International Journal of Legal Information

the Official Journal of the International Association of Law Libraries

Volume 35
Article 8
Issue 3 Winter 2007

January 2007

A Study of Islamic Family Law in Malaysia: A

Select Bibliography
Raihana Abdullah
Academy of Islamic Studies, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur

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A Study of Islamic Family Law in Malaysia: A Select
Bibliography

RAIHANA ABDULLAH∗

Abstract

Islamic Family Law is one of the most studied fields in Malaysian

law. This is because it affects the personal life of Muslims, and because many
issues have arisen as a result of the implementation of the Islamic Family Law
Enactment which governs Muslims in Malaysia. Scholarship in this area has
expanded with the development of the Enactment itself. Several approaches
have been used to analyze the implementation of the law inter alia, legal,
socio-legal, comparative, and anthropological and sociological perspecitves. It
cannot be denied that research and scholarly publications in the field of
Islamic Family Law have contributed to further strengthening the
administration of justice and the implementation of the law. As such, this
paper is intended to describe the trends in the area of Islamic Family Law.
Doing so will assist in ascertaining the direction of this field in the future.

Introduction

In Malaysia there is no single family law system that applies to the

whole country. There exists two different family law systems: one is for
Muslims and the other for non-Muslims. The Law Reform (Marriage and
Divorce) Act 1976, which was enforced throughout Malaysia from 1 March
1982, governs the Chinese, as well as Hindus and other religions. Muslims, on
the other hand, are governed by the Islamic Family Law system. For Muslims,
family affairs are closely related to their way of life. This is due to its
connection to areas like marriage and divorce, and matters arising therefrom,
such as maintenance, matrimonial property, custody and the relationship
between children and parents. The Quran itself provides a detailed discussion

∗
The author is Associate Professor in the Department of Syariah and Law within
the Academy of Islamic Studies at the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.

514
2007] RAIHANA ABDULLAH 515

of family affairs. It is clear that this aspect of life is always given great
attention and draws the interest of researchers who seek answers to the many
questions that arise from the implementation and practice of Islamic Family
Law. Hence, this field is constantly evolving, and many issues are still being
debated by researchers today. This is because matters pertaining to Islamic
family law are practiced fully and executed in the daily life of the Muslim
community in Malaysia since the 12th century when Islam was introduced to
Malaysia.

Islamic Family Law in Malaysia

Questions pertaining to the affairs of marriage, divorce and related

matters have long been documented and practiced by the community based on
the principles of Islamic law. Early historical documents prove that Islamic
family rules applied in Malacca. These laws are said to reflect the patterns and
advancement experienced by the ancient Malay community. In these Laws
there were 18 clauses that related specifically to Islamic family principles.
These rules were adopted directly from the principles of the Shafie school of
thought which was predominantly followed in spite of a number of mixed
cultural influences.

The influence of Islam on the lives of the Malay family is

pronounced. Even the presence of Western colonization was unable to
separate family affairs in the Malay community from Islamic influences.
Thus, rules pertaining to the Islamic family cannot be separated from the
Malay community because the application of the laws was a personal matter
that did not impact on colonial interests – or even on the non-Muslim
community when compared to other areas of Islamic law, such as contracts,
torts, criminal penalties, and commerce.

There exists evidence showing that the British colonial authorities had
codified several pieces of legislation related to family matters. This legislation
focused mostly on administration, and also on marriage and divorce
registration. This can be seen for example in the first family law being
enforced in the Straits Settlement namely the 1880 Muhammadan Marriage
Ordinanace. According to M.B. Hooker, this Law had many shortfalls, and as
such, several amendments were introduced to streamline its provisions.
Perhaps because these had limited scope, the Muslim community did not
encounter any difficulties in complying with Islamic family rules. This is
because there were many books in old Jawi written by regional Islamic
scholars on the subject of Islamic family law and based on the Shafie school
of thought.
516 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LEGAL INFORMATION [Vol. 35.3

The situation of the Islamic community in Malaysia is constantly

changing, and this posed challenges to the colonial-era family rules in
addressing several problems occurring in the Malaysia’s Islamic families.
Thus, a detailed Islamic family law is needed. Finally, in the early 1980s,
Malaysia introduced a special law pertaining to the Islamic family. It is more
precise and detailed than its predecessors. This effort is not new. Several
Islamic countries had already created and applied a complete system of
Islamic family law, upon which several reforms have been made. These laws
provide for the administration of marriages, the rights of a wife, protection for
those who are victimized in the family Institution and the punishment for
those who commit matrimonial offences.

Preference of Study

If one examines the historical trends in scholarship on Islamic family

law in Malaysia, the form and substance of the writers may be grouped
according to the period in which they worked. The three periods are:

• pre-independence (which came to Malaysia in 1957);

• post independence to the mid-1980s, and
• from the mid-1980s to the present day.

Writing before independence focused on issues of custom, and its significant

role in the Malay Muslim community. In the second period, a particular
focus has yet to be identified in the writing on Islamic family law. The second
period represents a mixture between the discussion between classical Islamic
law and writings focused on Islamic family law legislation, which in turn is
based on the provisions of the family in the Islamic Administrative
Enactments. This second period is the starting point for scholarship on Islamic
family law, which reached a more mature state, particularly through the
writings of the late Professor Tan Sri Ahmad Ibrahim in his book Islamic Law
in Malaya which was published in 1965 in Singapore. Additionally, during
this period there were several notable pieces written on Malay family and
kinship from an anthropological perspective.

Based on the current development of Islamic Family Laws, the

scholarship of the third period shows a rapid development in the promulgation
of Islamic family laws. Many articles and studies were produced during this
period due to several factors. Among them are the legislation and enforcement
of Islamic Family Law Enactment and Act, which has drawn the interest of
many to discuss it. In fact, these pieces began to discuss issues pertaining to
family law in a more critical and comprehensive manner. The socio-
2007] RAIHANA ABDULLAH 517

legislative approach began as a way to examine issues pertaining to the

Islamic Family Law. The writings and studies of the Islamic family law are
not only bound to the traditional aspects of family laws such as marriage,
polygamy, divorce, maintenance, property and the like, but have advanced to
current issues that arose from the implementation of the Islamic Family Law.
This third period saw the advent of several writings and studies that focused
on protection for and assurance of women’s and children’s rights pursuant to
the requirements of the United Nations Convention, guaranteeing and
protecting the rights of women and children.

From these three periods we are able to discern the differences of the
writers and researchers who are critical of Islamic family laws. On the whole,
writings and studies pertaining to the Islamic Family Laws in Malaysia not
only discuss the state of marriage, divorce and matters in relation thereto from
the perspective of the classical Islamic Law, but it also covers matters
pertaining to the history of Islamic Family Laws, the implementation and
administration of the Islamic Family Laws and current issues that arise from
the implementation of the Islamic Family Laws.

ISLAMIC FAMILY LAWS AND CUSTOM

British colonial administrators were involved in a number of matters

pertaining to the laws of the Malay Muslim community, in particular matters
regarding to the family. The accurate information on the practices of the local
people with regard to their personal matters was of utmost importance in
outlining effective policies that were practical. The requirement of the
colonial administration finally caused a few of the British administrators to
observe further the practices of the Malay community and the uniqueness of
Malay customs, particularly those pertaining to family relationships, which
are matrilineal in nature. They promulgated several rules with respect to
personal affairs, maternal relatives of the Malay community, and matters
regarding land and jointly acquired properties. This may be seen in the works
by Wilkinson (Wilkinson 1980), Taylor (Taylor 1929, 289), Parr and Mackray
(Parr and Mackray 1910, 114), and Winstead and Kempe (Winstead and
Kempe, 1952). Their writings have shown that custom played a very
important role in molding the life of Malay families, particularly when it
touched on matters regarding land ownership in divorce contexts.

These writings have prompted many local researchers to conduct

further study on the application of custom in the Malay community. The
uniqueness of the Malay social system and the relatives of the Malay
community have also drawn the interest of many researchers, who write on
518 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LEGAL INFORMATION [Vol. 35.3

the question of custom and the Malay community. This question is related to
the question of the Malay familial system pursuant to the Customary Laws
(Undang-Undang Adat).
1
Meanwhile, many of these researchers write and study the system of
Malay Customs, in particular those pertaining to:
the differences between the Adat Temenggung and the Adat Pepateh,2 the
status of women in the Perpateh Custom,3 the conflict and the relationship
between custom (adat) and Islamic Law,4 and also those regarding property,
land and estates.5

POST INDEPENDENCE SCHOLARSHIP UNTIL THE LATE 1980S

Writings and studies that examine family aspects from the legislative
perspective began around the year 1960 with the writings of Ahmad Ibrahim
and Mehrun Siraj. Their writings refer to the implementation of family laws
that were in turn provided through the Islamic Administrative Law. One
example is the late Professor Ahmad Ibrahim’s book, The Status of Muslim
Women in Family law in Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei (1965). In this
book, the writer discusses the question of the status of women in family law
according to the Islamic Administration Enactment, which was in force at that
time. The Enactment advocated that several aspects of family law needed to
be rectified. The author concludes that the provisions related to the family in
this Administration Enactment were too brief. Hence, he suggests the
inclusion of provisions such as the minimum age for marriage, rules in respect
of polygamy, registration of marriages and divorces, reasons for fasakh
(judicial dissolution) that should be expanded, and most important, the
creation of a law that is uniform for the entire country in Malaysia. Even
though this book discusses the status of women in the legislative perspective,
it is apparent that there are many shortfalls from its family provisions in
guaranteeing the position of women in terms of legislation.

On the other hand, Mehrun Siraj focuses on selected topics in the

Islamic Family Law such as divorce and polygamous marriages.6 In their
writings, both Ahmad Ibrahim and Mehrun Siraj also took a comparative
approach with neighboring countries such as Singapore and Brunei. It is a

1
Ahmad Ibrahim 1964, 48.
2
Nurhalim Ibrahim (1993).
3
Azizah Kassim 1992, 28.
4
Durrishah Idrus 1990, 43.
5
Maxwell 1884, 75.
6
Mehrun Siraj 1963, 148-159.
2007] RAIHANA ABDULLAH 519

reasonable assumption that Singapore and Brunei shared a similar customary

background with Malaysia.

Ahmad first book was entitled Islamic Law in Malaya (1965). It not
only discusses Islamic family law, but also other aspects of Islamic law,
namely criminal law, evidence, and property. In his discussion of family law,
there is not much difference with his earlier text, The Status of Muslim
Women in Family Law in Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei. Other than Ibrihim
and Siraj, there are few writings at that time that address the law of marriage
and divorce.

Literature Subsequent to the Enforcement of the Administration of

Islamic Law Enactment

The Islamic Family Law Enactment in its new form is distinct from
the Administration of Islamic Law Enactment; thus, there have been many
writings and studies that discuss the newer Islamic family law. The scholarly
literature still maintains the legislative analysis form, whether on the
development of law or even specific aspects in the Islamic Family law.
Several writings have analyzed the latest developments and refer to the
legislation of the Islamic Family Enactment in every state. In his writings,
Mehrun Siraj asserts that legislation around the 1980s represented a big step
towards strengthening the administration of the Islamic family law. Several
other writers were of the same view.7 They welcomed legislation related to
Islamic family law and concluded that it would remedy the administration and
in some way the position of women, in Islamic family law. This writing
touched on the provisions available in the enactment of the Islamic family
law.

In the 1990s, the literature of Islamic family law centered on certain

aspects of the law. Discussion stressed the implementation of the Islamic
Family Law in Malaysia. Researchers discussed matters pertaining to
polygamy,8 divorce,9 maintenance,10 and other financial rights such as mut’ah

7
See, e.g., Mehrun Siraj Marriage and Divotce – the Law Applicable to Muslims
in Selangor and the Federal Territory, MALAYAN L.J. lxxiv-lxxx (1988).
8
Abdul Kadir Muhammad, Poligami Dan Pengamalannya Di Malaysia
[Polygamy and its Practice in Malaysia], In UNDANG-UNDANG ISLAM DI
MAHKAMAH-MAHKAMAH SYARIAH DI MALAYSIA [Islamic Law in Sharia Courts in
Malaysia] 84-92, (Ahmad Hidayat Buang ed., 1998).
9
Ahmad Ibrahim 1980.
10
Abdul Kadir Muhammad 1996, 85.
520 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LEGAL INFORMATION [Vol. 35.3

(ancillary order),11 jointly acquired properties,12 and custody.13 Generally

these discussions sought to answer whether the family provisions found in the
Islamic Family Law Enactment were sufficient to address numerous
problems, and they also examined the provisions from the perspective of its
implementation.

Writings around the years 1980–2000 also discussed the issues of

conflict between the Islamic Family Law Enactment for the Muslims and the
Law Reform (Marriage and Divorce) Act 1976 for the non-Muslims. Among
the issues debated are in Section 51 Act 1976 and its implications against the
Islamic Family Law.14 An analysis of the concept of jointly acquired property
were also discussed, which not only include properties in the traditional form,
but also those that involved current assets such as shares, Employees
Provident Fund (EPF)15 and other issues that involved FELDA land.16
Additionally, issues of domestic violence were also given due attention by a
few researchers who used the remedial point of view to examine the subject of
victims of domestic violence. They also applied the Islamic perspective in
their analyses.17 This trend is shown through the textbook of Ahmad Ibrahim
entitled Family Law in Malaysia (3rd edition), which also discusses a new
topic pertaining to domestic violence. Domestic violence was not discussed
in the 1978 and 1984 editions of the text book. This was because the
Domestic Violence Act 1994 was not in force until 1996.18 However, the
domestic violence issue was absent in his final book entitled Undang-undang
Keluarga Islam di Malaysia (Islamic Family Law in Malaysia), published in
1999.

Besides discussing certain aspects in the Islamic family, several

textbooks on the Family Law were published. Researcher Mimi Kamariah
Majid’s book, Undang-undang Keluarga di Malaysia (Family Law in
Malaysia) was published in the early 1992. Her book discusses the
implementation of both family lawl for lMuslims as well as for non-Muslims.
In 1999, Family Law in Malaysia was published. According to its author, the
English version is not a mere translation of her original Malay language
textbook that was published in the year 1992. The publication of this later
11
Nik Noriani Nik Badlishah 1992.
12
Suwaid Tapah, 2003, 56-65.
13
Sharifah Zaharah Syed Mohammad 2001, 160-200.
14
(Mohamed Azam M. Adil 1994).
15
Suwaid Tapah 2003, 1-22.
16
Zaleha Kamaruddin, 2003, 76-99.
17
Mohamed Azam M. Adil 1994, 4.
18
Ahmad Ibrahim, 1999.
2007] RAIHANA ABDULLAH 521

book was due to the request for a course offered by the Law Faculty,
University Malaya. Its contents do not differ much greatly from the Malay
and English versions except that it updates the reported cases, as there have
been no later developments in the amendments of both family laws for
Muslims or non-Muslims.

Besides Ibrihim and Majid, there is also another work on Islamic

family law entitled Undang-undang Keluarga Islam: Konsep dan
Perlaksanaannya di Malaysia (Islamic Family Law: Concept and
Implementation in Malaysia). However, this book has yet to be updated in
terms of the cases decided and also the amendments made in the mid-1990s.
Despite this, the textbook is still being used for reference in particular for the
understanding of specific concepts in Islamic family law pursuant to the
discussion on the classical Islamic Law.19

Methodology and Form of Writing on Islamic Family Law

The scholarship on Islamic family law can be divided into two forms:
1. themes and aspects;
2. approach and analysis.
In most instances, Islamic Family laws are not limited to matters such as
marriage, divorce, polygamy, history, or custom. In examining these matters
almost all writings and studies use the legalistic approach.20 The earliest
writing using this approach is entitled The Status of Muslim Women in Family
law in Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei (1965) written by the late Prof.
Ahmad Ibrahim. This volume covers most aspects of Islamic Law in
Malaysia, and to a lesser extent, touches on the Islamic Administrative Law
Enactment.

Based on current developments, Islamic family law has drawn many

social researchers to analyze the law from an anthropological and sociological
perspective.21 Their debate on the provisions of the family law focuses on
social issues such as the effect of the legislation on the community, and also
factors that influence changes in trends and patterns of marriage and divorce.
Regardless, the conclusion of their studies show that social changes in the
Muslim community pertaining to trends in marriage and divorce rely on the

19
Mahmood Zuhdi Abdul Majid & Raihanah Azahari, 1989.
20
Ahmad Ibrahim, 1997.
21
Sharifah Zaleha Syed Hassan, 1986.
522 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LEGAL INFORMATION [Vol. 35.3

development of the law enforced. There is a relation between the law and
social changes.22 From this perspective, the law is one agent of social change
or social engineering. For example, the study by Jones found that the divorce
and marriage rate appeared to decline, especially compared with the years
prior to the implementation of the Islamic Family Law Enactments.

Towards the end of the 1990s and in the early 2000s, the literature is
more inclined to the settlement of several problems that arose from the
implementation of the Islamic Family Law in the Shariah court. Issues related
to the delay in resolving family cases23 most certainly have been deemed as
discriminatory against women.24 Additionally, family cases as well as female
judges hearing these cases have all drawn the attention of researchers.25 The
approach used by them is in the form of socio-legal perspective, which not
only discusses on the implementation of the law but also discussed its social
implications. The prevailing theme in newer research indicates that Shariah
court administration continues to contribute heavily to discriminatory
decisions against women. Hence, amendments to several provisions of the
Islamic Family Law need to be made forthwith, and the effort to unify the
Islamic Family Law should also be realized.26

As a measure for resolving the problems of family law and issues of

the community, the rule of sulh (mediation) has been discussed. It was more
recently introduced into the Islamic Judiciary system in Malaysia.27 This rule
intends to address the problems arising from the implementation of the
Islamic Family Law, in particular the issues pertaining to the delay of cases in
the Shariah Court. Unfortunately, not much literature exists yet on the impact
on the rule of sulh.

In analyzing the implementation of Islamic family law in Malaysia,

writers and researchers have assessed the issues that arise from a comparative
legal perspective. Not only are references to and examinations of neighboring
countries made in the literature, but also Islamic family law enforced in other
Islamic countries is also given attention by researchers. Several articles
written and published in a collection entitled Islamic Family Law, Issues
2000, edited by Zaleha Kamaruddin, generally analyze the comparison

22
G.W. Jones, 1994.
23
Zaleha Kamaruddin, 1999, 95.
24
Maznah Mohamad, 1999, 237-262.
25
Rozi Bainun, 1999.
26
Maznah Mohamad, 1999, 60-76.
27
Ghazali Abdul Rahmn, 1999, 151.
2007] RAIHANA ABDULLAH 523

between implementation of the Islamic Family Law in Malaysia and other

Islamic countries. These writings not only discuss issues of reform, but also
identify other aspects of Islamic family law and how it is applied in other
countries.28 Through this comparative approach, there are several proposals
of Islamic Family Law from other countries that should be enforced in
Malaysia.29

The latest advancement in Islamic family law is the analysis from a

medical perspective, particularly those works pertaining to reproduction using
the bio-medicine technique. This advancement occurring in the medical world
must be discussed in detail not only from the classical Islamic Law
perspective (Hukum Sharak), but it also involves family law reforms in
resolving issues that result from the application of this technology. Zaleha
Kamaruddin, in her book entitled Islamic Family Law: New Challenges in the
21st Century (2000), attempted to discuss current issues such as determining
legitimacy of children born through bio-medicine techniques.30

Conclusion

Much of the current research on Islamic Family Law in Malaysia

exhibits a legislative approach in their analysis. And it continues to serve as
the prevailing approach, although some researchers are injecting a socio-legal
perspective.

Even though a significant body of literature exists on Islamic family

law in Malaysia, many issues require more research, and even more need
resolution. Although enforcement of Islamic family law has now existed for
more than 15 years, studies and writings on its effectiveness as a whole have
yet to be published. Steps have been taken to analyze the law, including data
collection; however, analyses have not yet demonstrated its effectiveness.31

Most researchers and writers do appear to believe that whatever the

problems may result from implementation, Islamic family law is certainly
uniform. Only its application is not uniform, and in a small country like
Malaysia, this can cause problems. In 2000, several states addressed this
issue, and Islamic Family Law Enactment was amended to become uniform in
application throughout Malaysia.

28
Ahmad Hidayat Buang, 1997, 35.
29
Nik Noriani Nik Badli Shah, 2000.
30
Zuryati Muhamed Yusoff, 2004, 17-31.
31
Raihanah Abdullah and Sharifah Zahrah Syed Mohamd, 1998, 93.
524 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LEGAL INFORMATION [Vol. 35.3

The Islamic Family Law today not only touches on the requirements
of marriage and divorce in the classical Islamic law, but also involves matters
pertaining to administration. It also encompasses the protections and the
rights of wives and children. Based on current developments, studies and
writings focus more on current issues pertaining to the familial environment
and phenomena that occurs in the Islamic family law itself. This may be seen
for example in issues pertaining to the delay of cases in the Shariah Court and
its effect on women and children, discrimination against women and children,
issues pertaining to procedures and evidence and also pertaining to family
properties – all which begin from matters in relation to Islamic family law.
Other issues ranging from divorce through text messages, proof and
enforcement of maintenance, triple divorce, polygamous marriages, and
custody of children from parents of different religions, and bio-medicine
issues continue to be important topics of scholarship and discussion.

Below are selected texts related to Islamic family law in Malaysia. It

excludes works on general family law in Malaysia, as well as references to
reported cases. This bibliography helps to reveal the direction of research in
this important field.

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