Physical Literacy Concept Paper
Physical Literacy Concept Paper
Physical Literacy Concept Paper
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Appendix 1: Typical Characteristics and Developmental Considerations for Practitioners......... 40
Appendix 2: Annotated Bibliography........................................................................................... 47
Complete Annotated Bibliography for LTAD and Physical Literacy ...................................... 48
Literacy ..................................................................................................................................... 48
Physical Literacy....................................................................................................................... 50
Stages of Skill Development..................................................................................................... 53
Early Rhythmic Movement....................................................................................................... 55
Fundamental Skills.................................................................................................................... 57
Sport Specific Skills / Specialization........................................................................................ 61
Transfer ..................................................................................................................................... 64
Developmental Domains........................................................................................................... 65
Developmentally Appropriate Pedagogy.................................................................................. 67
Long term Development ........................................................................................................... 68
Appendix C: Useful Websites....................................................................................................... 70
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Executive Summary
• The United Nations has declared 2003 – 2012 to be the International Year of Literacy
• Literacy is often thought of as including components of knowledge, understanding,
thinking, communication, and application
• To be physically literate includes the ability to move with poise and confidence across a
wide range of activities. It also includes competencies that are linked to the development
of the whole person (e.g., physical, affective, cognitive)
• Recent definitions of physical literacy include the importance of psycho-social aspects
such as motivation, social responsibility, self-esteem, and culture.
• The development of physical literacy often starts with the development of fundamental
and rhythmic skills.
• The development of fundamental skills is age related, not age dependent. Hence, when
teaching children to develop fundamental skills, it must be done in a manner that is
developmentally appropriate and sensitive to individual needs and abilities.
• The first three years are viewed by child development specialists as the most sensitive
phase for learning (Jensen, 1998). While not the only phase of critical brain
development, this phase is extremely powerful and different from learning in later years
(Gruhn, 2002). Early childhood educators have become increasingly aware that
movement plays an important role in the healthy development of a young child. In
particular, previous research has demonstrated that the development of rhythmic
activities during this critical period of development assists in the development of
coordination, language and reading, voice reproduction, intelligence, and future complex
movement patterns.
• Individuals who are physically literate are able to move with proficiency across a wide
variety of fundamental skills and serve as the foundation for future participation in sport
specific activities.
• When teaching more complex sport specific skills, coaches and practitioners need to
consider the interaction between person, task, and environmental factors.
• Important personal regulating factors often include age, growth, maturation, motor
readiness, knowledge, and learner motivation. The nature of the task and how it is taught
(i.e., the pedagogy) need to match these personal regulating factors to maximize learning
• By exposing participants to sport specific skills and activities prior to developing a wide
variety of fundamental skills will often result in participants hitting a proficiency barrier.
The result is often frustration, failure, incompetence, and a significant decline in
motivation. This in turn will most often result in withdrawal from the sport and in some
cases, withdrawal from physical activity in general.
• As a result, child-centered approaches to teaching skills is critical. These approaches put
the needs and current abilities (or inabilities) first above the needs or requirements of the
sport itself. These type of pedagogical approaches help children and youth learn the skills
needed to be physically literate at a pace that is right for them and the sport system/
organization provides ample opportunities for these skills and abilities to flourish within
the system/ organization.
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Background
The Canadian Sport Centre’s (2006) Long Term Athlete Development Plan (LTAD) recognizes
physical literacy as the foundation for developing the skills, knowledge, and attitudes needed for
Canadians to lead healthy active lives. As such, there is a need to better understanding existing
research behind this rationale and the pedagogy needed to help develop physically literate
individuals. The following summary of the literature provides background information on
physical literacy, its connection to the development of skills, and effective pedagogical practices
that help facilitate the development of physical literacy.
Literacy
Traditionally, sport and physical education has focussed upon the development of “physical”
development of individuals. Although this is critical and central to professional practices, the
“physical” is only one half of the term. To truly understand the term “physical literacy”, a clear
understanding of literacy is needed. This section provides a brief background on understanding
literacy as it relates to both the LTAD and the term “physical literacy.”.
The timing of the Long Term Athlete Development plan could not be better. In addition to the
United Nations declaring 2005 as the International Year of Sport and Physical Education, the UN
has also declared this to be the Literacy Decade (2003 – 2012).
• According to the United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO; 2003), literacy is more than just reading and writing. It is about:
– how we communicate in society.
– social practices and relationships, about knowledge, language and culture.
• There are those who have suggested that the lack of a clear and concise definition of
literacy has resulted in confusion around the type of actions needed in Canada to
effectively impact upon literacy rates (de Castell, Luke, & MacLennan, 1981).
• Examples of literacy definitions include:
– the ability to understand and use the standard form of communication in a
particular context and for a particular purpose.” (Browne & Neil, 1991)
– a mastery of generalizable techniques and concepts that are building blocks for
future education” (Lankshear, 1998)
– Literacy is typically viewed as falling somewhere on a continuum ranging from a
set of skills to a basis for rational and ethical action (Bailey, Hunsberger, &
Hayden, 1998).
• Literacy can be thought of as four key components:
a. Knowledge and Understanding
– Content & comprehension of the content
b. Thinking
– Use of critical and creative thinking skills and/or processes
c. Communication
– Conveying of information through various forms
d. Application
– Use of knowledge and skills to make connections within and between
various contexts
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Physical Literacy
The foundation of the LTAD model is physical literacy. Individuals who are physically literate
are more likely to have the skills, knowledge, and attitudes to be physically active across a wide
range of activities. Although the concept of physical literacy is relatively new to most parents,
coaches, and teachers in North America, definitions have excited for well over four decades.
One of the first written definitions was provided by Morrison (as cited in Wall & Muarry, 1994,
p. 5):
“To be physically literate, one should be creative, imaginative, and clear in expressive
movement, competent and efficient in utilitarian movement and inventive, versatile, and
skillful in objective movement. The body is the means by which ideas and aims are
carried out and, therefore, it must become both sensitive and deft.”
Recently, Margaret Whitehead has been credited as being one of the leading experts in physical
literacy.
However, recently, Whitehead (2007) has updated her definition to the following working
definition:
• Physical literacy can be described as the ability and motivation to capitalise on our
movement potential to make a significant contribution to the quality of life.
• As humans we all exhibit this potential, however its specific expression will be particular
to the culture in which we live and the movement capacities with which we are endowed.
• An individual who is physically literate moves with poise, economy and confidence in a
wide variety of physically challenging situations.
• A physically literate individual has a well established sense of self as embodied in the
world. This together with an articulate interaction with the environment engenders
positive self esteem and self confidence.
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• Sensitivity to and awareness of our embodied capacities leads to fluent self expression
through non-verbal communication and to perceptive and empathetic interaction with
others.
• In addition the individual has the ability to identify and articulate the essential qualities
that influence the effectiveness of his/her own movement performance, and has an
understanding of the principles of embodied health, with respect to basic aspects such as
exercise, sleep and nutrition.
Whitehead’s updated working definition takes into consideration recent criticisms that her initial
definition excluded the social and cultural contexts of movement (Wright & Burrows, 2006). The
new working definition now includes concepts such as motivation, quality of life, imagination
and self-esteem.
This re-worked definition of physical literacy is also consistent with other scholars in this area.
For example Penny and Chandler (2000) offer this definition of physical literacy:
“movement and physical literacy focuses upon the knowledge, skills and understanding
that are associated with bodily awareness, development and expression, and that underpin
participation, development of performance and enjoyment in and of the wide array of
physical activities that feature in modern societies. There is a need to emphasize that the
knowledge, skills and understanding that we refer to are not only physical in nature. The
focus of attention is on physical development, but the complexity of that development is
acknowledged. Thus, it is recognized that there are important psychological and
sociological dimensions to physical development and that social and psychological skills
and abilities required for this development, and for participation and performance in
physical activities, need to be more explicit in curriculum design and teaching than may
currently be the case.” (pp. 80-81)
Hayden-Davies (2005) also supports the revised definition of physical literacy by suggesting that
to become physically literate, “a child needs to be able to perform basic movement competencies
(within their own physical capacity), apply these in a variety of situations and activities,
understand how they can learn further, independently and have the internal motivation to do so.”
(p. ).
In summary, it would seem that the definition of physical literacy has come full circle. The initial
definition of physical literacy proposed by Morrison in 1969 adopted a more holistic perspective
by acknowledging that physical literate individuals not only move efficiently, but they also
move creatively, competently and with enthusiasm. Whitehead’s revised working definition of
physical literacy has adopted this perspective, and also further expanded the definition to include
elements of social responsibility. Penny and Chandler (2000) have also recognized that such
competent movers do not do so in isolation of their social environment. Hence, individuals who
are physically literate have the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to lead healthy lifestyles for
themselves, and also assist others in acquiring these skills as well.
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Games Literacy
The following is an excerpt from Mandigo and Holt’s (2004) article on Games Literacy:
Building upon this holistic definition of physical literacy, Mandigo and Holt (2004) introduced
the notion of games literacy to indicate the qualities and skills that students will acquire from
experiencing high quality instruction when participating in games. They proposed that the aim of
teaching games is to produce players who are games literate. Students are games literate if they
(a) have knowledge and understanding that enables them to anticipate patterns of play, (b)
possess technical and tactical skills to deploy appropriate and imaginative responses, and (c) are
able experience positive motivational states while helping to facilitate motivation among others
involved in the game. Rather than being literate in a single game, children with games literacy
will be able to engage with poise, confidence, and enthusiasm in a wide range of games.
There are certain tactical similarities between games with similar primary rules. For example, the
tactical problem of covering space is similar for all fielders in striking/fielding games. In cricket,
the fielders must position themselves to cover space in an oval while in baseball the fielders must
position themselves to cover space inside a diamond. For invasion games, the tactic of creating
space is very similar in soccer and field hockey because many of the primary rules of the game
shape similar principles of play (e.g., both games are 11 v 11, the primary objective is to put the
ball in the goal, teams defend a forced-target goal). The learner who is games literate will be able
to understand and apply knowledge across games within each of the thematic categories,
understanding that certain tactical concepts transfer from game to game. The intended result is
that students will develop games literacy across a number of sports.
We suggest that if children can learn the primary rules and tactics across games categories, they
will be in a better position to anticipate the development of patterns of play. That is, following
Whitehead (2001) and Maude’s (2001) general conceptualization of physical literacy, children
with games literacy will be able to “read the game” and anticipate the plays as they develop.
Furthermore, they will be able read and understand a wide range of games rather than simply a
single game.
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Technical and Tactical Skills
The second aspect of games literacy relates to a child possessing the necessary skills required to
effectively respond to a wide range of conditions that may occur during games. We use the term
skills to include both technical skills (such as passing, shooting, dribbling, etc.), and tactical
skills (such as off-the-ball movement, decision-making, defensive marking, etc.). A literate
games player is able to perform a broad range of these skills, knowing both how to do a skill as
well as when to do it (Bunker & Thorpe, 1982). For example, in badminton a student may know
how to play a drop shot, but it is also important that she knows when it is executed during the
game (i.e., when the opponent is at the back of the court or on the back foot). In this case, games
literacy incorporates both the technical and tactical understanding that is required to successfully
respond to patterns of play that occur during a game.
Mandigo, J. L., & Holt, N. L. (2004). Reading the game. Introducing the notion of games
literacy. Physical and Health Education Journal, 70(3), 4-10.
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Stages of Skill Development
Brustad (1998) defines development as “a sequence of change that results in an increasingly
organized and specialized functional capacity for an individual.” As a result, it is imperative that
parents, teachers, coaches, etc., recognize that children are not miniature adults.
As early as 1938, Susan Isaacs pioneered the significance of rhythmic activity in children’s
development and summarized its role as an impulse to growth, as a means of developing
movement skills through repetition and while providing a form of pleasure.
The Council on Physical Education for Children (2000) encourage teachers to engage young
children in rhythmical experiences and dance. A quality movement program would include a
variety of rhythmical, expressive, creative and culturally appropriate dance experiences designed
with the whole child in mind. This implies that children’s diverse interests and abilities are
stimulated and facilitated so that children use their imaginations and to move to the rhythms of
various stimuli. The stimuli may take the form of rhythmical movements such as walking or
skipping, singing, word repetition, poetry and using percussion instruments to create a rhythm.
For the preschooler, musical activities which incorporate both movement and music in singing
games and dance activities are potentially extremely enjoyable, providing for group work, fun
and humour as well as rewarding musical experiences and skill development (Overy, Nicolson,
Fawcett & Clarke, 2003).
Rhythmic literacy is the ability is the ability to observe, control and differentiate the rhythm of
an action according to the environmental demands in a particular situation. This enables the
quick motor adjustment of the performer in an unpredictable environment, assuring success in
performance (Martin, 1988).
Rhythmic literacy involves auditory, kinaesthetic, tactual and visual stimuli. These are
interrelated and dependent upon one another. Music and movement education emphasizes the
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significance of rhythmic ability in the execution of motor skills. Rhythmic ability refers to the
understanding, memorization and movement presentation from the data from the temporal-
dynamic structure and modulates the execution of the movement (Martin, 1988). It determines
the level of motor skills acquisition (Frey, 1977; Hirtz, 1985; Martin, 1988) and is considered an
important factor in the development, execution and learning of motor skills (Thomas & Moon,
1976). Weikart (1989) stated that rhythmic ability is acquired through participation in movement
activities that require accurate response to rhythmic stimuli. Her rhythmic training technique
emphasizes the use of a hierarchy of movements with younger children beginning with non-loco-
motor tasks and progressing to integrated movement that includes locomotor tasks. The activities
consist of saying the beat without movement, tapping (non-locomotor skills), and walking (gross
locomotor skills) according to the beat.
The music educator C. Orff (Keetman, 1974) based his music and movement method on the
interrelationships amongst music, movement, and speech with rhythm as common concept.
Walking, skipping, running, hopping, and jumping can all be expressed through specific
rhythmic motives. Children can match their movements to the rhythms produced by the teacher
through a tambourine. The teacher might also ask children to move and then match the rhythm of
a tambourine to their movement.
Many physical education programs have been enriched by music and other forms of
accompaniment in an attempt to make practice more effective (Brown, Sherrill, & Gench, 1981)
with various results. Previous researchers (e.g., Anshel & Marisi, 1978; Beisman, 1967) reported
positive results in performance accuracy and endurance when music was rhythmically
synchronized with motor performance. Painter (1966) found that rhythmic accompaniment
enhanced fundamental motor skills’ learning and improved children’s perceptual motor abilities.
In a study by Beisman (1967) rhythmic accompaniment was employed as a teaching technique
for elementary school children and produced greater improvement in the performance of
fundamental motor skills than teaching ad practice without rhythmic accompaniment.
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Results of movement programs for young children have demonstrated positive results for the
whole child. These have included:
Hanes (2002) found associations between rhythmic repetitions and coordination activities,
language and reading in 4 -6 year old children.
Gruhn (2002) reported a strong interaction between movement (flow of movement and motor
coordination) and voice production (vocalization of tone and rhythm patterns) in one and 2
year olds. Results indicate a significant interaction within different areas of motor control
and intonation and pitch.
Howard Gardner (2000) writes of the eight forms of intelligence, two of which are
kinaesthetic intelligence and spatial intelligence, both utilized in movement activities.
Derri, Tsapakidou, Zachopoulou, and Kioumourtzoglou (2001) investigated the effects of a
10 week music and movement program on children of ages 4 to 6 and concluded that a
music and movement program can improve significantly the quality of particular, more
complex motor skills.
Free play seems unable to guarantee significant development of more complex locomotor
skills which appear relatively late in children’s motor behaviour. (Derri, Tsapakidou,
Zachopoulou, & Kioumourtzoglou (2001)
Fundamental Skills
The development of fundamental movement skills is the basic building block for the overall
development of physical literacy. Much like learning the alphabet and phonics are the
fundamental skills needed to eventually read Shakespeare, or identifying numbers and learning
to add and subtract are the fundamental skills needed to eventually balance a cheque-book, the
development of fundamental motor skills is critical if children are to apply these skills within
and/or across a number of sporting activities. Previous research has demonstrated that without
the development of these fundamental skills, many children and youth choose to withdraw from
sport and turn to more inactive and/or unhealthy choices during their leisure time (e.g. Burton &
Martens, 1986; Skard & Vaglum, 1989).
A number of definitions of fundamental skills have been provided throughout the literature.
• Fundamental skills are basic skills that are an organized series of movements
using two or more body segments to accomplish a particular task, and which emphasize
process over produce (Haywood & Getchell, 2001)
• A common motor activity with specific movement patterns … which form the foundation
for more advanced and specific movement activities (Gabbard, 2000, p. 253)
• Organized series of basic movements that involve the combination of movement patterns
of two or more body segments (Gallahue & Ozmun, 2003, p. 52)
• Form the foundation of human development (Pangrazi, 2001, p. 313)
Although the development of fundamental skills is age related, it is not age dependent. Often, the
development of fundamental skills prior to puberty is influenced by a combination of
environmental factors. For example, in a meta-analysis examining gender differences in
children’s motor performance, Thomas and French (1985) reported that boys tended to out-
perform girls prior to puberty in the development of skills such as throwing, catching, and
locomotor skills involving power (e.g., sprinting and long-jump) because of more encouragement
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and opportunities provided by adults. There were no biological explanations for gender
differences prior to puberty.
Stability
The ability to sense a shift in the relationship of the body parts that alter one’s balance, as well as
the ability to adjust rapidly and accurately for these changes with the appropriate compensating
movements (Gallahue & Ozmun, 2003, p. 417)
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Locomotor Skills
This category of skills involves movements that are responsible for transporting the body from
one place to another
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Manipulative Skills
This category of skills involves movements that are responsible for either sending away,
receiving, or traveling with an object such as a ball, puck, or disc.
Individuals learn skills in progression. Often, children will start off with a rudimentary form of a
skill. Given that children are not miniature adults, progression through the stages of skill
development needs to take into consideration both an individual’s biological make-up and their
previous experience. For example, when learning the overhand throw, pre-school children will
often have difficulty coordinating their body parts in a manner that would produce a mature, or
the most advanced, pattern for this throw. The ability to take steps to develop momentum,
coordinate axial rotation of the hips, and sequence movement to form an efficient kinetic chain to
accurately throw a ball for distance is developmentally inappropriate to expect from a two year
old who is just entering the fundamental skill stage.
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As a result, skill acquisition is often broken down into sequential pattern or stages of skill
development. Although the terminology is often different amongst experts in motor
development, there is consensus that skills are developed in a sequential manner from basic
rudimentary forms to efficient and mature patterns of a skill.
The progression trough the various stages of skill development is often a factor of biological
readiness to learn the skill, the environmental factors that facilitate the development of the skill,
and the type of tasks that individuals use to practice the development of a skill. For example,
teaching a five-year old to use an overhand throw for accuracy by asking him/her to stand 10
meters away and throw a regulation size softball to a small target is a developmentally
inappropriate task. Giving him/her a smaller ball, standing him/her closer to a larger target will
result in not only more success, but the opportunity to teach better skill proficiency. This type of
approach to fostering effective skill progression is supported by Gallahue and Ozmun’s (2001)
assessment of the following significant factors that contribute to fostering successful
development of fundamental skills for children:
• Quality instruction
• Opportunities for practice
• Encouragement
• Environmental setting
An example of this complex interaction is often seen in helping to understand gender differences.
Although previous research has found that boys and girls differ with respect to proficiency in
certain skills typically classified as “feminine” (e.g., skipping) or “masculine” (e.g., throwing),
the majority of this research attributes gender differences during pre-adolescence to social and
environmental factors as opposed to biological factors (McKenzie, Sallis, Broyles, Zive, Nader,
Berry, & Brennan, 2002; O’Reilly, Romanow, Rutledge, Covey, & Mandigo, 1999; Thomas,
2000; Thomas & French, 1985). Hence, boys and girls should be given the same opportunities to
develop their skill repertoire across a wide range of activities.
In the Preparation Phase, the body readies itself to initiate movement. For example, in the mature
form of a striking skill such as batting a ball, an individual will prepare his/her body in such a
way that he/she is standing sideways towards the thrower, bat is held with dominant hand on top
of the other hand (i.e., right handed batter has right hand on top of left), weight is on the back
foot, and batter is watching the pitcher.
During the Execution Phase, the body generates enough momentum to effectively and efficiently
implement the skill. Keeping with the striking example, after the ball has been thrown, the batter
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would keep his/her eye on the ball, transfer their weight from the back to front foot, rotate the
hips, and swing the bat from the shoulders while extending his/her arms in front of the body in
order to make contact with the ball.
The Follow-Through phase of a skills begins after the body has executed the skill and needs to
start the process of decelerating the movement. For example, after striking the ball, the batter
would continue with the natural progression of the swing with his/her arms and hips through
their full range of motion and start to transfer body weight back to the back foot in order to
maintain balance.
c) It is important to teach to the current ability level of the learner and provide formative
feedback on how to improve. For example, when starting to teach catching skills, start
with a larger and bright ball, throw the ball using a more horizontal trajectory, and stand
relatively close to the learner. This helps the learner to not only experience success and
confidence, but also helps to establish the movement pattern for more complex catches.
d) Provide a context in which to learn skills. When using “drill-type” activities to teach
skills, children will often ask “when do we get to play the game?” This may be an
indication that they do not understand the relevance of the skill and how it will be used
within the game or sport. Skill development does not need to be done in isolation of the
sport/ game. Starting a practice/ class with a developmentally appropriate lead-up game
that introduces a skill will result in children being more engaged and motivated to
practice a particular skill and will also result in children being better able to transfer the
skill back into the sport/ game after having had a chance to become more efficient and
proficient at the skill.
e) The development of movement skills is age related, not age dependent. Many children
may be ahead or behind what is considered a “typical level” for an age group. As a result,
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it is important to recognize that every child learns a skill at his/her own rate. This is a
function of a variety of factors (e.g., past experience, heredity, learning style, interest and
motivation, etc). Hence, it is important to be patient and provide a learning environment
that is nurturing and sensitive to individual needs and abilities. For example, Garcia
(1994) reported that boys and girls respond differently to skill instruction. Girls were
found to interact in a cooperative, caring and sharing manner whereas boys were found to
be more competitive, individual and egocentric.
f) It is important to remember that physical literacy involves competence across a wide
variety of skills. An individual may be very proficient at certain skills (e.g., the overhand
throw and running) and be at the higher end of development, however, that same
individual may also be inefficient at other skills (e.g., jumping and catching). Through
the development of a wide variety of fundamental skills, more opportunities to be
competent across a wide range of activities is more possible and success within more
specialized activities later on is also higher due to the need to sequence movement
patterns together in more complex activities (e.g., dribbling a ball while changing
directions quickly in soccer requires proficiency at starting, stopping, dodging, running,
and kicking a ball).
g) Teaching to the “whole child” is critical when fostering skill development (i.e., Gallahue
& Donnelly, 2003; Garcia, Garcia, Floyd, & Lawson, 2002; Wall & Murray, 1994). For
example, young children can not focus on more than one idea at a time. Therefore, the
amount of information conveyed to the learner needs to be minimal in order for them to
process information. As well, younger children are continually looking for adult
approval. Hence, providing positive and informative feedback to young children will help
to promote self-confidence which in turn, helps to improve overall skill development.
To help to structure and justify assertions about the development of specialized (sports) skills,
Bandura’s (1986) social-cognitive conceptual model will be applied. The model emphasizes the
interaction of person, task and environmental variables in explaining human behavior. Social-
cognitive theory postulates that learning occurs in environmental contexts (i.e., peers, the
teacher, and the family) through appropriately designed tasks or challenges governed by personal
(i.e., cognitive and motivational) factors that are linked by interpersonal (social) engagement.
Additionally, compared to a motor-program based theory of sports skill development that
focuses on biological, cognitive, and conditioning parameters, a more multi-disciplinary
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dynamic-patterns or systems theory (for a review, see Magill, 2004) will be followed to enable
such dynamic person, task, and environment (contextual) variables to be included in any
recommendations about the development of sports skills.
Motor Readiness.
Children can often perform motor skills they have little experience in because of general
underlying motor abilities. The motor ability or movement readiness of the learner is related to
sports skill achievement and is partly a function of one’s previous movement experiences. Motor
ability – a set of underlying traits utilized when making a motor performance – include static
strength, dynamic strength, explosive strength, trunk strength, flexibility, gross body
coordination, gross body equilibrium and stamina. There is more empirical support for the
specificity than generality of motor abilities (Magill, 2004; Henry, 1968). Rather than having a
singular, global motor ability comprised of various highly related traits, individuals likely have
more many motor abilities that are relatively independent. Thus, a person who excels in a large
number of physical activities will likely have numerous proficient motor abilities instead of a
single proficient generalized ability. An important component of motor ability is perceptual-
motor ability (i.e., multi-limb coordination, figure-ground perception, visual acuity, spatial
awareness, body awareness, control precision, reaction time, speed of movement, manual
dexterity, kinesthetic awareness). If such abilities are not developed by late childhood, certain
sports skills may be deficient. For example, if coincident timing and visual acuity are not
developed, learners may have less success at catching a pass in football or a fly ball in baseball.
Research (e.g., Allard, 1993; Ballyi, 2001; French & Nevett, 1993; Magill, 2004) has revealed
characteristics that distinguish an expert motor skill performer from a non-expert. These include:
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i. deliberate (optimal and personalized) practice in a sport for at least ten years
ii. a more conceptually organized and integrated (versus isolated facts) knowledge
base of the domain (sport) and the skills
iii. adaptability
iv. make effective decisions
v. are mechanically efficient (locomotion economy)
vi. detect and correct errors better
vii. have a rapid and efficient vision and more focused attention span that enables
them to focus more strategically on key cues and patterns
As learners progress in specialized motor (sports) skills they tend to increase in the declarative
and procedural knowledge, improve their detection and correction of errors, “feel” the
movements more efficiently (i.e., mentally, visually, kinesthetically), monitor and control their
metacognition and attention, and perform more mechanically efficient, coordinated skills.
Fitts and Posner (1967) proposed a three-phase model for learning motor skills. In the initial or
“cognitive” phase of this model, participants try to pay close conscious attention to pertinent
information and cues while screening out less useful competing stimuli. A major objective is to
construct a clear mental picture and understand the fundamental cues of the whole (gross) skill.
This initial phase of learning is usually quite rapid followed by a slowing or a plateau in progress
where there may be no visible improvement. At this point, memory reorganization or
consolidation of neuronal connections in the brain may be occurring or the learner may be
experiencing emotional burnout (Gabbard, 2004). During such plateaus, it is important to keep
children motivated and to foster pursuit of mastery (i.e., intrinsic motivating play) rather than
performance (i.e., extrinsic competitive objectives) in skill development. In the intermediate or
“associative” (practice) phase, the learner can generally understand and perform a rudimentary
version of the skill. There is a gradual shift from concentrated thinking (i.e., a hit and miss
approach) to more focused effort to refine or fixate the skill although the attention is still mainly
devoted to the outcome rather than the process. The learner is able to utilize a kinesthetic
“feeling” so they do not have to focus as much on the verbal or visual cues. Finally, in the
automatic phase, the participant becomes able to perform the skill in a automatic, coordinated
and fluid manner since they do not have to allot as much working memory and attention on each
component of the skills and are able to attempt more specialized and contextualized adaptations
of skills. Few children attain this third level of proficiency.
Three stages that complement Fitts and Posner’s (1967) phases are the transition, application and
lifelong utilization stages (Gallahue & Ozmun, 1998). The following illustrates pedagogical
guidelines for optimally developing specialized motor (sports) skills along the three phases
(Adapted from Kirchner and Fishburne, 1997; Gallahue and Ozmun, 1998):
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iii. Facilitate cognitive understanding of the general idea of the skill by focusing on a
few key parts of each skill.
iv. If possible, compare the skill to another similar and familiar skill
v. Provide immediate, precise and appropriately positive feedback about the skill
vi. Focus on the process (understanding of form) and not much on product (i.e.,
accuracy, speed, or distance).
vii. Use practices and simple, cooperative, fun and low-organization games with few
required participants and few rules.
21
Knowledge.
A solid empirical case has been built concerning the important role of knowledge in sports skills
and strategies. It seems that “knowledge-cognition is vital to real world skilled motor
performance, it is important for formulating the intended goals of actions, and it facilitates actual
performance” (Allard, 1993, p. 31). Domain knowledge consists of declarative (knowing the
“what” about something), procedural (the “how” about a concept or function) and conditional
knowledge (knowing “when” and “where” to apply a concept or function) (Alexander & Judy,
1988). Strategic knowledge – heuristic rules like rehearsal, organization, or goal-setting – has
also been identified in movement domains like games as participants learn to appropriately apply
offensive and defensive tactics like guarding or avoiding an opponent across and within game
categories (invasion, net-wall, striking fielding, target) (Dodds, Griffin & Placek, 2001). Thus,
sports skill-related knowledge can include declarative knowledge about movement like body and
space awareness, qualities, and relationships (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003), applying movement
forms (procedural knowledge), knowing when and where to employ movement forms according
to context (conditional knowledge), and knowing how to perform movements or apply tactics or
rules advantageously (strategic knowledge). For example, Table 4 following summarizes generic
tactical problems and solutions for net-wall games (e.g., volleyball, badminton, squash).
Compiled from Griffin, 1998; Griffin et al., 1997; Hopper & Bell, 2000; Mandigo & Anderson, 2003; Mitchell, 2001).
22
Complex motor skills require performers to intentionally use and control their cognitive
functions (i.e., planning, working memory, coordination, metacognition) as they interact with the
environment (Wallian & Chang, 2006). Working memory and recollection of game-specific
information is superior in experts. Further, compared to novices, motor experts possess greater
declarative and procedural knowledge (Chi, Feltovich & Glaser, 1981) and superior cognitive
processing in high-strategy sports (Allard, 1993; McPherson & Kernodle, 2003) through their
superior speed and accuracy of recognizing patterns which enables them to make more strategic
decisions (Thomas, French, Thomas & Gallagher, 1988). Individuals with strong motor skills
seem to transition from a reliance on declarative knowledge to controlling movements using
procedural (automatic, unconscious) knowledge thereby creating more space in working memory
for other needs (McPherson & Kernodle, 2003). Students with superior knowledge and cognitive
processing demonstrate enhanced problem resolution and performance skills in tennis
(McPherson & Kernodle, 2003) and in invasion games (Nevett, Rovegno, Babiarz, &
McCaughtry, 2001) such as knowing how to support teammates off the ball (Griffin, Mitchell, &
Oslin, 1997).
Learner Motivation
Learner motivation is another critical factor in developing sports skills. Motivational variables to
consider and teach include arousal, attention, meta-cognition, goal-setting, self-efficacy,
attributions, outcome expectations, mastery and performance achievement orientations, self-
determination. To summarize, learners will be more prone to improving a sports skill if they
have a healthy self-efficacy, self-concept, outcome expectations, and control beliefs; pre-
requisite motor competencies and experiences; appropriate attention, useful and realistic goals
(distal and proximal; performance and process) and goal-orientations (mastery and performance;
intrinsic and extrinsic), knowledge of learning strategies, appropriate domain knowledge;
constructive and accurate attitudes and emotions; helpful optimal sources of feedback; sufficient
and useful resources, instructional cues, time and practice; and, a safe and affirmative social
context.
Cote and Hay (2002) provide a three-stage model for sport participation from early childhood to
late adolescence: Sampling, Specialization, and then either Investment or Recreational.
i. Sampling: The first stage involves learners sampling a host of activities without
specializing in any single sport in order to experience the enjoyment of play through
sports. They cite studies reporting that children tend to drop out of sport because of
“interest in other activities, lack of fun, lack of playing time, too little success, loss of
motivation, dislike of the coach, overemphasis on competition and performance, and hard
physical training” (p. 488). They add that play and enjoyment, were critical components
of a child’s early sport experience and that the emphasis should be on “deliberate play”
(developmentally purposeful) not “early specialization” or “intense training.”
ii. Specialization: In the specialization years (middle childhood) the child tends to either
drop-out or become more committed to and engaged in fewer sports and to more
demanding and deliberate practices that need to be inherently valued and pursued in order
to improve performance. Activities must remain enjoyable and play must be deliberate so
learners in the specializing years “enjoy using their talent” and maintain their motivation
for improving their sports skills (p. 492).
23
iii. Investment/ Recreational: Finally, the child or adolescent might drop out, participate for
recreational purposes, or choose to compete at an elite level in one or a few selected
sports. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children should not
participate in organized sports prior to age 6 or specialize in sports prior to age 14 (and
then only optionally).
As participants perform game-like learning activities within four developmental levels (see the
levels adopted from Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003 below) they should be confronted with tactical
choices, taught to think critically about them, and learn skills through game-like activities. When
teaching or coaching discrete games, Sheppard and Mandigo (2004) recommend utilizing a
conceptual or thematic approach in students are taught fundamental concepts associated with
game structure that they can then transfer and apply to numerous types of games. Games then
become the vehicle for learning various transferable psychomotor (e.g., specialized skills),
affective (e.g., social skills and cooperation), and cognitive (e.g., perceptual-motor abilities,
critical-thinking, decision-making) capabilities.
24
Figure 1.
Developmental Level I Games
9 Limited or no equipment
9 Easily perceived boundaries
9 Limited rules
9 Single skills or movement concepts
9 Can be played alone or with a small (i.e., three) group
9 Low level of competition
9 Often categorized by fundamental movement skill involved in game
9 One- or two-game strategies
Pedagogical Methods.
Although addressing all of the aspects of sound pedagogy for the development of sports skills is
beyond the scope of this initiative, several critical guidelines for such pedagogy will be
summarized.
i. Teachers and coaches of specialized skills must also have sufficient understanding of the
to-be-learned skills, the critical cues for teaching it, and should be aware of how difficult
the skill is to perform.
ii. Diagnosing and correcting errors in learners is another key pedagogical feature. It is
prudent for teachers and coaches to equip learners with the capability to detect and
correct errors themselves by providing spaced or intermittent rather than continuous
feedback. In other words, feedback provided by the instructor, can be essential, not
essential; an enhancement, or even detrimental for learning skills depending on the skills
and learner characteristics.
iii. While feedback for those in the early stage of sports skill development is important, it is
not the most important of variables for learning. The following guidelines about
providing feedback to learners of specialized skills were taken from Coker (2004):
25
a) Ensure the performer has a clear understanding of the goal and that it is attainable.
b) Provide teaching cues prior to the performance; occasional guidance (auditory or
physical assistance) during performance; and feedback (i.e., videos, photos,
review of cues) after the performance especially in advanced learners.
c) The feedback must be accurate; should not be given as the person is performing;
and should be given intermittently (not after every trial).
d) Do not give feedback that is intrinsic to the task as the performer can interpret this
(sensation) by him or her self.
e) Prescriptive feedback (telling the person the error and how to correct the noted
error about the performance) works best for beginners but those advanced in skills
prefer descriptive statements about the performance (just telling the error) and
video/computer generated visual feedback (versus auditory only).
f) Be careful not to make learners dependent on your feedback at the expense of
their self-regulation.
g) Do not over-teach a student thereby frustrating them by overloading their working
memory and overwhelming them with information they cannot process.
The most commonly used method is the direct-traditional method because it has its foundations
in the historically dominant psychological learning theory known as behaviourism or
conditioning. In direct-traditional instruction, the teacher or coach tends to be the supreme
authority, makes most decisions, and uses mainly repetition, reward, and punishment to
“condition” participants to learn. Metzler (2000) explains a more moderate direct (non-
traditional) method of instructing that uses more active teaching and explicit instruction in which
the instructor is more of a leader than an authority-figure is the direct-non-traditional method
progressing through six steps:
i. Review previously learned material
ii. present new content or skills
iii. initial student practice
iv. give feedback and correctives
v. provide independent practice, and
vi. review periodically.
This form of instruction is an efficient and effective method for individuals who are avoidant,
competitive, and dependent on the teacher or coach and for psychomotor developing skills in
recreational activities, dances with prescribed steps, aerobics, repetitive exercises, combatives,
and beginning and intermediate sports skills (Metzler, 2000). The disadvantage of this method is
that it can promote superficial engagement and learning and tends to meet the needs of only
certain learners.
26
Perhaps the most motivating method for developing specialized skills is alongside tactics,
through game-like experiences, and, in particular, by utilizing indirect (constructivist) styles of
teaching like the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) model (Griffin & Butler, 2005;
Metzler, 2000) and the Inquiry-Based Model (Hubball, 2004; Metzler, 2000). Several studies
exploring ways to increase tactical knowledge and sports skills have focused on the TGfU that
has been increasingly used in teaching and coaching. Tactical knowledge within the TGfU model
is “knowledge in action” and consists of action rules (conditions required for efficient action),
play organization rules (activity logic, dimensions, roles) and motor capacities (decisions, skills)
(Grehaigne & Godbout, 1995). Among the reasons the TGfU instructional model was developed
are:
a) Participants were experiencing less success due to the heavy emphasis placed on
performance (the “how”)
b) Technique was only of limited use (application) in the game because the learners had limited
knowledge about games
c) While traditional teaching fostered some skill development, participants demonstrated
inflexible techniques and poor decision making capacity since they were too dependent on
the coach or teacher to make decisions
d) There was little participant development as “thinking spectators” and “knowing
administrators” of games.
e) Activities and games were too repetitive year after year
f) Children wanted to play games
g) The more talented players were “under-challenged” and the less talented went through the
motions
The TGfU instructional model fosters specialized skills and tactics by implementing a six-step
process (or a modified three step process known as the Tactical Games Model) that incorporates:
a) a motivating flow and pace (e.g., opens with an authentic game)
b) more authentic learner-centered (e.g., include personal choice, are more personally rather
than interpersonally competitive) games rather than teacher-centered “drills.”
c) games in a simple format but progressing in complexity
d) the development of intelligent and self-regulated performers in games
e) inclusion by attempting to make every learner feel motivated and involved according to need
f) optimizing challenge by individualizing task difficulty with the skill level of each participant
Metzler (2000) and others (e.g., Hubball, 2004) have postulated and tested another indirect
instructional method they called inquiry-based teaching that particularly fosters cognitive
understanding through group and individual problem-solving as they strive to attain psychomotor
and affective outcomes. This model addresses issues that are relevant to learners, structures the
practice environment to closely simulate the competitive context, and facilitates community-
based (individual, team and pertinent others) initiatives for attaining objectives. The method is
centered on problem-based learning opportunities that necessitate the incorporation of a wide
range of learning strategies like critical thinking, interpersonal communication, goal-setting,
cooperative learning, experiential learning, peer coaching, portfolios, constructive feedback,
open-ended questions, and community interactions. In addition, the unique needs and ideas of
each learner and ideas are considered while responsibility is facilitated by giving learners active
roles, by using complex game play situations, and progressively challenging activities.
27
Transferable Skills: The Relationship of Fundamental Skills to
Participation in Sport and Recreation
Schmidt and Young (1987) define transfer of learning as “how learning one task affects the
performance capability of another task” (p. 48). In other words, transfer is concerned with how
previous experience with a skill could enhance or detract from subsequent practice with that or
another skill. When previous experience improves subsequent learning of another skill, it is
positive transfer whereas if such experience hinders future learning of the skill, it is considered
negative transfer. Negative transfer is generally temporary, happens in the early stage of
learning, and occurs when an old stimulus requires a new but similar response. This means that
the environmental context characteristics of two performance situations are similar, but the
movement characteristics are different. Negative transfer tends to occur only when “there is a
change in the spatial locations of a previously learned movement and a change in the timing of
the movement”(Magill, 2004, p. 237)” Thus, if someone learns to perform a basketball lay-up
outside in the sun, with little competing noise, and using a certain timing pattern – attends their
first indoor practice with competing noise, more intensity, and different timing – their previous
experience may hinder their learning at practice. Bilateral transfer is when learning transfers
between two limbs. Bilateral transfer occurs from one limb to another although it is greater from
the preferred limb to the non-preferred limb (Magill, 2004). Thus, it is best to begin practicing
with a preferred limb and establish a reasonable amount of skill with it prior to practicing with
the other limb.
Positive transfer is more common than negative transfer and is particularly important for the
proper sequencing of skills and activities. Learners generally progress from gross motor to fine
motor skills. To facilitate transfer of skills, it is useful for learners to know the similar conceptual
elements of skills. Such elements could include the strategies, rules, or cues associated with the
skill and knowing general pre-requisite movement concepts (special “language” of movement
components like body, space, effort, and relationship awareness) and fundamental movements of
the skills (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2004). In other words, learners need a base of movement
competency (i.e., pre-requisite motor ability) and a sound “movement vocabulary” of
understanding what, where, how and with whom the body can and should move (Gallahue &
Donnelly, 2003, p. 387). Skills are generally considered similar if they have synonymous
cognitive processing demands and identical elements like skill components (coordination,
rhythm, kinematics, body parts) and context (i.e., practice and game). For example, although an
over-arm throw performed by a baseball pitcher and a quarterback in football may appear
similar, the actual kinematics and cognitive processing involved in each may be quite different.
As a result, at an advance level these skills may not have much positive transfer. Skills can also
vary by the quality and quantity of the muscles they demand (gross or fine motor skills), by how
much variability there is in a skill that forces learners to adapt to the dynamic features of the
environment (open or closed), and by whether it has a distinct beginning and end (discrete),
occurs in a sequence (serial), or is ongoing and repetitive (continuous).
A useful taxonomy for skill complexity is Gentile’s Taxonomy of Motor Skills that rates a skill
into one of 16 categories based on the degree of environmental variability and the complexity of
the actions (body transport and object manipulation) the skill requires. This taxonomy is useful
because it helps practitioners and learners to consider the complexity of a skill and task before
teaching or learning it at a particular developmental level. The most complex tasks in this
28
taxonomy are those that have high variability and complex actions with an object whereas the
easiest are performed in a very stable environment and do not require much movement or object
manipulation. For example, a less difficult sports skill could be performing a forward roll on a
tumbling matt since there is no object to manipulate, little if any environmental motion or inter-
trial variability, and gross body transport. Conversely, a very complex task would be fielding a
football punt in a full stadium since it has complex environmental motion (i.e., fans, wind) and
inter-trial variability (i.e., lighting, varying object flight, approaching tacklers), object
manipulation (small oblong object), and body actions (i.e., catching while moving).
Understanding transfer is also important for practitioners trying to best structure and sequence
activities for practicing sports skills or tactics. Magill (2004) reports that a general rule of thumb
for deciding if positive transfer has occurred is “that the effectiveness of any practice condition
should be determined only on the basis of how the practiced skill (or tactic) is performed in a
`test’ context” (p. 234). According to Coker’s (2004) review, it is best to teach the skills as close
to the actual context in which it will be performed and to begin with blocked practice schedules
(one motor task is practiced repeatedly) but then progress to variable (two or more skills
practiced simultaneously) and eventually to random (numerous skills practiced in variations) as
the learner advances. Although blocked practices produce superior motor performance at the
time of practice, variable practice creates superior learning when measured in terms of skill
retention between lessons as it increases contextual interference (amount of interference created
by practicing several skill variations within each practice session) and the elaborateness and
distinctiveness of the memory representation of the skills that force the learner to reconstruct
action plans from preceding trials of a skill. Thus, when the context for the type of practice
schedule causes the learner to really concentrate on differences between motor tasks, superior
learning and transfer occur.
Fundamental skills serve as the foundation for the development of future sport specific skills. For
example, in a study of novice women tennis players, those who were taught the mature pattern
for the overarm throw in conjunction with tennis lessons performed the tennis serve significantly
better after 12 lessons over a 6 week period than those only taught service techniques (Rose &
Heath, 1990). In this example, the development of a mature overhand pattern (a fundamental
skill) was critical in the development of an effective tennis serve (sport specific skill).
According to Gallahue and Donnelly (2003), fundamental skills help individuals to incorporate
specialized movement skills into one’s movement repertoire. If children are placed into a
competitive sport environment whereby they require the use of specialized sport skills BEFORE
they have fully mastered fundamental skills, they hit what is referred to as a proficiency barrier
often leads to an eventual withdrawal from the sport and recreational activities.
The notion of tactical concepts being transferable between similar formal games is supported by
Mitchell and Oslin (1999). In their study, students who were taught badminton using a Teaching
Games for Understanding (TGfU: Bunker & Thorpe, 1982) approach not only improved their
decision-making skills in badminton, but they also were able to transfer their decision-making
skills to a less familiar net/wall game called pickleball (indoor tennis). These results suggest that
setting up units based on game categories rather than specific sport units (e.g., soccer unit,
29
volleyball unit) can be an effective approach to developing games literacy across a number of
formal games.
To conclude, positive transfer tends to be small and positive unless skills are almost identical,
depends largely how similar the two skills are and on how well the first skill has been learned
(Sharp, 1992).
Gallahue and Ozmun (2001) have argued that children who fail to develop fundamental skills
and who are exposed to specific sport situations often experience a proficiency barrier and are at
risk of dropping out of these organized sports because they:
• Develop incorrect techniques and bad habits when it comes to efficient movement;
• Self-consciousness and embarrassment; and,
• Fear of failure
Proficiency Barrier
30
Previous effective interventions to move children and youth
through the various stages
The aim of effective pedagogy in sport within every developmental level is to promote skill
development, feelings of self worth, competence and enjoyment, extend athletes’ knowledge and
understanding, and promote social maturity.
The following are five key pedagogical practices that can be used when teaching children and
youth in sport and physical activity settings. They are based upon current research and literature
pertaining to fostering the development of physically literate individuals.
Developmentally appropriate movement experiences infer that the intellectual, physical and
social demands placed upon the athlete and suitable for the child’s stage of development. The
complexity of the task and the environment (e.g., weight of objects, speed of objects,
predictability of equipment and distance received from) should all be considered when
constructing an age appropriate environment (Wall & Murray, 1994).
31
B) Effective pedagogy is task oriented.
Planning and organizing by the teacher/ coach are essential for effective learning (Gallahue &
Donnelly, 2003; Rink, 1993; Wall & Murray, 1994)
Meaningful experiences are planned for the participant. These experiences maximize full
participation by all, work towards intended outcomes in terms of movement skills. The leader
then, must organize and manage the learning environment, and develop the content to be learned
and experienced. (Rink, 1993, p. 175).
The movement session is task oriented with many, many opportunities to learn. Task-oriented
environments support “ … learning new skills, developing new skills, solving a problem, or
understanding something more fully” (Sarrazin & Famose, 1999, p. 30).
Time is maximized (Gagen, 2003) and there is enough equipment for all to ensure maximum
participation (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003, p. 186).
Safety is crucial in terms of clothing, condition and size/speed of equipment, space (Council
of Physical Education for Children, 2000).
The leader should construct situations that promote good behaviour (Wall & Murray, 1994).
Begin on time, end on time (Wall & Murray, 1994).
Teach by objectives (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003, p. 186)
Review (last covered) and preview (what will be covered) (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003, p.
186)
Consider the context of instruction (Rink, 1993, p.183). For example, the practice situation
and what is being instructed, should be considered in relation to what is demanded in the
competitive situation. In other words, make the context of teaching, learning and
competition all relevant.
The practice should have variability (O’ Sullivan, 1985) so children do not become bored.
The effective leader considers the context of instruction and the context into which students
are being instructed, e.g., the competition (Rink, 1993, p. 183).
The purpose of the activity must be clear to the child. If the reasons for engaging in an
activity are not readily apparent or are too abstract, they are likely to disengage. Children
and youth need concrete feedback and evidence of success in activity if they are to persist
(Council of Physical Education for Children, 2000).
There is an obligation to maximize capabilities of every student. Only then will students gain or
experience satisfaction from game participation, activity, and social interaction (Browning,
Charles, & Schack, 1990). As a result, the whole child is considered in all experiences such that
activities should enhance the motor, cognitive, emotional and social development of the
individual, not merely the physical at the expense of other domains (Council of Physical
Education for Children, 2000).
32
The following are pedagogical strategies when considering teaching to the whole child:
Effective communication implies competency in both verbal communication and through body
language and gesture and is critical to help provide learners with formative feedback and clear
instructions to assist them in enhancing their skills.
The following are pedagogical strategies that are important to consider when providing effective
communication:
Verbal communication should always be concise and clear (O’ Sullivan, 1985) and
appropriate for the age of the child. As well, good communication is founded upon active
listening to understand another’s point of view whereby the coach should be open to
exchange of ideas (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003, p. 180).
Language must be age appropriate and specific to the sport. Avoid overload! (Gallahue &
Donnelly, 2003).
Use humor. Vocabulary should be clear and concise, avoiding confusing metaphors or ‘sport
slang’ (Wall & Murray, 1994).
Verbal cues are helpful-- called “cue words” or “summary cues” as well as verbal rehearsal
(Kwak, 1993 Council of Physical Education for Children, 2000 for ages 3-5) assist in
performance. For example, the adult or participant may coach; “Bend knees now”; “Head
up!”
Check athletes’ understanding throughout and especially at end. Check for retention from last
practice (Rauchenbach, 1994).
33
Deal with issues in a problem solving way with the athletes (Noddings, 1992 in Gallahue and
Donnelly, 2003, p. 222)
Learning requires knowledge of results and knowledge of performance so that skills can be
repeated or modified (Rink, 1996). Feedback may be verbal or visual, or both and should be
provided as soon after the performance as possible.
Feedback may be public or private, should focus on what to do rather than what not to do and
be situated in the present or the future. For example, “Next time, bend your knees more”
(Wall & Murray, 1994).
Feedback or information about success in an activity is critical. Rather than providing
quantitative information only on how fast, how far, how many, the process of being
involved, doing one’s best, and participating regularly, should also be communicated.
(Council of Physical Education for Children, 2000)
After directions are given to the children, check for understanding (Gallahue & Donnelly,
2003).
Deal with issues in a problem solving way (Noddings, 1992 as cited in Gallahue and
Donnolly, 2003, p. 222)
Rink (1996) writes that demonstrations or modelling should be accurate and that if the skill is
broken down it should be demonstrated in sequence (slow motion is effective). Complex
tasks will need to be seen more than one time and “cue words” may assist in skilful
performance.
A “learner model” (peer demo) is more likely to produce more cognitive processing of the
skill by the learner (Rink, 1993, pp. 184-185).
Self-talk participants were taught to verbalize pre-selected cues that match key elements of
form for overhand throwing. These results indicate that instructional self-talk is an
appropriate strategy for teaching and learning the overhand throw (Anderson, Vogel &
Albrecht, 2000).
Reflecting upon one’s instruction is an important part of ensuring future instructional sessions
are successful. Therefore, to achieve intended learning outcomes, the coach must self evaluate
(Rink, 1993, p. 175). Self- assessment is critical at the end of every practice or competition.
Questions such as “What went well”; “What did not go well”, “What should I remember for next
time” are all important to ask at the end of an instructional session (Rink, 1993, p. 177). Asking
these questions with the objectives of the instructional session and with the needs and abilities of
the learner in mind should be central within any reflection and analysis.
34
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Appendix 1: Typical Characteristics and Developmental
Considerations for Practitioners
40
Active Start Stage (0-6yrs)
Physical Development
Percentage of muscles mass is increasing; body Activities that promote agility and flexibility are
fat is decreasing. beneficial.
Gross motor skills are much easier than fine Activities that demand fine motor skills in early
motor skills. stages are less appropriate (eg. Tap dancing) then
gross motor and non-manipulative activities.
Most can run with adult form in later stage. Stopping, starting, dodging, changing direction,
pathways and speed in running - chasing games
are a favourite.
Locomotor movements are required for most age Rolling, jumping, hopping, leaping, skipping and
appropriate movement activities. galloping, presented in various ways.
Beginning of object handling. Manipulation of More time should be spent on non manipulative
objects is difficult: may throw a strike (project) skills than manipulative skills.
with some proficiency; may catch and trap Throw with small balls; strike with a large bat or
(receive) with difficulty; may bounce and dribble hand at a stationary ball.
(retain) with difficulty. Catching and trapping is easiest when rolled or
bounced with a large ball.
Large balls should be used. A predictable surface,
such as the wall or floor, should be used in initial
development of ball skills.
Children may excel in one skill and find another Teachers should allow for and anticipate
difficult. individual differences. Skilled children should be
given additional challenges; lesser skilled
children should be encouraged but not under
pressure.
41
Cognitive Development
Amount of concentration varies. Children are Children may need to be reminded of the task.
prone to accidents, may forget easily, can’t work Remind children of task and safety procedures.
alone for lengthy periods.
Children always want to be involved. Children should be as active as possible with their
own equipment.
Children are eager to learn, enjoy solving Problem solving is ideal with much exploration
problems and discovering. and time to discover. Children may not respond
well to complicated instructions in early stages.
Children enjoy music and rhythmic activities. The leader may incorporate rhythmic activities
such as music and movement, singing and
clapping games and dances.
Children are imaginative and love dramatics. Foster use of the imagination, creativity and
dramatics.
General lack of fear exhibited by children. Children should work within their capabilities and
should be taught safety rules and procedures to
prevent injuries.
Social Development
Children are very egocentric and cooperation Working alone is best for skill development
with a partner may be difficult. or short periods of working with a partner.
Children have difficulty in seeking a team Team games present a problem because the
goal. Scores are not important. child is not always active and the child does
not appreciate a “team concept”. Games in
which there are no teams are most effective
for full engagement.
Children need approval and much praise. Provide experiences that will challenge the
child yet foster success. Give praise for
quality work, good efforts and recent
accomplishments.
Children are learning to share and take turns, Children should not be forced to work with
particularly when the activity is age others.
appropriate.
42
FUNdamentals
Females 6-8, Males 6-9
Physical Development
Fine motor skills are slowly developing. Mature form may be developed through modified
Activities requiring small muscle control are equipment.
difficult.
Usually, there is little difference in physique of Males and females should engage in activities
males and females, though there may be some together. They should be exposed to a wide range
early maturing 9-year-olds. of activities.
Physiological growth changes occur in females Plan activities that provide for differences in
from 8 to 12 and in males from 9 to 13 years of physical and emotional maturity.
age.
Distinct individual differences occur due to Children need a well balanced program. Choose
physical maturation and past experience. challenging, success-oriented activities.
43
Cognitive Development
Social Development
Sense of humour is not mature. Children will laugh Sarcasm is often not understood and may be
at slapstick humour. perceived as ridicule by the child.
There may be some difficulty in transitioning from May prefer playing alone or with one other; teams
individual to group play. of 2 or 3 per side may be suitable depending upon
skill development. Team concepts (sharing,
passing) are developing.
There is little differentiation between friends of Pairing is not usually a problem but bensitivity to
same or other sex in early stage. Friendships shift social preferences and situations is important.
often, particularly in girls in later stage.
Children will recognise that some children are Program should allow for individual differences.
more skilled than others. Children should be openly praised for skill,
although every child needs praise and
reinforcement.
Children are usually in awe of coach and may be Children should be free to ask questions and enjoy
intimidated by coach who ‘knows all’. a warm, supportive relationship with the coach.
44
Learning to Train
Males ages 9-12, Females 8- 11
Physical Development
Characteristics Pedagogical Implications
Children need vigorous activity. Every child should engage in maximum activity for
a maximum amount of time.
Individual differences become obvious in physical Children should be able to work at their own level
stature and abilities. and progress at their own rate; coaches shouldn’t
‘give up’ on a child.
Rapid development in strength and control of gross Complex skills are being refined and may be
and fine muscles. applied to specific sports. Judicious instruction and
expectations for performance must account for
individual differences.
Girls tend to be taller and heavier than boys; girls Girls may require extra encouragement at times to
are usually more mature both physically and participate fully due to self-consciousness.
socially.
Flexibility may begin to decrease, especially in Leaders should encourage activities that promote
boys who naturally tend not to pursue activities flexibility.
which promote flexibility.
Cognitive Development
Characteristics Pedagogical Implications
Children enjoy intellectual aspects of sports and The coach can explain skills through application of
enjoy more complex concepts. Fact retention basic physics, movement concepts and strategies of
increases. games.
Rules become increasingly important.
Children may be more aware of their bodies’ Coaches may discuss fitness principles and their
capabilities. implications for successful performance.
Children enjoy contests and competition as long Small and large group competition is appropriate
as they view that winning is possible. when children are mastering basic skills.
Some children may be highly skilled in specific Additional challenges should be provided for the
sports and low skilled in others. highly skilled. This may include the highly skilled
working with others of less skill.
Social Development
Characteristics Pedagogical Implications
Egocentricity decreases. Usually conforms well to Rules and procedures should be well established
authority, though children may sometimes feel and enforced.
conflicting responses to adult standards. Coaches will earn children’s respect.
Definite groups form according to age and gender; Groupings for teams and social situations should
may display antagonism towards opposite sex. be created with sensitivity.
Children seek group approval. Children are aware Leaders should always be emotionally sensitive
of group reactions and group standards. and supportive of all children, regardless of their
abilities.
Role models play an important part in the child’s Role models should be incorporated and discussed
world. These may range from well known when appropriate.
45
‘heroes’ to the coach.
Children are establishing values. Children may be easily swayed by the opinions
and values of respected others. Adults must
behave with maturity, fairness, and a positive
demeanour.
Males and females develop separate interests. Boys may need encouragement to play fairly and
Boys may be very competitive and value high to include others; girls may need encouragement
skill; girls may fluctuate in friendships and may to participate fully.
value skill to a lesser degree.
Children desire to be popular and need to assert Program should include problem solving teaching
themselves. methods and provide for individual differences
where all can succeed.
46
Appendix 2: Annotated Bibliography
47
Complete Annotated Bibliography
Literacy
Bailey, P., Hunsberger, M., & Hayden, K. A. (1998). The diverse faces of critical literacy: Only
knowledge or also social action? Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 44, 120.
The key questions presented in this article are: i) what does it mean to be literate? and ii)
what (in)justices are done in the name of literacy? Literacy is typically viewed as falling
somewhere on a continuum ranging from a set of skills to a basis for rational and ethical
action. The complexities and implications of literacy are discussed through the specific
examples of Information Literacy and Scientific Literacy. It is found that there are many
lenses through which the literacy can be examined, and therefore an injustice is caused when
maintaining a narrow view.
Browne, R. B., & Neal, A. G. (1991). The many tongues of literacy. Journal of Popular Culture,
25(1), 157-186.
de Castell, S., Luke, A., & MacLennan, D. (1981). On defining literacy. Canadian Journal of
Education, 6(3), 7-18.
It is argued that the illiteracy crisis in Canada is due to a lack of definition of literacy.
Contemporary approaches to literacy are examined, specifically focusing on the two
categories: technocratic and progressive. The technocratic approach is a simplified view of
literacy, typically used in science and education, and attempts to measure literacy through
standardized tests. Alternatively, the progressive approach is more complex, attempting to
be more comprehensive, but in that endeavor fails to give any framework for literacy. Both
approaches are found to have benefits and shortfalls that need to be addressed.
Gough, P. B. (1995). The New Literacy: Caveat emptor. Journal of Research in Reading, 18(2),
79-86.
Literacy is explored from the perspective of the reading educator. The notion that there is
now literacy and Literacy (the new literacy) is presented, examining the relationship and
overlap between the two. The author views the new literacy as a different perspective of the
old literacy. Literacy has been stretched over time and combined with many different
adjectives, such as historical literacy and musical literacy. Some of these terms have lost the
48
old literacy connection with reading and writing and have become more of what the new
literacy would define as a competence or knowledge of the subject. The author confesses
that from his occupational standpoint he still follows the old literacy and compares each of
the literacies from social, political, and relative perspectives.
Kist, W. (2000). Beginning to create the new literacy classroom: What does new literacy look
like? Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 48, 710-718.
An examination of the definitions of literacy from the past has led to the development of a
new literacy that allows many different forms of expression. The author notes a frustration
with the current lack of definition and suggests that there should be a new classroom
pedagogy that incorporates a broader, yet critical literacy. Kist explains how he feels a
classroom would integrate this new literacy into its curriculum, allowing for more freedom
in method of expression and including both individual and collaborative opportunities.
Palincsar, A. S., & Ladewki, B. G. (2006). Literacy and the Learning Sciences. In R. K. Sawyer
(Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences (pp. 299-314). New York:
Cambridge University Press.
This chapter begins with a description of the multiple forms of literacy required to read and
interpret information online. Parallels are drawn between the learning sciences and literacy
communities, noting that collaboration between the two could be mutually beneficial. The
term literacy is reviewed from a historical perspective, followed by the introduction of “new
literacies.” The authors identify ten main principals guiding the theory of new literacy,
which expands the former definition of literacy and includes Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT). An in-depth discussion describes how “new literacy”
includes ICT and how ICT can enhance the learning of literacy. Subsequently, the
perspectives of “cultural literacy” and “critical literacy” are described, highlighting the
research potential for the social influences of literacy and the ability to evaluate information
sources.
Roberts, P. (2005). A framework for defining literacy. Education Studies, 31, 28-38.
This paper aims to provide a framework for defining literacy and begins by describing three
methods of defining words: stipulative, descriptive and programmatic. After describing each
type of definition, the author suggests that attempting to find one all-encompassing
49
definition of literacy, which will satisfy all legitimate applications of the term, is a never-
ending journey that will leave us dissatisfied. Each method of defining words is applied to
literacy with some discussion surrounding the benefits and shortfalls of each.
From a linguist’s perspective, this paper attempts to define literacy. The definitions of
pertinent words, such as “discourse,” “acquisition,” and “learning,” are discussed with
examples. Using this background, the author suggests that the broad sense of literacy can be
defined as the “control of secondary uses of language (i.e. uses of language in secondary
discourses).” This definition is followed by some examples of how literacy is acquired and
suggestions for future directions of research.
Physical Literacy
Dixon, E. (2005). The mind/body connection and the practice of classical ballet. Research in
Dance Education, 6, 75-96.
Gabbani compares the crises of global illiteracy from both a reading/writing and physical
perspective. The author then highlights the need for children to become physically literate
by providing the tools and strategies required to be competent in physical movement.
Finally, some comments are made as to what the author feels that schools must do to
develop physically literate children.
Haydn-Davies, D. (2005). How does the concept of Physical Literacy relate to what is and what
could be the practice of Physical Education? British Journal of Teaching Physical
Education, 36(3), 45-48.
The author uses the definition of “physical literacy” as presented by Whitehead (2001) in the
same journal. Hadyn-Davies examines the current goals of physical education (PE) and
analyses some cases studies of recent PE programs that focus on areas that are key to the
promotion of physical literacy. The goals of current PE classes and quality PE are discussed,
viewed through the lens of physical literacy. The author then provides some suggestions for
curriculum objectives and concludes that physical literacy provides a “picture” for which
physical educationalists should aim.
Kentel, J. A. (2003). Movement, the lost literacy: What Kenyan children can teach us about
active play. Physical & Health Education Journal, 69(1), n/a.
50
In Kenya, hundreds of children are observed playing in a lot. Unlike children in the West
who have disappeared in a world of media, the author suggests that these children have a
sense of play or movement literacy. Western cultural has transformed games into something
different than play, something more organized and competitive. In the West children tend to
be drawn to play without motion in video games and the Internet. On the other hand, the
Kenyan children were able to develop games from anything they found (rocks, wood, coins)
and played for the enjoyment and to challenge their own abilities or compete with one’s self.
It is noted that while these children may be underprivileged, they are very wealthy in the
movement that is a part of their every day lives.
Mandigo, J. L., & Holt, N. L. (2004). Reading the game: Introducing the notion of games
literacy. Physical & Health Education Journal, 70(3), 4-10.
Games are a major component of current physical education programs and can be used to
accomplish the goals of current health promotion initiatives to foster behavioural, social, and
cognitive development. Mandigo’s concept of games literacy, and the student’s ability to
“read” games, has been inspired by the definition of physical literacy developed by
Whitehead (2001). If a student is literate in games, they a) have knowledge and
understanding that enables them to anticipate patterns of play, (b) possess technical and
tactical skills to deploy appropriate and imaginative responses, and (c) are able to experience
positive motivational states while helping to facilitate motivation among others involved in
the game. Practical strategies of how to teach games literacy are provided.
Martin, A. (2006). Special PE: Physical Literacy in a Special School [Electronic Version].
Physical Education Matters, 1(3), 50-51. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from
http://www.physical-literacy.org.uk/specialpe.php
Martin describes a physical development program that he is creating at the Durants school for
children of all ages with complex needs. His aim is to develop the child's ability to "read"
and interpret a changing surrounding physical environment or space and produce appropriate
movement and emotional responses to engage with it. This goal is described as the children
becoming physically literate. The author provides some details and examples of what the
program entails and highlights the importance of physical literacy as the most influential
vehicle for long-term PE and development.
Penney, D., & Chandler, T. (2000). Physical Education: What future(s)? Sport, Education and
Society, 5, 71-87.
This paper attempts to determine the adequacy of current programs and where physical
education (PE) should be headed. The authors suggest that the themes of PE curriculum
should be: 1) movement and physical literacy, 2) physical activity, health and fitness, 3)
competition and cooperation, and 4) challenge. Each theme is discussed in detail, concluding
51
with an analysis of where they fit in relation to each other. Suggestions are provided as to
how curriculum and previous initiatives can be adapted to suit these themes.
Directed towards professionals in the field of physical education, Whitehead makes a call for
these educators to undertake the challenge of developing a definition of physical literacy, as
it could be very useful to the field. The article begins with a review of Whitehead’s previous
research concerning physical literacy. Subsequently, the author continues with an
examination of different philosophical approaches to understanding physical literacy,
followed by an in-depth analysis of what the concept may or may not include. The final
section reiterates that a definition of physical literacy has yet to be finalized and presents
questions that Whitehead feels are important to consider.
Whitehead, M. (2005). The moving self: The concept of Physical Literacy and the development
of a sense of self. Unpublished paper presented at IAPESGW Congress. Edmonton,
Canada.
In this paper Whitehead follows through the development of the physical literacy (PL)
concept and the philosophical background. This leads into a discussion of self and self-
concept based on the philosophical perspectives and how they relate to PL and
communication with others. Whitehead suggests a move away from tradition physical
education, towards a goal of physical literacy and outlines the content that would be required
in such a program. Also, the author lists what methods are required and characteristics that
teachers must demonstrate to successfully promote physical literacy.
Whitehead, M., & Murdoch, E. (2006). Physical Literacy and Physical Education: Conceptual
mapping. Unpublished paper. Retrieved from www.physical-literacy.org.uk/
One of the most recent papers by Whitehead, this paper gives a more succinct outline of how
she conceptualizes physical literacy. The implications to physical literacy to physical
education are discussed, followed by an overview of what physical literacy means. Finally,
the author steps through six stages of life from birth to older adult - examining the value and
influence of physical literacy at each stage.
Wright, J., & Burrows, L. (2006). Re-conceiving ability in physical education: A social analysis.
Sport, Education and Society, 11, 275-291.
The main goal of this article is to examine how “ability” is conceptualized in physical
education and in different social groups. The first two major perspectives analyzed are: 1)
ability as physical capital and 2) ability as physical literacy. The authors note that in
Whitehead’s (2001) definition of physical literacy there is no account for the social and
cultural contexts of movement. Long-term physical activity (LPA) is discussed as a reason
for evaluating current physical education (PE) programs and the possible absence of
52
“learning.” Ability, PE programs, and LPA are all critically examined from the perspectives
of gender, social class, and culture.
Eversheim, E., & Bock, O. (2001). Evidence for processing stages in skill acquisition: A dual-
task study. Learning & Memory, 8, 183-189. Retrieved February 23, 2007 from
www.learnmem.org/cgi/doi/10.1101/lm.39301
Previously, it has been suggested that skill acquisition can be divided into distinct stages.
This study aimed to examine the existence and nature of stages during skill acquisition
through investigating the changes in resource demand during a dual-task paradigm.
Participants acquired the sensorimotor skill of tracking a visual target while receiving
reversed visual feedback. This task was performed alone, or in conjunction with one of four
reaction-time tasks. Methodology is not discussed in any great detail, and no information on
participant demographics is provided. However, the conclusions noted by the authors
include that there was a different time course of interference for each of the reaction-time
tasks, inferring that spatial attention and sensory transformation resources are in highest
demand early in skill acquisition. Eversheim and Bock suggest that their findings are
experimental support for the theory that stages of motor skill acquisition exist and can be
defined by differing resource requirements.
Dreyfus, S. E. (2004). The five-stage model of adult skill acquisition. Bulletin of Science,
Technology & Society, 24(3), 177-181.
Dreyfus provides a well-laid out overview of his learning model as first published in the first
chapter of his 1986 book. According to this theory, there are five stages that a learner passes
through during skill acquisition: novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and
expert. Each of these stages are reviewed, compared, and analyzed in relation to the
components (context), perspective, decision, and commitment of the situation and learner.
Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human Performance. California: Wadsworth Publishing
Company.
In chapter 2, on learning and skilled performance, the authors discuss the three sequential
stages of skill development, including some examples. The early or cognitive phase
describes the beginner trying to understand the task and what is required. The intermediate
or associative stage involves learning the responses needed and forming new patterns. This
phase can last various lengths of time depending on task complexity and the extent of new
subroutines required. In final or autonomous stage, the task requires less direct cognitive
control and is less susceptible to interference from distracters. The authors also discuss the
limits of skill improvement through practice and the influence of old skills on learning new
ones.
Gallahue, D. L. (1976) Motor Development and Movement Experiences for young children (3-7).
53
New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Written for teachers and parents, this book aims to educate them about the stages of
psychomotor development and suggests movement activities that can be beneficial at each
stage. First, the role of movement in child development is discussed and an overview of the
stages of development, with definitions, is provided. Next, the author presents each stage of
development, emphasizing the psychomotor, cognitive, and affective components, in
conjunction with self-concept development. With this foundation, the last half of the book
suggests movement experiences that can be used to enhance each stage of development.
Gentile, A. M. (1972). A working model of skill acquisition with application to teaching. Quest,
17, 3-23.
Gentile provides his working model concerning skill acquisition. A simple two-stage model
is presented that includes: Stage I: Getting the Idea of the Movement, and Stage II:
Fixation/Diversification. In the first stage the learner has a goal in mind and determines what
motor pattern is required to achieve their goal. Through selective attention, the execution of
a motor plan and the resulting feedback the learner attempts to produce the desired action.
After one or more successful outcomes, the learner enters the second stage to attain a desired
skill level. This phase differs depending on if it is an open or closed skill. The author
reviews both cases and provides real-life examples. Finally, Gentile discusses the
application of this model to teaching motor skills.
McPherson, I. (2005). Reflexive Learning: Stages towards wisdom with Dreyfus. Educational
Philosophy and Theory, 37, 705-718.
This article reflects on two stages that Dreyfus added to his 5-stage model of skill
development (from novice to expert). The stages of the original model are reviewed,
followed by the introduction of stages 6 and 7, Mastery and Practical Wisdom, respectively.
These stages are discussed and critiqued by McPherson who comments on the philosophical
connections to phronesis and ethics.
Shuell, T. J. (1990). Phases of meaningful learning. Review of Educational Research, 60, 531-
547.
Shuell presents an indepth review to seek out evidence suggesting that there exists stages
through which learning systematically pass while learning complex, meaningful tasks. Many
reports from past research are brought to light while discussing the concept of
developmental stages and the procedures for identifying these phases. Theories that
investigate both simple forms of learning and complex learning are presented, comparing
how they all fit in comparison with one another. In conclusion Shuell presents how he
conceptualizes each of three phases: initial, intermediate, and terminal, with some
suggestion as to how a learner transitions between each stage.
54
Early Rhythmic Movement
Campbell, P. S. (1991). Rhythmic movement and public school music education: Conservative
and Progressive views of the formative years. Journal of Research in Music Education,
39, 12-22.
Since the 19th Century, rhythmic movement had a continually increasing presence in music
education. There has been a shift from studying musical theory to using music and
movement to develop the child physically, socially, psychologically, and culturally,
fulfilling the child’s need for expression. There are confounding views of rhythmic
movement in school: one side argues that creative rhythmic movement should be including
in the curriculum, versus the side that deems rhythm as an inherited trait that can not be
altered through education. Campbell presents the historical background of rhythm in music
education and discussing the differing philosophies.
Derri, V., Tsapakidou, A., Zachopoulou, E., & Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2001). Effect of a music
and movement programme on development of locomotor skills by children 4 to 6 years of
age. European Journal of Physical Education, 6, 16-25.
Fundamental motor skills are critical to the learning more specialized skills later in life and,
as such, they are a major component of physical education classes. This team reported on the
effect of a 10-week music and movement programme on the quality of locomotor skills
developed by 68 children according to the Test of Gross Motor Development. The results
showed a significant difference between subjects in the programme, compared to those who
were not, on the galloping, leaping, horizontal jump, and skipping tasks. These findings
highlight the ability for music and movement programmes to enhance the development of
complex motor skills in young children.
Gallahue, D. L. (1976). Motor Development and Movement Experiences for young children (3-
7). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
55
development occurring in four areas: physical skills, motor abilities, cognitive abilities, and
social skills. These areas of development are considered in the context of three major areas
of learning rhythmic gymnastics: body management skills, apparatus management skills,
and musical skills. Klentrou provides an in-depth discussion of methods that can be used to
teach students rhythmic gymnastics and the associated benefits.
Pollatou, E., Karadimou, K., & Gerodimos, V. (2005). Gender differences in musical aptitude,
rhythmic ability and motor performance in preschool children. Early Child Development
and Care, 165, 361-369.
Movement activities have become integrated into preschool curricula. This study aimed to
determine whether there were differences between the aptitude of boys and girls at the
preschool age. Aptitude was measured using the Primary Measures of Music Audiation,
High/Scope Rhythmic Competence Analysis Test, and the Gross Motor Development Test.
Their conclusions showed no significant gender differences in musical aptitude and gross
motor skills, however girls performed better than boys on four of the six measures of
rhythmic ability. The authors suggest that more rhythmic movement opportunities should be
provided to help boys overcome their performance deficit, especially since rhythm has been
closely tied to more complex motor skills.
Zachopoulou, E., Derri, V., Chatzopoulou, D., & Ellinoudis, T. (2003). Applicatoin of Orff and
Dalcroze activities in preschool children: Do they affect the level of rhythmic ability?
Physical Educator, 60, 51-58.
Previous studies have had conflicting results when investigating whether maturation has a
greater effect than training on the development of rhythmic ability. Using a 10-week music
and movement program based on Orff and Dalcroze principles, this team investigated the
effects of training on the rhythmic skills of 72 preschool aged children. The children’s
rhythmic ability was measured using a variation of the High/Scope Beat Competence
Analysis test. Participants in the intervention group differed from the control group
(participated in free-play during meeting times) before the intervention, therefore the data
was analyzed using analysis of covariance. The results indicate that there was a significant
improvement in the rhythmic ability of the intervention group compared to the control
group. Therefore, rhythmic ability in preschool-aged children can be trained through music
and movement programs.
56
Fundamental Skills
Avery, M. (1994). Preschool physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance, 65(6), 37-39.
Short article outlining the fundamental skills needed to be developed in children aged 3, 4
and 5 years old. Balancing, throwing, catching and stretching are given with specific
examples of how to teach.
Burton, A. W., & Miller, D. E. (1998). Movement skill assessment. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics.
Outlines all aspects of motor behavior during early childhood (chapter 9) and during later
childhood and adolescence (chapter 10). Age and sex-related motor performance changes
are given, along with changes for each of the fundamental skills in depth. Recognizes
physical education as a powerful source for motor skill development.
Gallahue, D. L., & F. C. Donnelly. (2003). Developmental physical education for all children.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Chapters 2, 3, 16, 18, 19 and 20. All relating to motor development, skill acquisition,
movement concepts and various fundamental skills in depth. Some repetition from Gallahue
& Ozmun, however, updated version.
Gallahue, D. L., & Ozmun, J. C. (1998). Understanding motor development. WCB: McGraw-
Hill.
Section three (chapters 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14) is an in-depth overview of childhood growth
and development, including fundamental movement abilities and each of the three domains
as they relate to development.
57
Garcia, C. (1994). Gender differences in young children’s interactions when learning
fundamental movement skills. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 65(3), 213-225.
Investigates how young people interact in the context of learning fundamental skills using
fieldwork methods over a six-month period. Girls were found to interact in a cooperative,
caring and sharing manner whereas boys were found to be more competitive, individual and
egocentric. Aspects of the social environment that may need to be considered when teaching
motor skills to young children.
Garcia, C., Garcia, L., Floyd, J., & Lawson, J. (2002). Improving public health through early
childhood movement programs. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance,
73(1), 27-53.
Preschool age. Explains the benefits of movement programs with regards to fundamental
movement skills and healthy lifestyles whilst also learning both cognitive and psychosocial
concepts. Provides techniques and approaches that physical educators can use to provide
children with positive, developmentally appropriate experiences with the ABCs of
movement skills.
Outlines a K-6 resource regarding the twelve fundamental skills. A brief overview of what
the twelve main fundamental skills are, when they should be introduced, how they are
developed and why they are considered important.
National Association for Sport and Physical Education (2003). Guidelines for Appropriate
Physical Activity for Elementary school children: 2003 update. Accessed March 25, 2007
from: http://www.aahperd.org/NASPE/pdf_files/input_activity.pdf
Used in most articles relating to fundamental movement skills. Overview of provisions that
should be made for children in physical education but little regarding motor skills
themselves.
Haywood, K. M. & Getchell, N. (2001). Life span motor development. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics.
A varied approach. Chapters 6, 7, 8 & 9 use the different classifications of skills (stability,
locomotion, ballistic skills and manipulation) as their focus and the development changes
that occur within these skill groups are provided within.
58
Examined the effects of a competency-based assessment and instructional program taught by 3
upper-level physical education majors on kindergarten children's gross motor development.
Gender differences found but results did not reach a significant level.
Ignico, A. (1994). Early childhood physical education: Providing the foundation. Journal of
Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 65(6), 28-30.
Outlines the difference between motor skills and movement concepts and research done in
both areas. Excellent overview but not much depth of detail provided.
Recognizes that fundamental skills are often insufficiently established before students are
expected to apply them. Suggests a core ideology for an elementary physical education
program, targeting all domains of the child. Integrates Laban’s movement framework with
fundamental skills providing practical guidance.
Malina, R. M., Bouchard, C., & Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, maturation and physical activity.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
A look at both chapter 10 (p. 202-210) and 11 (p. 215-233). Chapter 10 looks at the
development of fundamental motor skills. Stages of development with developmental
sequence tables are provided. Chapter 11 looks at motor performance in early childhood,
middle childhood and adolescence and the variations with age.
Mannisto, J. P., Cantell, M., Huovinen, T., Kooistra, L., & Larkin, D. (2006). A school-based
movement program for children with motor learning difficulty. European Physical
Education Review, 12(3), 273-287.
Investigates the effectiveness of a school-based movement program for 5-7 year old children.
The Movement ABC was used to classify the improvements made. The findings emphasize
the effectiveness of task-oriented approaches in a school-based setting for children with
motor learning difficulty.
McKenzie, T. L., Sallis, J. F., Broyles, S. L., Zive, M. M., Nader, P. R., Berry, C. C., & Brennan,
A. A. (2002). Childhood movement skills: Predictors of physical activity in Anglo
American and Mexican American adolescents. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,
73(3), 238-244.
The relationship between young children’s movement skills (balance, agility and eye-hand
coordination) and their physical activity in early adolescence was assessed. Children’s
movement skills were assessed at 4, 5 and 6 years and their habitual physical activity at age
12. No ethnic differences were found and level of movement skills were not related to later
physical activity. Young girls were found to be better at jumping and balancing while young
59
boys were better at catching. Again, shows possible gender differences to exist in the
learning of fundamental skills.
Ozmun, J. C., & Gallahue, D. L. (2005). Motor Development. In J. P. Winnick (Eds.), Adapted
physical education and sport (pp.343-357). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Chapter defines motor development and gives an overview of the different categories of
movement. Includes the phases of motor development, providing Gallahue’s lifespan model
of motor development and a table demonstrating the age ranges associated with the various
movement phases. The fundamental movement phase and the specialized movement phase
are then presented in greater detail with further tables with age-ranges for various
movements.
Payne, G. V., & Isaacs, L. D. (2002). Human motor development. Toronto: McGraw-Hill.
Chapter 13 and 14 give a detailed account of fundamental locomotion skills and object-
control skills of childhood.
Thomas, J. R. (2000). Children’s control, learning, and performance of motor skills. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71(1), 1-9.
A review of four questions regarding motor skills based on meta-analyses and review of
literature. The first question assesses the characteristic (gender) differences relating to rates
of learning. The second questions if children’s failure to use cognitive strategies account for
deficits in motor performance. The third inquires as to how children develop motor expertise
and the fourth, how children control movement.
Van Beurdan, E., Barnett, L. M., Zask, A., Dietrich, U. C., Brooks, L. O., & Beard, J. (2003).
Can we skill and activate children through primary school education lessons? “Move it
Groove it” – a collaborative health promotion intervention. Preventive Medicine, 36, 493-
501.
“Move it Groove it” intervention in Australia combining physical activity with the
development of fundamental movement skills. Children aged 7-10 years old over nine
primary schools. Demonstrates how fundamental movement skills can be taught without
adversely affecting children’s moderate to vigorous physical activity.
Zachopoulou, E., Tsapakidou, A., & Derri, V. (2004). The effects of a developmentally
appropriate music and movement program on motor performance. Early Childhood
Research Quarterly, 19, 631-642.
A comparison between the effects of a twelve month music and movement program with a
physical education program over the same period of time on the development of jumping
and dynamic balance in children aged 4-6years old. The group receiving the music and
movement program improved significantly in both jumping and dynamic balance, more so
60
in balance. A reason suggested for this is that the motor skill of jumping is developed at the
age of seven.
Baxtor-Jones, A. D. G., & Malina, R. M. (2001). Growth and Maturation Issues in Elite Young
Athletes: Normal Variation and Training. In N. Maffulli, et al. (Eds.), Sports medicine for
specific ages and abilities (pp.95-108). Edinburgh; New York: Church Livingstone.
Covers the topic of growth and biological maturation and how this affects young athletes.
Body size and physique are addressed and how these change with maturation for both males
and females.
Burton, A. W., Welch, B. A. (1990). Dribbling performance in first-grade children: Effect of ball
and hand size and ball-size preferences (Revision). Physical Educator, 47(1), 48-51.
Looks at the effect of ball size on movement activities to determine what ball sizes best
match the developmental status of the children who use them. The optimal ball size for this
group of first-graders, taking into account both ball preference and actual performance, was
8.5 inches. This supports the specific recommendations in many elementary physical
education textbooks, but differs a bit from manufacturers' ball-size standards for basketballs.
Cote, J., & Hay, J. (2002). Children’s Involvement in Sport: A Developmental Perspective. In J.
M. Silva III, & D. E. Stevens (Eds.), Psychological foundations of sport (pp.484-502).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Includes the three stages of sport participation from early childhood to late adolescence
(sampling, specializing and investment years) and links to children’s motivations to
participate. Emphasis on enjoyment in the sampling phase and more deliberate practice in
the specializing phase.
Douvis, S. J. (2005). Variable practice in learning the forehand drive in tennis. Perceptual and
Motor Skills, 101, 531-545.
The effect of variable practice in learning the forehand drive in tennis for both children and
adolescents. Results showed that variable practice yielded better performance than constant
and specialized practice. Variable practice, however, only included changing the distance of
the target.
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R., Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the
acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363-406.
Article offers a theoretical framework for the acquisition of expert performance. Study
relates to music, however, applicable to sport. Explains how different levels of performance
61
are attained as a function of deliberate practice. Suggests that deliberate practice should
extend over a period of ten years. Outdated?
Ericsson, K. A., & Charness, N. (1994). Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition.
American Psychologist, 49, 725-747.
Another article by Ericsson countering the concept of LTAD and moving through the stages
of generalization to specialization, suggesting extended deliberate practice should begin at a
young age.
Reviews research regarding the development of expertise in youth sport. Primarily focus on
the development of cognitive skills (memory, sport knowledge, recall, response selection,
perception, decision making) and their relation to sport performance. Done with a
developmental focus.
Chapter 16. A look at specialized movement abilities. Demonstrates the relationship between
specialized movement abilities and fundamental movement abilities. Provides a
developmental sequence of these specialized movements for given ages: transition stage,
application stage and lifelong utilization stage.
Gallahue, D. L., & Ozmun, J. C. (1998). Understanding motor development. WCB: McGraw-
Hill.
Section four (chapters 16, 17 and 18) offers adolescent development and the transition from
fundamental skills to more specialized movement. An in-depth account given of
adolescents’ physical development in addition to socialization as it relates to motor
development.
Hay, J., & Cote, J. (1998). An interactive model to teach motor skills. Physical Educator, 55(1),
50-56.
Paper describes the development and use of an interactive model of task analysis and skill
level, the Interactive Model for Teaching Motor Skills (IMTMS), for teachers, coaches and
therapists to adapt to their own requirements. Breaks down both demands of the task and
skill level of the learner and leads to practical examples for designing an effective learning
progression.
62
Skills-classification matrix as a learning continuum was studied. 132 middle-school students
in three learning groups performed lacrosse skills in different learning sequences for four
practice sessions. No significant differences found between groups, regardless of practice
sequence. Some gender differences found.
Henry, F. M. (1968). Specificity vs. Generality in Learning Motor Skill. In R. C. Brown, Jr., &
G. S. Kenyon (Eds.), Classical studies on physical activity (pp.328-331). Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Concerned with the status of knowledge of generality versus specificity in the area of motor
learning and transfer of training under carefully controlled conditions.
Ignico, A., Corson, A., & Vidoni, C. (2006). The effects of an intervention strategy on children’s
heart rates and skill performance. Early Child Development and Care, 176, 753-761.
Kirk, D. (2005). Physical education, youth sport and lifelong participation: the importance of
early learning experiences. European Physical Education Review, 11, 239-255.
Excellent section of the article (p.240-242) that ties in all the LTAD literature and the
importance of the early years in the development of successful athletes. Outlines the
sampling phase (deliberate play) and the specializing phase (deliberate practice).
MacPhail, A., & Kirk, D. (2006). Young people’s socialization into sport: Experiencing the
specializing phase. Leisure Studies, 25(1), 57-74.
Malina, R. M., Bouchard, C., & Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, maturation and physical activity.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
A look at both chapter 10 (p. 202-210) and 11 (p. 215-233). Chapter 10 looks at the
development of fundamental motor skills. Stages of development with developmental
sequence tables are provided. Chapter 11 looks at motor performance in early childhood,
middle childhood and adolescence and the variations with age.
63
Ozmun, J. C., & Gallahue, D. L. (2005). Motor Development. In J. P. Winnick (Eds.), Adapted
physical education and sport (pp.343-357). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Chapter defines motor development and gives an overview of the different categories of
movement. Includes the phases of motor development, providing Gallahue’s lifespan model
of motor development and a table demonstrating the age ranges associated with the various
movement phases. The fundamental movement phase and the specialized movement phase
are then presented in greater detail with further tables with age-ranges for various
movements.
Transfer
Abernethy, B., Baker, J., & Cote, J. (2005). Transfer of pattern recall skills may contribute to the
development of sport expertise. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 705-718.
Examined whether the facilitation of expertise associated with other sport experience might
arise from positive transfer of pattern recall skills from one sport to another. Looked at
expert netball, basketball and field hockey players and experienced non-experts. Experts
consistently outperformed non-experts in their recall of defensive player positions.
Bennett, J. P. (1994). Using skill transfer in dance. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation &
Dance, 65(1), 12-13.
Briefly looks at the connections between dance skills and sport skills. Describes and gives
practical examples of how teaching sports skills can transfer to dance and vice versa.
Schmidt, R. A. & Young, D. E. (1987). Transfer of movement control in motor skill learning. In
S. M. Cormier, & J. D. Hagman (Eds.), Transfer of learning: Contemporary research and
applications (pp.47-75). San Diego: Academic Press.
All aspects of motor learning are covered in detail including both transfer and specificity.
Feedback, motor programs and measurement are covered within positive transfer. Negative
transfer is also mentioned along with the importance of varied practice.
Chapter 5 includes a section on transfer of learning. Looks at both positive and negative
transfer and the explanations as to why either may occur in skill learning. Answers three
questions regarding positive skill transfer in more detail. Also includes a brief section
regarding generality-specificity.
Smeeton, N. J., Ward, P., & Williams, A. M. (2004). Do pattern recognition skills transfer across
sports? A preliminary analysis. Journal of Sport Sciences, 22, 205-213.
A transfer paradigm was employed to compare skilled and less skilled players’ pattern
recognition skills. Transfer was dependent on skill level, sport practiced, nature of the task
64
and degree of structure. The skilled field hockey and soccer players were able to transfer
perceptual information or strategies between their respective sports.
Developmental Domains
Bailey, R. (2006). Physical education and sport in schools: A review of benefits and outcomes.
The Journal of School Health, 76, 397-401.
Explores the scientific evidence that outlines the benefits of physical education and sport (PES)
in schools for children and for educational systems. Children’s development in five domains is
assessed: physical, lifestyle, affective, cognitive and social. The potential of PES to make
distinctive contributions to the development of fundamental skills, a precursor of participation in
later physical activities, is also recognized.
Periodization principles with special focus on the generalized and specialized phases of training.
For different ages groups, levels of development in three domains are given and how this relates
to suggested phases. General training guidelines are provided for two phases.
Burrows, L., & Wright, J. (2001). Developing children in New Zealand school physical
education. Sport, Education and Society, 6(2), 165-182.
Critically examines assumptions made about ‘child development’ that inform physical
education curriculum. Highlights how children can be marginalized based on these
assumptions because their developmental patterns differ from those in the syllabus. Looks at
all aspects of development from physical to cognitive.
Gallahue, D. L., & F. C. Donnelly. (2003). Developmental physical education for all children.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Chapters 5, 6, 24, 25 and 26. Cognitive learning and affective growth in addition to
development guidelines for each of the domains.
Gallahue, D. L., & Ozmun, J. C. (1998). Understanding motor development. WCB: McGraw-
Hill.
Section three (chapters 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14) is an indepth overview of childhood growth
and development, including fundamental movement abilities and each of the three domains
as they relate to development.
Gerdes, D. (2001). Leadership education: Physical activity and the affective domain. Physical
Educator, 58(2), 78-85.
65
Recognizes that developmental growth in the affective domain remains ambiguous and
elusive. Article introduces scholarly discourse that examined physical activity as a means to
facilitate leadership education and training.
McHugh, E. (1995). Going “Beyond the Physical”: Social skills and physical education. Journal
of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 66(4), 18-21.
Targets the affective domain in PE. Article presents two strategies developed to cultivate
social skills and self-esteem in an elementary setting.
Payne, G. V., & Isaacs, L. D. (2002). Human motor development. Toronto: McGraw-Hill.
Chapter one gives a general overview of motor behavior and the following three chapters (2,
3, and 4) look at the developmental domains (cognitive, social and perceptual) as they relate
to motor development and the different age groups.
Poole, J. R., Mathias, K. (1996). Higher-skilled and lower skilled children’s perceived ability and
actual performance with kicking and striking tasks. Physical Educator, 53(4), 214-221.
An overview of all three developmental domains and how they are targeted through the
teaching of movement concepts and fundamental skills. Again, good overview but little
depth.
Worrell, V., Evans-Fletcher, C., & Kovar, S. (2002). Assessing the cognitive and affective
progress of children. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 73(7), 29-34.
Emphasizes the importance for physical educators to not only assessing the physical
development of children but also their cognitive and affective development. Article
discusses the issues and challenges relating to assessment in these two areas. Also offers
solutions and practical examples for use in assessing K-12 students.
Yongue, B. (1998). Relationship between cognitive and psychomotor development: Paiget in the
gym. Physical Educator, 55(1), 19-23.
66
Detailed look at the cognitive and psychomotor processes involved in motor skill
development. Schemes, equilibration and schema theories are outlined individually and the
integrated theories provided by Schmidt and Paiget are assessed in depth.
Everhart, B., & Everhart, L. (1998). The effects of combining a fitness emphasis during motor
skill practice on third grader’s enjoyment of physical education lessons. Physical Educator,
55(3), 114-120.
An adapted version of the Fit-Sport Model was developed to integrated fitness tasks and
sport-related skills. By the sounds of it, fairly drill-like activities (e.g. in a throwing lesson,
drop to the floor and do two push-ups). Questionable testing methods!
A brief literature review on equipment choice when teaching children motor skills and
importance of have varying sizes available.
Gagen, L., & Getchell, N. (2004). Combining theory and practice in the gymnasium:
“Constraints” within an ecological perspective. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation
& Dance, 75(5), 25-30.
Gagen, L., & Getchell, N. (2006). Using ‘constraints’ to design developmentally appropriate
movement activities for early childhood education. Early Childhood Education Journal,
34(3), 227-232.
Garcia, C., Garcia, L., Floyd, J., & Lawson, J. (2002). Improving public health through early
childhood movement programs. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance,
73(1), 27-53.
Preschool age. Explains the benefits of movement programs with regards to fundamental
movement skills and healthy lifestyles whilst also learning both cognitive and psychosocial
concepts. Provides techniques and approaches that physical educators can use to provide
67
children with positive, developmentally appropriate experiences with the ABCs of
movement skills.
Hay, J., & Cote, J. (1998). An interactive model to teach motor skills. Physical Educator, 55(1),
50-56.
Paper describes the development and use of an interactive model of task analysis and skill
level, the Interactive Model for Teaching Motor Skills (IMTMS), for teachers, coaches and
therapists to adapt to their own requirements. Breaks down both demands of the task and
skill level of the learner and leads to practical examples for designing an effective learning
progression.
Karp, G. G., & Woods, M. L. (2001). Applying conceptual learning to physical activity. Journal
of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 72(8), 23-34.
Briefly outlines the key knowledge and skills children should learn across a range of
disciplines through physical education. Provides assessment examples in addition to learning
outcomes for both an elementary unit on gymnastics and a middle school fitness unit.
Rikard, G., Boswell, L., & Boni, B. (1993). Teacher effectiveness in using direct instruction for
student skill acquisition. Physical Educator, 50(4), 194-200.
Examined teacher effectiveness when using direct instruction for developing striking skills of
138 fifth graders in two rural elementary schools. A wall volley test indicated student skill
ability for continuous and accurate striking, student practice success provided daily
recordings of individual practice, and the Qualitative Measures of Teaching Performance
scale (Rink & Werner, 1989) indicated the effectiveness of instruction. Effective direct
instruction by experienced teachers found to assist in the process of skill acquisition.
Tzetzis, G., & Kourtessis, T. (2002). Curriculum enrichment with self-testing activities in
development of fundamental movement skills of first-grade children in Greece. Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 94, 1259-1270.
Alpine Integration Model (1999). Alpine Canada Alpine, High Performance Advisory
Committee.
Balyi, I. (2001). Sport system building: Long Term Athlete Development in British Columbia.
Canada: SportsMed BC.
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Assesses LTAD as it specifically relates to Canadian sport systems. Article describes British
Columbia’s athlete development model and identifies some of the gaps in the current BC
and Canadian sports systems. Gives an outline of every stage of the model.
Periodization principles with special focus on the generalized and specialized phases of
training. For different ages groups, levels of development in three domains are given and
how this relates to suggested phases. General training guidelines are provided for two
phases.
Cote, J., & Hay, J. (2002). Children’s Involvement in Sport: A Developmental Perspective. In J.
M. Silva III, & D. E. Stevens (Eds.), Psychological foundations of sport (484-502). Boston:
Allyn & Bacon.
Includes the three stages of sport participation from early childhood to late adolescence
(sampling, specializing and investment years) and links to children’s motivations to
participate. Emphasis on enjoyment in the sampling phase and more deliberate practice in
the specializing phase.
Smith, D. J. (2003). A framework for understanding the training process leading to elite
performance. Sports Med, 33(15), 1103-1126.
Sets out a comprehensive framework of the components of performance and training that
should be addressed when developing a short- and long-term training plan leading to elite
performance. Detailed and in-depth, from periodization of training to tapering strategies.
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Appendix C: Useful Websites
70
Skill Development Resources
Organization URL Description
Physical Literacy http://www.physical-literacy.org.uk/ Excellent website of
current articles and
research related to
physical literacy
Alberta Learning http://ednet.edc.gov.ab.ca/PhysicalEducationOnline/T Uses Flash media to
eacherResources/ToolBox/interact.asp demonstrate developing
and mature stages of
various fundamental
skills
Provide observation
cues to assist with pin-
pointing various
technical aspects of
each skill
Provides tips and cues
to help children at the
initial and elementary
stage of skill
development improve
PE Central www.pecentral.org/lessonideas/cues/cuesmenu.html Provides basic cues to
assist practitioners with
key aspects of skill
development
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