Network Basics

Theory

Ethical Hacking
 A network is a group of two or more computer systems or other devices
that are linked together to exchange data. In networks, computing devices
exchange data with each other using data links between nodes. These data links
are established with the help of cable media such as wires or wireless media
such as WiFi.

Network Components and Functions

Server: A computer or device on a network that manages network
resources. Servers are often dedicated, meaning that they perform no other tasks
besides their server tasks like accepts and responds to requests made by another
program, known as a client.
Client: A client is an application that runs on a personal computer or
workstation and relies on a server to perform some operations. The client
accesses the server by way of a network.
Devices: Computer devices, such as a CD-ROM drive or printer, that is
not part of the essential computer. Examples of devices include disk drives,
printers, and modems.
Hub: Hub is a network hardware device for connecting multiple devices
and making them act as a single network segment. A hub works at the physical
layer of the OSI model.
Switch: A device that filters and forwards packets between LAN
segments. Switches operate at the data link layer and sometimes the network
layer of the OSI Reference Model.
Router: A router is a device that is capable of forwarding data packets on
a network. Routers are placed at the junction (gateway) of two or more
networks connect. Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the
best path for forwarding the packets.
Bridge: Bridge is a computer networking device that connects a local
area network (LAN) to another local area network that uses the same protocol.
Access Point: A hardware device or a computer's software that acts as a
communication hub for users to connect all their wireless device.

Types of Networks

Local area network (LAN)

A LAN is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as a home, school, office building.
Wide area network (WAN)
A WAN is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such
as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances. A WAN uses a
communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone
lines, ethernet cables, optical fibers, etc.
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and
smaller area when compared to WAN. MANs rarely extend beyond 100 KM
and comprise a combination of different hardware and transmission media.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
Wireless local area networks provide wireless network communication
over short distances using radio or infrared signals instead of traditional
network cabling. WLANs are built by attaching a device called the access point
to the edge of the wired network. Clients communicate with the AP using a
wireless network adapter similar in function to a traditional Ethernet adapter.
Virtual private network (VPN)
The virtual private network is an overlay network in which some of the
links between nodes are carried by virtual circuits in the network instead of
physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to
be tunneled through the network.
Personal Area Network (PAN)
A personal area network is a computer network organized around an
individual. Personal area networks typically involve mobile devices. Personal
area networks can be wired or wirelessly. These networks generally cover a
network range of 10 meters (about 30 feet).

OSI model
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is a reference model for how
applications communicate over a network. The main concept of OSI is that the
process of communication between two endpoints in a network can be divided
into seven distinct groups of related functions or layers. Each communicating
user or program is on a device that can provide those seven layers of function.
The seven Open Systems Interconnection layers are:
Layer 1: Physical Layer
This layer conveys the bit stream across the network either electrically,
mechanically or through radio waves. The physical layer covers a variety of
devices and mediums, among them cabling, connectors, receivers, transceivers,
and repeaters.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer
This layer sets up links across the physical network, putting packets into
network frames. This layer has two sublayers the logical link control layer and
the media access control layer (MAC). MAC layer types include Ethernet and
802.11 wireless specifications.
Layer 3: Network Layer
This layer handles addressing and routing the data. To transfer it from the
right source to the right destination. The IP address is part of the network layer.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
This layer manages packetization of data, then the delivery of the packets,
including checking for errors in the data once it arrives. On the internet, TCP
and UDP provide these services for most applications.
Layer 5: Session Layer
The session layer controls the connections between computers. It
establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and
remote application.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
This layer is usually part of an operating system (OS) and converts
incoming and outgoing data from one presentation format to another for
example, from clear text to encrypted text at one end and back to clear text at
the other.
Layer 7: Application Layer
The application layer of the OSI model interacts with the end user.
Protocols at this layer handle the requests from different software applications.
If a web browser wants to download an image, an email client wants to check
the server, and a file-sharing program wants to upload a movie, the protocols in
the application layer will process those requests.

IP address
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to
each device connected to a computer network. IP address serves two purposes,
host or network interface identification and location addressing. Internet
Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number and new
version of IP (IPv6), uses 128 bits for the IP address.
Private IP address: A private IP address is a non-Internet facing IP address.
Private IP addresses are provided by network devices, such as routers, using
network address translation (NAT).
Public IP address: A public IP address is an IP address that can be accessed
over the Internet. The public IP address is a globally unique IP address assigned
to a computing device.

IPv4: Internet Protocol Version 4 is the fourth revision of the Internet Protocol
used to identify devices on a network. IPv4 is the most widely deployed Internet
protocol used to connect devices to the Internet. IPv4 uses a 32-bit address
scheme allowing a total of 2^32 addresses.

IPv6: Internet Protocol Version 6 is the newest version of the Internet Protocol
reviewed in the IETF standards committees to replace the current version of
IPv4. IPv6 addresses are 128-bit IP address written in hexadecimal and
separated by colons. An example IPv6 address could be written like this 3ffe:
1900:4545:3:200: f8ff: fe21:67cf.

IP address classes
There are five classes of IP addresses, they are Class A, Class B, Class C, Class
D and Class E, where only A, B, and C are commonly used.

Class Address Range Supports

Class A 1.0.0.1 to Supports 16 million hosts on each
126.255.255.254 of 127 networks.

Class B 128.1.0.1 to Supports 65,000 hosts on each of

191.255.255.254 16,000 networks.
Class C 192.0.1.1 to Supports 254 hosts on each of 2
223.255.254.254 million networks.
Class D 224.0.0.0 to Reserved for multicast groups.
239.255.255.255
Class E 240.0.0.0 to Reserved for future use, or Research
254.255.255.254 and Development Purposes.

Subnetwork (Subnet)
A subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network. Dividing a network
into two or more networks is known as subnetting. Computers that belong to a
subnet are addressed with a significant bit-group in their IP addresses.
Subnetting results in the logical division of an IP address into two parts, the
network address, and the host identifier.
Super network (Supernet)
Supernet is an Internet Protocol network that is formed, for combining
two or more networks into a larger network. The benefits of supernetting are
conservation of address space, gaining efficiency regarding memory storage and
route information processing.

Network address translation

Network address translation (NAT) is a method of remapping one IP
address space into another by modifying network address information in IP
header packets while they are in transit. It has become a popular and essential
tool in conserving global address space in the face of IPv4 address exhaustion.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network
management protocol used on UDP/IP networks. A DHCP server dynamically
assigns an IP address and other network configuration parameters to each
device on a network so that they can communicate with other IP networks.

TCP
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol, which is a widely used
protocol for data transmission over a network. TCP establishes a connection
between two hosts before transmitting data, to ensure that data transmitted over
the network reaches the destination without fail. TCP also known as a
connection-oriented protocol, establishes a reliable connection between sender
and receiver. TCP provides error and flow control mechanisms which help in
orderly transmission of data and retransmission of lost packets.

UDP
UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol, which is connectionless
protocol, mostly used for connections that can tolerate data loss. UDP is used by
applications on the internet that offer voice and video communications, which
can suffer some data loss without adversely affecting the quality. UDP does not
provide error and flow control mechanisms because of which it does not require
a connection to be established before transmitting data over the network.

ICMP
ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol; this is widely used
for internet communication troubleshooting or generated in response to errors in
IP operations, this will send packets to the target machine and will see whether
the packets are delivered or not.
Address Resolution Protocol
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used for
discovering the link layer address, such as a MAC address, associated with a
given network layer address. This mapping is a critical function in the Internet
Protocol suite. It works within the boundaries of a single network never routed
across internetworking nodes. ARP uses a simple message format containing
one address resolution request or response. The size of the ARP message
depends on the link layer and network layer address sizes.

Domain Name System

Domain Name System (DNS) is a naming system for resources connected
to the Internet or a private network. The DNS is responsible for assigning
domain names and mapping those names to Internet resources by designating
name servers for each domain. Network administrators have authority over the
subdomains of their allocated namespace to other name servers. Domain Name
System is an essential component of Internet functionality.

Internet Group Management Protocol

Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is a communication
protocol used by hosts and adjacent routers on IPv4 networks to establish
multicast group memberships. IGMP is an integral part of IP multicast. IGMP
can be used for one-to-many networking applications such as online video
streaming and gaming and allows the more efficient use of resources.

Routing
Routing is the process of selecting a path for traffic in a network or across
multiple networks. In routing, network packets from their source toward their
destination are routed through intermediate network nodes by specific packet
forwarding mechanisms. Intermediate nodes are typically networked hardware
devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. In routing,
process packets are directed on based on routing tables, which maintain a record
of the routes to various network destinations. An administrator specifies the
routing table.

Routing protocol
Routing protocol specifies how routers communicate with each other,
distributing information, which enables them to select routes between any two
nodes on a computer network. Routing algorithms determine to choose a
specific route. A routing protocol shares this information first among immediate
neighbors, and then throughout the network. The major types of routing
protocols.
● Routing Information Protocols (RIP)
 ● Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
● Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
● Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)
● Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
● Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
● Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)

References:

1. Beal, V. (n.d.). Network Fundamentals Study Guide. Retrieved from

https://www.webopedia.com/quick_ref/network-fundamentals-study-
guide.html.
2. Beal, V. (n.d.). What is The Difference Between IPv6 and IPv4?
Retrieved from
https://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Internet/ipv6_ipv4_differenc
e.html.
3. What is OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection)? - Definition from
WhatIs.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/OSI
4. Image reference: 7 Layers of OSI Model and Their Functions. (2017,
November 05). Retrieved from http://electricala2z.com/cloud-
computing/osi-model-layers-7-layers-osi-model/