upper atmosphere, a pressure
gradient begins to form because of the rising air and upward spreading of the isobars.
The air then begins to flow in the upper atmosphere from high pressure to low
pressure.
Figure 13-2: Development of air flow in the upper atmosphere because of surface heating.
Figure 13-3 shows the full circulation system in action. Beneath the upper
atmosphere high is a thermal low pressure center created from the heating of the
ground surface. Below the upper atmosphere low is a thermal high created by the
relatively cooler air temperatures and the descend air from above. Surface air
temperatures are cooler here because of the obstruction of shortwave radiation
absorption at the Earth's surface by the cloud. At the surface, the wind blows from the
high to the low pressure. Once at the low, the wind rises up to the upper air high
pressure system because of thermal buoyancy and outflow in the upper atmosphere.
From the upper high, the air then travels to the upper air low, and then back down to
the surface high to complete the circulation cell. The circulation cell is a closed
system that redistributes air in an equitable manner. It is driven by the greater heating
of the surface air in the right of the diagram.
36
Figure 13-3: Development of a closed atmospheric circulation cell because of surface
heating.
Sea and land breezes are types of thermal circulation systems that develop at the
interface of land and ocean. At this interface, the dissimilar heating and cooling
characteristics of land and water initiate the development of an atmospheric pressure
gradient which causes the air in these areas to flow.
During the daytime, land heats up much faster than water as it receives solar radiation
from the Sun (Figure 13-4). The warmer air over the land then begins to expand and
rise forming a thermal low. At the same time, the air over the ocean becomes a cool
high because of water's slower rate of heating. Air begins to flow as soon as there is a
significant difference in air temperature and pressure across the land to sea gradient.
The development of this pressure gradient causes the heavier cooler air over the ocean
to move toward the land and to replace the air rising in the thermal low. This localized
air flow system is called a sea breeze. Sea breeze usually begins in midmorning and
reaches its maximum strength in the later afternoon when the greatest temperature and
pressure contrasts exist. It dies down at sunset when air temperature and pressure once
again become similar across the two surfaces.
37
Figure 13-4: Daytime development of sea breeze.
At sunset, the land surface stops receiving radiation from the Sun (Figure 13-5). As
night continues the land surface begins losing heat energy at a much faster rate than
the water surface. After a few hours, air temperature and pressure contrasts begin to
develop between the land and ocean surfaces. The land surface being cooler than the
water becomes a thermal high pressure area. The ocean becomes a warm thermal low.
Wind flow now moves from the land to the open ocean. This type of localized air flow
is called a land breeze.
Figure 13-5: Nighttime development of land breeze.
38
Mountain and valley breezes are common in regions with great topographic relief
(Figure 13-6 and 13-7). A valley breeze develops during the day as the sun heats the
land surface and air at the valley bottom and sides (Figure 13-6). As the air heats it
becomes less dense and buoyant and begins to flow gently up the valley sides. Vertical
ascent of the air rising along the sides of the mountain is usually limited by the
presence of a temperature inversion layer. When the ascending air currents
encounter the inversion they are forced to move horizontally and then back down to
the valley floor. This creates a self-contained circulation system. If conditions are
right, the rising air can condense and form into cumuliform clouds.
Figure 13-6: Daytime development of valley breeze.
During the night, the air along the mountain slopes begins to cool quickly because of
longwave radiation loss (Figure 13-7). As the air cools, it becomes more dense and
begins to flow downslope causing a mountain breeze. Convergence of the draining
air occurs at the valley floor and forces the air to move vertically upward. The upward
movement is usually limited by the presence of a temperature inversion which
forces the air to begin moving horizontally. This horizontal movement completes the
circulation cell system. In narrowing terrain, mountain winds can accelerate in speed
because of the venturi effect. Such winds can attain speeds as high as 150 kilometers
per hour.
Figure 13-7: Nighttime development of mountain breeze.
39
2.7.1: OTHER LOCAL WINDS
FALL (gravity) WINDS: descend down a mountain slope and are generally much
stronger than mountain breezes. These are associated with extensive cooling of a
snow-covered elevated plateau.
For optimal conditions; there should be a well define strong horizontal pressure
gradient over an elevated plateau with winds exceeding 100 knots. Even though fall
winds are warmed adiabatically during their decent they are, nevertheless, colder than
the air they displace. They mainly occur over Greenland and Antarctica.
CHINOOK ; means Snow Eater. This occur when strong westerly flow descends
over mountains. chinooks are descending, warm, dry winds on the lee side of a
mountain range. The significant adiabatic warming frequently modifies the winter
temperatures (weather and climate under its influence).
Chinooks - called foehn are common in North America east of the Rockies and are
also observed in Switzerland-the Alps.
40
2.7.2: MONSOON WINDS
Monsoons are regional scale wind systems that predictably change direction with the
passing of the seasons. Like land/sea breezes, these wind systems are created by the
temperature contrasts that exist between the surfaces of land and ocean. However,
monsoons are different from land/sea breezes both spatially and temporally.
Monsoons occur over distances of thousands of kilometers, and their two dominant
wind flow patterns over an annual time scale.
During the summer, monsoon winds blow from the cooler ocean surfaces onto the
warmer continents. In the summer, the continents become much warmer than the
oceans because of a number of factors. These factors include:
 Specific heat differences between land and water.

 Greater evaporation over water surfaces.
 Subsurface mixing in Ocean basins which redistributes heat energy through a

deeper layer.
Precipitation is normally associated with the summer monsoons. Onshore winds

blowing inland from the warm Ocean are very high in humidity, and slight cooling of
these air masses causes condensation and rain. In some cases, this precipitation can be
greatly intensified by orographic uplift. West African rainy season is associated with
the summer monsoon.
In the winter, the wind patterns reverse as the ocean surfaces are now warmer. With
little solar energy available, the continents begin cooling rapidly as longwave
radiation is emitted to space. The Ocean surface retains its heat energy longer because
of water's high specific heat and subsurface mixing. The winter monsoons bring clear
dry weather and winds that flow from land to sea.
2.8: BOUNDARY LAYER WINDS
Friction's effects on air motion decrease as the altitude increases -- to a point (usually
1-2 km) where it has no effect at all. The depth of the atmosphere that friction does
play a role in atmospheric motion is referred to as the boundary layer. Within the
boundary layer, this friction plays a role in keeping the wind from being geostrophic.
If we look at low and high-pressure systems (refer to figure 13 above), we can see this
mechanism at work. Without frictional effects, the winds would be moving counter-
clockwise around the center of the low in the northern hemisphere. However, when
the surface friction is accounted for, the wind slows down, and therefore the Coriolis
force weakens and the pressure gradient force becomes dominant, resulting in the
spiraling of air into the center of a low pressure system and away from the center of
the high pressure system. This causes convergence in the center of the low pressure
41
system at the surface. It is this surface convergence which leads to rising air which
can create clouds and even cause rain and storms to form.
At the same time, wind flows around a northern hemisphere high-pressure system in a
clockwise manner, but when frictional effects are introduced the wind again slows
down, and the Coriolis force reduces and the pressure gradient force becomes
dominant. In this case, though, the pressure gradient is outward from the center of the
high, so the result is that surface wind spirals away from the center. This causes
divergence (convergence) in the center of the high (low) pressure system at the
surface. This surface divergence causes sinking motion which suppresses cloud
development and gives us clear skies.
2.8.1: FACTORS AFFECTING DAYTIME WARMING
Wind speed; land type; humidity;

vegetation cover; soil moisture and
cloudiness.
Other factors includes: Surface

wetness; vegetation type; surface type
(snow, sand, grass, etc...)
The change in temperature near the

ground on a calm day can be
substantial as indicated on the diagram
to the right.
During the daytime hours, the

temperature profile near the ground
decreases with height.
42
"radiation inversion": average radiation
inversion depth is about 100m, but can
vary from 10m - 1 km.
Night time cooling - radiation

inversion
During the night time hours, there is no

SW heating the ground, so the ground
2.8.2: FACTORS PROMOTING
cools rapidly. Hence, there is heat RADIATION INVERSION
transfer by conduction from the warm FORMATION
air to the cold ground. This heat
transfer occurs in a shallow layer near Q: What factors promote radiation
the ground since air is a poor inversion formation?
conductor.
Calm winds versus strong winds; long
The shallow layer of air near the nights versus short nights; dry air
Earth's surface where the temperature versus humid air; clear skies versus
increases with height forms a cloudy skies;
2.8.3: FRICTION IN THE BOUNDARY LAYER - INTERNAL FRICTION
Internal friction is related to molecular ground. Large changes of wind speed

viscosity. exist near the ground in the lowest
millimetre or so.
Viscosity is the slowing of a fluid due
to molecular movement this type of
friction is dominant in a shallow layer
near the ground.
Air molecules at ground level are not

moving as they are in contact with the
stationary ground; hence the wind
speed decreases as you get closer to the
2.8.4: FRICTION IN THE BOUNDARY LAYER - EDDY VISCOSITY
Eddy viscosity refers to the internal on the surface (trees, buildings,

friction generated as laminar (smooth, mountains, etc).
steady) flow becomes irregular and
turbulent as it passes over irregularities
43
Eddy motions created by obstructions
are commonly referred to as
mechanical turbulence. Mechanical
turbulence produces a frictional affect
(drag) on the air flow that is much
larger than caused by molecular
viscosity.
2.8.5: SMALL-SCALE EDDIES IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Small-scale eddies can be formed by a number of processes in the atmosphere:
1. Flow around a building.
2. Flow around an Island.
3. Flow over mountains and through mountain passes.
Q: why is it sometimes very windy on the peaks of mountains? And in a mountain

pass?
44
Flow over a mountain generates: wave clouds and rotor circulations.
Rotors can have strong vertical motions. Rotor circulations on the leeward side of the
mountain are bad for airplanes and gliders!!
Waves and rotors sometimes generate clear-air turbulence (CAT).
2.8.6: TURBULENCE (THERMAL) IN THE BOUNDARY LAYER
In addition to the Mechanically generated turbulence, thermal turbulence is also

generated in the boundary layer. Thermal turbulence is essentially rising thermals of
45
air in the boundary layer generated by surface heating. It is highest during max
surface heating - mid afternoon.
Let’s now examine the diurnal variation of the boundary layer and turbulence
generation within the boundary layer
2.8.7: HOW THE BOUNDARY LAYER EVOLVES
۩ EVOLUTION OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER - 6AM
Radiation inversion in place - the region from the surface to the top of the radiation
inversion is called the nocturnal boundary layer.
No thermal turbulence; little/no mechanical turbulence since winds near surface are
calm and winds increase in strength once you get above the radiation inversion
۩ EVOLUTION OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER - 11AM
Surface heating generates thermals: creates weak-moderate thermal turbulence; allows

the boundary layer to develop upward; creates small cu.
46
Thermals mix the stronger winds aloft down to near the ground - winds increase near
the surface. stronger surface winds generate mechanical turbulence as winds interact
with surface
۩ EVOLUTION OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER - 3PM
Surface heating is maximum; therefore, thermal turbulence is strongest at this time of

the day - generate fair-weather cu.
Thermals mix down even stronger wind speeds to the surface - generates larger
mechanical turbulence; surface winds are strongest at this time – breezy; boundary
layer is about 1-1.5 km deep.
Air in the boundary layer is well-mixed (i.e., has uniform properties) due to thermal
and mechanical turbulence.
47
۩ EVOLUTION OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER - 6PM
Surface heating diminishes; surface temperatures start to drop; thermal turbulence

shuts off; hence, clouds begin to diminish; nocturnal boundary starts to develop;
winds begin to weaken at the surface; mechanical turbulence is moderate - weakens
with time.
LECTURE 3: AIR MASSES

3.1: MEANING OF AIR MASS
An air mass is a body of air, several thousand kilometres across which has uniform
properties of temperature and moisture content in the horizontal. This uniformity in
the horizontal temperature and moisture is as a result of two main factors;
The air mass remained for some period of time over a large surface of the Earth which
itself has uniform properties in the horizontal. The period of stagnation over the area
is such that the air has time to acquire the temperature and moisture characteristics of
the surface over which it is sitting. The Earth’s surface over which the air mass
obtained its properties is called the source region.
The second factor is called the presence of horizontal divergence at low levels, which
served to spread the temperature and moisture characteristics in the horizontal. The
horizontal divergence may be the result of an anticyclone, or a broad current of
Easterly winds.
3.2: SOURCE REGIONS
The principal source regions are the large continents and oceans; whereas, the
principal systems that produce horizontal divergence are the polar anticyclones, the
48
subtropical anticyclones, and the tropical Trade winds. In Africa, the air mass source
regions are: the deserts of Sahara, Arabia and Kalahari, North and South Atlantic
Ocean, Indian Ocean, the Congo Basin and the polar waters of Southern Africa.
3.3: CLASSIFICATION OF AIR MASSES
The following are taken into consideration:
The nature of the source region, i.e. whether the source region is a dry land area, or
whether it is an area which can provide moisture to the air such as a large body of
water or swampy forested area. Hence, air masses are called either Continental or
Maritime depending on the nature of the source region.
The latitude of the source region; whether it is from the Arctic, Polar, Tropical or
Equatorial region.
The temperature characteristics of air masses as compared to the area over which it is
presently sitting. An air mass is said to be cold if its lower level temperature are
colder than the surface over which it is present; or it is warm if its low level
temperatures are warmer than the surface on which it is present.
Accordingly, air masses are classified as;
Continental “c” or Maritime “m”.
Arctic “A”, Polar “P”, Tropical “T” or Equatorial “E”.
Cold “k” or Warm “w” air masses.
49
Thus, the following procedure of labelling air masses is adopted.
cAk --- read as continental-arctic-cold air mass.
mAk --- read as maritime-arctic-cold air mass.
cPk --- read as continental -polar-cold air mass.
mPw --- maritime-polar-warm air mass.
mTw --- maritime-tropical-warm air mass.
cTw --- continental-tropical-warm air mass.
E is read as equatorial, which always originates from the Oceanic or Forested

equatorial region.
Table 2: Air Mass Types and Characteristics.
Air Mass Type Temperature Characteristic Moisture Characteristic
Arctic or Antarctic Extremely cold, formed over Very dry due to extreme cold.
(A or AA) poles.
Polar Continental Very cold, having developed Very dry, due to the cold and
(cP) over sub-polar regions. having developed over land.
Polar Maritime Very cool because of the high Moderately moist because of
(mP) latitude but not cold, due to the cool temperature, but not
moderating influence of the sea as dry as polar continental air
and the warm ocean currents at because of evaporation from
these latitudes. the water surface.
Tropical Continental Very warm because of the lower Dry because it formed over
sub-tropical latitude of land
(cT) formation.
50
Tropical Maritime Very warm because of the sub- Very humid because of the
(mT) tropical latitudes at which it warm tropical waters below.
forms.
Equatorial Hot. Extremely humid. Continental

(E) is moist differentiated from
maritime because much of
equatorial land is covered
with humid tropical
rainforests.
3.4: MODIFICATION OF AIR MASSES
When the air mass leaves its source region, it goes into an area which has different
temperature and moisture characteristics. It is then modified by the new surface. This
modification takes place gradually, at the lower level, until finally it becomes totally a
different air mass.
LECTURE 4: FRONTS
The transition zones between air masses are called fronts. Although a front is
indicated on a weather map by means of a line, it is a zone that is many kilometres in
width. Fronts are differentiated from one another on a weather chart by giving them
different colours – blue for cold fronts, red for warm fronts and alternate red and blue
for stationary fronts.
A frontal surface may be defined as a narrow layer of transition in which the

meteorological elements such as temperature, dew point, wind, relative humidity, ---,
vary abruptly.
4.1: TYPES OF FRONTS
Fronts may be classified according to their movement:
51
A cold front is defined as the transition this boundary resumes its forward
zone where a cold air mass is pushing motion, it once again becomes a warm
and replacing a warmer air mass. Cold front or cold front. A stationary front is
fronts generally move from northwest represented by alternating blue and red
to southeast. The air behind a cold lines with blue triangles pointing
front is noticeably colder and drier towards the warmer air and red
than the air ahead of it. When a cold semicircles pointing towards the colder
front passes through, temperatures can air. A noticeable temperature change
drop more than 15 degrees within the and/or shift in wind direction is
first hour. Symbolically, a cold front is commonly observed when crossing
represented by a solid line with from one side of a stationary front to
triangles along the front pointing the other.
towards the warmer air and in the
direction of movement.
Occluded Front Occurs when a cold

front overtakes a warm front.
A developing cyclone typically has a

A warm front is defined as the preceding warm front (the leading edge
transition zone where a warm air mass of a warm moist air mass) and a faster
is replacing a cold air mass. Warm moving cold front (the leading edge of
fronts generally move from southwest a colder drier air mass wrapping
to northeast and the air behind a warm around the storm). North of the warm
front is warmer and more moist than front is a mass of cooler air that was in
the air ahead of it. When a warm front place before the storm even entered the
passes through, the air becomes region.
noticeably warmer and more humid
than it was before. Symbolically, a
warm front is represented by a solid
line with semicircles pointing towards
the colder air and in the direction of
movement.
As the storm intensifies, the cold front

rotates around the storm and catches
When a warm or cold front stops the warm front. This forms an
moving, it becomes a stationary front. occluded front, which is the boundary
a stationary front has no motion. Once that separates the new cold air mass (to
52
the west) from the older cool air mass Changes in temperature, dew point
already in place north of the warm temperature, and wind direction can
front. Symbolically, an occluded front occur with the passage of an occluded
is represented by a solid line with front. When the cold front overtakes
alternating triangles and circles the warm front, the warm air between
pointing towards the direction the front them is squeezed upward. Such a front
is moving. On colored weather maps, is called an occluded front.
an occluded front is drawn with a solid
purple line.
53
54

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CONTENTS

LECTURE 1: RADIATION PROCESSES...........................................................................................4

Figure 1: Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation

Visible light has a spectrum that

Figure 2: Electromagnetic spectrum with light highlighted

1.1.1: WAVE MODEL

When light is shone through a prism because of the

Rainbows give a fine natural display of this array of

The energy in electromagnetic waves is sometimes called radiant energy.

1.1.2: PARTICLE MODEL

1.1.3: THE NATURE OF RADIATION

Figure 3-2: Spectrum of the Sun.

1. Solar Output (Solar Constant).

3. Latitudinal distribution/difference (Length of day, Inclination of Sun’s rays).

i. Altitude (Elevation) and Aspect (Terrain slope).

iii. Ocean Currents.

1.3: HEAT TRANSFER

1.4: DEPLETION OF SOLAR RADIATION

Table 1: Typical Values of Earth’s Albedo

SURFACE TYPE REFLECTIVITY %

Snow Fresh > 75

Soil, dry Clay 20 - 35

Soil, dry Sand 25 - 45

Savanna, Wet season 15 - 20

Savanna, Dry season 25 - 30

Crop fields green 5 - 20

Water, solar elevation greater than 40° 2-4

Water, solar elevation less than 30° 6 - 40

Cumuliform Cloud Overcast 70 - 90

Stratus Cloud 500 to 1000ft thick 59 - 84

1.5: GREENHOUSE EFFECT

1.6: RADIATION (HEAT) BALANCE IN THE ATMOSPHERE

1.6.1: TERRESTRIAL (EARTH) RADIATION

The atmosphere is kept in motion and develops its Weather/Climate characteristics

Figure 5: Mean Annual Heat Balance of the Earth-Atmosphere System

1.6.3: HEAT BALANCE AND TRANSFER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

1.6.4: GLOBAL HEAT BALANCE (INTRODUCTION TO HEAT FLUXES)

1.7.1: DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATION

1.7.2: DIURNAL VARIATION OF SOLAR AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATION

If the net radiation > 0, surface warms (6 AM to 2-4 PM)

If the net radiation < 0, surface cools (2-4 PM to 6 AM)

1.7.3: SEASONAL AND ANNUAL TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Figure 8: Annual Insolation received over selected latitudes during NH Summer

Macroscale (Planetary/Global scale) - Longwaves in the westerlies, ITCZ

Mesoscale - Thunderstorms, Tornadoes, Land and Sea breeze

Microscale - Turbulence, Wind gust

Table 1: Length and Time scales for a number of Atmospheric Systems.

System Length Scale Time Scale

small eddies 0.1 - 1 m 1s

gusts 10 -100 m 100 s

tornadoes 100 m 100 s

cumulonimbus cloud 1 km 10 - 60 min

fronts, squall lines, land/sea breeze 10 - 100 km 1 - 12 hr

hurricanes 100 km 2 - 5 days

Synoptic Cyclones/ Anticyclones 1000 km 3 days - 2 wks

Planetary waves, ITCZ 10000 km 1-12 mon

2.1: ELEMENTS OF CIRCULATION

Temperature differences cause pressure differences, which in turn cause air