The Study on Risk Management for Sediment-Related Disaster on Final Report Guide III

Selected National Highways in the Republic of the Philippines Road Slope Protection

CHAPTER 4

COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ROCK SLOPE COLLAPSE

4.1 General

Rock slope collapse is a rapid movement of rock blocks or rock mass on a steep rock face, ranging
in size from individual rock fall to small-scale rock mass failure. Because of its high speed, the
rock slope collapse can cause considerable damage to vehicles, death or injury to drivers and
passengers, and economic loss due to road closures.

For this reason, a large number of road sections have required countermeasures against rock slope
collapse in mountainous zones, especially along long, large slopes and steep cliffs. Since rock
slope collapses along the national highway are mainly in the form of rock falls, this chapter
focuses considerations on planning and design countermeasure works against rock falls.

Moreover, Chapter 5 of this Guide III, “Countermeasures against Landslides” may be applied for
the stabilization of rock slopes and large-scale rock slope collapses. Reference is made to Chapter
3 of this Guide III for the design of retaining walls.

4.2 Calculation of Impact Force of Falling Rocks

Countermeasures against rock falls shall be designed with the assumption that the external forces
are to be safely borne by each countermeasure and by using these as design external forces.

4.2.1 Motion Mechanism of Rock Falls

The motion of falling rocks on a steep slope is divided into three types, namely, sliding, rolling
and bouncing motions, as illustrated in Figure 4.1. These motion patterns change into other forms,
as shown in Figure 4.2.

In designing countermeasures for rock falls, the weight, speed, direction and position of the
falling rocks is determined on the basis of the survey and/or history of rock falls in the specific
area.

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Motion pattern Sliding Rolling Bouncing

Diagram

Bounces in the air and

Characteristics Slides down slopes Rolls down a slope
moves downwards
Falling speed Slow Average Fast
Bounce height Zero Small Great

Figure 4.1 Illustration of Motion Mechanism of Falling Rocks

Sliding Linear motion

Occurrence of
Rock Falls

Rolling

Collision
Parabolic motion
Bouncing
Free fall

Figure 4.2 Motion Pattern of Falling Rocks

Source: Modification from reference No. 4 MANUAL FOR COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ROCK FALL, Published by Japan
Road Association, June 2000.

4.2.2 Velocity of Falling Rocks

Among the three motion patterns, the velocity of falling rocks moving down a slope is highest
during the bouncing motion. The velocity of a falling and bouncing rock block along a slope is
less than that of the freely falling rock in the air from the same height.

Empirically, the following relationship is used to calculate the velocity of a falling and bouncing
stone.

V = α × 2 gh ······················································································································ (4.1)

µ
α = 1− ····················································································································· (4.2)
tan θ

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Where,

V= Velocity of a falling and bouncing stone (m/s)

2 gh = Velocity of a freely falling rock in the air (m/s)

α= Coefficient of velocity reduction

g= Gravity acceleration (m/s2)
H= Falling height (m)
µ= Equivalent coefficient of friction of the slope
θ= Gradient of the slope (degrees)

Table 4.1 gives the recommended coefficient of friction based on experiments for different kinds
of slopes.

Table 4.1 Kinds of Slopes and Values of the Equivalent Coefficient of Friction
Value of μUsed Range ofμObtained
Class Characteristics of Rock Falls and Slopes
for Design from Experiments
1) Hard rocks, round shapes,
A 2) Small concave and convex rocks, no standing 0.05 0.0 ～ 0.1
trees.
1) Soft rocks, square to round shapes,
B 2) Medium to large concave and convex rocks, no 0.15 0.11 ～ 0.20
standing trees.
1) Sediment, talus, round to square shapes,
C 2) Small to medium concave and convex rocks, no 0.25 0.21 ～ 0.30
standing trees.
1) Talus, talus with boulders, square shapes,
D 2) Medium to large concave and convex rocks, 0.35 0.31 or more
with or without standing trees.
Source: Modification from
Reference No. 4 MANUAL FOR COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ROCK FALL, Published by Japan Road
Association, June 2000.
Reference No. 5 DESIGN GUIDE －EARTHWORKS, Published by Japan Highway Public Corporation, May 1998.

4.2.3 Kinetic Energy of Falling Rocks

When designing countermeasures for rock falls, it is necessary to calculate the kinetic energy of
the falling rocks by means of energy calculations.

Kinetic energy of falling rocks is expressed by the sum of the linear velocity energy and rolling
energy, as follows:

E = Ev + Er ························································································································· (4.3)

µ
E = (1 + β ) × (1 − ) × m × g × H ···················································································· (4.4)
tan θ

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Where,

E= Kinetic energy of falling rocks (t/s2)

Ev= Linear velocity energy of falling rocks (=1/2mV2)
Er= Rolling energy of falling rocks
m= Mass unit of falling rocks (t)
µ
β= Rolling energy ratio (=Er/Ev) and (1 + β ) × (1 − ) ≤ 1.0
tan θ

In the above equation, the value of β is generally in the range of 0.1 to 0.4, and 0.1 shall be used
most frequently for design calculations.

From the results of experiments conducted, the height of the bounce of the falling rocks
increases as the height of freefall becomes larger, but does not exceed 2 meters in most cases.
Therefore, a bounce height of 2 meters is frequently used as the acting position of the design
external force for countermeasure design.

4.2.4 Impact Force of Falling Rocks

Rock fall protection works shall be designed by converting the impact force of falling rock to a
static force and by using the allowable stress method instead of the energy calculation method.

Since the impact force of falling rocks is considerably large, it is advantageous to use
shock-absorbing materials to economically design these countermeasures, such as sand mats.

If the shock absorbing material is assumed to be an elastic body with a semi-infinite thickness and
the specific gravity of the falling rock is assumed to be 2.6, then the maximum impact force Pmax
of the falling rock can be expressed by the following equation:

2 2 3
Pmax = 2.108 × ( m × g ) 3 × λ 5 × H 5
·················································································· (4.5)

Where,

Pmax= The maximum impact force (kN)

λ= Lame’s constant (kN/m2) (referring to Table 4.2)

H= Height of freefall of rocks (m)

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Table 4.2 Lame’s Constant of Shock Absorbing Materials

Material conditions Constant (kN/m2) Remarks
1. Very soft 1,000
2. Soft 3,00 to 5,000
3. Hard 10,000
Note): 1 t/m2 = 10 kN/m2.

Source: Modification from

Reference No. 4 MANUAL FOR COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ROCK FALL, Published by Japan Road
Association, June 2000.

4.3 Selection of Countermeasures

4.3.1 Classification of Countermeasures

Countermeasures for rock falls are classified into rock fall prevention works and rock fall
protection works. Rock fall prevention works involve the rock fall source, such as removal of the
rocks and crib work, while rock fall protection works aim at protecting the relevant objects from
the damage of rock fall. Table 4.3 includes the most common countermeasures divided into these
two categories.

Table 4.3 Classification of Countermeasures for Rock Falls

CLASSIFICATION TYPE OF WORK
Removal
1. EARTH WORK Earth Work
Cutting
ROCK FALL PREVENTION WORK

2. DRAINAGE Surface Drainage Drainage ditches

Stone pitching
Pitching Work Block pitching
Concrete pitching
Mortar spraying
Shotcrete
Concrete spraying
3. SLOPE WORK
Concrete block cribs (precast)
Cribs Cast-in-place concrete cribs
Shotcrete cribs
Ground Anchors
Anchoring
Rock bolt
Catch fill and ditches
PROTECTION WORK

4. WALLS AND OTHER Catch walls (concrete and gabion)

Catch Work
ROCK FALL

STRUCTURES Catch fences

Catch nets
5. PROTECTION WORK Shed Rock sheds
Avoiding Problematic Route relocation
6. OTHERS
Works Bridges, tunnels

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4.3.2 Criteria for Selection of Countermeasures

Adequate and effective measures for preventing rock fall are selected in consideration of
topographical and geological conditions, vegetation, rock fall history, and effects of the
countermeasure by predicting the size and height of the rock fall. Figure 4.3 gives a selection of
countermeasures for rock falls.

The following criteria are used for the selection of countermeasures.

a) If there is a danger of rock fall, in principle, the rock fall source should be removed.
When these methods are difficult to implement, other methods should be adopted.

b) In selecting countermeasures, it is essential to consider not only the conditions of

slope and rock fall, but also the road structure, traffic conditions and ground
conditions.

c) It is necessary to combine various kinds of works together because the function of

the various types of countermeasures for rock falls is limited, as shown in Figure
4.4.

d) Countermeasures for rock falls are designed by assuming the external forces to be
safely borne by each work and by using this as design external forces.

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START

Scale of rock slope

collapse

Small Medium Large

Yes No Is there space enough to No

Possible to cut? accommodate the
collapsed mass?

Yes

Small Importance of the

road to be protected

Large

- Cutting - Pitching - Removal - Catch fill and ditch - Cutting - Route relocation
- Shotcrete - Shotcrete - Framework - Catch wall and fence - Ground anchor - Tunnel
- Rock bolt - Catch wire rope - Bridge
- Ground anchor - Catch wire rope shed
- Concrete rock shed
- Catch net

Figure 4.3 Selection Flowchart of Countermeasures for Rock Falls

Original ground line

Catch fill
Catch fence
Catch ditch
Catch walll

Road Road

a) Catch ditch + Catch fill b) Catch wall + Catch fence

Figure 4.4 Combinations of Countermeasures

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For designing rock fall protection works, the following objectives must be considered: 1)
effectiveness in absorbing the energy of falling rocks, 2) effectiveness in changing the direction
of falling rocks to direct them to fall in areas where they will inflict no or minimal damage, and
3) effectiveness in reducing the impact force and to halt the motion of the rocks. In selecting the
proper countermeasures, their effectiveness and capability to resist the energy of falling rocks is
to be carefully considered. In general, the effectiveness of the protection works in absorbing the
energy of falling rocks is in the following order from least to greatest: rock fall catch nets, rock
fall catch fences, rock fall catch walls and rock sheds.

On the other hand, in selecting rock fall prevention works, care must be taken to ensure an
appropriate combination of protection works. Effective combinations of countermeasures against
rock falls are often determined by the function, durability, construction ease, construction cost
and maintenance requirements of each type of countermeasure, as well as the conditions of the
roads and slopes.

Table 4.4 summarizes the application of these countermeasures.

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Table 4.4 Application of Countermeasures for Rock Falls

Construction Construction Degree of
Types of Work Durability Maintenance
Ease Cost Safety
Removal ◎ ◎ △ ○ ◎
Cutting ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Seed spraying ○ ○ ◎ ◎ △
ROCK FALL PREVENTION WORK

Seed mud spraying ○ ○ ◎ ◎ △

Turfing (Sodding) ○ ○ ◎ ◎ △
Drainage ditches ○ ○ ○ ◎ ○
Stone pitching ◎ ◎ ○ ◎ ○
Block pitching ◎ ◎ ○ ◎ ○
Concrete pitching ◎ ◎ ○ ◎ ○
Mortar spraying ○ ○ ◎ ◎ ○
Concrete spraying ◎ ◎ ○ ◎ ○
Concrete block cribs ◎ ○ ○ ◎ ○
Cast-in-place concrete cribs ◎ ◎ ○ ○ ◎
Shotcrete cribs ◎ ○ ○ ◎ ○
Ground Anchors ◎ ◎ △ △ ◎
Rock bolts ◎ ◎ △ △ ◎
Catch fill and ditches ◎ ○ ◎ ○ ○
PROTECTION
ROCK FALL

Catch walls ◎ ○ ◎ ◎ ○
WORK

Catch fences ○ ○ ◎ ◎ ○
Catch nets ○ ○ ◎ ◎ ○
Rock sheds ◎ ◎ △ △ ◎
Note): (1) This table is based on the Japanese experience modified by reviewing Philippine road conditions.
(2) ◎ = Very good or very easy, ○ = Good or easy, △ = Good or easy in some cases.

Source: Modification from

Reference No. 4 MANUAL FOR COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ROCK FALL, Published by Japan Road
Association, June 2000.

4.4 Design of Main Countermeasures

4.4.1 Removing and Cutting

This method involves 1) removal of small-scale potentially unstable rock masses, 2) removal of
rock overhangs by trimming/blasting and 3) removal of loose individual rock debris by hand
scaling. This method is preferred, because it eliminates the hazard and no future maintenance is
required.

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(1) Purposes
The method is used to directly remove the potentially unstable rock, thereby eliminating the
hazard.

(2) Design considerations

In planning the removal of unstable rock masses, it is important to consider the rock character.
For example, when rocks are highly degradable and strongly susceptible to weathering and
jointing, such as shale, the removal of loose rock from the surface will only start a new cycle of
weathering and instability.

Moreover, similar to cut work in soil slopes, the work should not undermine other potentially
loose rock blocks or unstable rock masses. Figure 4.5 gives some examples of the removal
works.

Removal
Cutting unstable materials

Removing rock overhang

Cut Surface

Weathered rock

ROAD Removal works

Figure 4.5 Examples of Rock Removal

4.4.2 Rock Fall Catch Nets

Rock fall catch nets consist of nets and wire rope and include two major types: cover type and
pocket type. The cover type rock fall catch net is able to restrain loose rocks by means of the net
tension and friction between the rocks and the ground. The pocket type rock fall catch net is
installed with the upper end of the net separate from the surface of the slope. Falling rocks from
the upper slope are caught in the gap between the net and slope.

(1) Purpose
Rock fall catch nets are used to cover slopes that have a potential for rock falls in order to
protect road traffic from damage.

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(2) Design considerations

Figure 4.6 shows the design procedure. Figure 4.7 gives an example of pocket type rock fall
catch nets. When designing the pocket type rock fall catch net, the assumed point of collision
of the falling rocks is at the center of the two posts and at the center between the top and second
horizontal ropes.

START START

Determine the load of falling rocks and Calculate the energy of falling stones
the deadweight of net to be used for the design

Calculate the absorbable energy :

Determine the diameter of vertical rope capable of 1) Energy absorbed by net
resisting the deadweight and load of falling rocks 2) Energy absorbed by rope
expected to appear throughout the whole length 3) Energy absorbed by post
of slope 4) Difference in energy before and after the
collision of falling rocks

Determine the diameter and spacing of horizontal

rope capable of resisting the deadweight of the rope
and weight of falling stones expected to appear in
Is absorbabale energy No
the 3 lower spans in the direction of length of slope
bigger than energy of
falling rocks?

Determine the kind of wire net

Yes

Review the strength and stability of anchor Review the strength and stability of anchor

END END

a) Cover type rock fall catch net b) Pocket type rock fall catch net

Figure 4.6 Design of Catch Nets

Source: Modification from
Reference No. 4 MANUAL FOR COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ROCK FALL, Published by Japan Road
Association, June 2000.

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3.0m 3.0m 3.0m

Anchor

Net Clip wire

Wire 2.0m
Pillar
(3.0-5.0m )
Wire
5.0m 2.0m

Wire/Net
(>10.0m )
Anchor
5.0m

2.0m 2.0m
ROAD
1.5m

a) Catch wire net b) Anchor wire net

Figure 4.7 Example of Pocket Type Rock Fall Catch Net

4.4.3 Rock Fall Catch Fences

Rock fall catch fences consist of fences made of net and wire rope attached to steel pipes or
H-section posts. This type of fence has the capacity to absorb the energy of falling rocks.

(1) Purpose
Rock fall catch fences are intended to protect road traffic from rock fall damage, but differ
from rock fall catch nets in that they are installed near the road to be protected.

(2) Design considerations

Figure 4.8 gives the design flowchart for rock fall catch fences. The design of a rock fall catch
fence involves consideration of the energy of the falling rock and the energy absorbable by the
fence, as given in Equation (4.6) and involves the following steps.

ET = E R + E P + E N ········································································································ (4.6)

Where,

ET= Energy that can be absorbed by the rock fall catch fence

ER= Energy absorbed by the wire rope

EP= Energy absorbed by the posts

EN= Energy absorbed by the nets

a) Determine the yield tension Ty corresponding to the diameter of the wire ropes.
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b) Find the force R acting on the posts from Ty of the wire ropes. The two wire ropes
are assumed to be capable of resisting the force of the falling rocks.

c) Find the force Fy required to form a plastic hinge at the bottom of the intermediate
post.

d) Compare forces R and Fy and calculate the energy that can be absorbed by the
fence.

The height of the point of impact is generally considered to be two-thirds of the height of the
fence, and falling rocks are assumed to collide with the wire ropes between posts for the
design.

In designing the foundation (retaining wall or direct foundation) for the fence, loads due to
falling rocks should be considered in addition to the earth pressure and dead load.

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START

Conditions of falling rocks Conditions of slopes

Determine the falling rocks to be used for design:

1) Weight of falling rocks (W) Determine the height of rock fall catch fence:
2) Falling height of fall rocks (H) 1) With flat area (Case 1)
　h>h1secθ
2) With small flat area of l in width (Case 2)
i) When 0<l <(h1secθ-h1)cotθ, h>(h1secθ-l tanθ)
Calculate the energy of falling rocks (Er):
　　ii) When l>(h1secθ-h1)cotθ, h>h1
1) Ei=(1+β)(1-µ/tanθ)m·ｇ·H

Determine the section of post, and number and number

of ropesso as to satisfy the following condition:
ET > Ei
When ET ≦ Ei ,
consider seperately
Determine the shape and size of the foundation, so as to
prevent the foundation from being broken even after
plastic deformation of the posts.

END

Ei= Energy of falling rocks for design

m= Unit mass of falling rocks
case(2)(i) case(1)
H= Free fall height
case(2)(ii)
θ= Gradient of a slope (degrees)
h1 µ= Equivalent coefficient of friction of
the slope
θ
β- Rotational energy ratio
h

h1- Bounce height of falling rocks

h1

(h1secθ - h1)cotθ l: Width of flat area

l ET: Absorbable energy by fence
l
g: Gravity acceleration

Figure 4.8 Design Flowchart for Rock Fall Catch Fences

Source: Modification from
Reference No. 4 MANUAL FOR COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ROCK FALL, Published by Japan Road
Association, June 2000.

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Table 4.5 Standard Specifications for Rock Fall Catch Fences

Height Post
of Fence Wire Rope Wire Net
Sectional Coefficient Interval
(m) Size and Type
(cm3) (m)
1.5
3×7G/0, φ18
2.0
diamond shape
2.5 H-200×100×5.5×8 181 Sectional area:
A = 129 mm2
3.0 φ3.2×50×50
3.5 Elastic coefficient
3.0 Ew = 105 N/mm2
4.0
4.5 Fracture strength
5.0 H-200×100×8×12 472 Tb = 157 kN

5.5 Yield strength

6.0 Ty = 118 kN
Source: Modification from
Reference No. 4 MANUAL FOR COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ROCK FALL, Published by Japan Road
Association, June 2000.

4.4.4 Rock Sheds

Rock sheds are reinforced concrete or steel structures covering a road and can be subdivided into
four types from the structural viewpoint; portal (gate) type, retaining wall type, arch type and
pocket type (Figure 4.9).

This method is very costly and would only be planned and designed in areas of extreme rock fall
hazard.

Deposited mass

Absorption materials
Jointed Rock

Jointed Rock

ROAD ROAD

a) Portal Type b) Retaining Wall Type

Figure 4.9 Types of Rock Sheds

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(1) Purpose
This method is applied to reduce road disasters due to rock fall or rock mass failure by
absorbing the impact force of a falling rock mass or changing the direction of the movement of
rock mass failure and rock falls.

(2) Design considerations

The most important design consideration should be the calculation of the impact force of the
falling rock mass. Rock sheds are designed after converting the impact force into a static force
according to the allowable stresses design method. For the purpose of simplifying the
calculations, the area on which the impact load is calculated is assumed to be rectangular rather
than circular.

The design procedure generally involves the following steps shown in Figure 4.10. The kinds
and combination of loads to be considered in the design of the rock shed are shown in Table
4.6.

ST A RT

Ste p 1: De s te rmine Conditions of rock falls and s lope s

1) Conditions of rock falls
a) Scale o f rock fall, b) falling height, c) Size of falling ro cks , d) Others
2) Conditions of slopes
a) Geo log y, b) Gradien t of s lope, c) Veg etatio n o f s lo pe,
d) Height of s lo pe, e) Others

Ste p 2: Calculate loads to be cons ide re d in the de s ign

1) Kinds of loads
a) Dead load, b) Earth and water pres s ures , c) W eight o f depo s ited
materials , d ) Impact load of falling rocks , e) Earthqu ake s kock
2) Combination of loads
a) In n ormal cas e, b) In s eis mic cas e, c) A t occurrence of ro ck falls ,
d) Oth ers (when being impacted by car) if neces s ary

Ste p 3: Calculate and de s ign the s trucute s

1) Study on alternative structures
a) Upp er s tru ctu res , b) Lower s tructu res at moun tain s ide,
c) Lower s tru ctu re at valley s ide
2) Structural calculations
a) Ch eck the s tability of fo und ation, b) Ch eck the allowable s trength
o f each kin d o f materials to be us ed

EN D

Figure 4.10 Design Procedure for Rock Sheds

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Furthermore, in the conventional design method, the dispersion of loads on the roof slab of the
rock shed is simplified, as shown in Figure 4.11.

Table 4.6 Combinations of Loads for Design of Rock Sheds

Deposited material
Water pressure
Earth pressure

Impact by car
Earthquake
Coefficient

Dead load

Weight of

Rock fall
of increase
in allowable
unit stress

1) In normal case ○ ○ △ △ 1.00

2) At occurrence of rock fall ○ ○ △ ○ 1.50
3) In seismic case ○ ○ △ △ ○ 1.50
4) At impact by car ○ ○ △ △ ○ 1.50
Note: 1) Three cases, namely normal, seismic and rock fall cases must be combined in the design.
2) ○ = Loads expected must be considered in any case, △ = Loads should be considered
according to site conditions.

Source: Modification from

Reference No. 4 MANUAL FOR COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ROCK FALL, Published by Japan
Road Association, June 2000.

P
Falling Rock

Impact Absorbing
h o
45 45
o
Materials

Roof Slab

A = π h 2 /4
√π×h/2

√π×h/2

Figure 4.11 Loading Method for Impact Load

Source: Modification from
Reference No. 4 MANUAL FOR COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ROCK FALL, Published by Japan Road
Association, June 2000.

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4.4.5 Catch Fill and Ditches

This method is commonly used and is cost-effective when a large-scale rock fall is expected.
However, there must be sufficient space between the unstable slope and the road to receive the
full volume of the potential rock fall. Figure 4.12 shows the conceptual arrangement of a catch fill
and ditch.

Falling rock
Drain ditch

Catch fill
Catch ditch

ROAD

Figure 4.12 Diagrammatic Layout of Catch Fill and Ditch

(1) Purpose
This method is used to reduce the effects of rock fall by absorbing and dispersing the impact
force of falling rocks from above the road or by diverting the direction of movement of any
rock fall.

(2) Design considerations

Apart from embankment stability analysis, design considerations are concerned with the shape
and dimensions of the catch fill and ditch in terms of their capacity for catching and
accommodating falling rocks.

In order to ensure the capacity of the catch fill and ditch, a drainage ditch is installed along side.

Table 4.7 lists the recommended shapes and dimensions of these structures in relation to the
slope gradient.

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Table 4.7 Recommended Shapes and Dimensions of Catch Ditches

(Modified from Reference No. 4)
Gradient of slope β Height of slope Width of ditch Depth of ditch
(Vertical to Horizontal) H (m) W (m) D (m)
5 to 10 4 1.0
Nearly vertical
10 to 20 5 1.5
(90o)
Over 20 6 1.5
5 to 10 4 1.0
1:0.25 to 1:0.3 10 to 20 5 1.5
(76o～73o) 20to 30 6 2.0
Over 30 8 2.0
5 to 10 4 1.5
1:0.5 10 to 20 5 2.0
(63o) 20 to 30 6 2.0
Over 30 8 2.5
0 to 10 4 1.0
1:0.75
10 to 20 5 1.5
(53o)
Over 20 5 2.0
0 to 10 4 1.0
1:1.0
10 to 20 4 1.5
(45o)
Over 20 5 2.0
Note: The symbols in the above table are the same as those in the figure below.
Source: Modification from
Reference No. 4 MANUAL FOR COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ROCK FALL, Published by Japan Road
Association, June 2000.

H
Catch fill
W

ROAD D
β

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CHAPTER 5

COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST LANDSLIDES

5.1 General

Landslides involve large-scale areas with different movement blocks. Stabilization plans relevant
to landslides should be drawn up for countermeasures for each movement block, as well as overall
plans for increasing the safety of the area as a whole.

For this reason, this chapter provides key points for reconnaissance for formulating the landslide
countermeasure plan and general guidelines on the stability analysis of the slopes. It focuses on
design considerations for the main countermeasures for landslides.

Furthermore, the general guideline for surface drainage works and design of standard slopes
presented in Chapter 3 is also applicable to landslides. Reference is made to Chapter 6 for
guideline on the design considerations for reinforced earth walls. Reference is also made to
Chapters 8 and 9 for guidelines on protection of the toe of a potential landslide, especially when a
landslide may be triggered by river or coastal erosion.

5.2 Key Points of Reconnaissance for Formulating Landslide Countermeasure

Plans

Reconnaissance is implemented at the potential landslide sites for estimating and referring the
following items:

a) Estimation of extent of potential landslide;

b) Division of movement blocks;

c) Drafting of further survey plans; and

d) Investigations regarding urgent measures

(1) Estimation of extent of potential landslide;

The extent of the area subject to landslide activity includes the area where landslide activity
may be expected in the future, together with the area subject to damage from landslide
activities. These areas are estimated from various indications occurring in the landslide area
(cracks, steps, settlements, bulges, deformation of structures), as well as the

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microtopographical conditions (distribution of depressions, lakes, spring water, etc., and

geological conditions (outcrop of base rock and sliding surface).

The boundaries (width and length) of potential landslide areas can be estimated from the
distribution of cracks, and the depth of the sliding surface is estimated based on the following
empirical relationships:

D = W×1/7㨪1/10 ··········································································································· (5.1)

Where,

D= Depth of sliding surface, W

D Sliding surface
W= Width of landslide area.
(a) Plan (b) Section

(2) Division of landslide blocks

The landslide area as a whole is subdivided into a number of movement blocks. The division is
based on observation of the distribution of landslide heads and cracking conditions. The
distribution and location of cracks provides clues to identifying the activity, shape of sliding
surfaces, direction of movement, and tension or compression zones.

(3) Drafting of further survey plans

When the reconnaissance results are not sufficient for the formulation of the landslide
countermeasure plan, further surveys such as geological surveys and ground condition surveys
should be conducted. The survey plan is formulated on the basis of the above estimated results.

(4) Investigations regarding urgent measures

Once inferences have been made on the movement mechanism and movement blocks,
emphasis shall be given to the movement blocks for planning urgent measures.

5.3 Stability Analysis of Slopes

5.3.1 Stability Analysis

Stability analysis should be conducted to determine the scale and quantity of landslide
countermeasure works required to maintain the stability of the landslide slope and so ensure the
target safety factor. The Swedish slice method (also called ordinary slice method) is used for
stability analysis of a landslide slope, as follows:

( 6N  6U ) u tan I  C u 6L
Fs  xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx (5.2)
6T

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Where,

㧺(kN/m)= Normal force attributable to gravity of slice, N=W࡮cosĮ

㨀(kN/m)= Tangential force attributable to gravity of the slice,㧺=W࡮sinĮ

Į㧔°㧕 = Angle of the base of the slice to the horizontal

㨁(kN/m)= Pore pressure acting on the base of the slice

㧸㧔m㧕 = Length of sliding surface acting on the slice

㧯(kN/m2㧕= Cohesion of sliding surface

ij㧔°㧕= Internal friction angle of sliding surface

Equation 5.2 is used for the calculation of the quantity of works required, for example:

(1) Piling works

The additional shear strength required to satisfy the proposed safety factor for piling works is
calculated from Equation 5.3 and schematically shown in Figure 5.1.

PR PFs u ¦ T  ¦( N  U ) tan I  C u ¦ L ··································································· (5.3)

Where,

PR(kN/m)= Required preventive force to be provided by the pile

PFs= Proposed factor of safetyG

Piling work

PR

PR ( PFs  Fs ) u ¦ T

Figure 5.1 Schematic Diagram of Effectiveness of Piling Works

(2) Anchors
Anchors have two kinds of mechanical effects: a clamping effect (P1) - To increase the

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resistance against shear force by applying a force normal to the sliding surface; and a straining
effect (P2) - To decrease the sliding force of a landslide by using steel members as shear pins.
The required preventive power of the anchors shall be obtained from Equation (5.4), as
schematically shown in Figure 5.2.

( PFs  Fs ) u ¦ T
P  xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx (5.4)
cos(D  T )  sin(D  T ) u tan I

Anchor work
P: Required preventive power to be
provided by anchor
PFs: Proposed factor of safety
P1=P u cos (D + T ) Fs: Factor of safety before anchor work

T ǩ: Anchor setting angle

D ǰ: Slope of sliding surface
P Ǿ: Internal frictional angle of sliding
surface
P2=P u sin (D + T )

Figure 5.2 Schematic Diagram of Effectiveness of Anchor Works

(3) Drainage works

The amount of reduction in the pore water pressure that must be achieved through the
construction of drainage works in order to satisfy the proposed safety factor is obtained using
Equation (5.5), as schematically shown in Figure 5.3.

Drainage well + collecting bore hole

'h

Note: for 1m width of landslide area,

ӠU =Ӡh×ǫ(ǫ=unit weight of water)

Figure 5.3 Schematic Diagram of Effectiveness of Drainage Works

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1
'U ( PFs u ¦ T  ¦( N  U ) tan I  C u ¦ L)  xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx (5.5)
tan I

Where,

Ӡ7(kN/m㧕= Required reduction in pore water pressure

(4) Earthworks
The improved factor of safety due to earthworks (filling work and cutting work) is calculated
by using Equation 5.6, as schematically shown in Figure 5.4.

' ¦( N '  U ' ) tan I  C u ¦ L

Fs  xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx (5.6)
¦T '

In the above equation, ™T will decrease and ™N will increase after earthworks, consequently
the factor of safety is improved.

Filling work + Cutting work

6T > 6T’
Before After
6N < 6N’
earthwork earthwork

Figure 5.4 Schematic Diagram of Effectiveness of Earthworks

5.3.2 Parameters of Shear Strength of Sliding Surface

In general, cohesion, C, shall be determined from the thickness of the sliding mass (the depth of
sliding surface), as shown in Table 5.1. The internal friction angle shall be determined from
Equation 5.2 by using the assumed initial safety factor. Moreover, a unit weight of sliding mass,
Ȗt=18 kN/m3 is usually used.

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Table 5.1 Vertical Thickness of Sliding Mass and Cohesion

Vertical Thickness of Sliding Mass 㧔m㧕 Cohesion C㧔kN/m2㧕
Less than 5 5
Between 5 and 10 10
Between 10 and 15 15
Between 15 and 20 20
Over 25 25
Source: Modification from reference No. 6 MANUAL FOR RIVER WORKS IN JAPAN, Published by River Bureau, Ministry of
Construction, November 1997.

5.3.3 Determination of Initial Factor of Safety

The initial factor of safety is estimated on the basis of the movement conditions, as given in Table
5.2.

Table 5.2 Determination of Initial Factor of Safety

(Modified from Reference No. 6)
Initial Factor of Safety Movement Conditions
- A large number of obvious potential landslide topography such as
scarps, bulges, stepped land, ponds and swamps; and
Fs = 0.95
- Many visible ongoing and active movements of cracks, subsidence,
upheaval, toe erosion, or small toe collapse as well as springs.
- Obvious potential landslide topography such as bulges, stepped
land, ponds and swamps, but
Fs = 0.98
- Few or small ongoing movements of cracks, subsidence, upheaval,
or small toe collapse.
- Potential landslide area is at rest,
Fs = 1.00 - Cracks, subsidence, upheaval, or small toe collapse are visible, but
not progressing.
Source: Modification from reference No. 6 MANUAL FOR RIVER WORKS IN JAPAN, Published by River Bureau, Ministry of
Construction, November 1997.

5.3.4 Determination of Proposed Factor of Safety

The proposed factor of safety (PFs) is the target value for enhancing the degree of safety of the
slope and achieving the conservation of the slope by means of landslide countermeasure works.
Considerations in determining the proposed factor of safety include the landslide phenomena and
its scale, the degree of importance of the object to be protected, and the degree of damage that is
likely to occur as a result of the landslide.

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Table 5.3 Determination of Proposed Factor of Safety

Proposed factor of safety Condition
- Potential exists for sudden and severe movement; and
PFs = 1.10 to 1.20 - Landslide liable to cause significant damage to, houses, main
roads or rivers or other public facilities or loss of human lives.
- A large landslide would have little effect on houses or public
PFs = 1.05 to 1.10 facilities; or
- The proposed prevention works are temporary countermeasures.
Source: Modification from reference No. 6 MANUAL FOR RIVER WORKS IN JAPAN, Published by River Bureau, Ministry of
Construction, November 1997.

It is noted that the proposed factor of safety mentioned indicates the degree of increase in the
safety factor after completion of landslide prevention works on the assumption that the initial
factor of safety before landslide is Fs=1.0.

5.3.5 Sliding Surface

The sliding surface is the most important factor affecting the accuracy of stability analysis and
special care is needed in determining it. In determining the sliding surface (the shape of the
sliding surface), the following factors are considered:

a) Geological conditions;
b) Distribution and direction of cracks at the ground surface;
c) Upheavals and settlements;
d) Sliding surface observation results if available; and
e) The relationship between depth and width of the landslide.

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5.4 Selection of Countermeasures

5.4.1 Classification of Countermeasures

Table 5.4 shows the classification of countermeasures for landslides.

Table 5.4 Classification of Countermeasures for Landslides

Classification Type of Work
Cutting (Earth Removal)
1. EARTH WORK Earth Work
Filling (Embankment Work)
2. VEGETATION Vegetation Vegetation
Drainage Ditches and Cascade
Surface Drainage
Subsoil Drainage Holes
3. WATER DRAINAGE Horizontal Drain Holes
Subsurface Drainage Drainage Wells
Drainage Tunnels
4.SLOPE WORK Crib Work Crib Work
Rock Bolts
5. ANCHORING Anchoring
Ground Anchors
6. WALLS AND RESISTING Gabion Walls
Retaining Wall
STRUCTURES Retaining Walls
Steel Pipe Piles
7. PILING WORK Piling Work
Shaft Work
Diversion or Route Relocation
8. Others Alternate Solutions
Bridges, Tunnels

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5.4.2 Criteria for Selection of Countermeasures

Figure 5.5 shows the flowchart for selection of countermeasures against landslides.

START

No
Is the landslide
active?

Yes

- Cutting - Horizontal drain hole

- Filling - Surface drainage
- Gabion wall

Does the landslide

movement cease?
No

Yes

Importance of the
Road to be protected
Small If necessary,
- Drainage well
Large - Dranage tunnel
- Earth works

Scale of the landslide

Large

Medium and Small

Slope gradient

Steep

Gentle

If necessary, - Cutting - Cutting - Route relocation

- Drainage works - Filling - Filling - Cutting
- Cutting - Crib work - Retaining wall - Filling
- Filling - Ground anchor - Steel pipe pile - Shaft work

Figure 5.5 Selection Flowchart of Countermeasures against Landslides

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Generally, an adequate combination of various works is cost-effective and should be selected in

consideration of the following points:

a) The works selected should address the mechanism(s) of the landslide, the
relationship between precipitation, groundwater and landslide movement,
geological, topographical and soil properties, the scale and type of landslide and
its likely movement velocity.

b) Drainage and earth works should be regarded as the main methods of landslide
control, while anchoring and piling works should be adopted for the stabilization
of small landslides to protect public facilities, houses, etc.

c) Where landslide movement is closely related to rainfall, surface drainage work

should be performed immediately to minimize the infiltration of rainwater.

d) When a landslide is moving, drainage and earth works should be performed first;
anchoring works, piling works and other structures can then be done after
drainage and earth works halt the movement of the landslide .

5.5 Design of Main Countermeasures

5.5.1 Cutting work

(1) Purpose
Cutting (earth removal) work is applied to remove unstable landslide mass and to reduce the
load, and hence driving force, at the head of a landslide area.

(2) Design considerations

In planning cutting work, special care is given to the following items:

a) The work is implemented only at the head of landslide area, never at the toe;

b) The work is not applicable if the landslide is continuous;

c) The most important consideration for the work is the stability of the adjoining
slope behind the target area;

d) The stability of the cut slope should be considered, and vegetation covering and
surface drainage should be installed on the cut slope after earth removal;

e) A combination of cutting and filling works, as described below, is more

cost-effective.

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The effect of the work is evaluated as a result of the reduction of the values of term N and term
T in the equation of stability analysis of a slope, as follows:

6S  6'N u tan I
PFs  xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx (5.7)
6T  ¦ 'T

Where,

PFs㧦Proposed safety factor

¦ S (kN/m)= Sum of shear strength before implementation

¦ T (kN/m)= Sum of shear stress before implementation

¦ 'N (kN/m)= Sum of reduced normal stress after implementation

¦ 'T (kN/m)= Sum of reduced shear stress after implementation

Moreover, the work is suitable as an urgent measure because its effect is reliable and
immediate. However, the work is not applicable in the stabilization of a large-scale landslide
because of the amount of the earth mass that would need to be moved. Topographical
conditions usually restrict the use of the work.

Figure 5.6 gives the schematic diagram for cutting work for landslides.

Cutting work

Original ground surface

Sliding surface
Road

Cutting work

Original ground surface

Sliding surface
Road

Figure 5.6 Conceptual Illustration of Cutting Work

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5.5.2 Filling Work

(1) Purpose
Filling work is used at the toe of a landslide area to balance the driving force with additional
loading.

(2) Design considerations

In planning filling work, special care is given to the following items:

a) The work shall be implemented only at the toe of landslide area, never at the
head;

b) The toe of a landslide is often disturbed and weak, and therefore, the capacity of
the base ground at the banking point should be carefully considered;

c) The probability of the filling work causing a subsequent landslide of the adjoining
slope in front of (below) the target area should be estimated;

d) The work may cause increased pore water pressure in the landslide slope through
the blockage of spring water flow, and therefore drainage inside filling should be
carefully considered; and

e) The stability of the fill slope should be checked, and a standard fill slope should
be considered first if topography allows (Table 5.5).

Table 5.5 Recommended Standard Fill Slopes

Fill Materials Height(m) Gradient(V:H)
Well graded sand, gravels and sand or silt mixed with Less than 5 m 1:1.5 ~ 1:1.8
gravels (GW, GP, GM, GC) 5 ~ 15 m 1:1.8 ~ 1:2.0
Poorly graded sand (SP). Less than 10 m 1:1.8 ~ 1:2.0
Less than 10 m 1:1.5 ~ 1:1.8
Rock masses (including muck).
10 ~ 20 m 1:1.8 ~ 1:2.0
Sandy soils (SM, SC), hard clayey soil and clays (CL, Less than 5 m 1:1.5 ~ 1:1.8
ML). 5 ~ 10 m 1:1.8 ~ 1:2.0
Soft clayey soils Less than 5 m 1:1.8 ~ 1:2.0
Note: Height of fill is the vertical height from the toe to the top of the fill.

Source: Modification from reference No. 6 MANUAL FOR RIVER WORKS IN JAPAN, Published by River Bureau, Ministry of
Construction, November 1997.

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The effect of the work is an increase in the values of term N and term T in the equation of
stability analysis of a slope, as follows:

6S  6'N u tan I
PFs  xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx (5.8)
6T  ¦ 'T

The symbols in the above equation are the same as those in Equation 5.7.

Figure 5.7 gives a schematic diagram of filling works for the stabilization of a landslide.

Original ground surface

Fill work

Road Sliding surface

Figure 5.7 Conceptual Illustration of Filling Work

5.5.3 Surface Drainage

Surface drainage is classified into catch drains, berm drains and toe drains. In most cases, surface
water is prevented from infiltrating into the landslide area to avoid any hydraulic thrusts.
Especially where landslides are closely related to short-term rainfall, the work should be
immediately performed regardless of the results of the stability analyses. U-shaped gutters,
reinforced concrete or corrugated metal pipe may be used to construct the drainage ditches, as
shown in Figure 5.8.

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Original ground surface Original ground surface

Concrete
Concrete
Gravel
Corrugated pipe

a) Drainage channel (stone pitching) b) Drainage channel (corrugate)

Asphalt
Sand
Gravel

c) Prevention of infiltration of swamp d) Collecting basin (concrete)

Figure 5.8 Drainage Channels and Collecting Basins

(1) Purpose
Surface drainage works are designed to prevent the occurrence of landslides that are by
infiltration of precipitation or re-permeation of water from springs, swamps, etc.

(2) Design Considerations

The design calculations and considerations given in Section 3.4 of this Manual can be applied
to the design of surface drainage works for landslides. In addition, the following items should
be carefully considered in planning surface drainage work:

a) Drainage collection works are designed to collect surface flow by installing

corrugated half pipes or lined U-ditches along the slopes, which are then
connected to a drainage channel. The drainage channel works are designed to
remove the collected water out of the landslide zone as quickly as possible, and
are constructed from the same materials as the drainage collection works. The
surface drainage works are often combined with subsurface drainage works.

b) The drainage ditch beds should, in principle, be covered. Collecting basins should
be installed at the confluence with tributaries, curves and points of change in
gradient.

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c) When constructed in an area of active landslides, drainage ditches should have the
required strength and be easy to repair. Bed consolidation must be planned every
20 to 30 m to prevent the drainage ditch from sliding.

d) The shoulders and cut slope faces of the ditches must be protected with vegetation,
boulder covers, and so on.

5.5.4 Horizontal Drain Hole

Groundwater is generally divided into two types, shallow and deep. Shallow groundwater, 0 to 5
meters below the ground surface, is due mainly to rainfall accumulated in the short-term. Shallow
groundwater frequently causes a shallow failure or the toe failure of a large-scale landslide. In
such cases, culverts and horizontal drain holes are effective.

(1) Purpose
Horizontal drain holes are used to drain both shallow and deep groundwater to stabilize the
landslide by decreasing the pore water pressure that is responsible for activating the sliding
surface. The work is useful as a temporary countermeasure to decrease the progress of an
active landslide.

(2) Design Considerations

Horizontal drain holes are constructed for the drainage of shallow groundwater and deep
groundwater. If topography prevents the groundwater from being drained on a gentle gradient,
then drainage wells or tunnels with horizontal drain holes shall be used to achieve drainage.

In designing horizontal drain holes, the following items should be carefully considered:

a) Horizontal drain holes are designed to traverse aquifers or penetrate into the
sliding surface if it is deeper than 5 meters.

b) “Horizontal” drain holes, usually 20 to 50 meters in length, should be excavated

at a gradient of 5 to 10 degrees

c) Hard polyvinyl chloride pipes or gas pipes with an internal diameter of 50 to 100
mm are used as casing pipes. Either the parts of the casing pipes traversing the
aquifer or the whole length of the pipe is perforated to collect the underground
water.

d) Outlet protection for horizontal drain holes is undertaken using gabions or

concrete.

A typical layout of horizontal drain holes is shown in Figure 5.9.

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Horizontal drain hole

Retaining wall

Drain ditch
Road
Sliding surface

a) Cross section b) Plan

Figure 5.9 Typical Layout of Horizontal Drain Holes

In the case of the standard-scale landslide with a landslide depth of 20 m, the reduction in the
groundwater level by installation of horizontal drain holes may be expected to be 1 to 3
meters.

5.5.5 Drainage Wells

Drainage wells consist of three parts: a) catchment well - collecting water through the wall of the
well, b) collecting bore holes - collecting water in the same way as horizontal drain holes, and c)
draining bore holes - draining the collected water from the catchment well.

(1) Purpose
Similar to horizontal drain holes, drainage wells are used to drain deep groundwater for
stabilization of the landslide.

(2) Design considerations

This work is used when horizontal drains or culverts cannot achieve efficient drainage because
of the large scale of the landslide or the gradient of the slope surface.

In designing drainage wells, the following items are to be carefully considered:

a) The location of catchment wells shall be determined on the basis of the

distribution of groundwater and in consideration of the well’s safety. In principle,
wells should be located in stable ground within an area from which it is possible
to effectively collect groundwater.

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b) Wells are usually between 2 to 4 meters in diameter and 10 to 30 meters in depth.

Liner plates, reinforced concrete segments, and other materials generally support
the sidewalls of the wells.
c) Collecting bore holes are similar to horizontal drain holes in terms of design
considerations.
d) The diameter of draining bore holes is determined on the basis of the amount of
groundwater collected.

Figure 5.10 shows the details of a drainage well. A typical drainage well layout is shown in
Figure 5.11. The safety of the catchment wells shall be evaluated by checking the earth
pressure of the surrounding area, as shown in the following equations:

Ph K a u J u h  (h < 15m) ½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½½(5.9)

Ph K a u J u15  (h ҈ 15m)························································································(5.10)

Where,
Ph (kN/m2)=Active earth pressure at depth h (m)
J (kN/m3)=Unit weight of soils

K a =Coefficient of active earth pressureG

a) Sandy soil= I
Ka tan 2 ( 45 o  )
2

b) Clayey soil= 2 o I 2C o I
K a tan ( 45  ) tan( 45  )
2 hJ 2

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Trap
2 to 4

1m

Groundwater level

Collecting bore hole

Draining bore hole

Concrete bottom

Figure 5.10 Structural Details of Drainage Well

Catchment well

A lowering of
Draining bore hole water level

Road Collecting bore hole

Sliding surface

Figure 5.11 Typical Layout of Drainage Well

In the case of the standard-scale landslide with a landslide depth of 20 m, the reduction in the
groundwater level by installation of horizontal drain holes may be expected to be 3 to 5
meters.

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5.5.6 Ground Anchors

Ground anchors are reliable, but costly compared with other countermeasures. This method has
been applied increasingly to artificial landslides to cut off the toe of the landslide. Compared with
rock bolts and soil nailing, ground anchors have a relatively large resistance to sliding force and
are therefore used to stabilize relatively large-scale slope failures.

(1) Purpose
Ground anchors are intended to prevent landslides through the tensile strength of high tensile
strength steel wire or bars installed across the slip surface.

(2) Design Considerations

When the slope of a landslide area or sliding surface is relatively steep, ground anchors are
more effective. Figure 5.12 gives a conceptual diagram of a ground anchor installation.

Concrete crib work

Sliding surface

Road
Ground anchor

Figure 5.12 Landslide Stabilized with Ground Anchors

(a) Design procedure

Figure 5.13 shows the design flowchart for ground anchors. Important considerations for
ground anchors are the bearing capacity of the ground under the bearing plate and the bond
strength between the anchor grout and rock at the attachment point. In planning ground
anchors, a bond strength test at the attachment is to be carried out.

Further, in planning and designing ground anchors, at least the following site tests should be
performed at intervals of 20 to 30 m.

a) Bond strength test at fixation part (extraction test)

b) Bearing capacity test of soil mass under the bearing plate

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Stability analysis

Calculation of the required preventive force

Selection of anchor functions

Initial arrangement of anchors

Calculation of the design anchor power

No
Is anchor suitable ?
Yes
Determination of type of anchor and steel material

Calculation of the fixation length

No
Is fixation length suitable?

Yes
Design of bearing plate

No
Is bearing plate suitable ?

Yes
END

Figure 5.13 Design Flowchart for Ground Anchors

(b) Anchor functions

Anchors are installed to achieve two objectives (Figure 5.14):

a) Increase the resisting power against shear force by applying stress normal to the
sliding surface (clamping effect), and

b) Decrease the sliding force of a landslide by using steel members as anchors

(straining effect).

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Anchor Sliding surface

α
P・sin(α-θ)

θ
P

P・cos(α-θ)

Figure 5.14 Functional Description of an Anchor

(c) Arrangement of anchors

The position, direction and intervals of anchor installation shall be determined during the
initial stage of design.

a) Ground anchors shall be installed at a spacing of at least 2 meters in 2 or more

rows.

b) The inclination of the anchors in a range from + 10˚ to -10˚ from horizontal.
must be avoided for the reasons related to anchor installation, such as residual
slime, bleeding of grout, etc.

c) The direction of anchoring is parallel to the direction of movement of the

landslide.

d) Anchor interval is determined based on the interaction between anchors, which

can be verified by reviewing anchor power, diameter of anchors, depth and
ground properties.

(d) Calculation of the design anchor power

The design anchor power (Td) is calculated by using the following formulas:

P B
Td = ⋅ ·······································(5.11)
sin (α + β ) ⋅ tan φ + cos (α + β ) N

Where,

P (kN/m2)= Required preventive power

α(degree)= Anchor setting angle (the angle to a perpendicular axis)

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β(degrees)= Angle of slope of the sliding surface

φ(degrees)= Internal frictional angle of sliding surface

B (m)= Interval between anchors in horizontal direction

N= Number of anchors set in vertical direction

(e) Determination of type of anchor and steel material

Generally, the type of anchor is determined by comparing the tension strength of steel
material with the skin frictional resistance between the ground and the grout as well as the
allowable adhesive stress between the tendon and the grout.

(f) Determination of fixation length

Fixation length should be 3 to 10 meters, and the free length should be more than 4 meters.
Figure 5.15 gives the structural description.

Anchor materials (steel wire)

Sheath
Bearing Plate Borehole

Grout
L1

L1: Free length

L2: Fixation length L2 Tendon

Figure 5.15 Outline of Anchor Structure

To allow the design anchor power to meet the allowable anchor extraction force, the length
of contact between the ground and the grout must be compared with that between a tendon
and grout. Whichever is longer should be defined as the fixation length.

Td ··································································································(5.12)
l sa =
3 . 14 × D s × τ ab

f × Td ··································································································(5.13)
la =
3 . 14 × D a × τ ag

Where,

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lsa (m)= Required length between the tendon and the grout

la (m)= Required length of contact between the soil and the grout

Td (N/piece)= Design anchor power

DS (m)= Diameter of a tendon

τab (N/m2) = Allowable adhesive stress between the tendon and the grout (Table
5.6)

f = Safety factor (generally be defined as 2.5)

DA (m)= Diameter of the anchor

τag (N/m2)= Skin frictional resistance (Table 5.7)

Table 5.6 Recommended Allowable Adhesive Stresses

2
Standard Ground Design Strength (unit: N/cm ) 240 300 400
1. Prestressing steel wire
2. Prestressing steel bar
Type of 80 90 100
3. Standard prestressing steel wire
tendon
4. Multi-standard prestressing steel wire
5. Deformed prestressing steel bar 160 180 200
2
Notes: (1) 1 kgf/cm = 10 N/cm , (2) unit:
2 2
N/cm .
Source: Modification from reference No. 1 Highway Earthwork Series, MANUAL FOR SLOPE PROTECTION, Published by
Japan Road Association, March 1999.

Table 5.7 Recommended Skin Frictional Resistance of Anchors

Type of Ground Frictional Resistance (N/cm2)
Hard rock 150 to 250
Soft rock 100 to 150
Bedrock
Weathered rock 60 to 100
Mudstone 60 to 120
10 10 to 20
20 17 to 25
Sand and gravel N value 30 25 to 35
40 35 to 45
50 45 to 70
10 10 to 14
20 18 to 22
Sand N value 30 23 to 27
40 29 to 35
50 30 to 40
Cohesive soil Representative Cohesion C 10C
2 2
Note: 1 kgf/cm = 10 N/cm

Source: Modification from reference No. 1 Highway Earthwork Series, MANUAL FOR SLOPE PROTECTION, Published by
Japan Road Association, March 1999.

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(g) Design of bearing plates

Cribs, plates or cross-shaped blocks set on the surface of the ground are used as pressure
bearing plates. The most appropriate pressure bearing plate is selected in consideration of
specifications, operational efficiency, cost-effectiveness, maintenance, landscape, etc.

Figure 5.16 shows a typical example of a landslide stabilized with ground anchors.

Landslide unsuited cutting work

Ground anchor +Concrete crib

Bedrock

Road

Figure 5.16 Typical Example of a Landslide Stabilized by Ground Anchors

5.5.7 Steel Pipe Piles

Similar to ground anchors, steel pipe piles are costly but reliable. The work is especially
recommended when the ground below the sliding surface is firm and has sufficient resistance
against landslide mass. Moreover, steel pipe piles are generally used when the slope of a
landslide area or sliding surface is relatively gentle or a landslide has a large scale.

Steel pipe pile systems are classified, in terms of its effect, into shearing piles － by using the
shearing strength of the piles, and bending piles － by using the bending and shearing effect of
piles. Steel pipe piles generally have smaller bending strengths than shearing strengths and
should therefore be installed in positions subject to small bending forces.

Moreover, bending piles can be conveniently subdivided into cantilever piles and cotter piles
based on the positions of the piles in relationship to the landslide block. The former is
constructed in the tensile zones of a landslide block and the subgrade reaction force of the
sliding mass behind the pile is ignored; therefore the pile is considered to be a cantilever beam.
Whereas the latter is constructed in the compressive zones of a landslide block with a large

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subgrade reaction behind the pile and and it functions as cotter pin to keep the sliding mass and
the stable ground below the sliding surface together, as shown in Figure 5.17.

Steel pipe pile work

Yes Is the bending moment

No
of piles checked?

Bending pile Shearing pile

Can the resistance of

Yes
sliding mass behind the
piles be expected?

No

Classification Cantilever pile Cotter piles Shearing pile

Pile Pile Pile

Failure Mode
Sliding surface Sliding surface Sliding surface
of Pile

Figure 5.17 Classification of Steel Pipe Piles

(1) Purpose
Steel pipe piles are intended to prevent landslides with a doweling effect between the landslide
mass and stable ground by applying the shear strength and bending resistance of the steel piles.

(2) Design Considerations

(a) Items to be examined
In designing pile systems, the items to be examined are summarized in Table 5.8.

Table 5.8 Items to be Examined (Modified from Reference No. 11)

Items
Pile Type
Shear force Moment Deflection Passive failure Horizontal resistance
Bending piles ○ ○ △ ○ ○
Shearing piles ○ × × ○ ×
Notes: ○ = Must be evaluated, × = No need to be evaluated, △ = be evaluated only where the displacement of
the pile head has an effect on the facilities surrounding the pile.
Source: Modification from reference No. 11 GUIDELINE FOR STEEL PIPE PILE DESIGN FOR LANDSLIDE CONTROL,
Committee for the Survey of Design and Execution of Landslide Steel Pipe Pile, 1990.

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Moreover, the piles must be placed close enough together to prevent segments of the soil
from sliding in the space between the piles.

(b) Design procedure

Figure 5.18 shows the design flowchart for steel pipe piles. Important considerations for the
work include 1) design method, 2) the preventive force of a pile, 3) pile intervals, 4) pile
material and 5) pile length. It should be noted that piles are installed at the lower portion of a
landslide area in an appropriate position so that passive earth breakdown will not induce a
landslide at the top end of a sliding surface.

Start

Initial determination of pile location

Calculation of required preventive force

Selection of design method

Ps≦R Ps≦R & 0.7Ps≦R<Ps Ps＞R

Shearing pile Cotter pile Cantilever pile

Determination of pile material (section area)

No Determination of pile interval

Is pile work suitable?

Yes
Determination of length of pile

END

Figure 5.18 Design Flowchart for Piles

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(c) Selection of design method

The design method for piles is based on the distribution of inner horizontal resistance behind
the piles and the location of pile installation, as shown in Table 5.9. Shearing piles are
installed in a position where there is sufficient subgrade reaction at the back of piles.
Empirically, when piles are installed in a position defined by PS > R, the bending piles will
be considered as cantilever piles, otherwise, as cotter piles.

Table 5.9 Design Conditions for Piles (Modified from Reference No.11)
Pile Type Design Criteria Conditions
Cantilever pile R < PS - Taking no account of horizontal resistance behind the pile
PR ≦ R - Taking account of horizontal resistance behind the pile
- Taking account of horizontal resistance behind the pile
Cotter pile
0.7PS ≦ R < PS - Considering the decrease in the deformation coefficient of
the sliding mass
Shearing pile PS ≦ R Just checking the shear force of piles
Note: PS = Sliding force, R = Inner horizontal resistant force of sliding mass.
Source: Modification from reference No. 11 GUIDELINE FOR STEEL PIPE PILE DESIGN FOR LANDSLIDE CONTROL,
Committee for the Survey of Design and Execution of Landslide Steel Pipe Pile, 1990.

(d) Calculation of design pile power

The required preventive force of piles (PR) is calculated by using Equation 5.3 (see Section
5.3.1), and then the design pile power is calculated as follows:

For shearing piles: H = PR ····················································································(5.14)

For bending piles: H = PR cos θ ·······································································(5.15)

Where,

PR (kN/m)= Required preventive force of piles per unit width

H (kN/m)= Design pile power per unit width

θ(degrees)= Angle of slope of sliding surface

(e) Calculation of βvalue of piles

Theβvalue of a pile is calculated by using Equation 5.16, as follows:

Kh × d
β =4 ···········································································································(5.16)
4 × EI

Where,

Kh (N/cm3)= Coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction of the ground

d (mm)= pile diameter

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EI (Ncm2)= Rigidity of steel pile to bending

(f) Determination of pile intervals

The distance, D, between the centers of the piles is determined in consideration of bending
moment and the shear force of the piles by using the following equations:

Nf M
σ= ± ≤ σ a ··································································································(5.17)
A Z

N f1
σa −
D≤ A ····································································································(5.18)
Nf2 M max
+
A Z

S
τ max = a0 ≤ τ a ······································································································(5.19)
A
1 τa × A
D≤ × ·······································································································(5.20)
a0 S max

Where,

σ (kN/m2)= Bending stress on pile

σ a (kN/m2)=Allowable bending stress intensity of the steel pile
Nf (kN)= Axial force on piles

Nf1 (kN)= Axial force on a pile

Nf2 (kN)= Axial force on pile per unit width

A (m2)= Cross-sectional area of steel material in pile

M (kN・m)= Bending moment on pile

Z (m3)= Section modulus of steel material in pile

D (m)= Distance between centers of piles

τ (kN/m2)= Shear stress on pile

τ a (kN/m2)= Allowable shear stress intensity of steel pile
S (kN)= Shear force on pile

Smax (kN)= Maximum shear force on pile

a 0 = Coefficient, generally a 0 =2

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Furthermore, some design manuals in Japan provide a general guideline for the interval
between piles as follows:

a) Reference No. 1
Set generally at less than 2.0 m.

b) Reference No. 6
Set in principle at 1.5 m to 4.0 m.

c) Reference No. 11
Table 5.10 Standard Interval between Piles
Vertical Thickness of Sliding Mass （m） Interval Between Piles（m）
Less than 10 2.0 or less
Between 10 and 20 3.0 or less
20 m or thicker 4.0 or less

In most cases in Japan, the interval between piles is set at about 2.0 m. The standard interval
between piles is set at 2.0 m in principle based on the above-mentioned manuals.

(g) Determination of pile length

The embedment length, lr, of piles to be driven into the ground below the sliding surface is
obtained according to the following table.

Table 5.11 Embedment Length of Piles

Pile Type lr (m) Remarks
Cantilever pile π／β2 Generally, (1～1.5)π／β2
Cotter pile π／β1 Generally, (1～1.5)π／β1
L/3 Ground below sliding surface is soft rock.
Shearing pile
L/4 Ground below sliding surface is hard rock.
Note: Symbols in the above table are the same as those shown in the following figure.

β1 = corresponding sliding mass

Sliding l 1 = Vetical thickness of sliding mass
mass l1 at piling point
L
Sliding surface

β2 = corresponding stable ground

Stable
ground lr l r = Embendment length of pile

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CHAPTER 6

COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ROAD SLIPS

6.1 General

Road slips include all types of road shoulder collapses, such as soil slope collapse, embankment
erosion, and settlement of road surfaces.

The road shoulder is the part of the roadway between the edge of the traffic lane and the edge of
the side slope. Road capacity decreases and the potential for road accidents increases if the road
shoulder narrows due to road slips.

For this reason, a stable road shoulder must be designed and road slips be restored quickly. This
chapter provides the procedures for the selection and design considerations for the
countermeasures for road slips.

Moreover, the basic principles and procedures given in Chapter 3 of this Guide III,
Countermeasures against Soil Slope Collapse are also applicable to the design for the restoration
of road slips.

6.2 General Policy for Design of Stable Road Shoulders

As with other types of road slope disasters, road slips occur during the rainy seasons. They are
triggered mostly by rainwater flow and subsequent erosion as a result of inappropriate drainage
treatment. Topographically, road slips are concentrated in two different kinds of road sections.
One is the section lying in a saddle with a deep narrow valley, where rainwater is collected from
higher ridges on both sides and flows through the deep narrow valley. The other is the section
parallel to a larger river, where some small tributary streams or canals run into the larger river,
contributing to water erosion and consequently triggering road slips.

Therefore, the general policy for the design of a road shoulder, which should consider long-term
stability and maintenance cost, is to provide appropriate surface drainage:

Two conditions are evaluated as follows:

a) Surface water flowing across the surface of the slope, and

b) Surface water seeping into or infiltrating the slopes.

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In order to mitigate road slips resulting from water flow and erosion, the following technical
policies are recommended:

a) A proper drainage system should be designed and installed to prevent surface

water from flowing into the disaster-prone areas. If possible, surface water should
be guided to locations outside the disaster-prone areas.
b) The kind and size of drainage facilities should be selected properly through
hydraulic calculations.

In order to protect the infiltration of surface water into the slope and to improve the stability of the
road shoulder, the following measures are commonly used.

a) Vegetation work, such as seeding and sodding; and

b) Slope protection works, such as stone masonry, grouted riprap, concrete paving,
asphalt paving, and concrete cribs.

6.3 Selection of Countermeasures

6.3.1 Classification of Countermeasures

Countermeasures for road slips are classified into five general categories based on their functions
and purposes as shown in Table 6.1 and summarized as follows:

a) Earthworks - to provide space for shifting the road (Figure 6.1).

Reinforced earth wall (Terre Armee)

Cutting work for shift of route
Embackment Work

Road
Road

Collapse surface of road slip

Collapse surface of road slip

Ground line before road slipe

Ground line before road slipe

Bedrock

a) Fill work on valley side b) Cutting work on mountain side

Figure 6.1 Conceptual Illustration of Earthworks for Road Slips

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b) Surface cover - to stop the infiltration of surface water into the slopes.

c) Drainage - to drain surface and ground water to improve the stability of the road
shoulder.

d) Slope protection - to protect the slope from the infiltration of surface water,
erosion and weathering, and to prevent road slips.

e) Walls and other structures - to retain the steep slope of the road shoulder and to
prevent road slips (Figure 6.2).

Provide benching

Figure 6.2 Conceptual Illustration of Structures for Road Slips

6.3.2 Criteria for Selection of Countermeasures

Adequate and effective measures for preventing road slips are selected in consideration of
topographical and geological conditions, the conditions of the road and road shoulder, the size of
the potential road slips, and the function of each countermeasure. Figure 6.3 gives a flowchart for
the selection of countermeasures for road slips. Table 6.2 summarizes the application of these
countermeasures.

The following criteria are used for the selection of countermeasures.

a) If there is a potential road slip, water action by infiltration and scouring must be
eliminated by using surface cover, drainage and/or slope protection work so that

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the erosion on the road shoulder will be minimized. When these methods are not
enough to ensure the stability of the road shoulder, other methods should be
adopted in combination.
b) In selecting countermeasures, it is essential to consider the causes of the road
slips and the conditions of the road slopes, as well as the terrain and ground
conditions at the place of the works, the difficulty of execution of the works, its
endurance and the ease of maintenance.
c) Earth work, whether complete or partial, is always a preferred method if
topographical conditions are suitable because of the low cost of initial
construction and maintenance. However, slope protection should also be
implemented for the surface protection of the earth work.
d) When some structures such as reinforced earth walls, retaining walls, rock bolts
with concrete crib work, etc. are used to stabilize road slips, surface draining
works should be installed for protection against scouring and infiltration
regardless of the results of the stability analyses.

Table 6.1 Classification of Countermeasures for Road Slips

CLASSIFICATION TYPE OF WORK
Cutting
1. EARTHWORK Earthwork
Filling
Seed spraying
2. SURFACE COVER Vegetation Seed mud spraying
Turfing (Sodding)
Surface Drainage Drainage ditches
3. DRAINAGE
Subsurface Drainage Horizontal drain holes
Stone pitching
Pitching Work Block pitching
Concrete pitching
Concrete paving
Paving work (for road shoulder)
Asphalt paving
4. SLOPE WORK
Concrete block cribs
Cribs Cast-in-place concrete cribs
Shotcrete cribs
Soil nailing
Anchoring
Rock bolts
Concrete retaining walls1)
Retaining Walls
5. WALLS AND OTHER Gabion retaining walls
STRUCTURES Reinforced earth Reinforced earth walls2)
Others Sand bag
Note: 1) Concrete retaining walls include five types [refer to Table 3.9 of Chapter 3].
2) For reinforced earth walls, refer to Table 6.3.

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START

Cause of Road Slip

Slope steepness Water Erodible geological material

Can a shift of road

No
toward hillside be Surface water Ground water
secured?

Yes

- Retaining wall - Shift by cutting - Drainage channel - Culvert - Surface drainage

- Reinforced earth - Slope work - Vegetation - Horizontal drain hole - Slope works

Figure 6.3 Selection Flowchart for Countermeasures against Road Slips

Table 6.2 Application of Countermeasures against Road Slips

Construction Construction Degree
TYPE OF WORK Durability Maintenance
Ease Cost of Safety
1. EARTH Cutting ○ ◎ ○ ◎ ◎
WORK Filling ○ △ ○ ◎ ○
Seed spraying ○ ○ ○ ◎ △
2. SURFACE
Seed mud spraying ○ ○ △ ◎ △
COVER
Turfing (Sodding) ○ ○ △ ◎ △
Drainage ditches ○ ○ ◎ ◎ ○
3. DRAINAGE
Horizontal drain holes ○ △ ○ ○ △
Stone pitching ○ ○ ◎ ◎ ○
Block pitching ○ ○ ◎ ○ ○
4. SLOPE
Concrete pitching ○ ○ ◎ ○ ○
WORK
Concrete paving ○ ○ ◎ ○ ○
Asphalt paving ○ ○ ◎ ○ ○
Concrete retaining walls ◎ ◎ ○ ○ ◎
5. WALLS AND Gabion retaining walls ◎ ◎ ◎ ◎ ○
OTHER
STRUCTURES Reinforced earth walls ◎ ◎ ◎ △ ◎
Sand bags ◎ ◎ ◎ △ ◎
Note: ◎ = Very good or very easy, ○ = Good or easy, △ = Good or easy in some cases.

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6.4 Design of Main Countermeasures

6.4.1 Reinforced Earth Walls

This method, which has the function of a retaining wall, has been widely used in unstable sites in
mountainous areas in recent years. It is a technically attractive and cost-effective technique for
increasing the stability of natural soil and constructed fill slopes and for reducing earth pressures
against retaining walls. The method is ideal for very high or heavily loaded retaining walls
because of its high load-carrying capacity.

The method consists of three parts, namely, 1) wall facing materials, 2) reinforcement materials
and 3) backfill materials. Wall facing materials include precast concrete blocks and concrete
panels, cast-in-place concrete and steel wire boxes. Reinforcement materials include steel belts
(strips), anchor plates or bars, welded wire sheets, geotextiles, geogrids, and fibers. Backfill
materials are non-cohesive granular soils.

(1) Purpose
Reinforced earth walls are used to prevent small-scale soil collapse and road slips on steep and
large slopes in lieu of retaining walls. The method is the best solution to situations such as
restricted right-of-way and steep road slips.

(2) Design Considerations

The method requires the inclusion of tensile resistant elements in a soil mass to improve its
overall shearing strength and thereby increase the capacity of the retaining wall. Figure 6.4
gives the conceptual mechanism of reinforced earth walls.

Wall Earth Pressure Tensile Resistance Reinforcement

Facing Material

Sliding surface

Figure 6.4 Conceptual Mechanism of Reinforced Earth Walls

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Since the first reinforced earth wall (Terre Armee) was developed in the 1960s, many other
types of reinforced earth walls have been developed. Table 6.3 summarizes the methods and
the characteristics of the most typical reinforced earth walls. Figure 6.5 gives the images of
reinforced earth walls.

Table 6.3 Typical Reinforced Earth Walls

Reinforcement Wall Facing
Method Characteristics Remarks
Materials Materials
Improve the retaining • Granular soil with low
function of the wall by friction
Terre Steel belts Concrete
tensile resistance due to the • Galvanized (corrosion
Armee Wall (Strips) panels increased frictional force treatment) steel strips
between strips and backfill. should be used

Anchor Improve the strength of the • Sandy or gravely soils

Anchor plates Concrete retaining wall by applying having high friction
Reinforced
& bars panels tensile force from the • Corrosion treatment for
Earth Walls anchor plate. steel bars

Concrete panel • Angular gravels will

Reduce the load on the
Geotextile and block, damage the geogrids.
retaining wall by increasing
• Tensile strength of
Reinforced Geotextiles cast-in-place the frictional force between
geogrids is subject to
Earth Wall concrete, Steel the geotextiles and the
deterioration by high
wire box backfill.
temperature.
Source: Modification from reference No. 3 Highway Earthwork Series, MANUAL FOR RETAINING WALLS, Published by Japan
Road Association, March 1999.

Wall Facing Material (concrete panel)

Steep belts
Anchor plate & bar Geotextiles

(b) Anchor Reinforced (c) Geotextile Reinforced

(a) Terre Armee Wall Earth Wall Earth Wall

Figure 6.5 Schematic Drawing of Reinforced Earth Walls

In principle, the design of reinforced earth walls includes (a) Internal stability analysis, (b)
External stability analysis, and (c) Overall stability analysis, as graphically shown in Figure 6.6.

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For (b), the stability analyses are similar to that for retaining walls, including sliding,
overturning and bearing capacity of the foundation.

Wall Facing
Connection

Sliding Break
Surface

Tension

(a - 1) BREAK (a - 2) TENSION ( a- 3) BREAK OF CONNECTION

Earth
Press

(b- 1) SLIDING (b - 2) OVERTURNING

(b - 3) BEARING CAPACITY

Settlement

SOFT CLAY GROUND LOOSE SAND GROUND

(b- 4) CIRCLE SLIDE (b - 5) SETTLEMENT (b - 6) LIQUEFACTION

Figure 6.6 Collapse Modes and Issues to be Considered in Design

Figure 6.7 gives the general design procedure for reinforced earth walls. Geotechnical
parameters relevant to reinforced earth wall design include unit weight, stress strength of the
backfill and ground, and bearing capacity of the ground. Detailed guidance on the selection of
such parameters is in the other chapters of this Guide.

For each design situation, concentrated or distributed loads, which may result in forces acting
on the reinforced earth wall, are evaluated. The general types of direct loads are a) Deadweight,
b) Surcharge, c) Earth pressure, d) Water pressure and e) Seismic load.

No common method for stability analysis is applicable to all reinforced earth walls. Table 6.4
gives a comparison of stability analysis among the typical reinforced earth walls.

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START

1. Determination of design conditions:

1) Shape of st ruct ure, 2) Paramet ers of backfill and ground,
3) Loads

2. Calculation of the required resistance of reinforcement materials:

1) Calculat ion of eart h pressure acting t o wall facing,
2) Det ermination of pot ent ial sliding surface

3. Selection and arrangement of reinforcement materials:

1) T ype and design t ensile st rengt h of reinforcement material,
2) Int erval and lengt h of reinforcement mat erials t o be placed

4. Analysis of t he int ernal st abilit y of rein forcement materials:

1) Break, 2) T ension, 3) Break of connect ion

5. Analysis of the external stability of reinforced areas:

1) Sliding, 2) Overt urning, 3) Bearing Capacit y

No
Is the planned factor of safety met?

Yes

6. Analysis of the overall stabiity :

1) Circle slide, 2) Set tlement and liquefact ion, if necessary

No
Additional
Is the stability ensured? measures

Yes
7. Calculation and design of detailed structures

END

Figure 6.7 Design Procedure for Reinforced Earth Walls

Table 6.4 Comparison of Stability Analysis for Typical Methods

Terre Armee Anchor Reinforced Geotextile Reinforced
Items to be evaluated
Wall Earth Wall Earth Wall
Sliding line for calculation 2 straight lines Circle line Active failure line
Internal

Break of reinforcement material ○ ○ ○

Tension of reinforcement material ○ ○ ○
Internal sliding ─ ○ ─
Circle slide ○ ○ ○
External

Sliding of wall ─ ○ ○
Overturning of wall ─ ○ ─
Bearing capacity of ground for walls ─ ○ ○
Note: ○ = Must be evaluated, ─ = No need to be evaluated.

Source: Modification from reference No. 7 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION MANUAL FOR MULTISTAGE ANCHOR TYPE
REINFORCED EARTH WALL, Third Edition, Published by Public Works Research Institute, October 2002.

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The retaining effect of reinforced earth walls depends primarily upon the tensile resistance
between the reinforcement materials and backfill materials. The effective tensile resistant force
(R/Fs) is calculated by using the following equation.

R 2(c + σ tan φ ) × LE
= ································································································ (6.1)
Fs Fs

Where,

R=Tensile resistance force of reinforced material in unit width (kN/m)

Fs=Factor of safety for tensile resistance

c=Cohesion between reinforcement material and backfill material (kN/m2)

φ=Frictional angle between reinforcement material and backfill material (degrees)

LE=Embedding length=length of reinforcement material below sliding surface (m)

Table 6.5 gives the effective tensile resistance forces of typical reinforcement materials in the
case of backfill materials having a frictional angle of 30 degrees.

The selection of appropriate granular backfill materials in the reinforced earth mass is critical
for developing the effective tensile resistance of the reinforced earth walls. The grain size of
the backfill material to be used should be in the range of 75 mm (fine fraction) to 300 mm
(coarse fraction).

Table 6.5 Effective Tensile Resistance Force of Typical Reinforcement Materials

Reinforcement Dimension of Conditions of Effective Tensile
Materials Reinforcement Materials Placement Resistance Force (kN/m)
1) 100% 1) σtan30o×LE
Geogrids 1 to 3.7 m in width
2) 50% 2) σtan30o×LE
1) ⊿B=1.5m 1) (0.93+σtan1.6o) ×LE
2) ⊿B=1.0m 2) (1.39+σtan2.5o) ×LE
3) ⊿B=0.75m 3) (1.86+σtan3.3o) ×LE
Steel belts (strips) 60 mm
4) ⊿B=0.50m 4) (2.79+σtan4.9o) ×LE
5) ⊿B=0.375m 5) (3.72+σtan6.6o) ×LE
6) ⊿B=0.25m 6) (5.58+σtan9.7o) ×LE
Anchor plates & ⊿B=0.75m, LE≧1.2m σtan28.3o, (Fs =3.0)
bars
Notes: (1) The effective tensile resistant forces were calculated on the basis of backfill with a frictional angle
of 30 degrees.
(2) ⊿B = Horizontal interval of reinforcement materials.

Source: Modification from reference No. 19 Ogawa et. al Bulletin of Civil Engineering Works 1998.11, Latest Technical Status of
Reinforced Soil

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Table 6.6 gives the applicability of backfill materials for different types of reinforced earth
walls.

Table 6.6 Applicability of Backfill Materials

Methods Reinforcement Backfill Materials
Materials Fine Fraction Coarse Fraction
Geotextile Reinforced Geogrids
Less than 50%
Earth Wall
Terre Armee Wall Strips Less than 25% GM ≦ 300 mm
Anchor Reinforced Earth Anchor plates & WL ≦ 50% or fine fraction is more
GM ≦ 300 mm
Wall bars than 50% when WL ≧ 50%
Note: GM = Maximum diameter grain size, WL = Liquid limit.

In order to maintain the reinforcement effectiveness of the reinforced earth walls, backfill
drainage must be carefully considered and designed. Figure 6.8 gives an example of a road slip
restored using a Terre Armee Wall.

Road

Embackment Work

Ground line before road slip

9.0 m

Collapse surface of road slip

Terre Armee Wall

Bedrock

Figure 6.8 Example of a Road Slip Restored Using a Terre Armee Wall

6.4.2 Sand Bag Walls

Sand bag walls (trade name: solpack) are among the newly developed geotextile reinforced
earth walls in Japan. Similar to geotextile sheet reinforcement, the method provides the retention
effect of a wall by using a number of geotextile bags filled with granular soils. Because sand bag
retaining walls consist of many sand bags, the resistance and stability of the method provides
significant load-bearing capacity against both static and dynamic loads. The ease and speed of
construction reduces overall cost and makes it ideal for the urgent treatment of road slope

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disasters.

(1) Purpose
Sand bag walls are generally designed to function as retaining walls, that is, they retain soil
mass on steep slopes or in restricted right-of-way situations. Typical applications include the
restoration and stabilization of road slips, highway retaining walls on steep slopes, and
embankment walls for temporary or permanent road widening.

(2) Design considerations

Sand bag walls are designed in the same way as leaning concrete retaining walls and concrete
crib retaining walls. Figure 6.9 gives a design flowchart for sand bag walls.

ST ART

1. Determination of des ign conditions :

1) Sect ional shape, 2) Geot echnical param et ers of backfill and ground,
3) Loads (seism ic, surcharge, wat er pressure, et c.)

2. Calculation of earth p ressure

To satisfy the design requirement by

shanging the sectional hape
3. Calculation and review of the following s tability problems :
1) Overt urning of wall, 2) Sliding of wall,
3) Bearing capacit y of t he ground,
4) Overall st abilit y of wall and relat ed slopes

4. Calculation and review of the comp ressive strength of sand bags:

1) T ensile resist ance of reinforcem ent m at erial (bag),
2) Int ernal frict ional angle of filling m at erials inside bag.

5. Analy sis of stability against seismic load, if necessary

6. Calculation and design of detailed structures

END

Figure 6.9 Design Flowchart for Sand Bag Walls

The stability of the method is reviewed by using the following equations, based on the criteria
given in Table 6.7.

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Table 6.7 Criteria for the Stability Analysis of Sand Bag Walls
Item In Normal Case In Seismic Case
1) Overturning e ≦ B/6 e ≦ B/3
2) Sliding Fs ≧ 1.5 Fs ≧ 1.2
3) Bearing capacity Fs ≧ 3.0 Fs ≧ 2.0
4) Compressive strength Fs ≧ 3.0 Fs ≧ 2.0
Note: e = Acting range of resultant, Fs = Factor of safety, B = Base width of wall.

Source: Modification from reference No. 3 Highway Earthwork Series, MANUAL FOR RETAINING WALLS, Published by Japan
Road Association, March 1999.

(a) Stability analysis for overturning of wall

B ∑ Mr − ∑ Mo
e= − ································································································ (6.2)
2 ∑V

Where,

e= Acting range of resultant (m)

d= Acting point of resultant (m)

∑V= Sum of vertical loads acting on base slab (kN/m)

∑Mr= Resistant moment for base slab (kNm)

∑Mo= Overturning moment for base slab (kNm)

B= Width of base slab (m)

(b) Stability analysis for sliding of wall

∑V × µ + c × B
Fs = ··································································································· (6.3)
∑H

Where,

Fs: Factor of safety for sliding

∑V= Sum of vertical loads acting on base slab (kN/m)

∑H= Sum of horizontal loads acting on base slab (kN/m)

µ= Friction coefficient of base slab

c= Cohesion of base slab or sand bags (kN/m2)

B= Width of base slab (m)

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(c) Stability analysis for bearing capacity of foundation

qu
q =≤ qa = ·············································································································· (6.4)
Fs

Where,

q= Bearing capacity of the ground (kN/m2)

qa= Allowable bearing capacity of the ground (kN/m2)

qu= Limiting bearing capacity of the ground (kN/m2)

Fs= Factor of safety for bearing capacity of the ground

(d) Stability analysis for sand bags

T m 2
qs = 2 × (m × K p − 1)( ) ··············································································· (6.5)
B m +1

Where,

qs= Compressive strength of sand bags (kN/m2)

m=B/H

B= Loading width of sand bag wall (m)

H= Height of sand bag wall (m)

T= Tensile resistance of bag reinforcement materials (kN/m)

Kp= Coefficient of passive earth pressure.

In checking the strength properties of the fill material inside the bag, the internal frictional angle
of the fill materials is indirectly estimated on the basis of the soil classification. In the case of
good-quality gravel or crushed rock blocks, their internal frictional angles should be more than 35
degrees. Therefore, the design frictional angle should be less than the estimated values.

Reinforcement materials (bag) provide tensile reinforcement to the filling materials. The
reinforcement materials should be a proprietary product with a corresponding endorsement
certificate. The strength of the reinforcement material should be checked for compliance with the
product specifications.

Because geotextiles are subject to vandalism and deterioration from ultraviolet light, the exposed

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sand bags must be covered with precast concrete, vegetation, soil, sheets or other materials for
long-term protection.

Figure 6.10 gives an example of a road slip restored by using a Sand Bag Wall.
200

Vegetation cover
Road

Sand bag
(1100×1100×200)

Reinforcement sheet
Anti-light sheet
.5
1:0
7000
6800

Bedrock line

Figure 6.10 Example of Road Slip Restored by Using a Sand Bag Wall

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