U.S.

Department Advisory
Circular
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration

Subject: Airport Pavement Design and Date: Draft AC No: 150/5320-6F

Evaluation Initiated by: AAS-100 Change:

1 1. Purpose.
2 This advisory circular (AC) provides guidance to the public on the design and
3 evaluation of pavements used by aircraft at civil airports. For reporting of pavement
4 strength see AC 150/5335-5C, Standardized Method of Reporting Airport Pavement
5 Strength – PCN.

6 2. Cancellation.
7 This AC cancels AC 150/5320-6E, Airport Pavement Design and Evaluation, dated
8 September 30, 2009.

9 3. Application.
10 The FAA recommends the guidelines and standards in this AC for airport pavement
11 design and evaluation. In general, use of this AC is not mandatory. However, use of
12 this AC is mandatory for all projects funded with federal grant monies through the
13 Airport Improvement Program (AIP) and with revenue from the Passenger Facility
14 Charge (PFC) Program. See Grant Assurance No. 34, Policies, Standards, and
15 Specifications, and PFC Assurance No. 9, Standards and Specifications.
16 This AC is not mandatory for the design of pavements that are not used by aircraft, i.e.
17 roadways, parking lots, access roads, etc. Airports may use state highway design
18 standards for pavements that are not used by aircraft.

19 4. Principal Changes.
20 This AC contains the following changes:
21 1. Reformatted to comply with FAA Order 1320.46, FAA Advisory Circular System.
22 2. Revised text and design examples to incorporate changes in FAARFIELD v1.41
23 pavement design software. Also added general guidance on how to use
24 FAARFIELD.
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25 3. Simplified and moved guidance on economic analysis to Chapter 1.

26 4. Included all pavement design in Chapter 3, including previous guidance on
27 pavement design for airplanes weighing less than 30,000 pounds (13 610 kg).
28 5. Defined “Regular use” for pavement design as at least 250 annual departures,
29 which is equivalent to 500 annual operations.
30 6. Removed information on embedded steel and continuously reinforced concrete
31 pavement.
32 7. Added table on allowable modulus values and Poisson’s Ratios used in
33 FAARFIELD.
34 8. Added tables for minimum layer thickness for flexible and rigid pavement
35 structures.
36 9. Added detail on reinforcement at a reinforced isolation joint.
37 10. Added detail for transition between PCC and HMA pavement sections.
38 11. Added appendix, Nondestructive Testing (NDT) Using Falling-Weight Type
39 Impulse Load Devices in the Evaluation of Airport Pavements.

40 5. Related Reading Material.

41 The publications listed in Appendix E provide further guidance and detailed
42 information on the design and evaluation of airport pavements.

43 6. Units.
44 Through this AC, customary English units will be used followed by “soft” (rounded)
45 conversion to metric units for tables and figures and hard conversion for the text. The
46 English units govern.

47 7. Feedback on this AC.

48 If you have suggestions for improving this AC, you may use the Advisory Circular
49 Feedback form at the end of this AC.

50 Michael O’Donnell
51 Director of Airport Safety and Standards

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Contents

Paragraph Page

52 CHAPTER 1. AIRPORT PAVEMENTS—THEIR FUNCTION AND PURPOSES .......... 1-1

53 1.1 General. ......................................................................................................................... 1-1
54 1.2 Construction Specifications and Geometric Standards. ................................................ 1-1
55 1.2.1 Specifications. ................................................................................................ 1-1
56 1.2.2 Geometric Standards. ..................................................................................... 1-2
57 1.3 Airfield Pavements. ...................................................................................................... 1-2
58 1.3.1 Types of Pavement. ........................................................................................ 1-2
59 1.3.2 Selection of Pavement Type. ......................................................................... 1-2
60 1.3.3 Cost Effectiveness Analysis. .......................................................................... 1-2
61 1.3.4 Pavement Structure. ....................................................................................... 1-4
62 1.4 Skid Resistance. ............................................................................................................ 1-6
63 1.5 Staged Construction. ..................................................................................................... 1-7
64 1.6 Design of Structures...................................................................................................... 1-7

65 CHAPTER 2. SOIL INVESTIGATIONS AND EVALUATION .......................................... 2-1

66 2.1 General. ......................................................................................................................... 2-1
67 2.1.1 Soil. ................................................................................................................ 2-1
68 2.1.2 Classification System. .................................................................................... 2-1
69 2.1.3 Subgrade Support. .......................................................................................... 2-1
70 2.1.4 Drainage. ........................................................................................................ 2-1
71 2.2 Soil Conditions. ............................................................................................................ 2-2
72 2.2.1 Site Investigation. .......................................................................................... 2-2
73 2.2.2 Procedures. ..................................................................................................... 2-2
74 2.2.3 Soil Maps. ...................................................................................................... 2-2
75 2.2.4 Aerial Photography. ....................................................................................... 2-2
76 2.3 Surveying and Sampling. .............................................................................................. 2-3
77 2.3.1 Subsurface Borings and Pavement Cores of Existing Pavement. .................. 2-3
78 2.3.2 Number of Borings, Locations, and Depths................................................... 2-3
79 2.3.3 Boring Log. .................................................................................................... 2-4
80 2.3.4 In-place Testing. ............................................................................................ 2-4
81 2.4 Soil Tests....................................................................................................................... 2-5
82 2.4.1 Soil Testing Requirements. ............................................................................ 2-5
83 2.4.2 Moisture-Density Relations of Soils. ............................................................. 2-5
84 2.5 Soil Strength Tests. ....................................................................................................... 2-6
85 2.6 Subgrade Stabilization. ................................................................................................. 2-8
86 2.7 Seasonal Frost. .............................................................................................................. 2-9
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87 2.7.1 Frost Susceptibility. ....................................................................................... 2-9
88 2.7.2 Depth of Frost Penetration. .......................................................................... 2-10
89 2.7.3 Free Water. ................................................................................................... 2-10
90 2.7.4 Frost Design. ................................................................................................ 2-11
91 2.8 Permafrost. .................................................................................................................. 2-11
92 2.8.1 Depth of Thaw Penetration. ......................................................................... 2-11
93 2.8.2 Muskeg. ........................................................................................................ 2-11

94 CHAPTER 3. PAVEMENT DESIGN ...................................................................................... 3-1

95 3.1 Design Considerations. ................................................................................................. 3-1
96 3.2 FAA Pavement Design. ................................................................................................ 3-1
97 3.3 Flexible Pavements. ...................................................................................................... 3-1
98 3.4 Full-Depth Asphalt Pavements. .................................................................................... 3-1
99 3.5 Rigid Pavements. .......................................................................................................... 3-1
100 3.6 Stablized Base Course. ................................................................................................. 3-2
101 3.7 Base or Subbase Contamination. .................................................................................. 3-2
102 3.8 Subgrade Compaction. .................................................................................................. 3-2
103 3.9 Swelling Soils. .............................................................................................................. 3-3
104 3.10 Pavement Life. .............................................................................................................. 3-5
105 3.11 Pavement Design Using FAARFIELD. ........................................................................ 3-5
106 3.11.1 Application ..................................................................................................... 3-6
107 3.11.2 Cumulative Damage Factor (CDF). ............................................................... 3-6
108 3.11.3 Current Version FAARFIELD. ...................................................................... 3-6
109 3.11.4 Overview of FAARFIELD Program. ............................................................. 3-7
110 3.11.5 FAARFIELD Pavement Design Process. ...................................................... 3-7
111 3.11.6 Aircraft Traffic Considerations. ..................................................................... 3-8
112 3.11.7 Non-Aircraft Vehicles. ................................................................................... 3-9
113 3.11.8 Pass-to-Coverage Ratio. ............................................................................... 3-10
114 3.11.9 Annual Departures. ...................................................................................... 3-12
115 3.11.10 Cumulative Damage Factor ......................................................................... 3-12
116 3.11.11 FAARFIELD Material Properties ................................................................ 3-14
117 3.11.12 Minimum Layer Thickness. ......................................................................... 3-15
118 3.11.13 Typical Pavement Sections. ......................................................................... 3-17
119 3.11.14 Frost and Permafrost Design. ....................................................................... 3-19
120 3.11.15 Seasonal Frost .............................................................................................. 3-19
121 3.11.16 Complete Frost Protection ........................................................................... 3-19
122 3.11.17 Limited Subgrade Frost Penetration ............................................................ 3-19
123 3.11.18 Reduced Subgrade Strength ......................................................................... 3-20
124 3.11.19 Permafrost .................................................................................................... 3-20
125 3.12 Flexible Pavement Design. ......................................................................................... 3-21
126 3.12.1 General ......................................................................................................... 3-21

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127 3.12.2 Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) Surfacing ............................................................. 3-21
128 3.12.3 Base Course ................................................................................................. 3-21
129 3.12.4 Subbase ........................................................................................................ 3-23
130 3.12.5 Subgrade ...................................................................................................... 3-24
131 3.12.6 FAARFIELD Flexible Pavement Design Failure Mode .............................. 3-25
132 3.12.7 Flexible Design Example. ............................................................................ 3-25
133 3.12.8 Detailed Example FAARFIELD Compaction Table. .................................. 3-37
134 3.13 Rigid Pavement Design. ............................................................................................. 3-39
135 3.13.1 General. ........................................................................................................ 3-39
136 3.13.2 Concrete Surface Layer................................................................................ 3-39
137 3.13.3 Base / Subbase Layers. ................................................................................ 3-39
138 3.13.4 Subgrade: Determination of Modulus (E Value) for Rigid Pavement
139 Subgrade. ..................................................................................................... 3-40
140 3.13.5 Frost Effects. ................................................................................................ 3-41
141 3.13.6 FAARFIELD Calculation of Concrete Slab Thickness. .............................. 3-41
142 3.13.7 Concrete Flexural Strength. ......................................................................... 3-42
143 3.13.8 Jointing of Concrete Pavements................................................................... 3-42
144 3.13.9 Joint Type Categories and Details ............................................................... 3-42
145 3.13.10 Dowels and Tie Bars for Joints. ................................................................... 3-46
146 3.13.11 Joint Sealants and Fillers. ............................................................................ 3-47
147 3.13.12 Joint Layout and Spacing ............................................................................. 3-49
148 3.13.13 Joint Spacing. ............................................................................................... 3-50
149 3.13.14 Jointing Considerations for Future Pavement Expansion. ........................... 3-53
150 3.13.15 Transition Between PCC and HMA. ........................................................... 3-53
151 3.13.16 Rigid Design Example. ................................................................................ 3-54
152 3.14 Pre-stressed, Precast, Reinforced and Continuously Reinforced Concrete
153 Pavement. .................................................................................................................... 3-62
154 3.15 Aggregate Turf Pavements. ........................................................................................ 3-62
155 3.15.1 Materials. ..................................................................................................... 3-62
156 3.15.2 Thickness. .................................................................................................... 3-62
157 3.15.3 Aggregate Turf Pavement Example. ............................................................ 3-62
158 3.16 Heliport Design. .......................................................................................................... 3-63
159 3.17 Passenger Loading Bridge .......................................................................................... 3-64

160 CHAPTER 4. PAVEMENT REHABILITATION ................................................................. 4-1

161 4.1 General. ......................................................................................................................... 4-1
162 4.1.1 Reason for Rehabilitation. ............................................................................ 4-1
163 4.1.2 Full Width Section. ........................................................................................ 4-1
164 4.1.3 Transitions...................................................................................................... 4-1
165 4.2 Condition of Existing Pavement Structure. .................................................................. 4-1

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Paragraph Page
166 4.3 Material Selection Considerations. ............................................................................... 4-2
167 4.4 Overlay Design. ............................................................................................................ 4-2
168 4.5 Overlays of Existing Flexible Pavements. .................................................................... 4-2
169 4.5.1 FAARFIELD Design HMA Overlay of an Existing Flexible Pavement. ...... 4-3
170 4.5.2 Nonstructural HMA Overlays. ....................................................................... 4-4
171 4.5.3 Concrete Overlay of an Existing Flexible Pavement. .................................... 4-4
172 4.6 Overlays of Existing Rigid Pavements. ........................................................................ 4-6
173 4.6.1 Structural Condition Index (SCI). .................................................................. 4-6
174 4.6.2 Cumulative Damage Factor Used (CDFU). ................................................... 4-7
175 4.7 Hot Mix Asphalt Overlays of Existing Rigid Pavements. .......................................... 4-10
176 4.8 SCI Less Than 100. ..................................................................................................... 4-10
177 4.8.1 HMA Overlay Over PCC Example.............................................................. 4-10
178 4.9 SCI Equal to 100. ........................................................................................................ 4-12
179 4.10 Concrete Overlays of Existing Concrete Pavements. ................................................. 4-13
180 4.10.1 Fully Unbonded Concrete Overlay. ............................................................. 4-13
181 4.10.2 Bonded Concrete Overlays. ......................................................................... 4-16
182 4.10.3 Jointing of Concrete Overlays. .................................................................... 4-17
183 4.10.4 Previously Overlaid Rigid Pavement. .......................................................... 4-17
184 4.10.5 Treatment of Thick HMA Overlays on Existing Rigid Pavements. ............ 4-17
185 4.11 Alternatives for Rehabilitation of Exisitng Pavement. ............................................... 4-18
186 4.12 Preparation of the Existing Pavement Surface for an Overlay. .................................. 4-20
187 4.12.1 Flexible Pavements. ..................................................................................... 4-20
188 4.12.2 Rigid Pavements. ......................................................................................... 4-21
189 4.12.3 Bonded Concrete Overlays. ......................................................................... 4-22
190 4.12.4 Materials and Methods. ................................................................................ 4-22

191 CHAPTER 5. PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL EVALUATION ............................................. 5-1

192 5.1 Purposes of Structural Evaluation................................................................................. 5-1
193 5.2 Evaluation Process. ....................................................................................................... 5-1
194 5.2.1 Records Research. .......................................................................................... 5-1
195 5.2.2 Site Inspection. ............................................................................................... 5-1
196 5.2.3 Pavement Condition Index............................................................................. 5-1
197 5.2.4 Sampling and Testing. ................................................................................... 5-2
198 5.2.5 Direct Sampling. ............................................................................................ 5-2
199 5.2.6 Nondestructive Testing (NDT) Using Falling Weight Deflectometer. .......... 5-2
200 5.2.7 NDT – Other Methods. .................................................................................. 5-2
201 5.3 Flexible Pavements. ...................................................................................................... 5-3
202 5.4 Overlay Analysis........................................................................................................... 5-6

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Contents (CONTINUED)

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203 5.5 Rigid Pavements. .......................................................................................................... 5-7
204 5.5.1 Layer Thicknesses. ......................................................................................... 5-7
205 5.5.2 Concrete Flexural Strength. ........................................................................... 5-7
206 5.5.3 Subgrade Modulus. ........................................................................................ 5-8
207 5.5.4 Back Calculated E Modulus Value or k Value in FAARFIELD. .................. 5-8
208 5.5.5 Example of Rigid Pavement Evaluation Procedures. .................................... 5-8
209 5.6 Use of Results. ............................................................................................................ 5-10
210 5.7 Reporting Pavement Weight Bearing Strength. .......................................................... 5-11
211 5.7.1 Aircraft Classification Number/Pavement Classification Number
212 (ACN/PCN).................................................................................................. 5-11

213 CHAPTER 6. PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR SHOULDERS................................................. 6-12

214 6.1 Purpose........................................................................................................................ 6-12
215 6.2 Shoulder Design. ......................................................................................................... 6-12
216 6.2.4 The following steps are used for the shoulder design procedure: ................ 6-13
217 6.3 Shoulder Material Requirements. ............................................................................... 6-14
218 6.3.1 Asphalt Surface Course Materials. .............................................................. 6-14
219 6.3.2 Portland Cement Concrete Surface Course Materials. ................................ 6-14
220 6.3.3 Base Course Materials. ................................................................................ 6-14
221 6.3.4 Subbase Course Materials. ........................................................................... 6-14
222 6.3.5 Subgrade Materials. ..................................................................................... 6-14
223 6.4 Shoulders Areas Susceptible to Frost Heave. ............................................................. 6-14
224 6.5 Reporting Paved Shoulder Design. ............................................................................. 6-15

225 APPENDIX A. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS PERTINENT TO PAVEMENT

226 FOUNDATIONS.......................................................................................................... A-1

227 APPENDIX B. DESIGN OF STRUCTURES. ........................................................................B-1

228 APPENDIX C. NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) USING FALLING-WEIGHT

229 TYPE IMPULSE LOAD DEVICES IN THE EVALUATION OF AIRPORT
230 PAVEMENTS. ............................................................................................................. C-1

231 APPENDIX D. REINFORCED ISOLATION JOINT DESIGN EXAMPLE ..................... D-1

232 APPENDIX E. RELATED READING MATERIAL .............................................................E-1

233

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Contents (CONTINUED)

Paragraph Page
234 FIGURES

235 Number Page

236 Figure 1-1. Typical Pavement Structure ..................................................................................... 1-5
237 Figure 3-1. Overview of FAARFIELD Program ........................................................................ 3-7
238 Figure 3-2. Effective Tire Width .............................................................................................. 3-11
239 Figure 3-3. CDF Contribution for Airplane Mix ...................................................................... 3-14
240 Figure 3-4. Typical Plan and Sections for Pavements .............................................................. 3-18
241 Figure 3-5. Flexible Design Example Step 1 ............................................................................. 3-27
242 Figure 3-6. Flexible Design Example Step 2 ............................................................................. 3-27
243 Figure 3-7. Flexible Design Example Step 4 ............................................................................. 3-28
244 Figure 3-8. Flexible Design Example Step 4 ............................................................................. 3-29
245 Figure 3-9. Flexible Design Example Step 6 Perform Design Analysis.................................... 3-30
246 Figure 3-10. Flexible Design Example Step 6 Results .............................................................. 3-31
247 Figure 3-11. Flexible Design Example Options Screen............................................................. 3-32
248 Figure 3-12. Flexible Design Example Final Pavement Structure ............................................ 3-33
249 Figure 3-13. Airport Pavement Design Report .......................................................................... 3-34
250 Figure 3-14. FAARFIELD Pavement Structure for Compaction Example ............................... 3-38
251 Figure 3-15. Rigid Pavement Joint Types.................................................................................. 3-45
252 Figure 3-16. Rigid Pavement Joint Type Details ....................................................................... 3-48
253 Figure 3-17. Typical Joint Layout Pattern for Runway, Parallel Taxiway and Connector ....... 3-51
254 Figure 3-18. Joint Layout PCC Pavement – 75 Foot Runway Width ........................................ 3-52
255 Figure 3-19. Transition between PCC and HMA Pavement Sections ....................................... 3-54
256 Figure 3-20. Rigid Design Example Step 2 ............................................................................... 3-56
257 Figure 3-21. Rigid Design Example Step 2C Modify Structure Information ............................ 3-56
258 Figure 3-22. Rigid Design Example Step 3 ............................................................................... 3-57
259 Figure 3-23. Rigid Design Example Step 3 Airplane Data ........................................................ 3-57
260 Figure 3-24. Rigid Design Example Step 4 Design Structure ................................................... 3-58
261 Figure 3-25. Rigid Design Example Step 4 Pavement Structure ............................................... 3-58
262 Figure 3-26. Rigid Design Example Step 6 Life/Compaction ................................................... 3-59
263 Figure 3-27. Airport Pavement Step 7 and 8 Design Report ..................................................... 3-60
264 Figure 3-28. Aggregate Turf Pavement Structure...................................................................... 3-63
265 Figure 4-1. Flexible Overlay Structure ........................................................................................ 4-4
266 Figure 4-2. Rigid Overlay Pavement Structure............................................................................ 4-6
267 Figure 4-3. Rigid Overlay Percent CDFU ................................................................................... 4-9
268 Figure 4-4. Flexible Overlay on Rigid Pavement ...................................................................... 4-11
269 Figure 4-5. HMA Overlay of Rigid - Traffic ............................................................................. 4-12
270 Figure 4-6. Flexible Overlay of Rigid........................................................................................ 4-13
271 Figure 4-7. Rigid Overlay on Existing Fully Unbonded Rigid Pavement ................................. 4-15
272 Figure 4-8. PCC Overlay of Rigid ............................................................................................. 4-16
273 Figure 5-1. Existing Taxiway Pavement Structure ...................................................................... 5-5
274 Figure 5-2. Existing Taxiway Structure with User-Defined Surface Layer ................................ 5-6
275 Figure 5-3. Flexible Pavement Evaluation................................................................................... 5-7

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276 Figure 5-4. Rigid Pavement Evaluation ..................................................................................... 5-10

277 Figure C-1. Impulse Load Created by FWD ............................................................................... C-3
278 Figure C-2. Deflection Basin and Sensor Location .................................................................... C-6
279 Figure C-3. NDT Data Analysis and Design Flowchart ........................................................... C-13
280 Figure C-4. ISM Plot Identifying Pavement Section Limits..................................................... C-15
281 Figure C-5. Normalized Deflection Plot Identifying Pavement Section Limits ....................... C-15
282 Figure D-1. Type A-1 Joint Detail .............................................................................................. D-2

283 TABLES

284 Number Page

285 Table 1-1. Typical Pavement Specifications for Pavement Layers1 ........................................... 1-6
286 Table 2-1. Typical Subsurface Boring Spacing and Depth1 ....................................................... 2-4
287 Table 2-2. Soil Frost Groups ..................................................................................................... 2-10
288 Table 3-1. Recommended Treatment of Swelling Soils ............................................................. 3-4
289 Table 3-2. Allowable Modulus Values and Poisson’s Ratios Used in FAARFIELD .............. 3-15
290 Table 3-3. Minimum Layer Thickness for Flexible Pavement Structures, Inches (mm) ......... 3-16
291 Table 3-4. Minimum Layer Thickness for Rigid Pavement Structures ..................................... 3-17
292 Table 3-5. Reduced Subgrade Strength Ratings ....................................................................... 3-20
293 Table 3-6. Computed Compaction Requirements for the Sample Section ................................ 3-38
294 Table 3-7. Pavement Joint Types .............................................................................................. 3-43
295 Table 3-8. Dimensions and Spacing of Steel Dowels ................................................................ 3-47
296 Table 3-9. Recommended Maximum Joint Spacing - Rigid Pavement1 .................................. 3-53
297 Table 6-1. Minimum Shoulder Pavement Layer Thickness ...................................................... 6-15
298 Table C-1. ASTM Standards for Deflection Measuring Equipment .......................................... C-8
299 Table C-2. Recommended Sensor Configuration ..................................................................... C-10
300

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301 CHAPTER 1. AIRPORT PAVEMENTS—THEIR FUNCTION AND PURPOSES

302 1.1 General.

303 1.1.1 An airport pavement is a complex engineering structure. Pavement analysis and design
304 involves the interaction of four equally important components: the subgrade (naturally
305 occurring soil), the paving materials (surface layer, base, and subbase), the
306 characteristics of applied loads, and climate.

307 1.1.2 Airport pavements are designed and constructed to provide adequate support for the
308 loads imposed by airplanes and to produce a firm, stable, smooth, skid resistant, year-
309 round, all-weather surface free of debris or other particles that can be blown or picked
310 up by propeller wash or jet blast. To fulfill these requirements, the quality and
311 thickness of the pavement must not fail under the imposed loads. The pavement must
312 also possess sufficient inherent stability to withstand, without damage, the abrasive
313 action of traffic, adverse weather conditions, and other deteriorating influences. This
314 requires coordination of many design factors, construction, and inspection to assure the
315 best combination of available materials and workmanship.

316 1.1.3 The pavement design guidance presented in this AC is based on layered elastic theory
317 for flexible pavement design and three-dimensional finite element theory for rigid
318 pavement design. FAA pavement design requires the use of the FAA computer program
319 FAA Rigid and Flexible Iterative Elastic Layer Design (FAARFIELD), see chapter 3
320 for detailed information on FAARFIELD. These methodologies address the impact of
321 landing gear configurations and increased pavement load conditions on airport
322 pavements without modifying the underlying design procedures. The failure curves
323 have been calibrated with full scale pavement tests at the FAA National Airport
324 Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF).

325 1.1.4 Guidance on airport pavement structural evaluation necessary to assess the ability of an
326 existing pavement to support different types, weights, or volume of airplane traffic is
327 presented this AC. Since the pavement failure models have been updated, current
328 pavement design methodology may produce different pavement thicknesses than the
329 methods used to design the original pavement. Engineering judgment must be used
330 when evaluating results.

331 1.2 Construction Specifications and Geometric Standards.

332 1.2.1 Specifications.

333 Construction material specifications referenced by Item Number (e.g. P-401, Hot Mix
334 Asphalt (HMA) Pavements; P-501, Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) Pavement, etc.)
335 are contained in AC 150/5370-10, Standards for Specifying Construction of Airports.

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336 1.2.2 Geometric Standards.

337 Airport design standards and recommendations including runway and taxiway
338 geometric design, widths, grades, and slopes are contained in AC 150/5300-13, Airport
339 Design; and lengths of runways is discussed in AC 150/5325-4, Runway Length
340 Requirements for Airport Design.

341 1.3 Airfield Pavements.

342 1.3.1 Types of Pavement.

343 Pavements discussed in this AC include flexible, rigid, and flexible and rigid overlays.
344 Various combinations of pavement types and stabilized layers result in complex
345 pavements classified between flexible and rigid.
346  Flexible pavements are those in which each structural layer is supported by the
347 layer below and ultimately supported by the subgrade. Hot mix asphalt (HMA)
348 and P-401/403 refer to flexible pavements.
349  Rigid pavements are those in which the principal load resistance is provided by
350 the slab action of the surface concrete layer. Portland cement concrete (PCC) and
351 P-501 refer to rigid pavements.

352 1.3.2 Selection of Pavement Type.

353 1.3.2.1 With proper design, materials, construction, and maintenance, any
354 pavement type can provide the desired pavement service life. Historically,
355 airport pavements have performed well for 20 years as shown in
356 Operational Life of Airport Pavements, (DOT/FAA/AR-04/46). However,
357 no pavement structure will perform for the desired service life without
358 using quality materials installed and maintained with timely routine and
359 preventative maintenance.

360 1.3.2.2 The selection of a pavement section requires the evaluation of multiple
361 factors including cost and funding limitations, operational constraints,
362 construction time-frame, cost and frequency of anticipated maintenance,
363 environmental constraints, material availability, future airport expansion
364 plans, and anticipated changes in traffic. The engineer must document the
365 rationale for the selected pavement section and service life in the
366 engineer’s report.

367 1.3.3 Cost Effectiveness Analysis.

368 1.3.3.1 When considering alternative pavement sections it is assumed that all
369 alternatives will achieve the desired result. The question is which design
370 alternative results in the lowest total cost over the life of the project and
371 what are the user-cost impacts of alternative strategies. Present worth or
372 present value economic analyses are considered the best methods for
373 evaluating airport pavement design or rehabilitation alternatives. Refer to
374 OMB Circular A-94, Appendix C, Discount Rates for Cost-Effectiveness,

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375 Lease Purchase, and Related Analysis, for real discount rates for the
376 design analysis period. For federally funded projects refer to AIP
377 Handbook FAA Order 5100.38 for what discount rate to utilize in
378 analysis. Residual salvage values should be calculated on the straight-line
379 depreciated value of the alternative at the end of the analysis period. The
380 initial cost and life expectancy of the various alternatives should be based
381 on the engineer’s experience with consideration given to local materials,
382 environmental factors, and contractor capability. When considering the
383 effectiveness of various routine and preventative maintenance alternatives,
384 refer to Airfield Asphalt Pavement Technology Program (AAPTP) Project
385 05-07, Techniques for Prevention and Remediation of Non-Load Related
386 Distresses on HMA Airport Pavements (Phase I).
387 The basic equation for determining present worth is shown below:
n z
 1 
m
 1 
i

PW  C   M i    S 
388 i 1 1 r  1 r 
389 Where:

390 PW = Present Worth

391 C = Present Cost of initial design or rehabilitation
392 activity
393 m = Number of maintenance or rehabilitation
394 activities
395 Mi = Cost of the ith maintenance or rehabilitation
396 alternative in terms of present costs, i.e.,
397 constant dollars
398 r = Discount rate
399 ni = Number of years from the present of the ith
400 maintenance or rehabilitation activity
401 S = Salvage value at the end of the analysis period
402 Z = Length of analysis period in years. The official
403 FAA design period is 20 years. The FAA must
404 approve other analysis periods.
n
 1 
 
405 1 r  is commonly called the single payment present
406 worth factor in most engineering economic
407 textbooks

408 1.3.3.2 From a practical standpoint, if the difference in the present worth of costs
409 between two design or rehabilitation alternatives is 10 percent or less, it is
410 normally assumed to be insignificant and the present worth of the two
411 alternatives can be assumed to be the same.

412 1.3.3.3 A cost effectiveness determination includes a life-cycle cost analysis

413 (LCCA). LCCA methodology includes the following steps:

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414 1. Establish alternative design strategies;

415 2. Determine activity timing (analysis period should be sufficient to
416 reflect long term cost differences including at least one rehab of each
417 alternative); and
418 3. Estimate direct costs (future costs should be estimated in constant
419 dollars and discounted to the present using real discount rate).

420 1.3.3.4 Routine maintenance costs, such as incidental crack sealing, have a
421 marginal effect on net present value (NPV). Focus should be on initial
422 construction, preventative maintenance, and rehabilitation costs. Salvage
423 value should be based on the remaining life of an alternative at the end of
424 the analysis period.
425 Note: LCCA, at a minimum, should include a sensitivity analysis to
426 address the variability within major analyses input assumptions and
427 estimates. Traditionally, sensitivity analysis has evaluated different
428 discount rates or assigned value of time. The ultimate sensitivity analysis
429 is to perform a probabilistic analysis, which allows multiple inputs to vary
430 simultaneously, estimate indirect user costs and determine LCCA using a
431 probabilistic analysis.

432 1.3.3.5 Just because a life cycle cost analysis supports a pavement section does
433 not assure that funds will be available to support the initial construction.
434 On federally funded projects coordination with and approval by the local
435 FAA Region/ADO is required when considering design periods greater or
436 less than 20 years.

437 1.3.3.6 For additional information on performing LCCA, refer to Airfield Asphalt
438 Pavement Technology Program (AAPTP) Report 06-06, Life Cycle Cost
439 Analysis for Airport Pavements, and the Federal Highway Administration
440 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis Primer.

441 1.3.4 Pavement Structure.

442 Pavement structure consists of surface course, base course, subbase course, and
443 subgrade as illustrated and described in Figure 1-1 and Table 1-1.
444 1. Surface. Surface courses typically include Portland cement concrete (PCC) and
445 Hot-Mix Asphalt (HMA).
446 2. Base. Base courses generally fall into two classes: unstabilized and stabilized.
447 3. Unstabilized bases consist of crushed and uncrushed aggregates.
448 4. Stabilized bases consist of crushed and uncrushed aggregates stabilized with
449 cement or asphalt.
450 5. Subbase. Subbase courses consist of granular material, which may be
451 unstablized or stabilized.
452 6. Subgrade. Subgrade consists of natural or modified soils.

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453 Figure 1-1. Typical Pavement Structure

454

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455 Table 1-1. Typical Pavement Specifications for Pavement Layers1

Pavement Layer Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

Surface Course P-401/P-4032 P-501
Stabilized Base Course P-401/403 P-401/403
P-3043 P-304
P-306
Base Course P-2094 P-2094
P-2085 P-2085
P-211 P-211
Subbase Course P-154 P154-
P-2136 P-3016
P-2197 P-2197
Subgrade P-152 P-152
P-155 P-155
P-158 P-158
456 Notes:
457 1. Refer to AC 150/5370-10, Standards for Specifying Construction of Airports, for the individual
458 specifications.
459 2. P601 may be used for locations that need a fuel resistant surface
460 3. P304 use with caution, susceptible to reflective cracking
461 4. P-209, Crushed Aggregate Base Course, used as a base course is limited to pavements designed for
462 gross loads of 100,000 pounds (45 360 kg) or less.
463 5. P-208, Aggregate Base Course, used as base course is limited to pavements designed for gross loads of
464 60,000 pounds (27 200 kg) or less.
465 6. Use of P-213 and P-301 as subbase course is not recommended where frost penetration into the
466 subbase is anticipated.
467 7. P-219, Recycled Concrete Aggregate Base Course, may be used as base depending on quality of
468 materials and gradation.

469 1.4 Skid Resistance.

470 Airport pavements should provide a skid resistant surface that will provide good
471 traction during all weather conditions. Refer to AC 150/5320-12, Measurement,
472 Construction, and Maintenance of Skid Resistant Airport Pavement Surfaces, for
473 information on skid resistant surfaces.

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474 1.5 Staged Construction.

475 It may be necessary to construct the airport pavement in stages to accommodate
476 changes in traffic, increases in aircraft weights, and /or frequency of operation. When
477 designing airport pavements, plan for runway/taxiway extensions, widening, parallel
478 taxiways, and other changes to ensure that each stage provides an operational surface
479 that can safely accommodate the current traffic. Consider future development when
480 selecting the longitudinal grades, cross-slope grade, stub-taxiway grades, etc. Design
481 each stage to adequately accommodate the traffic using the pavement until the next
482 stage is constructed. Initial construction must consider the future structural needs for
483 the full service life of the pavement. Design and construction of the underlying layers
484 and drainage facilities must be to the standards required for the final pavement cross-
485 sections. Refer to AC 150/5320-5, Airport Drainage, for additional guidance on design
486 and construction of airport surface and subsurface drainage systems for airports.

487 1.6 Design of Structures.

488 Refer to Appendix B for recommended design parameters for airport structures such as
489 culverts and bridges.

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490 CHAPTER 2. SOIL INVESTIGATIONS AND EVALUATION

491 2.1 General.

492 Accurate identification and evaluation of pavement foundations is necessary. The
493 following sections highlight some of the more important aspects of soil mechanics that
494 are important to the geotechnical and pavement engineers.

495 2.1.1 Soil.

496 For engineering purposes, soil includes all natural deposits that can be moved and
497 manipulated with earth moving equipment, without requiring blasting or ripping. The
498 soil profile is the vertical arrangement of individual soil layers exhibiting physical
499 properties different than the adjacent layer. Subgrade soil is the soil layer that forms the
500 foundation for the pavement structure; it is the soil directly beneath the pavement
501 structure. Subsurface soil conditions include the elevation of the water table, the
502 presence of water bearing strata, and the field properties of the soil. Field properties
503 include the density, moisture content, frost susceptibility, and typical depth of frost
504 penetration.

505 2.1.2 Classification System.

506 Use ASTM D 2487, Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering
507 Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System), to classify soils for civil airport
508 pavements for engineering purposes. Appendix A provides a summary of general soil
509 characteristics pertinent to pavements.

510 2.1.3 Subgrade Support.

511 2.1.3.1 The subgrade soil provides the ultimate support for the pavement and the
512 imposed loads. The pavement structure serves to distribute the imposed
513 load to the subgrade over an area greater than the tire contact area. The
514 available soils with the best engineering characteristics should be
515 incorporated in the upper layers of the subgrade.

516 2.1.3.2 The design value for subgrade support should be conservatively selected
517 to ensure a stable subgrade and should reflect the long term subgrade
518 support that will be provided to the pavement. Common practice is to
519 select a value that is one standard deviation below the mean. Where the
520 mean subgrade strength is lower than a California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of
521 5, it may be necessary to improve the subgrade through stabilization or
522 other means in order to facilitate compaction of the subbase. When the
523 design CBR is lower than 3, it is required to improve the subgrade through
524 stabilization or other means.

525 2.1.4 Drainage.

526 Soil conditions impact the size, extent, and nature of surface and subsurface drainage
527 structures and facilities. Refer to AC 150/5320-5, Airport Drainage Design, for
528 additional guidance.

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529 2.2 Soil Conditions.

530 2.2.1 Site Investigation.

531 2.2.1.1 Soil type and properties for soils to be used on the project must be
532 assessed. If sufficient soils are not available within the boundaries of the
533 airport, identify and investigate additional borrow areas. Investigations
534 should determine the distribution and physical properties of the various
535 types of soil present. This, combined with site topography and climate
536 data, provides the information necessary for planning the development of
537 the airport pavement structure. An investigation of in-situ soil conditions
538 at an airport site will typically include the collection of representative
539 samples of the soils to determine the soil profile and properties identifying
540 the arrangement of the different soils.

541 2.2.1.2 The site investigation should also include an evaluation of local materials
542 and their availability for possible use in construction of the pavement
543 structure.

544 2.2.2 Procedures.

545 ASTM D 420 Standard Guide to Site Characterization for Engineering Design and
546 Construction Purposes, can be used for sampling and surveying procedures and
547 techniques. This method is based on the soil profile. In the field, ASTM D 2488,
548 Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual
549 Procedures), is commonly used to identify soils by such characteristics as color,
550 texture, structure, consistency, compactness, cementation, and, to varying degrees,
551 chemical composition.

552 2.2.3 Soil Maps.

553 Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service soils maps, United
554 States Geodetic Survey (USGS) geologic maps, and engineering geology maps are
555 valuable aids in the study of soils at and in the vicinity of the airport. The pedagogical
556 classification determined from these maps does not treat soil as an engineering or
557 construction material; however, the data obtained is useful for the engineer conducting
558 preliminary investigations of site selection, development costs, and alignment, as well
559 as for the agronomist in connection with the development of turf areas on airports.
560 Much of this information is available on the respective agency websites.

561 2.2.4 Aerial Photography.

562 Relief, drainage, and soil patterns may be determined from aerial photography. A
563 review of historical aerial site photographs may reveal prior drainage patterns and
564 deposits of different soil types. Many websites now provide access to aerial
565 photographs and maps useful for preliminary site investigations.

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566 2.3 Surveying and Sampling.

567 2.3.1 Subsurface Borings and Pavement Cores of Existing Pavement.

568 2.3.1.1 The initial step in an investigation of subsurface conditions is a soil survey
569 to determine the quantity and extent of the different types of soil, the
570 arrangement of soil layers, and the depth of any subsurface water. Profile
571 borings are usually obtained to determine the soil or rock profile and its
572 lateral extent. The spacing of borings cannot always be definitely
573 specified by rule or preconceived plan because of the variations at a site.
574 Sufficient borings should be taken to identify the extent of soils
575 encountered.

576 2.3.1.2 Additional steps that may be taken to characterize the subsurface include:
577 Nondestructive testing (NDT) and Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
578 tests. Nondestructive testing (NDT), as described in Appendix C, can be
579 used to evaluate subgrade strength and to assist with establishing locations
580 for soil borings as well as sampling locations for evaluation of existing
581 pavements. Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) tests, per ASTM D 6951
582 Standard Test Method for Use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer in
583 Shallow Pavement Applications, provide useful information. DCP tests
584 can easily be run as each soil layer is encountered as a boring progresses
585 or DCP tests can be run after taking pavement cores of existing
586 pavements. DCP results can provide a quick estimate of subgrade strength
587 with correlations between DCP and CBR. In addition, plots of DCP results
588 provide a graphical representation of the relative strength of subgrade
589 layers. Boring logs from original construction and prior evaluations can
590 also provide useful information.

591 2.3.1.3 Cores of existing pavement provide information about the existing
592 pavement structure. It is recommended to take color photographs of
593 pavement cores and include with the geotechnical report.

594 2.3.2 Number of Borings, Locations, and Depths.

595 The locations, depths, and numbers of borings should be sufficient to determine and
596 map soil variations. If past experience indicates that settlement or stability in deep fill
597 areas at the location may be a problem, or if in the opinion of the geotechnical engineer
598 more investigations are warranted, additional and/or deeper borings may be required to
599 determine the proper design, location, and construction procedures. Where uniform soil
600 conditions are encountered, fewer borings may be acceptable. Suggested criteria for the
601 location, depth, and number of borings for new construction are given in Table 2-1.
602 Wide variations in these criteria can be expected due to local conditions.

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603 Table 2-1. Typical Subsurface Boring Spacing and Depth1

Area Spacing Depth

Runways, Random Across Pavement Cut Areas - 10' (3 m) Below Finished Grade
Taxiways and at 200-foot (60 m) Intervals Fill Areas - 10' (3 m) Below Existing
Taxilanes Ground
Other Areas of 1 Boring per 10,000 Square Cut Areas - 10' (3 m) Below Finished Grade
Pavement Feet (930 sq m) of Area Fill Areas - 10' (3 m) Below Existing
Ground
Borrow Areas Sufficient Tests to Clearly To Depth of Borrow Excavation
Define the Borrow Material
604 Note:
605 1. Boring depths should be sufficient to determine if consolidation and/or location of slippage planes will
606 impact the pavement structure.

607 2.3.3 Boring Log.

608 2.3.3.1 The results of the soil explorations should be summarized in boring logs.
609 Atypical boring log includes location of the boring, date performed, type
610 of exploration, surface elevation, depth of materials, sample identification
611 numbers, classification of the material, water table, and standard
612 penetration resistance. Refer to ASTM D 1586 Standard Test Method for
613 Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Spilt Barrel Sampling of Soils.
614 Representative samples of the different soil layers encountered should be
615 obtained and tested in the laboratory to determine their physical and
616 engineering properties. In-situ properties, such as in-place density, shear
617 strength, consolidation characteristics, etc., may require obtaining
618 “undisturbed” core samples per ASTM D 1587 Standard Practice for
619 Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Fine-Grained Soils for Geotechnical
620 Purposes. Because test results only represent the sample being tested, it is
621 important that each sample be representative of a particular soil type and
622 not be a mixture of several materials.

623 2.3.3.2 Identification of soil properties from composite bag samples can lead to
624 misleading representation of soil properties.

625 2.3.4 In-place Testing.

626 Pits, open cuts, or both may be required for making in-place bearing tests, taking
627 undisturbed samples, charting variable soil strata, etc. This type of soil investigation
628 may be necessary for projects involving in-situ conditions that warrant a high degree of
629 accuracy.

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630 2.4 Soil Tests.

631 2.4.1 Soil Testing Requirements.

632 2.4.1.1 The geotechnical engineer should identify the tests necessary to
633 characterize the soil properties for the project. Subsurface evaluations
634 may include the following standards:
635 1. ASTM D 421 Standard Practice for Dry Preparation of Soil Samples
636 for Particle-Size Analysis and Determination of Soil Constants.
637 This procedure is used to prepare samples for particle-size and
638 plasticity tests to determine test values on air-dried samples.
639 2. ASTM D 422 Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of
640 Soils.
641 This analysis covers the quantitative determination of the particle
642 sizes in soils.
643 3. ASTM D 4318 Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic
644 Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils.

645 2.4.1.2 The plastic and liquid limits of a soil define the lowest moisture content at
646 which a soil will change from a semisolid to a plastic state and a solid
647 passes from a plastic to a liquid state, respectively. The plasticity index is
648 the numerical difference between the plastic limit and the liquid limit and
649 indicates the range in moisture content over which a soil remains in a
650 plastic state prior to changing into a liquid. The plastic limit, liquid limit,
651 and plasticity index of soils are used with the Unified Soil Classification
652 System (ASTM D 2487) to classify soils. They are also used, either
653 individually or together, with other soil properties to correlate with
654 engineering behavior such as compressibility, permeability,
655 compactibility, shrink-swell, and shear strength.

656 2.4.2 Moisture-Density Relations of Soils.

657 For compaction control during construction, the following ASTM test methods can be
658 used to determine the moisture-density relations of the different soil types:
659 1. Pavements Loads of 60,000 Pounds (27 216 kg) or More. For pavements
660 designed to serve airplanes weighing 60,000 pounds (27 200 kg) or more, use
661 ASTM D 1557, Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction
662 Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbf/ft3 (2,700 kN-m/m3)).
663 2. Pavement Loads Less than 60,000 Pounds (27 216 kg). For pavements
664 designed to serve airplanes weighing less than 60,000 pounds (27 200 kg), use
665 ASTM D 698, Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction
666 Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12 400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3)).

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667 2.5 Soil Strength Tests.

668 2.5.1 Soil classification for engineering purposes provides an indication of the suitability of
669 the soil as a pavement subgrade. However, the soil classification does not provide
670 sufficient information to predict pavement behavior. Performance variations can occur
671 due to a variety of reasons including degree of compaction, degree of saturation
672 (moisture content), height of overburden, etc.

673 2.5.2 For pavement design and evaluation, subgrade materials are characterized by strength
674 parameters. The strength of the subgrade in flexible pavement structures is typically
675 measured by the CBR tests. For rigid pavements strength is characterized with either
676 modulus of subgrade reaction (k-value) or with the Elastic modulus (E)

677 2.5.3 Ideally, k-value should be determined from a plate-load test (see paragraph 2.5.5).
678 However, if plate bearing data is unavailable, then the k-value can be estimated from
679 CBR using the following formula:
680 k = 28.6926 x CBR0.7788, (k, pci)
681 The elastic modulus (E) can be estimated from k-value using the following
682 correlation:
683 E(psi) = 20.15 x k1.284 (k in pci)
684

685 The Elastic modulus (E) can be estimated from CBR using the following
686 correlation:
687 E(psi) = 1500  CBR or E(MPa) = 10 CBR
688 These are only approximate relationships which are generally adequate for
689 pavement design and analysis. Additional testing may be necessary to establish
690 the subgrade properties (E or k) when evaluating existing pavements.

691 2.5.4 California Bearing Ratio (CBR).

692 The CBR test is basically a penetration test conducted at a uniform rate of strain. The
693 force required to produce a given penetration in the material under test is compared to
694 the force required to produce the same penetration in a standard crushed limestone. The
695 result is expressed as a ratio of the two forces (e.g., a material with a CBR of 15 means
696 the material offers 15 percent of the resistance to penetration that the standard crushed
697 limestone offers). Laboratory CBR tests should be performed in accordance with
698 ASTM D 1883, Standard Test Method for California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of
699 Laboratory-Compacted Soils. Field CBR tests should be conducted in accordance with
700 ASTM D 4429, Standard Test Method for CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of Soils in
701 Place.
702 1. Laboratory CBR. Laboratory CBR tests are conducted on materials obtained
703 from the site and remolded to the density that will be obtained during
704 construction. Pavement foundations tend to reach nearly complete saturation after
705 about 3 years. The CBR test should be run at a moisture content that simulates the

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706 condition of a pavement that has been in service for some time, typically this is
707 what is referred to as a ‘soaked’ or ‘saturated’ CBR. Seasonal moisture changes
708 also dictate the use of a soaked CBR design value since traffic must be supported
709 during periods of high moisture such as spring thaw.
710 2. Field CBR. Field CBR tests provide information on foundation materials that
711 have been in place for several years. The materials should be in place for a
712 sufficient time to allow for the moisture to reach an equilibrium condition, i.e. a
713 fill that has been constructed and surcharged for a long period of time prior to
714 pavement construction.
715 3. CBR Gravelly Materials. CBR tests are difficult to interpret on gravelly
716 materials. Laboratory CBR tests on gravel often yield CBR results that are too
717 high due to the confining effects of the mold. The assignment of CBR values to
718 gravelly subgrade materials may be based on judgment and experience. The FAA
719 pavement design procedure recommends a maximum subgrade E value of 50,000
720 psi (345 MPa) (CBR=33) for use in design.
721 4. Lime Rock Bearing Ratio. If the lime rock bearing ratio (LBR) is used to
722 express soil strength, it may be converted to CBR by multiplying the LBR by 0.8.
723 5. Number of CBR Tests. The number of CBR tests required to establish a design
724 value cannot be simply stated. Variability of the soil conditions encountered at
725 the site has the greatest influence on the number of tests needed. Typically, three
726 CBR tests on each different major soil type should be sufficient.

727 2.5.5 Plate Bearing Test.

728 2.5.5.1 The plate bearing test measures the bearing capacity of the pavement
729 foundation. The result, modulus of subgrade reaction (k value) is a
730 measure of the pressure required to produce a unit deflection of the
731 pavement foundation. The k value has the units pounds per cubic inch
732 (Mega-newton per cubic meter). Plate bearing tests should be performed
733 in accordance with the procedures contained in AASHTO T 222 Standard
734 Method of Test for Non-repetitive Static Plate Load Test of Soils and
735 Flexible Pavement Components for Use in Evaluation and Design of
736 Airport and Highway. This method covers the making of non-repetitive
737 static plate load tests on subgrade soils and flexible pavement components,
738 in either the compacted condition or the natural state, and is intended to
739 provide data for use in the evaluation and design of rigid and flexible-type
740 airport and highway pavements.

741 2.5.5.2 In lieu of the plate bearing test, the k value may be estimated from the
742 CBR per paragraph 3.13.4.
743 1. Plate Bearing Test Conditions. Plate bearing tests are conducted in
744 the field on test sections constructed to the design compaction and
745 moisture conditions. A correction to the k value for saturation is
746 required to simulate the moisture conditions likely to be encountered
747 by the in-service pavement.

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748 2. Plate Size. The rigid pavement design presented in this circular is
749 based on the elastic modulus (E) or resilient modulus (k value). The
750 k value can be determined by a static plate load test using a 30-inch
751 (762 mm) diameter plate. Using a smaller plate diameter may result
752 in a higher k value.
753 3. Number of Plate Bearing Tests. Plate bearing tests are expensive
754 to perform and the number of tests that can be conducted to establish
755 a design value is limited. Generally only two or three tests can be
756 performed for each pavement feature. The design k value should be
757 conservatively selected.

758 2.5.6 Additional Soil Strength Tests.

759 Other tests that may be used to assist in evaluating subgrade soils include ASTM D
760 3080, Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Tests of Soils Under Consolidated
761 Drained Conditions, and ASTM D 2573, Standard Test Method for Field Vane Shear
762 Tests in Cohesive Soil.

763 2.6 Subgrade Stabilization.

764 2.6.1 Where the mean subgrade strength is lower than a CBR of 5, it may be necessary to
765 improve the subgrade through stabilization or other means in order to facilitate
766 compaction of the subbase. When the design CBR is lower than 3, it is required to
767 improve the subgrade through stabilization or other means. Subgrade stabilization
768 should also be considered if any of the following conditions exist: poor drainage,
769 adverse surface drainage, frost, or need for a stable working platform. Subgrade
770 stabilization can be accomplished through the use of chemical agents or by mechanical
771 methods. It is often beneficial to stabilize the subgrade just to create a stable
772 construction working platform.

773 2.6.2 A geotechnical engineer should be consulted to determine what long term strength can
774 be achieved with stabilized layers. It is recommended to use a very conservative
775 estimate of the benefit unless you have tests results to substantiate the long term benefit.
776 Stabilization performs best to create a stable working platform. Note: Generally the
777 stabilized layer should be 12 in (300 mm) or as recommend by the geotechnical
778 engineer. When designing pavements that include a layer of stabilized material it may
779 be necessary to model this layer as a user defined layer when performing pavement
780 structural design in FAARFIELD, see Chapter 3.

781 2.6.3 Chemical Stabilization.

782 Different soil types require different stabilizing agents for best results. The following
783 publications are recommended to determine the appropriate type and amount of
784 chemical stabilization for subgrade soils: Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) Manual
785 Pavement Design for Airfields, UFC 3-260-02; Soil Cement Construction Handbook,
786 Portland Cement Association; The Asphalt Institute Manual Series MS-19, Basic
787 Asphalt Emulsion Manual; and AC 150/5370-10, Items P-155, P-157, and P-158.

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788 2.6.4 Mechanical Stabilization.

789 In some instances, subgrades cannot be adequately stabilized through the use of
790 chemical additives. The underlying soils may be so soft that stabilized materials cannot
791 be mixed and compacted over the underlying soils without failing the soft soils. To
792 facilitate construction of the pavement section, extremely soft soils may require
793 bridging of the weak soils. Bridging can be accomplished with the use of thick layers
794 of shot rock or cobbles. Thick layers of lean, porous concrete or geosynthetics may also
795 be used as the first layer of mechanical stabilization over soft, fine-grained soils.

796 2.6.5 Geosynthetics.

797 2.6.5.1 The term geosynthetics describes a range of manufactured synthetic

798 products used to address geotechnical problems. The term is generally
799 understood to encompass four main products: geotextiles, geogrids,
800 geomembranes, and geocomposites. The synthetic nature of the materials
801 in these products makes them suitable for use in the ground where high
802 levels of durability are required. These products have a wide range of
803 applications, including use as a separation between subbase aggregate
804 layers and the underlying subgrade.

805 2.6.5.2 The need for geosynthetics within a pavement section depends on
806 subgrade soil conditions, groundwater conditions, and the type of
807 overlying pavement aggregate. The geotechnical engineer should clearly
808 identify what the geosynthetic is intended to provide to the pavement
809 structure. The most common use on airports is as a separation layer to
810 prevent migration of fines.

811 2.6.5.3 Currently, the FAA does not consider any reductions in pavement
812 structure for the use of any geosynthetics.

813 2.7 Seasonal Frost.

814 The design of pavements in areas subject to seasonal frost action requires special
815 consideration. The detrimental effects of frost action may include non-uniform heave
816 and a loss of soil strength during warm periods and spring thaw. Other detrimental
817 effects include possible loss of compaction, development of pavement roughness,
818 restriction of drainage, and cracking and deterioration of the pavement surface. Three
819 conditions must exist simultaneously for detrimental frost action:
820 1. The soil must be frost susceptible,
821 2. Freezing temperatures must penetrate into the frost susceptible soil, and
822 3. Free moisture must be available in sufficient quantities to form ice lenses.

823 2.7.1 Frost Susceptibility.

824 The frost susceptibility of soils is dependent to a large extent on the size and
825 distribution of voids in the soil mass. Voids must be of a certain critical size for the

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826 development of ice lenses. Empirical relationships have been developed correlating the
827 degree of frost susceptibility with the soil classification and the amount of material finer
828 than 0.02 mm by weight. Soils are categorized into four frost groups for frost design
829 purposes as defined in Table 2-2: Frost Group 1 (FG-l), FG-2, FG-3, and FG-4. The
830 higher the frost group number, the more susceptible the soil, i.e., soils in FG-4 are more
831 frost susceptible than soils in frost groups 1, 2, or 3.

832 Table 2-2. Soil Frost Groups

Percentage Finer
Frost
Kind of Soil than 0.02 mm by Soil Classification
Group
Weight
FG-1 Gravelly Soils 3 to 10 GW, GP, GW-GM, GP-GM
FG-2 Gravelly Soils 10 to 20 GM, GW-GM, GP-GM
Sands 3 to 5 SW, SP, SM, SW-SM, SP-
SM
FG-3 Gravelly Soils Over 20 GM, GC
Sands, except very fine silty Over 15 SM, SC
sands - CL, CH
Clays, PI above 12
FG-4 Very fine silty sands Over 15 SM
All Silts - ML, MH
Clays, PI = 12 or less - CL, CL-ML
Varved Clays and other fine
grained banded sediments - CL, CH, ML, SM

833 2.7.2 Depth of Frost Penetration.

834 The depth of frost penetration is a function of the thermal properties of the pavement
835 and soil mass, the surface temperature, and the temperature of the pavement and soil
836 mass at the start of the freezing season. In determining the frost penetration depth, give
837 primary consideration to local engineering experience. Local construction practice,
838 including the experience of local building departments, is generally a good guide to
839 frost penetration depth, e.g. depth of water mains, depth of local foundation designs,
840 etc.

841 2.7.3 Free Water.

842 For frost action to occur, there must be free water in the soil mass that can freeze and
843 form ice lenses. Water can enter the soil from many different sources, e.g. by
844 infiltration from the surface or sides of the pavement structure, by condensation of
845 atmospheric water vapor, or drawn from considerable depths by capillary action.

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846 Generally speaking, if the degree of saturation of the soil is 70 percent or greater, frost
847 heave will probably occur. The designer should assume that sufficient water will be
848 present to cause detrimental frost action for any soil that may be susceptible to frost
849 action.

850 2.7.4 Frost Design.

851 The design of pavements to offset seasonal frost effects is discussed in Chapter 3. A
852 more rigorous evaluation for frost effects is necessary when designing for pavement
853 service life greater than 20 years. A discussion of frost action and its effects can be
854 found in Research Report No. FAA-RD-74-030, Design of Civil Airfield Pavement for
855 Seasonal Frost and Permafrost Conditions.

856 2.8 Permafrost.

857 In arctic regions, soils are often frozen to considerable depths year round. Seasonal
858 thawing and refreezing of the upper layer of permafrost can lead to severe loss of
859 bearing capacity and/or differential heave. In areas with continuous permafrost at
860 shallow depths, utilize non-frost susceptible base course materials to prevent
861 degradation (thawing) of the permafrost layer. The frost susceptibility of soils in
862 permafrost areas is classified the same as in Table 2-2.
863 Note: In areas of permafrost, an experienced pavement/geotechnical engineer familiar
864 with permafrost protection must design the pavement structure.

865 2.8.1 Depth of Thaw Penetration.

866 Pavement design for permafrost areas must consider the depth of seasonal thaw
867 penetration. The thawing index used for design (design thawing index) should be based
868 on the three warmest summers in the last 30 years of record. If 30-year records are not
869 available, data from the warmest summer in the latest 10-year period may be used.

870 2.8.2 Muskeg.

871 Muskeg is a highly organic soil deposit that is essentially a swamp that is sometimes
872 encountered in arctic areas. If construction in areas of muskeg is unavoidable and the
873 soil survey shows the thickness of muskeg is less than 5 feet (1.5 m), the muskeg should
874 be removed and replace with granular fill. If the thickness of muskeg is too great to
875 warrant removal and replacement, a 5-foot (1.5 m) granular fill should be placed over
876 the muskeg. These thicknesses are based on experience. Differential settlement will
877 occur and considerable maintenance will be required to maintain a smooth surface. Use
878 of a geosynthetic between the muskeg surface and the bottom of granular fill may be
879 necessary to prevent migration of the muskeg up into the granular fill.

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880 CHAPTER 3. PAVEMENT DESIGN

881 3.1 Design Considerations.

882 This chapter provides pavement design guidance for airfield pavements. Since all
883 pavement designs require the use of the FAA computer program FAARFIELD, there is
884 no longer a differentiation between pavement design for light and aircraft greater than
885 30,000 pounds. Procedures for overlay design are covered in Chapter 4. and procedures
886 for evaluating pavements are covered in Chapter 5.

887 3.2 FAA Pavement Design.

888 The design of airport pavements is a complex engineering problem that involves the
889 interaction of multiple variables. This chapter presents mechanistic-empirical pavement
890 design procedures that are implemented in the FAARFIELD computer program.
891 FAARFIELD uses layered elastic and three-dimensional finite element-based design
892 procedures for new and overlay designs of flexible and rigid pavements respectively.
893 The structural design of pavements on federally funded projects must be completed
894 using FAARFIELD, and a copy of the pavement design report must be included with
895 the engineer’s report.

896 3.3 Flexible Pavements.

897 For flexible pavement design, FAARFIELD uses the maximum vertical strain at the top
898 of the subgrade and the maximum horizontal strain at the bottom of all asphalt as the
899 predictors of pavement structural life. FAARFIELD provides the required thickness for
900 all individual layers of flexible pavement (surface, base, and subbase) required to
901 support a given airplane traffic mix for the structural design life over a given subgrade.

902 3.4 Full-Depth Asphalt Pavements.

903 Full-depth asphalt pavements which contain asphaltic cement in all components above
904 the prepared subgrade may be used for light duty pavements less than 30,000 pounds
905 (13 610 kg). FAARFIELD has the ability to analyze full depth asphalt pavements by
906 only including HMA surface layer and a subgrade layer; however the program will
907 identify it as a nonstandard layer. Analyzing a HMA surface layer on top of a HMA
908 flexible stabilized base is also a way to evaluate a full depth asphalt structure. The
909 Asphalt Institute (AI) has published guidance on the design of full depth asphalt
910 pavements for light airplanes in Information Series No. 154 (IS 154) Thickness Design -
911 Asphalt Pavements for General Aviation. Use of the AI design method requires
912 approval by the FAA. On federally funded projects full-depth asphalt pavements may
913 be used in other applications when approved by the FAA.

914 3.5 Rigid Pavements.

915 For rigid pavement design, FAARFIELD uses the maximum horizontal stress at the
916 bottom of the PCC slab as the predictor of the pavement structural life. The maximum

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917 horizontal stress for design is determined considering both PCC slab edge and interior
918 loading conditions. FAARFIELD provides the required thickness of the rigid pavement
919 slab required to support a given airplane traffic mix for the structural design life over a
920 given base/subbase/subgrade.

921 3.6 Stabilized Base Course.

922 3.6.1 If aircraft in the fleet considered in design of the pavement structure have gross loads of
923 100,000 pounds (45,359 kg) or more then use of a stabilized base is required. Crushed
924 aggregates that can be proven to exhibit a remolded soaked CBR of 100 or greater may
925 be substituted for stabilized base course. In areas subject to frost penetration, the
926 materials should meet permeability and non-frost susceptibility tests in addition to the
927 CBR requirements. Other exceptions to the policy include proven performance under
928 similar airplane loadings and climatic conditions comparable to those anticipated.
929 Subbases used under stabilized bases should exhibit a remolded soaked CBR (per
930 ASTM D1883) of at least 35. Suitable subbases for use under a stabilized base include
931 P209, P208, or P211.

932 3.6.2 Full scale performance tests have proven that pavements which include stabilized bases
933 have superior performance. Long term performance gains should be considered before
934 making substitutions to eliminate stabilized base. Exceptions to use of stabilized base
935 will be considered when less than 5% of the traffic is aircraft with gross loads of
936 100,000 pounds (45,359 kg) or more but all are less than 110,000 pounds (49,895 kg).

937 3.7 Base or Subbase Contamination.

938 Contamination of subbase or base aggregates may occur during construction and/or
939 once pavement is in service. A loss of structural capacity can result from contamination
940 of base and/or subbase elements with fines from underlying subgrade soils. The
941 contamination reduces the quality of the aggregate material, thereby reducing its ability
942 to protect the subgrade. Geosynthetic separation fabrics can be effectively used to
943 reduce aggregate contamination (refer to paragraph 2.6).

944 3.8 Subgrade Compaction.

945 3.8.1 FAARFIELD computes compaction requirements for the specific pavement design and
946 traffic mixture and generates tables of required minimum density requirements for the
947 subgrade. The values in these tables denote the range of depths for which densities
948 should equal or exceed the indicated percentage of the maximum dry density as
949 specified in Item P-152. Since compaction requirements are computed in FAARFIELD
950 after the thickness design is completed, the computed compaction tables indicate
951 recommended depth of compaction as measured from both the pavement surface and
952 the top of finished subgrade. FAARFIELD determines whether densities are in
953 accordance with ASTM D 698 or ASTM D 1557 based on weight of aircraft. ASTM D

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954 698 applies for aircraft less than 60,000 pounds (27 200 kg) and ASTM D 1557 applies
955 for aircraft 60,000 pounds (27 200 kg) and greater.

956 3.8.2 The compaction requirements implemented in the FAARFIELD computer program are
957 based on the Compaction Index (CI) concept. More information may be found in U.S.
958 Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Technical Report No. 3-529
959 Compaction Requirements for Soil Components of Flexible Airfield Pavements (1959).

960 3.8.3 FAARFIELD generates two tables applicable to non-cohesive and cohesive soil types
961 respectively. The appropriate compaction controls should be used for the actual soil
962 type. Note non-cohesive soils in FAARFIELD are those with a plasticity index of less
963 than 3.

964 3.8.4 The subgrade in cut areas should have natural in-place densities equal to or greater than
965 those computed by FAARFIELD for the given soil type. If the natural in-place
966 densities of the subgrade are less than required, the subgrade should be (a) compacted to
967 achieve the required densities (b) removed and replaced with suitable material at the
968 required densities, or (c) covered with sufficient select or subbase material so the in-
969 place densities of the natural subgrade meet the design requirements. It is a good
970 practice to rework and recompact at least the top 12” in cut areas, however, depending
971 upon the in-place densities it may be necessary to rework and recompact additional
972 subgrade material. The maximum practical depth of compaction of soils in cut areas is
973 generally limited to 72 inches (1 829 mm) below the top of finished subgrade.

974 3.8.5 For cohesive soils used in fill sections, the entire fill must be compacted to 90 percent
975 maximum density. For non-cohesive soils used in fill sections, the top 6 inches (150
976 mm) of fill must be compacted to 100 percent maximum density, and the remainder of
977 the fill must be compacted to 95 percent maximum density, or any lesser requirement as
978 indicated by FAARFIELD.

979 3.9 Swelling Soils.

980 3.9.1 Swelling soils are clayey soils that exhibit a significant volume change caused by
981 moisture variations. Airport pavements constructed on swelling soils are subject to
982 differential movements causing surface roughness and cracking. When swelling soils
983 are present, the pavement design should incorporate methods to prevent or reduce the
984 effects of soil volume changes. Local experience and judgment should be applied in
985 dealing with swelling soils to achieve the best results.

986 3.9.2 The clay minerals that cause swelling, in descending order of swelling activity, are
987 smectite, illite, and kaolinite. These soils usually have liquid limits above 40 and
988 plasticity indexes above 25.

989 3.9.3 Soils that exhibit a swell of greater than 3 percent when tested for the CBR, per ASTM
990 D 1883 Standard Test Method for California Bearing Ration (CBR) of Laboratory-
991 Compacted Soils, require treatment. Treatment of swelling soils consists of removal

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992 and replacement, stabilization, and compaction efforts in accordance with Table 3-1.
993 Adequate drainage is important when dealing with swelling soils.

994 3.9.4 Additional information on identifying and handling swelling soils is presented in FAA
995 Reports No. FAA-RD-76-066 Design and Construction of Airport Pavements on
996 Expansive Soils, and DOT/FAA/PM-85115 Validation of Procedures for Pavement
997 Design on Expansive Soils.

998 Table 3-1. Recommended Treatment of Swelling Soils

Swell Percent Swell Potential for

Potential Measured Moisture
Treatment
(Based on (ASTM D Fluctuation1
Experience) 1883)
Low 3-5 Low Compact soil on wet side of optimum
(+2% to +3%) to not greater than 90% of
appropriate maximum density.2
High Stabilize soil to a depth of at least 6 in.
(150 mm)
Medium 6-10 Low Stabilize soil to a depth of at least 12 in.
(300 mm)
High Stabilize soil to a depth of at least 12 in.
(300 mm)
High Over 10 Low Stabilize soil to a depth of at least 12 in.
(300 mm)
High For uniform soils, i.e., redeposited clays,
stabilize soil to a depth of at least 36 in.
(900 mm) or raise grade to bury swelling
soil at least 36 in. (900 mm) below
pavement section or remove and replace
with non-swelling soil.
For variable soil deposits depth of
treatment should be increased to 60 in. (1
500 mm).
999 Notes:
1000 1. Potential for moisture fluctuation is a judgment determination and should consider proximity of water
1001 table, likelihood of variations in water table, as well as other sources of moisture, and thickness of the
1002 swelling soil layer.
1003 2. When control of swelling is attempted by compacting on the wet side of optimum at a reduced density,
1004 the design subgrade strength should be based on the higher moisture content and reduced density.

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1005 3.10 Pavement Life.

1006 3.10.1 Structural life relates to a pavement having sufficient strength to carry the imposed
1007 loads. Functional life relates to a pavement being able to provide an acceptable level of
1008 service relative to issues such as: foreign object debris (FOD), skid resistance, or
1009 roughness. Note in FAARFIELD, structural life is called Design Life.

1010 3.10.2 The structural design of airport pavements consists of determining both the overall
1011 pavement thickness and the thickness of the component parts of the pavement structure.
1012 A number of factors influence the thickness of pavement required including: the impact
1013 of the environment, the magnitude and character of the airplane loads it must support,
1014 the volume and distribution of traffic, the strength of the subgrade soils, and the quality
1015 of materials that make up the pavement structure. Pavements are designed to provide a
1016 finite structural life at design fatigue limits. It is theoretically possible to perform a
1017 structural design of pavements for any service period, however, to achieve the intended
1018 life requires consideration of many interacting factors including: airplane mix, quality
1019 of materials and construction, as well as routine and preventative pavement
1020 maintenance.

1021 3.10.3 Typically pavements on federally funded FAA projects are designed for a 20 year
1022 structural life. Designs for longer periods may be appropriate at airfields where the
1023 configuration of the airfield is not expected to change and where future traffic can be
1024 forecasted beyond 20 years. For example, a runway at a large hub airport where the
1025 future aircraft traffic can be forecast and where the location and size of the runway and
1026 taxiways is not anticipated to change in the future. However when designing a taxiway
1027 at a smaller airport it may be prudent to design for current activity for no more than 20
1028 years, as opposed to trying to forecast the composition and frequency of future activity.
1029 Many small airports have significant changes planned which may or may not become
1030 reality based on local economic conditions, e.g. nature of business at the fixed base
1031 operator (FBO) or number and composition of based aircraft. Typically a life cycle cost
1032 effectiveness analysis is utilized to support other design periods, however, fiscal
1033 constraints (i.e. funds available) may dictate which pavement section(s) and design life
1034 is considered.

1035 3.10.4 All pavements will require routine and/or preventative maintenance during the service
1036 period. For a pavement to achieve its design life, routine crack sealing and applications
1037 of pavement seal coats will be required for flexible pavements; and crack sealing, joint
1038 sealant repair/replacement and isolated panel replacement will be required for rigid
1039 pavement. Due to deterioration from normal use and the environment, rehabilitation of
1040 surface grades and renewal of skid-resistant properties may also be needed for both
1041 flexible and rigid pavements.

1042 3.11 Pavement Design Using FAARFIELD.

1043 The FAA developed FAARFIELD using failure models based on full-scale tests
1044 conducted from the 1940s through the present. FAARFIELD is based on layered elastic

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1045 and three-dimensional finite element-based structural analysis developed to calculate

1046 design thicknesses for airfield flexible and rigid pavements respectively.
1047

1048 3.11.1 Application.

1049 3.11.1.1 The procedures and design software identified in this chapter provide
1050 standard pavement thickness designs meeting structural requirements for
1051 all airfield pavements. FAARFIELD currently does not take into account
1052 provisions for frost protection and permafrost discussed in paragraph
1053 3.11.14. It is the responsibility of the user to check these provisions
1054 separately from FAARFIELD, and to modify the thickness design if
1055 necessary to provide additional frost and or permafrost resistant materials.

1056 3.11.1.2 Functional failures in pavements (e.g., excessive roughness, FOD, or

1057 surface deformations) can often be traced to material or construction
1058 issues that are not addressed directly by FAARFIELD. FAARFIELD
1059 design assumes that all standard pavement layers meet the applicable
1060 requirements of AC 150/5370-10 for materials, construction, and quality
1061 control. Mix design requirements for HMA and PCC materials are covered
1062 in Items P-401/403 and P-501 respectively.

1063 3.11.2 Cumulative Damage Factor (CDF).

1064 FAARFIELD is based on the cumulative damage factor (CDF) concept in which the
1065 contribution of each aircraft type in a given traffic mix is summed to obtain the total
1066 cumulative damage from all aircraft operations in the traffic mix. FAARFIELD does
1067 not designate a design aircraft however, using the CDF method, it identifies those
1068 aircraft in the design mix that contribute the greatest amount of damage to the
1069 pavement. Thickness designs using FAARFIELD must use the entire traffic mix. Using
1070 departures of a single “design” aircraft to represent all traffic is not equivalent to
1071 designing with the full traffic mix in the CDF method, and will generally result in
1072 excessive thickness.

1073 3.11.3 Current Version FAARFIELD.

1074 3.11.3.1 The current version of FAARFIELD is designated Version 1.41. It has
1075 been calibrated using the most recent full scale pavement tests at the
1076 FAA’s National Airport Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF). Due to updates
1077 to the failure models for both rigid and flexible pavements, computed
1078 pavement thicknesses using FAARFIELD v 1.41 may be different than
1079 those computed using earlier versions of FAARFIELD.

1080 3.11.3.2 The internal help file for FAARFIELD contains a user’s manual, which
1081 provides detailed information on proper execution of the program. The
1082 manual also contains additional technical references for specific details of
1083 the FAARFIELD design procedure.

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1084 3.11.3.3 FAARFIELD can be downloaded from the FAA website

1085 (http://www.faa.gov/airports/engineering/design_software/).

1086 3.11.4 Overview of FAARFIELD Program.

1087 FAARFIELD consists of five main forms linked as schematically shown in Figure 3-1.
1088 The primary forms are Startup, Structure and Aircraft. Startup - establishes which job
1089 and section will be evaluated. Structure - establishes the pavement structure to be
1090 analyzed. Aircraft – establishes the aircraft operating weight and frequency of
1091 operation that will be used to apply loads to the pavement. Notes – contains output data
1092 and other section information. Options – where analysis and output options can be
1093 selected. Note the program may be operated with U.S. customary or metric dimensions
1094 which can be selected on the options form (see Figure 3-11).

1095 Figure 3-1. Overview of FAARFIELD Program

NOTES OPTIONS
STARTUP
Additional Section Pavement Structure
Control and
Information and Options and General
Organization
Detailed Output Data Options

STRUCTURE
Structure Data Input
and Design

AIRCRAFT DATA
AIRCRAFT
View Landing Gear
Aircraft Load and
Geometry, Load, and
Traffic Data Input
Tire Pressure
1096

1097 3.11.5 FAARFIELD Pavement Design Process.

1098 Pavement Design with FAARFIELD is an iterative process for both flexible and rigid
1099 design, see paragraphs 3.12 and 3.13 for specific information regarding flexible and
1100 rigid design including examples. The basic steps FAARFIELD design steps include:

1101 Step 1: From Startup , create a new job and add the basic sections to
1102 analyze.

1103 Step 2: From Structure, modify the pavement structure to be analyzed.

1104 Step 3: From Airplane , add Airplane Load and Traffic Data.

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1105 Step 4: Return to Structure and Design Pavement Structure.

1106 Step 5: Adjust Layer Thicknesses, Change Layer Types. Repeat Step 4.

1107 Step 6 Select Life/Compaction, print out design report

1108 Step 7 Return to Startup and view pavement design report.

1109 Step 8 Print pavement design report to be included in engineer’s report.

1110 Optional Evaluate Life of Final Section to be Constructed. Disable

1111 automatic base design in options window, return to structure
1112 window and adjust layer thickness to match construction

1113 3.11.6 Aircraft Traffic Considerations.

1114 3.11.6.1 Load.

1115 Pavements should be designed for the maximum anticipated takeoff
1116 weights of the airplanes in the fleet operating on a regular basis at the
1117 airport. The design procedure generally assumes 95 percent of the gross
1118 weight is carried by the main landing gears and 5 percent is carried by the
1119 nose gear. FAARFIELD provides manufacturer-recommended gross
1120 operating weights and load distribution, for many civil and military
1121 airplanes. Using the maximum anticipated takeoff weight provides a
1122 conservative design allowing for changes in operational use and traffic, at
1123 airports where traffic regularly operates at less than maximum load.

1124 3.11.6.2 Landing Gear Type and Geometry.

1125 Gear type and configuration dictate how airplane weight is distributed to a
1126 pavement and how the pavement responds to airplane loadings. Refer to
1127 Order 5300.7, Standard Naming Convention for Aircraft Landing Gear
1128 Configurations, for standard gear designations.

1129 3.11.6.3 Tire Pressure.

1130 Tire pressure varies depending on gear configuration, gross weight, and
1131 tire size. Tire pressure has a more significant influence on strains in the
1132 asphalt surface layer than at the subgrade. For flexible pavements
1133 constructed with a high stability asphalt, tire pressures up to 254 psi (1.75
1134 MPa) may be accommodated. Tire pressure has relatively no impact on
1135 rigid pavement design.

1136 3.11.6.4 Aircraft Traffic Volume.

1137 Forecasts of annual departures by airplane type are needed for pavement
1138 design. In general, pavements should be designed to accommodate
1139 regularly using aircraft, where regular use is defined as at least 250 annual
1140 departures (500 operations). However, in some cases seasonal or other
1141 non-regular use aircraft may have significant impact on the pavement

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1142 structure required. Perform a sensitivity analysis comparing the structure

1143 needed to accommodate all planes in the fleet to the structure needed for
1144 all planes that have at least 250 annual departures. On federally funded
1145 projects when occasional or seasonal use aircraft are included in the
1146 traffic, documentation verifying actual activity (as opposed to planned)
1147 must be submitted with the sensitivity analysis to the local FAA
1148 region/ADO office as part of the engineer’s report.

1149 3.11.6.5 Departure Traffic.

1150 Airfield pavements are generally designed considering only aircraft
1151 departures. This is because typically aircraft depart at a heavier weight
1152 than they arrive. If the aircraft arrive and depart at essentially the same
1153 weight then the number of departures used for pavement design should be
1154 adjusted to reflect the number of times the pavement is loaded with each
1155 aircraft operation in the FAAFIELD pavement analysis.

1156 3.11.6.6 Total Departures over Design Life.

1157 FAARFIELD evaluates the total number of departures over the design life
1158 period. For example if you have 250 annual departures for a 20 year
1159 design life, FAARFIELD considers 5000 total departures in the pavement
1160 design calculations. Similarly if you have 225 annual departures and a 1%
1161 annual growth rate, FAARFIELD considers 4,950 total departures in the
1162 pavement design calculations.

1163 3.11.6.7 Airplane Traffic Mix.

1164 Nearly any traffic mix can be developed from the airplanes in the program
1165 library. The actual anticipated traffic mix must be used for the design
1166 analysis. Attempts to substitute equivalent aircraft for actual aircraft can
1167 lead to erroneous results.

1168 3.11.6.8 Total Cumulative Damage.

1169 FAARFIELD analyzes the damage to the pavement for each airplane and
1170 determines a final thickness for the total cumulative damage of all aircraft
1171 in the evaluation. FAARFIELD calculates the damaging effects of each
1172 airplane in the traffic mix based upon its gear spacing, load and location of
1173 gear relative to the pavement centerline then the effects of all airplanes are
1174 summed under Miner’s law. Since FAARFIELD is considering where
1175 each plane loads the pavement, the pavement damage associated with a
1176 particular airplane may be isolated from one or more of the other airplanes
1177 in the traffic mix. When the cumulative damage factor (CDF) sums to a
1178 value of 1.0, the structural design conditions have been satisfied.

1179 3.11.7 Non-Aircraft Vehicles.

1180 3.11.7.1 In some situations, non-aircraft vehicles such as aircraft rescue and
1181 firefighting, snow removal, or fueling equipment may place heavier wheel

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1182 loads on the pavement than the using aircraft. FAARFIELD allows these
1183 types of vehicles to be included in the traffic mix. The “Non-Airplane
1184 Vehicles” airplane group includes several types of truck axles (single,
1185 dual, tandem and dual-tandem) that may be used to represent common
1186 truck types. The included truck axles should be adequate for most light
1187 duty pavement designs.

1188 3.11.7.2 For small GA airports it may be necessary to consider one or more of the
1189 following options: (1) limit the size of fuel trucks used for supply and
1190 refueling; (2) locate the fuel storage tanks in a location such that the
1191 trucks supplying fuel to the airport can access the storage tanks without
1192 entering the airfield combined with using smaller refueling trucks; (3) to
1193 strengthen the fuel truck access route; or (4) limit the size of maintenance
1194 vehicles, e.g. snow removal equipment. For example it may be
1195 advantageous to limit airfield snow removal equipment to single axle
1196 trucks.

1197 3.11.8 Pass-to-Coverage Ratio.

1198 An airplane seldom travels along a pavement section in a perfectly straight path or
1199 along the exact same path as before. This lateral movement is known as airplane
1200 wander and is modeled by a statistically normal distribution. As an airplane moves
1201 along a taxiway or runway, it may take several trips or passes along the pavement for a
1202 specific point on the pavement to receive a full-load application. The ratio of the
1203 number of passes required to apply one full load application to a unit area of the
1204 pavement is expressed by the pass-to-coverage (P/C) ratio. It is easy to observe the
1205 number of passes an airplane may make on a given pavement, but the number of
1206 coverages is mathematically derived internally in FAARFIELD. By definition, one
1207 coverage occurs when a unit area of the pavement experiences the maximum response
1208 (stress for rigid pavement, strain for flexible pavement) induced by a given airplane.
1209 For flexible pavements, coverages are a measure of the number of repetitions of the
1210 maximum strain occurring at the top of subgrade. For rigid pavements, coverages are a
1211 measure of repetitions of the maximum stress occurring at the bottom of the PCC layer
1212 (see Report No. FAA-RD-77-81, Development of a Structural Design Procedure for
1213 Rigid Airport Pavements). Coverages resulting from operations of a particular airplane
1214 type are a function of the number of airplane passes, the number and spacing of wheels
1215 on the airplane main landing gear, the width of the tire-contact area, and the lateral
1216 distribution of the wheel-paths relative to the pavement centerline or guideline markings
1217 (see Report No. FAA-RD-74-036, Field Survey and Analysis of Aircraft Distribution on
1218 Airport Pavements). In calculating the P/C ratio, FAARFIELD uses the concept of
1219 effective tire width. For flexible pavements, the effective tire width is defined at the top
1220 of the subgrade. “Response lines” are drawn at a 1:2 slope from the edges of the tire
1221 contact surface to the top of the subgrade, as illustrated in Figure 3-2. Tires are
1222 considered to be either separate or combined, depending on whether the response lines
1223 overlap. For rigid pavements, the effective tire width is defined at the surface of the
1224 pavement and is equal to a nominal tire contact surface width. All effective tire width
1225 and P/C ratio calculations are performed internally within the FAARFIELD program.

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1226 Figure 3-2. Effective Tire Width

T
W W
HMA SURFACE COURSE TIRES (TYPICAL)

2 H
BASE COURSE

H/2 W H/2 H/2 W H/2

SUBGRADE EFFECTIVE TIRE EFFECTIVE TIRE
WIDTH (W + H) WIDTH (W + H)

(a) Flexible Effective Tire Width - No Overlap

T
W W
HMA SURFACE COURSE TIRES (TYPICAL)

2 H
BASE COURSE

H/2 W+T H/2

SUBGRADE EFFECTIVE TIRE WIDTH
(W + T + H)

(b) Flexible Effective Tire Width - Overlap

T
W W
PCC SURFACE COURSE TIRES (TYPICAL)

EFFECTIVE EFFECTIVE
TIRE WIDTH (W) TIRE WIDTH (W)
H

SUBGRADE

(c) Rigid Effective Tire Width

1227
EFFECTIVE TIRE WIDTHS

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1228 3.11.9 Annual Departures.

1229 3.11.9.1 Airport pavement design using FAARFIELD only considers departures
1230 and ignores the arrival traffic when determining the number of airplane
1231 passes. This is because in most cases airplanes arrive at an airport at a
1232 significantly lower weight than at takeoff due to fuel consumption.
1233 During touchdown, remaining lift on the wings and the landing gear shock
1234 absorber alleviates most of the dynamic vertical force that is transmitted to
1235 the pavement through the landing gears.

1236 3.11.9.2 When arrival and departure weights are not significantly different or when
1237 the airplane must travel along the pavement more than once, it may be
1238 appropriate to adjust the number of annual departures used for thickness
1239 design to recognize that each departure results in multiple pavement
1240 loadings. For example, when an airplane is required to traffic a large part
1241 of the runway during the taxi movement (i.e., a runway with a central
1242 taxiway configuration,) the airplane must travel along the same portion of
1243 the runway pavement twice during the take-off operation. In this case, it
1244 would be appropriate to double the number of departures in FAARFIELD.
1245 The pavement engineer must document all adjustments to traffic in the
1246 engineer’s report.

1247 3.11.10 Cumulative Damage Factor.

1248 3.11.10.1 In FAARFIELD, fatigue failure is expressed in terms of a cumulative

1249 damage factor (CDF) using Miner’s rule. CDF represents the amount of
1250 the structural fatigue life of a pavement that has been used up. It is
1251 expressed as the ratio of applied load repetitions to allowable load
1252 repetitions to failure. For a new pavement design, the pavement structure
1253 is adjusted until the cumulative CDF=1 for the traffic mix applied over the
1254 structural design life period being evaluated. For a single airplane and
1255 constant annual departures, CDF can be expressed by the following:
number of applied load repetitions
CDF 
1256 number of allowable repetitions to failure
1257 or

CDF 
annual departures  life in years
 pass   coverages to failure 
1258  coverage ratio 
1259 or
applied coverages
CDF 
1260
coverages to failure

1261 3.11.10.2 In the program implementation, CDF is calculated for each 10-inch (254
1262 mm) wide strip along the pavement over a total width of 820 inches (20.8

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1263 m). Pass-to-coverage ratio is computed for each strip assuming that traffic
1264 is normally distributed laterally, and that 75 percent of passes fall within a
1265 “wander width” of 70 inches (1,778 mm). Statistically, this results in a
1266 normally distributed wander pattern with a standard deviation of 30.435
1267 inches (773 mm). The CDF for design is taken to be the maximum CDF
1268 computed over all 82 strips. Even with the same gear geometry, airplanes
1269 with different main gear track widths will have different pass-to-coverage
1270 ratios in each of the 10-inch (254 mm) strips and may show little
1271 cumulative effect on the maximum CDF. Removing the airplanes with the
1272 lowest stress or strain may have little effect on the design thickness, based
1273 on how close the gear tracks are to each other and the number of
1274 departures.

1275 3.11.10.3 In FAARFIELD, the ‘cdf Graph’ function displays plots of CDF versus
1276 lateral effect for each gear in the design mix, as well as plot of cumulative
1277 CDF for all airplanes in the mix. For a completed design the peak value of
1278 cumulative CDF = 1.0. The following example illustrates the concept.

1279 Given the following pavement structure:

Thickness Pavement Structure

4 inches P-401 HMA Surface Course
8 inches P-403 Stabilized Base Course
12 inches P-209 Crushed Aggregate Base Course
10 inches P-154 Aggregate Base Course
Subgrade CBR 5 (7,500 psi Modulus)

1280 Designed for the following airplane traffic:

Airplane Gross Weight (lbs) Annual Departures

B747-8 990,000 50
B747-8 990,000 50
Belly
B767-200 361,000 3000
1281

1282 3.11.10.4 To view the graph after the design is complete, return to the Aircraft
1283 window and select CDF Graph. This provides a graph depicting the
1284 impact of each aircraft as well as the combined total contribution, showing
1285 that the critical location is between the main gear locations for the aircraft
1286 being evaluated. In this example even though the belly gear has a large

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1287 contribution, it does not contribute the controlling damage to the pavement
1288 as shown in Figure 3-3.

1289 Figure 3-3. CDF Contribution for Airplane Mix

1290

1291 3.11.11 FAARFIELD Material Properties.

1292 3.11.11.1 In FAARFIELD pavement layers are assigned a thickness, elastic

1293 modulus, and Poisson’s ratio. The same layer properties are used in
1294 flexible and rigid analysis. Layer thicknesses can be varied, subject to
1295 minimum thickness requirements. Poisson’s ratio is fixed for all materials
1296 and the elastic moduli are either fixed or variable (within a permissible
1297 range) depending upon the material. Materials in FAARFIELD are
1298 identified by their corresponding specification designations as used in AC
1299 150/5370-10; for example, crushed aggregate base course is identified as
1300 Item P-209. The list of materials also contains a user defined layer with
1301 variable properties that can be defined by the user. Table 3-2 lists the
1302 allowable modulus values and Poisson’s Ratios used in FAARFIELD.

1303 3.11.11.2 In a rigid analysis, FAARFIELD requires a minimum of 3 layers (PCC

1304 Surface, base and subgrade) but allows up to a total of five (5) layers. In a
1305 flexible design you may have as few as 2 layers (HMA surface and
1306 subgrade) however an unlimited number of layers can be added. When
1307 evaluating full depth asphalt include a HMA surface layer and a flexible
1308 stabilized base.

1309 3.11.11.3 On federally funded projects FAA standard materials as specified in

1310 AC 150/5370-10 must be used unless use of other materials has been
1311 approved by the FAA as a modification to standards, see FAA
1312 Order 5100.1.

1313 3.11.11.4 Note: When analyzing existing sections, user defined layers may be the
1314 most accurate way to model performance of existing material.

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1315 Table 3-2. Allowable Modulus Values and Poisson’s Ratios Used in FAARFIELD

Rigid Flexible Poisson’s

Layer Type FAA Specified Layer Pavement Pavement Ratio
psi (MPa) psi (MPa)
4,000,000 0.15
P-501 PCC NA
(30,000)
Surface
200,000 0.35
P-401/P-403 HMA NA
(1,380)1
P-401/P-403 HMA 400,000 (3,000) 0.35
P-306 Lean Concrete 700,000 (5,000) 0.20
P-304 cement treated base 500,000 (3,500) NA 0.20
P-301 soil cement 250,000 (1,700) 0.20
Stabilized Base
and Subbase 250,000 to 0.20
Variable stabilized rigid 700,000 (1,700 NA
to 5,000)
150,000 to 0.35
Variable stabilized flexible NA 400,000 (1,000
to 3,000)
P-209 crushed aggregate Program Defined 0.35
P-208, aggregate Program Defined 0.35
Granular Base P-219, Recycled concrete 0.35
Program Defined
and Subbase aggregate
P-211, Lime rock Program Defined 0.35
P-154 uncrushed aggregate Program Defined 0.35
Subgrade Subgrade 1,000 to 50,000 (7 to 350) 0.35
User-defined User-defined layer 1,000 to 4,000,000 (7 to 30,000) 0.35
1316 Notes:
1317 1. A fixed modulus value for hot mix surfacing is set in the program at 200,000 psi (1380 MPa). This modulus
1318 value was conservatively chosen and corresponds to a pavement temperature of approximately 90°F (32°C).

1319 3.11.12 Minimum Layer Thickness.

1320 Table 3-3 and Table 3-4 establish minimum layer thicknesses for flexible and rigid
1321 pavements respectively, applicable to different airplane weight classes. Minimum
1322 thickness requirements are determined by the gross weight of the heaviest aircraft in the
1323 design traffic mix, regardless of the traffic level. FAARFIELD automatically
1324 establishes the minimum layer thickness requirements based on the traffic mix entered.

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1325 However, the user should consult the applicable paragraphs of this AC and Table 3-3
1326 and Table 3-4 to ensure that all minimum thickness requirements are met.

1327 Table 3-3. Minimum Layer Thickness for Flexible Pavement Structures, Inches (mm)

FAA Maximum Airplane Gross Weight Operating on Pavement, lbs (kg)

Specification
Item <12,500 < 30,000 < 100,000 ≥100,000 (45
Layer Type (45 360) 360)
(5 670) (13 610)
1, 2
HMA Surface P-401, Hot Mix 3 in. (75 mm) 3 in. (75 mm) 4 in. (100 mm) 4 in. (100 mm)
Asphalt (HMA)
Pavements
HMA Surface1,2 P-403, Hot Mix 3 in. (75 mm) 3 in. (75 mm) Not Used Not Used
Asphalt (HMA)
Pavements
(Base, Leveling
or Surface
Course)
Stabilized Base P-401 or P-403; Not Used Not Used Not Used 5 in. (125 mm)
P-304; P-306
Crushed P-209, Crushed 3in. (75 mm) 3 in. (75 mm) 6 in. (150 mm) 6 in. (150 mm)
Aggregate Aggregate Base
Base3,4 Course
Aggregate P-208, 3 in. (75 mm) 3 in. (75 mm) Not Used3 Not Used
Base3,5 Aggregate Base
Course
Subbase2 P-154, Subbase 4 in. (100 mm) 4 in. (100 mm) 4 in. (100 mm) 4 in. (100 mm)
Course
1328 Notes:
1329 1. P601-Fuel Resistant Hot Mix Asphalt may be used to replace the top 2 in (75mm) of P401 where a fuel resistant
1330 surface is needed.
1331 2. Additional HMA surface above minimum typically in 0.5 inch(10mm) increments.
1332 3. Use the larger of the thickness in this table or the thickness calculated by FAARFIELD rounded up to the
1333 nearest 0.5 inch (10 mm).
1334 4. P-209, Crushed Aggregate Base Course, when used as a base course, is limited to pavements designed for gross
1335 loads of 100,000 pounds (45 360 kg) or less, except as noted in paragraph 3.5, Stabilized Base Course.
1336 5. P-208, Aggregate Base Course, when used as a base course, is limited to pavements designed for gross loads of
1337 60,000 pounds (27 220 kg) or less.

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1338 Table 3-4. Minimum Layer Thickness for Rigid Pavement Structures

FAA Maximum Airplane Gross Weight Operating on Pavement, lbs (kg)

Specification
Item <12,500 < 30,000 < 100,000 ≥ 100,000 (45 360)
Layer Type (45 360)
(5 670) (13 610)
PCC Surface P-501, Portland 5 in. (125 mm) 6 in. (150 mm) Minimum thickness Minimum
Cement determined by thickness
Concrete (PCC) FAARFIELD3 determined by
Pavements FAARFIELD3
Stabilized Base P-401 or P-403; Not Used Not Used Not Used 5 in. (125 mm)
P-304; P-306
Base P208, P209, Not Used Not Used 6 in. (150 mm) 6 in. (150 mm)
P211, P301
Subbase1, 2 P-154, Subbase 4 in. (100 mm) 6 in. (100 mm) As needed for frost As needed for frost
Course or to create working or to create
platform working platform
1339 Notes:
1340 1. Subbase layer is required for pavements designed for gross loads of 12,500 pounds (5 670 kg) or less only when
1341 the following soil types are present: OL, MH, CH, or OH, and it is recommended for all soil types.
1342 2. The following specification items may also be used as subbase: P-208, Aggregate Base Course; P-209, Crushed
1343 Aggregate Base Course; P-211, Lime Rock Base Course; P-301, Soil-Cement Base Course. If more than one
1344 layer of subbase is used, each layer should meet the minimum thickness requirement in this table.
1345 3. FAARFIELD thickness to be rounded up to the nearest 0.5 inch (10 mm )

1346 3.11.13 Typical Pavement Sections.

1347 3.11.13.1 The FAA recommends uniform full width pavement sections, with each
1348 pavement layer constructed a uniform thickness for the full width of the
1349 pavement. See Figure 1-1. Typical Pavement Structure

1350 3.11.13.2 Since traffic on runways is distributed with majority of traffic in the center
1351 (keel) portion of the runway, the runways may be constructed with a
1352 transversely variable section. Variable sections permit a reduction in the
1353 quantity of materials required for the upper pavement layers of the
1354 runway. However, construction of variable sections is usually more costly
1355 due to the complex construction associated with variable sections and this
1356 may negate any savings realized from reduced material quantities. On
1357 federally funded projects contact FAA when considering a variable
1358 runway pavement section.

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1359 Figure 3-4. Typical Plan and Sections for Pavements

30° PI

RUNWAY WIDTH
SLOPE
SEE NOTE 4 (SEE NOTE 5)

HMA SURFACE
SECTION A-A
(NOT TO SCALE)

RUNWAY WIDTH
SLOPE
SEE NOTE 4 (SEE NOTE 5)

PCC SURFACE
SECTION A-A
(NOT TO SCALE)

NOTES: LEGEND:

1. RUNWAY, TAXIWAY AND SHOULDER WIDTHS; TRANSVERSE

HMA SURFACE BASE
SLOPES, ETC. PER AC 150/ 5300-13, AIRPORT DESIGN

2. SURFACE, BASE, PCC, ETC. THICKNESS PER AC 150/5320-6. PCC SURFACE SUB BASE

3. BASE AND SUBBASE MINIMUM 12 INCHES [30 CM] UP TO SHOULDER SUB GRADE
36 INCHES [90 CM] BEYOND FULL STRENGTH PAVEMENT.
STABILIZED BASE EDGE DRAIN
4. CONSTRUCT A 1.5 INCH [4 CM] DROP BETWEEN PAVED AND
UNPAVED SURFACES.

5. RUNWAY "CROWN" DEPICTION OMITTED FOR CLARITY.

1360

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1361 3.11.14 Frost and Permafrost Design.

1362 The design of an airport pavement must consider the environmental conditions affecting
1363 the pavement during its construction and service life. In areas where frost and
1364 permafrost impact pavements, the pavement design should address the adverse effects
1365 of seasonal frost and permafrost. The maximum practical depth of frost protection
1366 provided is normally 72 inches (180 cm). Frost considerations may result in thicker
1367 base or subbase courses than needed for structural support.

1368 3.11.15 Seasonal Frost.

1369 The adverse effects of seasonal frost are discussed in Chapter 2. Soil frost groups are
1370 described in Table 2-2. The design of pavements in seasonal frost areas can be based
1371 on either of two approaches. The first approach is based on the control of pavement
1372 deformations resulting from frost action. Using this approach, the combined thickness
1373 of the pavement and non-frost-susceptible material must be sufficient to eliminate, or
1374 limit, the adverse effects of frost penetration into the subgrade. The second approach is
1375 based on providing adequate pavement load carrying capacity during the critical frost
1376 melting period and provide for the loss of load carrying capacity due to frost melting,
1377 ignoring the effects of frost heave. The procedures that address these design approaches
1378 are discussed below.

1379 3.11.16 Complete Frost Protection.

1380 3.11.16.1 Complete frost protection is accomplished by providing a sufficient

1381 thickness of pavement and non-frost-susceptible material to totally contain
1382 frost penetration within the pavement structure. The depth of frost
1383 penetration is determined by engineering analysis or by local codes and
1384 experience. The thickness of pavement required for structural support is
1385 compared with the computed depth of frost penetration. The difference
1386 between the pavement thickness required for structural support and the
1387 computed depth of frost penetration is made up with additional non-frost
1388 susceptible material.

1389 3.11.16.2 Complete protection may involve removal and replacement of a

1390 considerable amount of subgrade material. Complete frost protection is
1391 the most positive method of providing frost protection. The complete frost
1392 protection method applies only to soils in FG-3 and FG-4, which are
1393 extremely variable in horizontal extent, characterized by very large,
1394 frequent, and abrupt changes in frost heave potential.

1395 3.11.17 Limited Subgrade Frost Penetration.

1396 The limited subgrade frost penetration method is based on engineering judgment and
1397 experience to control frost heave to an acceptable level of maintenance (less than 1” of
1398 frost heave). Frost is allowed to penetrate a limited amount into the underlying frost
1399 susceptible subgrade. Additional frost protection is required if the thickness of the non-
1400 frost susceptible structural section is less than 65 percent of the frost penetration. This

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1401 method applies to soils in all frost groups when the functional requirements of the
1402 pavement permit a minor amount of frost heave.

1403 3.11.18 Reduced Subgrade Strength.

1404 3.11.18.1 The reduced subgrade strength method is based on providing a pavement
1405 with adequate load carrying capacity during the frost melting period and
1406 does not address the effects of frost heave. To use the reduced subgrade
1407 strength method, the design assigns a subgrade strength rating to the
1408 pavement for the frost melting period.

1409 3.11.18.2 This method applies to soils in FG-1, FG-2, and FG-3, which are uniform
1410 in horizontal extent or where the functional requirements of the pavement
1411 permit some degree of frost heave. Frost heave should be such that it does
1412 not impact safe operation of aircraft. The method may also be used for
1413 variable FG-1 through FG-3 soils for pavements subject to slow speed
1414 traffic where heave can be tolerated.

1415 3.11.18.3 The required pavement thicknesses are determined using FAARFIELD,
1416 using the reduced subgrade strength value from Table 3-5 in lieu of the
1417 nominal subgrade CBR or k-value determined by testing. The pavement
1418 thicknesses established reflect the requirements for the weakened
1419 condition of the subgrade due to frost melting. The various soil frost
1420 groups, as defined in Chapter 2. should be assigned strength ratings in
1421 Table 3-5.

1422 Table 3-5. Reduced Subgrade Strength Ratings

Flexible Rigid
Frost
Pavement Pavement
Group
CBR Value k-value
FG-1 9 50
FG-2 7 40
FG-3 4 25
FG-4 Reduced Subgrade Strength
Method Does Not Apply

1423 3.11.19 Permafrost.

1424 The design of pavements in permafrost regions must consider the effects of seasonal
1425 thawing and refreezing, as well as the thermal effects of construction on the permafrost.
1426 Pavements can lead to thermal changes that may cause degradation of the permafrost
1427 resulting in severe differential settlements and drastic reduction of pavement load
1428 carrying capacity. Gravel surfaced pavements are common in permafrost areas and

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1429 generally will provide satisfactory service. These pavements often exhibit considerable
1430 distortion but are easily regraded. Typical protection methods for permafrost may
1431 include complete protection, reduced subgrade strength, and insulated panels. In areas
1432 of permafrost, an experienced pavement/geotechnical engineer familiar with permafrost
1433 protection, must design the pavement structure.

1434 3.12 Flexible Pavement Design.

1435 3.12.1 General

1436 Flexible pavements consist of a HMA wearing surface placed on a base course and a
1437 subbase (if required), to protect the subgrade. Each pavement layer must protect its
1438 supporting layer. A typical pavement structure is shown in Figure 1-1 and Figure 3-4.
1439 Non-drained pervious granular layers must not be located between two impervious
1440 layers, which is referred to as sandwich construction. This is to prevent trapping water
1441 in the granular layer, causing a loss of pavement strength and performance.

1442 3.12.2 Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) Surfacing.

1443 3.12.2.1 The HMA surface or wearing course prevents the penetration of surface
1444 water into the base course, provides a smooth, skid resistant surface free
1445 from loose particles that could become foreign object debris (FOD), and
1446 resists the shearing stresses induced by airplane wheel loads. To meet
1447 these requirements the surface must be composed of a mixture of
1448 aggregates and asphalt binders which will produce a uniform surface of
1449 suitable texture possessing maximum stability and durability. A dense-
1450 graded HMA such as Item P-401meets these requirements.

1451 3.12.2.2 For HMA pavements serving aircraft weighing 12,500 pounds (5 670 kg)
1452 or less, you may use P-403. See AC 150/5370-10, Items P-401 and P-403,
1453 for additional discussion on HMA pavement material specifications. See
1454 Table 3-3 for minimum requirements for HMA surface thickness.

1455 3.12.2.3 In FAARFIELD, the HMA surface or overlay have the same properties,
1456 with modulus fixed at 200,000 psi (1 380 MPa) and Poisson’s ratio fixed
1457 at 0.35. The asphalt overlay type can be placed over asphalt or PCC
1458 surface types. Refer to Table 3-2 for material properties used in
1459 FAARFIELD.

1460 3.12.2.4 A solvent resistant surface such as P-601 should be provided at areas
1461 subject to spillage of fuel, hydraulic fluid, or other solvents, such as
1462 airplane fueling positions and maintenance areas.

1463 3.12.3 Base Course.

1464 3.12.3.1 The base course distributes the imposed wheel loadings to the pavement
1465 subbase and/or subgrade. The best base course materials are composed of
1466 select, hard, and durable aggregates. The base course quality depends on

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1467 material type and gradation, physical properties and compaction. The
1468 quality and thickness of the base course must prevent failure in the support
1469 layers, withstand the stresses produced in the base, resist vertical pressures
1470 that may produce consolidation and distortion of the surface course, and
1471 resist volume changes caused by fluctuations in moisture content.

1472 3.12.3.2 Base courses are classified as either stabilized or unstabilized. If aircraft
1473 in the fleet considered in design of the pavement structure have gross
1474 loads of 100,000 pounds (45,359 kg) or more then use of a stabilized base
1475 is required, see paragraph 3.6. AC 150/5370-10, Standards for Specifying
1476 Construction of Airports, includes the material specifications that can be
1477 used as base courses: stabilized (P-401, P-403, P-306, P-304) and
1478 unstabilized (P-209, P-208, P-219, P-211). The use of Item P-208
1479 Aggregate Base Course, as base course is limited to pavements designed
1480 for gross loads of 60,000 pounds (27 200 kg) or less.

1481 3.12.3.3 Stabilized Base Course.

1482 FAARFIELD includes two types of stabilized layers, classified as
1483 stabilized (flexible) and stabilized (rigid). The two stabilized flexible base
1484 options are designated P-401/P-403 and Variable. The word flexible is
1485 used to indicate that these bases have a higher Poisson’s ratio (0.35), act as
1486 flexible layers as opposed to rigid layers, and are less likely to crack. The
1487 standard FAA stabilized base is P-401/P-403, which has a fixed modulus
1488 of 400,000 psi (2 760 MPa). The variable stabilized flexible base can be
1489 used to characterize a stabilized base which does not conform to the
1490 properties of P-401/P-403. It has a variable modulus ranging from 150,000
1491 to 400,000 psi (1 035 to 2 760 MPa). Stabilized (rigid) bases, P-304, and
1492 P-306 may also be used as base courses in flexible pavements. However,
1493 depending on the strength of the material, the potential for reflective
1494 cracking must be considered. On federally funded projects, FAA approval
1495 must be obtained before using P-306 under flexible pavements. The
1496 properties of the various stabilized base layer types used in FAARFIELD
1497 are summarized in Table 3-2. Compaction control for unstabilized base
1498 course material should be in accordance with ASTM D698 for areas
1499 designated for airplanes with gross weights of 60,000 pounds (27 200 kg)
1500 or less and ASTM D 1557 for areas designated for airplanes with gross
1501 weights greater than 60,000 pounds (27 200 kg).

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1502 3.12.3.4 Unstabilized Aggregate Base Course.

1503 3.12.3.4.1 The standard aggregate base course for flexible pavement design is Item
1504 P-209, Crushed Aggregate Base Course. Item P-208, Aggregate Base
1505 Course, may be used as a base for pavements accommodating aircraft
1506 fleets with all aircraft less than 60,000 pounds (27 200 kg) gross weight.

1507 3.12.3.4.2 The modulus of non-stabilized layers is computed internally by

1508 FAARFIELD and the calculated modulus is dependent on the modulus of
1509 the underlying layer. Basic layer thicknesses are 8 inches (203 mm) for
1510 Item P-154, uncrushed aggregate, and 10 inches (254 mm) for Item P-208,
1511 crushed aggregate. Aggregate layers exceeding this layer thickness are
1512 subdivided automatically into thinner sublayers, and a modulus value is
1513 assigned to each sublayer. Details on the sublayering procedure may be
1514 found in the FAARFIELD help file.

1515 3.12.3.4.3 Aggregate layers can be placed anywhere in the flexible pavement
1516 structure except at the surface or subgrade. However due to compatibility
1517 with the FAARFIELD sublayering procedure only one crushed layer (P-
1518 209) and one uncrushed layer (P-154) may be present in a structure. The
1519 maximum number of aggregate layers that may be present in a structure is
1520 two, one of each type, and the crushed layer must be above the uncrushed
1521 layer.

1522 3.12.3.4.4 Note when a new P-209 crushed aggregate layer is created, the initial
1523 modulus value displayed is 75,000 psi (517 MPa). When a new P-154,
1524 uncrushed aggregate layer is created, the initial modulus value displayed is
1525 40,000 psi (276 MPa). However, these initial default modulus values are
1526 not used in calculations. Once the FAARFIELD design is complete, the
1527 modulus value displayed in the structure table for an aggregate layer is the
1528 average value of the sublayer modulus values.

1529 3.12.3.5 Minimum Base Course Thickness.

1530 FAARFIELD first computes the structural thickness of base required,
1531 compares it to the applicable minimum base thickness requirement from
1532 Table 3-3, and reports the thicker of the two values as the design base
1533 course thickness. The structural base course thickness is computed as the
1534 thickness required to protect a layer with a CBR 20. The standard subbase
1535 layer (P-154) provides the equivalent bearing capacity of a subgrade with
1536 a CBR of 20.

1537 3.12.4 Subbase.

1538 3.12.4.1 A subbase is required as part of the flexible pavement structure on

1539 subgrades with a CBR value less than 20. Subbases may be aggregate or
1540 treated aggregate. The minimum thickness of subbase is 4 inches (100
1541 mm), see Table 3-3. Additional thickness may be required for practical

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1542 construction limitations or if subbase is being utilized as non-frost

1543 susceptible material. The material requirements for subbase are not as
1544 strict as for the base course since the subbase is subjected to lower load
1545 intensities. Allowable subbase materials include P-154, P-210, P-212, P-
1546 213, and P-301. Use of items P-213 or P-301 as subbase course is not
1547 recommended in areas where frost penetration into the subbase is
1548 anticipated. Any material suitable for use as base course can also be used
1549 as subbase. AC 150/5370-10, Standards for Specifying Construction of
1550 Airports, covers the quality of material and methods of construction, and
1551 acceptance of material.

1552 3.12.4.2 Compaction control for subbase material should be in accordance with
1553 ASTM D 698 for areas designated for airplanes with gross weights of
1554 60,000 pounds (27 200 kg) or less and ASTM D1557 for areas designated
1555 for airplanes with gross weights greater than 60,000 pounds (27 200 kg).

1556 3.12.5 Subgrade.

1557 3.12.5.1 The ability of a particular soil to resist shear and deformation varies with
1558 its properties, density and moisture content. Subgrade stresses decrease
1559 with depth, and the controlling subgrade stress is usually at the top of the
1560 subgrade.

1561 3.12.5.2 Specification Item P-152, Excavation, Subgrade, and Embankment, covers
1562 the construction and density control of subgrade soils. Subgrade soils
1563 must be compacted sufficient to ensure that the anticipated traffic loads
1564 will not cause additional consolidation the subgrade.

1565 3.12.5.3 In FAARFIELD, the subgrade thickness is assumed to be infinite and is

1566 characterized by either a modulus (E) or CBR value. Subgrade modulus
1567 values for flexible pavement design can be determined in a number of
1568 ways. The applicable procedure in most cases is to use available CBR
1569 values as calculated at in-service moisture content and allow FAARFIELD
1570 to compute the design elastic modulus using the following relationship:
1571 E  1500  CBR , (E in psi)

1572 3.12.5.4 It is also acceptable to enter the elastic modulus (E) directly into
1573 FAARFIELD. Flexible thickness design in FAARFIELD is sensitive to
1574 the strength of subgrade, that is why it is recommended to use a subgrade
1575 strength that reflects the in service strength. For guidance on determining
1576 the CBR value to use for design, refer to paragraph 2.5.4.

1577 3.12.5.5 When the top layer of subgrade is stabilized (lime, cement, fly ash, etc.) to
1578 model this in FAARFIELD enter in a user-defined layer immediately
1579 above the subgrade. Then prior to designing the structure it is
1580 recommended to change the layer being iterated on to the layer
1581 immediately above this user defined layer. This will be noted as a

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1582 nonstandard structure since the user has to select the modulus of this layer.
1583 It is recommended to use a modulus that is one standard deviation below
1584 the laboratory average for this layer. For example if laboratory CBR test
1585 indicates a CBR of 35 for this layer, it is recommend to consider the layer
1586 at a strength equivalent to a CBR of 30 or a modulus of ~ 45,000 psi.

1587 3.12.6 FAARFIELD Flexible Pavement Design Failure Mode.

1588 The design process for flexible pavement considers two failure modes: vertical strain in
1589 the subgrade and horizontal strain in the asphalt layer. Limiting vertical strain in the
1590 subgrade guards against failure by subgrade rutting and limiting horizontal strain at the
1591 bottom of the asphalt layer guards against pavement failure initiated by cracking of the
1592 asphalt layer. For the horizontal strain mode, FAARFIELD considers horizontal strain
1593 in all asphalt layers in the structure, including asphalt stabilized base layers and asphalt
1594 overlays. By default, FAARFIELD computes only the vertical subgrade strain for
1595 flexible pavement thickness design. However, the user has the option of enabling the
1596 asphalt strain computation by selecting the “HMA CDF” checkbox in the FAARFIELD
1597 options screen. In most cases the thickness design is governed by the subgrade strain
1598 criterion however it is good engineering practice to perform the asphalt strain check for
1599 the final design.
1600

1601 3.12.7 Flexible Design Example.

1602 The design of a pavement structure is an iterative process in FAARFIELD. Enter the
1603 pavement structure and airplane traffic to be applied to the section. FAARFIELD then
1604 evaluates the minimum pavement layer requirements and adjusts the pavement layer
1605 thicknesses to give a predicted structural life equal to the design structural life. This
1606 example follows the steps as outlined in paragraph 3.11.5.
1607
1608 Step (1) From ‘Startup Window’ create new job, and add basic section(s)
1609 from sample sections to be analyized.

1610 Step (2a) For this example, assume the following starting pavement structure
1611 and airplane traffic:

1612 Starting pavement structure:

Thickness Pavement Structure

4 inches P-401 HMA Surface Course
5 inches P-401/P-403 Stabilized Base Course
6 inches P-209 Crushed Aggregate Base Course
12 inches P-154 Aggregate Base Course
Subgrade, CBR=5 (E = 7500 psi)

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1613 Airplane traffic:

Airplane Gross Annual

Weight (lbs) Departures
B737-800 174,700 3000
A321-200 opt 207,014 2500
EMB-195 STD 107,916 4500
Regional Jet – 700 72,500 3500
1614

1615 Step (2b) The pavement structure to be analyzed is entered by going to the
1616 STRUCTURE form by clicking on the ‘STRUCTURE’ button (see
1617 Figure 3-5); and modifying the existing structure to match
1618 proposed pavement section by selecting the ‘Modify Structure’
1619 button (see Figure 3-6). Layers can then be added by selecting the
1620 ‘Add/Delete Layer’ button. Layer types can be changed by
1621 ‘clicking’ on the layer material and thickness of the layer can be
1622 adjusted by clicking on the layer thickness . If you are able to
1623 adjust the layer modulus when you click on the layer modulus a
1624 pop up box will come up and either give you the option of
1625 changing the modulus or notify you that this values is fixed by
1626 FAARFIELD. When done making adjustments select ‘End
1627 Modify’ button.

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1628 Figure 3-5. Flexible Design Example Step 1

To modify the
starting
pavement
structure click on
‘structure’ button

1629

1630 Figure 3-6. Flexible Design Example Step 2

Stabilized base
required since
airplane
≥100,000 pounds
(45 360 kg)

Modify structure to
match proposed
section.

1631

1632 Step (3) The design traffic to be applied to the pavement is entered by
1633 going to the Airplane window by selecting the ‘Airplane’ button
1634 (see Figure 3-7). Airplanes are selected from the airplane library at

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1635 the left of the screen (see Figure 3-8). For each airplane selected,
1636 the following data may be adjusted: Gross taxi weight, annual
1637 departures, and percent annual growth. Airplanes are organized by
1638 group based upon airplane manufacturer. In addition there is a
1639 group of generic airplanes based upon type and size of airplane
1640 gear. In many cases specific airplane models not in the airplane
1641 library can be adequately represented by a generic airplane. After
1642 entering all of the airplanes, you return to the structure form by
1643 selecting the ‘back’ button (see Figure 3-8).

1644 Figure 3-7. Flexible Design Example Step 4

Add airplanes to
be used to load
pavement

1645

1646

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1647 Figure 3-8. Flexible Design Example Step 4

Adjust Gross
Weight, Annual
Select Airplanes Departures and
from Airplane % Annual
library Growth

Hit back button

to return to
Structure Form
1648

1649 Step (4) Select ‘Design Structure’ button to start design analysis (see Figure
1650 3-9). During the design process, FAARFIELD checks the P-209
1651 subbase thickness, assuming that the underlying layer has a CBR
1652 of 20. The thickness of P-209 required to protect the layer with a
1653 CBR of 20 is 6.1 inches, in this example, which is greater than the
1654 minimum allowable thickness for a P-209 layer from Table 3-3 (6
1655 inches). Next, FAARFIELD designs the thickness of the P-154
1656 aggregate subbase layer. The layer being iterated on (the design
1657 layer) is indicated by the small black arrow on the left. The results
1658 of the completed design are shown in Figure 3-10.

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1659 Figure 3-9. Flexible Design Example Step 6 Perform Design Analysis

Perform design
analysis.

1660

1661

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1662 Figure 3-10. Flexible Design Example Step 6 Results

1663 .

1664 Step (5) In the structure to be built the thickness of the structural layers may
1665 be different than the minimum layer thickness shown in Table 3-3.
1666 To design the final (adjusted) structure:
1667  Turn off automatic base design by clearing check box ‘Enable
1668 Automatic Base Design’ in the options window. To navigate
1669 to the options window (Figure 3-11) select the ‘back button’
1670 followed by selecting the ‘Options’ button.
1671  Close the options window by selecting ‘ok’ button
1672  Return to the structure window by selecting the ‘Structure’
1673 button.
1674  Select the ‘modify structure’ button
1675  Adjust the layers (surface, stabilized base and base), to reflect
1676 the final thickness to be constructed, when layer adjustments
1677 are complete select ‘End Modify’ button For example,
1678 consider the following pavement structure, which meets
1679 minimum layer thickness requirements, and is proposed to be
1680 constructed: 4 inches P-401, 8 inches P-403, 12 inches P-209
1681 and 10 inches P-154.

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1682  Select the ‘Design Structure’ button to complete the final

1683 analysis.

1684 Figure 3-11. Flexible Design Example Options Screen

Clear check box

when adjusting
base layer
thickness to
something other
than minimum

1685 .

1686 Note: The final thickness design check for this example is shown in Figure 3-12. Note
1687 it indicates that 10.08 inches of subbase is needed, which would round to 10 inches.

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1688 Figure 3-12. Flexible Design Example Final Pavement Structure

1689

1690 Step (6) FAARFIELD v 1.41 includes the ability to evaluate the depth of
1691 subgrade compaction required, after you have completed the
1692 design of the pavement structure. After completing your design,
1693 select the ‘Life/Compaction’ button. (Note that if you have not
1694 completed a design, this button will just be labeled ‘Life’, or if you
1695 have not selected the ‘Compute Compaction Requirements’ in the
1696 option window.) The design report then includes a subgrade
1697 compaction table for Non-Cohesive and Cohesive subgrade.
1698 Check that the “compute compaction requirements” is selected on
1699 the Options Screen (Figure 3-8). A detailed example of how to
1700 generate the FAARFIELD compaction tables is given in paragraph
1701 3.12.8.

1702 Step (7/ 8) The Airport Pavement Design report (Figure 3-13) is automatically
1703 saved into the same working directory that you designated for your
1704 FAARFIELD job files or the report can be viewed from the startup
1705 window by selecting ‘Notes’ button. The design report
1706 summarizes the Pavement Structure, Airplane Traffic and the CDF
1707 contribution of each aircraft evaluated.

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1708 Figure 3-13. Airport Pavement Design Report

1709

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1710 Figure 3-13. Airport Pavement Design Report (continued)

1711

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1712 Figure 3-13. Airport Pavement Design Report (continued)

1713

1714 Note: Perform a final check for failure by fatigue cracking in the asphalt layers by
1715 selecting the “HMA CDF” checkbox in the Options window (see Figure 3-8). In
1716 example shown in Figure 3-13, the subgrade strain controls and the CDF in the HMA is
1717 only 0.23.
1718

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1719 3.12.8 Detailed Example FAARFIELD Compaction Table.

1720 1. An apron extension is to be built to accommodate the following airplane mix:

1721 Airplane mix:

Airplane Gross Weight Annual Departures

(lbs)
B737-800 174,700 3000
A321-200 opt 207,014 2500
EMB-195 STD 107,916 4500
Regional Jet – 700 72,500 3500
1722 2. A soils investigation has shown the subgrade will be cohesive, with a design CBR
1723 of 5. In-place densities of the soils have been determined at even foot increments
1724 below the ground surface in accordance with Chapter 2.
1725 3. Depths and densities are tabulated as follows:

1726 Depths and densities:

Depth Below Existing In-Place

Grade Density1
1ft (0.3 m) 75%
2 ft (0.6 m) 89%
3 ft (0.9 m) 91%
4 ft (1.2 m) 95%
5 ft (1.5 m) 96%
1727 Note: In-place densities determined in accordance with ASTM D 1557 since
1728 aircraft mix includes aircraft greater than 60,000 pounds (27 200 kg) per
1729 paragraph 2.4.2(1).
1730 4. The FAARFIELD flexible pavement thickness design results in the following
1731 pavement structure (Figure 3-14): 4 inches P401 / 8 inches P403 / 6 inches P209 /
1732 18 inches P154 for a total thickness of 36 inches above the subgrade.

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1733 Figure 3-14. FAARFIELD Pavement Structure for Compaction Example

1734

1735 5. After completing the thickness design, ensure that the “Compute Compaction
1736 Requirements” check box is checked on the FAARFIELD Options screen.
1737 6. From the FAARFIELD Structure screen “Life/compaction.” compaction
1738 requirements for the section will then be displayed on the FAARFIELD “Design
1739 Information” screen under Notes. For this example, the computed compaction
1740 requirements for cohesive soils are shown in Table 3-6.

1741 Table 3-6. Computed Compaction Requirements for the Sample Section

1742

1743 Note: Due to different aircraft gear configurations it is possible that there may be a
1744 different critical airplane at each density level.
1745 7. It is important to note that the specific compaction requirements above apply only
1746 to the particular set of design and traffic data used for this example. Compaction
1747 requirements will differ depending on the design CBR or E-value, soil type, and
1748 design pavement thickness, as well as the traffic mix.

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1749 3.13 Rigid Pavement Design.

1750 3.13.1 General.

1751 3.13.1.1 Rigid pavements for airports are composed of PCC placed on a granular or
1752 stabilized base course supported on a compacted subgrade, see Figure 1-1
1753 for typical pavement structure.

1754 3.13.1.2 The FAARFIELD design process currently considers only one mode of
1755 failure for rigid pavement, bottom up cracking of the concrete slab.
1756 Cracking is controlled by limiting the horizontal stress at the bottom of the
1757 PCC slab and does not consider failure of subbase and subgrade layers.
1758 FAARFIELD iterates on the concrete layer thickness until the CDF
1759 reaches a value of 1.0 which satisfies the design conditions. When the
1760 minimum PCC layer thickness controls, FAARFIELD will not complete
1761 the CDF calculation.

1762 3.13.1.3 A three-dimensional finite element model is used to compute the edge
1763 stresses in concrete slabs. The model has the advantage of considering
1764 where the critical stresses for slab design occur. Critical stresses normally
1765 occur at slab edges, but may be located at the center of the slab with
1766 certain aircraft gear configurations. FAARFIELD uses LEAF to compute
1767 interior stress and takes the larger of the interior and 3D-FEM computed
1768 edge stress (reduced by 25 percent) as the design stress.
1769 Note: FAARFIELD does not consider functional pavement design issues such as the
1770 need for additional material for frost protection and permafrost. Seasonal frost and
1771 permafrost effects are discussed in Chapter 2.

1772 3.13.2 Concrete Surface Layer.

1773 The concrete surface must provide a nonskid texture, prevent the infiltration of surface
1774 water into the subgrade, and provide structural support for airplane gears. The quality
1775 of the concrete, acceptance and control tests, methods of construction and handling, and
1776 quality of workmanship are covered in Item P-501 Portland Cement Concrete
1777 Pavement. See AC 150/5370-10, Item P-501 for additional discussion regarding PCC
1778 specifications. See Table 3-4 for minimum PCC surface thicknesses. The modulus
1779 value for concrete is fixed in FAARFIELD at 4,000,000 psi (27 580 MPa) and
1780 Poisson’s ratio is set at 0.15, see Table 3-2.

1781 3.13.3 Base / Subbase Layers.

1782 3.13.3.1 The base layer provides a uniform, stable support for the rigid pavement
1783 slabs. Refer to Table 3-4 for minimum base thicknesses required under
1784 rigid pavements. Stabilized base is required for base under pavements
1785 designed to serve airplanes over 100,000 pounds, see paragraph 3.6. Two
1786 layers of base may be used, e.g. P-306 over a layer of P-209. Layering
1787 must be done in such a way as to avoid producing a sandwich (granular
1788 layer between two stabilized layers) section or a weaker layer over a

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1789 stronger layer. Subbase may be substituted for base under rigid pavements
1790 designed to serve airplanes weighing 30,000 pounds (13 610 kg) or less.
1791 Subbase may be used as: a base under rigid pavement; for frost protection
1792 or as a substitution for unsuitable subgrade material. The following
1793 materials are acceptable for use under rigid pavements: stabilized base (P-
1794 401, P-403, P-306, P-304) and unstabilized base/subbase (P-209, P-208, P-
1795 219, P-211, P-154).

1796 3.13.3.2 Up to three base/subbase layers can be added to the pavement structure in
1797 FAARFIELD for new rigid pavement design. The layer thickness must be
1798 entered for each base/subbase layer. For standard base/subbase materials,
1799 the modulus and Poisson’s ratio are internally set and cannot be changed
1800 by the user. When using the variable stabilized or user-defined layers, the
1801 modulus value can be input directly. If a variable layer or user-defined
1802 layer is used, a warning will appear in the Structure Window stating that a
1803 ‘non-standard’ material has been selected and its use in the pavement
1804 structure will require FAA approval. Refer to Table 3-4 for minimum
1805 subbase layer thicknesses.

1806 3.13.4 Subgrade: Determination of Modulus (E Value) for Rigid Pavement Subgrade.

1807 3.13.4.1 In addition to the soils survey and analysis and classification of subgrade
1808 conditions, the determination of the foundation modulus is required for
1809 rigid pavement design. The foundation modulus is assigned to the
1810 subgrade layer; i.e., the layer below all structural layers. The foundation
1811 modulus can be expressed as the modulus of subgrade reaction, k, or as the
1812 elastic (Young’s) modulus E. The subgrade modulus can be input into the
1813 program directly in either form, however, all structural computations are
1814 performed using the elastic modulus E. If the foundation modulus is input
1815 as a k-value it is automatically converted to the equivalent E value using
1816 the following equation:
1817 ESG = 20.15 × k1.284
1818 where:

1819 ESG = Elastic modulus (E-modulus) of the subgrade,

1820 psi
1821 k = Modulus of Subgrade Reaction of the subgrade,
1822 pci

1823 The following formula can be used to convert CBR to an

1824 approximate k-value for the subgrade:

1825 k = 28.6926 x CBR0.7788, (k, pci)

1826 The pavement engineer must refer to the project geotechnical
1827 report for the subgrade strength to be used for the pavement
1828 design. See paragraph 2.5, Soil Strength Tests.

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1829 3.13.4.2 For existing pavements the E modulus can be determined in the field from
1830 non-destructive testing (NDT), generally a heavy-falling weight
1831 deflectometer (HWD) is used on airfields. See Appendix C, Non-
1832 Destructive Testing (NDT).

1833 3.13.5 Frost Effects.

1834 Frost protection should be provided for rigid pavements in areas where conditions
1835 conducive to detrimental frost action exist. PCC slabs <9 in (230 mm) are more
1836 susceptible to cracking from frost heave, this is generally most pronounced at the
1837 boundary between marked and unmarked areas on a runway, e.g. adjacent to the fixed
1838 distance marking. Reinforcement of the slabs on the runway which include large areas
1839 of markings, e.g. threshold bars, runway designation and fixed distance markings
1840 should be considered if complete frost protection is not provided. Refer to paragraph 2.7
1841 for guidance on the determination of the depth of frost protection required. Local
1842 experience may be used to refine the calculations.

1843 3.13.6 FAARFIELD Calculation of Concrete Slab Thickness.

1844 3.13.6.1 FAARFIELD utilizes a three-dimensional finite element model to

1845 compute the edge stresses in concrete slabs. The model has the advantage
1846 of considering where the critical stresses for slab design occur. Critical
1847 stresses normally occur at slab edges, but may be located at the center of
1848 the slab with certain aircraft gear configurations. FAARFIELD uses
1849 LEAF to compute interior stress and takes the larger of the interior and
1850 3D-FEM computed edge stress (reduced by 25 percent accounting for load
1851 transfer) as the design stress.

1852 3.13.6.2 FAARFIELD calculates the slab thickness based on the assumption that
1853 the airplane gear induces a maximum stress on the bottom surface of the
1854 slab. Loads that induce top-down cracks (such as corner loads) are not
1855 considered for design. The maximum design stress may be caused by
1856 airplane gear loading on the interior or the edge of the slab. The airplane
1857 gear may be positioned either parallel or perpendicular to the slab edge to
1858 determine the maximum edge stress.

1859 3.13.6.3 FAARFIELD does not calculate the thickness of layers other than the PCC
1860 slab in rigid pavement structures, but will enforce the minimum thickness
1861 requirements for all layers as shown in Table 3-4 to assure the minimum
1862 thickness requirements are met.

1863 3.13.6.4 FAARFIELD requires design input data from the following five areas:
1864 design life (years), concrete flexural strength (psi), structural layer data
1865 (type and thickness), subgrade modulus (k or E), and airplane traffic mix
1866 (type, weight, frequency). For thicknesses greater than the minimum, the
1867 pavement thickness should be rounded to nearest 0.5 inch (1 cm).

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1868 3.13.7 Concrete Flexural Strength.

1869 3.13.7.1 The required concrete pavement thickness is related to the strength of the
1870 concrete. For pavement design, the strength of the concrete is
1871 characterized by the flexural strength since the primary action and failure
1872 mode of a concrete pavement is in flexure. Concrete flexural strength is
1873 measured in accordance with the ASTM C 78, Standard Test Method for
1874 Flexural Strength of Concrete.

1875 3.13.7.2 When establishing the flexural strength for the thickness design the
1876 designer should consider the capability of the industry in a particular area
1877 to produce concrete at a particular strength and the need to avoid high
1878 cement contents, which may have a negative effect on concrete durability.

1879 3.13.7.3 A design flexural strength between 600 and 750 psi (4.14 to 5.17 MPa) is
1880 recommended for most airfield applications. Design strengths outside of
1881 this range must be approved by the FAA. In general, design flexural
1882 strengths higher than 750 psi (5.17 MPa) should be avoided, unless it can
1883 be shown that higher strength mixes are produced by normal methods
1884 using local materials, i.e., without relying on excessive cement contents or
1885 additives likely to negatively impact durability. The strength used in
1886 thickness design is different than the strength used for material acceptance
1887 in P-501. The acceptance strength in P-501 should reflect the strength
1888 needed to ensure the actual (in-service) strength meets or exceeds the
1889 strength used in the FAARFIELD thickness design. Item P-501 typically
1890 uses a 28-day strength as a practical construction acceptance measure.
1891 However, the long-term strength achieved by the concrete is normally
1892 expected to be at least 5 percent more than the strength measured at 28
1893 days.

1894 3.13.8 Jointing of Concrete Pavements.

1895 Variations in temperature and moisture content can cause volume changes and slab
1896 warping which may cause significant stresses. Use joints to divide the pavement into a
1897 series of slabs of predetermined dimension to reduce the detrimental effects of these
1898 stresses and to minimize random cracking. Slabs should be as nearly square as possible
1899 when no embedded steel is used. Refer to for recommended Maximum Joint Spacing.

1900 3.13.9 Joint Type Categories and Details

1901 3.13.9.1 Joint Type Categories.

1902 Pavement joints are categorized according to the function that the joint is
1903 intended to perform. The categories of joints are isolation, contraction,
1904 and construction joints, as described in Table 3-7 and below. All joints
1905 should be finished in a manner that permits the joint to be sealed.
1906 Pavement joint details are shown in Figure 3-15 and Figure 3-16.

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1907 3.13.9.2 Isolation Joints (Types A, A-1).

1908 Isolation joints are used when conditions preclude load transfer across the
1909 joint by dowels or aggregate interlock. Isolation joints are needed where
1910 the pavement abuts a structure or where horizontal differences in direction
1911 of movement of the pavements may occur, e.g. between a connecting
1912 taxiway and a runway. Type A joints are created by increasing the
1913 thickness of the pavement along the edge of the slab, see Figure 3-15.
1914 This thickened edge will accommodate the load that would be transferred
1915 with dowels or aggregate interlock in contraction and construction joints.
1916 Type A-1 joints are reinforced to provide equivalent load carrying
1917 capacity as a thickened edge, and my only be used for PCC pavements > 9
1918 inches. The joint between the runway and connecting, crossover and exit
1919 taxiways are locations where the Type A-1 joint works well. See
1920 Appendix D, Reinforced Isolation Joint Design Example.

1921 3.13.9.3 Contraction Joints (Types B, C, D).

1922 Contraction joints provide controlled cracking of the pavement when the
1923 pavement contracts due to decrease in moisture content or a temperature
1924 drop. Contraction joints also decrease stresses caused by slab warping.
1925 Details for contraction joints are shown as Types B, C, and D in Figure
1926 3-15.

1927 3.13.9.4 Construction Joints (Type E and F).

1928 Construction joints are required when two abutting slabs are placed at
1929 different times, such as at the end of a day’s placement or between paving
1930 lanes. For pavements serving airplanes 30,000 pounds (13 610 kg) or
1931 greater use Type E construction joints. Type F butt joints may be used for
1932 pavements serving airplanes less than 30,000 pounds gross weight,
1933 constructed on a stabilized base. Details for construction joints are shown
1934 in Table 3-7.

1935 Table 3-7. Pavement Joint Types

Type Description Longitudinal Transverse

A Thickened Edge Use at pavement feature Use at pavement feature
Isolation Joint intersections when the pavement intersections when the
intersects at an angle. Use at free pavement intersects at an
edge of pavements where future angle. Use at free edge of
expansion, using the same pavements where future
pavement thickness is expected or expansion, using the same
where pavement abuts a structure. pavement thickness is
expected or where pavement
abuts a structure.

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Type Description Longitudinal Transverse

Type Reinforced For PCC slabs > 9 in (230 mm). For PCC slabs > 9 in (230
A-1 Isolation Joint Use at pavement feature mm). Use at pavement
intersections when the pavement feature intersections when the
intersects at an angle. Use at free pavement intersects at an
edge of pavements where future angle. Use at free edge of
expansion, using the same pavements where future
pavement thickness is expected or expansion, using the same
where pavement abuts a structure. pavement thickness is
expected or where pavement
abuts a structure.
B Hinged For all contraction joints in taxiway Not used.
Contraction Joint slabs < 9 in. (230 mm) thick. For
all other contraction joints in slabs <
9 in. (230 mm) thick, where the
joint is placed 20 ft (6 m) or less
from the pavement edge.
C Doweled For use in contraction joints in slabs Use on the last three joints
Contraction Joint > 9 in. (230 mm) thick, where the from a free edge, and for three
joint is placed 20 ft (6m) or less joints on either side of
from the pavement edge. isolation joints.
D Dummy For all other contraction joints in For all other contraction joints
Contraction Joint pavement. in pavement.
E Doweled All construction joints excluding Use for construction joints at
Construction isolation joints. all locations separating
Joint (For RW & TW pavements < 9 in. successive paving operations
(230 mm), for outside lane every 3rd (“headers”).
dowel may be replaced with a 24 in.
long #4 tie bar)
F Butt Construction All construction joints for All construction joints for
Joint pavements serving airplanes less pavements serving airplanes
than 30,000 lbs (13 610 kg) on a less than 30,000 lbs (13 610
stabilized base. kg) on a stabilized base.

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1936 Figure 3-15. Rigid Pavement Joint Types

ISOLATION JOINTS
NON-EXTRUDING PREMOLDED JOINT SEALANT
COMPRESSIBLE MATERIAL

1.25 T
T
TO THE NEAREST 1 IN [25 MM]
(MINIMUM T +2 IN [50 MM]

TO THE NEAREST
JOINT BUT NOT LESS 3/4 IN [19 MM] (TYPICAL)
THAN 10 FT [3 M]
TYPE A THICKENED EDGE

CONTRACTION JOINTS
JOINT SEALANT JOINT SEALANT

T/2 T/2
T T

TIE BAR PAINT AND OIL ONE END OF DOWEL

TYPE B HINGED TYPE C DOWELED

JOINT SEALANT

TYPE D DUMMY

CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
PAINT AND OIL ONE JOINT SEALANT JOINT SEALANT
END OF DOWEL

T/2
T T

STABILIZED SUBBASE

TYPE E DOWELED TYPE F BUTT

1937

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1938 3.13.10 Dowels and Tie Bars for Joints.

1939 3.13.10.1 Tie Bars.

1940 Tie bars may be used across some longitudinal contraction joints to hold
1941 the slab faces in close contact. Tie bars do not act as load transfer devices,
1942 but prevent opening of the joint, facilitating load transfer by aggregate
1943 interlock. Tie bars should be deformed bars conforming to the
1944 specifications given in Item P-501. For slabs 9 inches or greater (230
1945 mm), tie bars must be 30 inch long (762 mm), No. 5 bars spaced at 30
1946 inches on center. For slabs less than 9 inches (230 mm), tie bars must be
1947 20 inch long (510 mm), No.4 bars spaced at 36 inches (900 mm) on
1948 center. Do not use tie bars to create continuous tied joints greater than 75
1949 feet (23 m).

1950 3.13.10.2 Dowels.

1951 Dowels provide load transfer across the joint and prevent relative vertical
1952 displacement of adjacent slab ends. If installed properly dowels permit
1953 longitudinal movement of adjacent slabs. Research indicates that the
1954 presence of stabilized base has a greater benefit than dowels. Dowels for
1955 contraction joints should be provided for three transverse joints from a
1956 free edge or the first longitudinal joint from a free edge. On longitudinal
1957 joints on pavements < 9 in (225 mm ) every third dowel bar may be
1958 replaced with a tie bar.

1959 3.13.10.3 Size Length and Spacing of Dowels.

1960 Size dowels to resist the shearing and bending stresses produced by the
1961 loads on the pavement. Dowel length and spacing must be sufficient to
1962 prevent failure of the concrete slab due to the bearing stresses exerted on
1963 the concrete. Table 3-8 gives dowel dimensions and spacing for various
1964 pavement thicknesses.

1965 3.13.10.4 Dowel Positioning.

1966 The alignment and elevation of dowels is important to ensure the
1967 performance of a joint. Transverse dowels will require the use of a
1968 fixture, usually a wire cage or basket firmly anchored to the base, to hold
1969 the dowels in position, or a paving machine equipped with an automated
1970 dowel bar inserter may be used for placing dowels in the transverse joint.

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1971 Table 3-8. Dimensions and Spacing of Steel Dowels

Thickness of Slab Diameter Length Spacing

6-7 in (152-178 mm) ¾ in (20 mm) 18 in (460 mm) 12 in (305 mm)
7.5-12 in (191-305 mm) 1 in (25 mm) 18 in (460 mm) 12 in (305 mm)
12.5-16 in (318-406 mm) 1 ¼ in (30 mm) 20 in (510 mm) 15 in (380 mm)
16.5-20 in (419-58 mm) 1 ½ in (40 mm) 20 in (510 mm) 18 in (460 mm)
20.5-24 in (521-610 mm) 2 in (50 mm) 24 in (610 mm) 18 in (460 mm)

1972 3.13.11 Joint Sealants and Fillers.

1973 Sealants are used in all joints to prevent the ingress of water and foreign material in the
1974 joint. In isolation joints premolded compressible filler are used to accommodate
1975 expansion of the slabs, and sealant is applied above the filler to prevent infiltration of
1976 water and foreign material. The width (w) and depth (d) of the joint sealant reservoir is
1977 a function of the type of sealant material used, plans must be detailed relative to the
1978 type of joint sealant material to be used. For joint sealants to perform as intended the
1979 joint sealant material and reservoir must constructed in accordance with the joint sealant
1980 manufacturer’s recommendations for that type of sealant. For example typically hot
1981 pour sealants perform best with a 2:1 w/d ratio, where silicone sealants perform best
1982 with a 1:1 w/d ratio. See Figure 3-16 for typical joint reservoir details. Backer rod
1983 material must be compatible with the type of sealant used and sized to provide the
1984 desired shape factor Specifications for joint sealants are given in Item P-605 and for
1985 premolded compressible joint seals, Items P-604.

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1986 Figure 3-16. Rigid Pavement Joint Type Details

SEALANT MATERIAL
ISOLATION JOINTS
3/4" ± 1/8"
1/4" TO 3/8" [6 -10 MM]
[19 ± 3 MM]
BELOW SURFACE

1/4" X 1/4" [6 MM X 6 MM]

RADIUS OR CHAMFER
3/4" ± 1/8"
JOINT SEALANT
[19 ±3 MM]
MINIMUM
BACKER ROD

NON-EXTRUDED PREMOLDED
COMPRESSIBLE MATERIAL

SEALANT MATERIAL
CONTRACTION JOINTS
1/4" TO 3/8" [6 - 10 MM] W
BELOW SURFACE

D
T/4 (ON AGGREGATE BASE) OPTIONAL CHAMFER
T/3 (ON STABILIZED BASE) 1/4" X 1/4" [6 MM X 6 MM]
± 1/4" [6 MM] (SEE NOTE 1)
1 1/4" [32 MM] JOINT SEALANT
MINIMUM
BACKER ROD

CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
SEALANT MATERIAL
1/4" TO 3/8" [6 - 10 MM] W
BELOW SURFACE

OPTIONAL CHAMFER
1/4" X 1/4" [6 MM X 6 MM]
1 1/4" [32 MM] JOINT SEALANT
MINIMUM
BACKER ROD
CONSTRUCTION JOINT
BETWEEN SLABS
TYPE C AND TYPE E DOWELS AT PAVEMENT EDGES (PLAN)
12" [305 MM]
MINIMUM

10" [254 MM]

MINIMUM BAR LENGTH VARIES

TRANSVERSE JOINT LONGITUDINAL JOINT

TYPE C OR TYPE E TYPE C OR TYPE E
1987

1988 Notes:
1989 1. Initial saw cut T/6 when using early entry saw.
1990 2. Sealant reservoir sized to provide proper shape factor, W/D base upon sealant manufacturer requirements.
1991 Typically hot pour sealants require a 1:1 shape factor and silicon sealants a 2:1 shape factor, for individual
1992 projects refer to sealant manufacturer recommendations.
1993

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1994 3.13.12 Joint Layout and Spacing.

1995 3.13.12.1 Pavement joint layout requires the selection of the proper joint type(s),
1996 spacing, and dimensions to ensure the joints perform their intended
1997 function. Construction considerations are also important in determining
1998 the joint layout pattern. Generally, it is more economical to keep the
1999 number of longitudinal joints to a minimum. Keep the slab width (w) to
2000 length (l) ratio no greater than 1:1.25. Paving lane widths and location of
2001 in-pavement light fixtures will affect joint spacing and layout. Joints
2002 should be placed with respect to light fixtures in accordance with AC
2003 150/5340-30, Design and Installation Details for Airport Visual Aids.
2004 Figure 3-17 shows a typical jointing plan for a runway end, parallel
2005 taxiway, and connector. Figure 3-18 shows a typical jointing plan for
2006 pavement for a 75-foot (23 m) wide runway. For additional sample PCC
2007 Joint plans, see
2008 http://www.faa.gov/airports/engineering/pavement_design/.

2009 3.13.12.2 When designing joint layouts for intersections, consider the following for
2010 isolation joints and odd-shaped slabs.
2011 1. Isolation Joints. Intersecting pavements, such as a taxiway and
2012 runway, should be isolated to allow the pavements to move
2013 independently. In addition at locations where it is necessary to
2014 change the joint pattern isolation joints are required. Isolation can be
2015 accomplished by using a Type A isolation joint between the two
2016 pavements where the two pavements meet. The isolation joint
2017 should be positioned to allow the two pavements to expand and
2018 contract independently of each other.
2019 2. Odd-Shaped Slabs. Because cracks tend to form in odd-shaped
2020 slabs, it is good practice to maintain sections that are nearly square or
2021 rectangular in shape. Where odd-shaped slabs cannot be avoided,
2022 embedded steel is required. The embedded steel should consist of no
2023 less than 0.050 percent steel in both directions in slabs where the
2024 length-to-width ratio exceeds 1.25 or in slabs that are not rectangular
2025 in shape. The embedded steel should be placed in accordance with
2026 the recommendations given below.
2027 3. Although steel does not prevent cracking, it helps keep the cracks
2028 that form tightly closed. The interlock of the irregular faces of the
2029 cracked slab provides structural integrity of the slab maintaining
2030 pavement performance. In addition, by holding the cracks tightly
2031 closed, the steel minimizes the infiltration of debris into the cracks.
2032 The thickness of pavements with crack control steel is the same as
2033 for plain concrete pavement.
2034 4. Steel may be either bar mats or welded wire fabric installed with end
2035 and side laps to provide steel throughout the slab. Longitudinal
2036 members should be not less than 4 inches (100 mm) or more than 12

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2037 inches (305 mm) apart; transverse members should be not less than 4
2038 inches (100 mm) or more than 24 inches (610 mm) apart. End laps
2039 should be a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) but not less than 30
2040 times the diameter of the longitudinal bar or wire. Side laps should
2041 be a minimum of 6 inches (150 mm) but not less than 20 times the
2042 diameter of the transverse bar or wire. End and side clearances
2043 should be a maximum of 6 inches (150 mm) and a minimum of 2
2044 inches (50 mm).

2045 3.13.13 Joint Spacing.

2046 Shorter joint spacings generally provide better long term in service performance. See
2047 Table 3-9 for recommended maximum joint spacing.

2048 3.13.13.1 Without Stabilized Base.

2049 Table 3-9 shows the recommended maximum joint spacings. Shorter
2050 spacings may be required to provide minimum clearance between
2051 pavement joints and in-pavement objects such as light bases. On federally
2052 funded projects exceeding the maximum spacing of 20 feet (6.1 m)
2053 requires FAA approval.

2054 3.13.13.2 With Stabilized Base.

2055 Rigid pavements supported on stabilized base are subject to higher
2056 warping and curling stresses than those supported on unstabilized base.
2057 The recommended maximum joint spacing is listed in . A maximum
2058 spacing of 20 feet (6.1 m) is recommended for slabs equal to or thicker
2059 than 16 inches (406 mm). Exceeding the maximum spacing of 20 feet (6.1
2060 m) requires FAA approval on federally funded projects.

2061 3.13.13.3 Typical Longitudinal Joint Spacing.

2062 For a 150 foot (46 m) wide runway the corresponding typical longitudinal
2063 joint spacing is 18.75 feet (5.7 m). For a 75 foot (23 m) wide runway a
2064 typically a 12.5 foot (3.8 m) longitudinal joint spacing is utilized. Joint
2065 spacing may be determined by calculating the ratio of joint spacing in
2066 inches relative to radius of relative stiffness, which should be between 4
2067 and 6, using the following formula to calculate the radius:
2068
4
2069 l = √E h3 /(12(1 − μ2 )
2070
2071 l = radius of relative stiffness (inches)
2072 E = Modulus of Elasticity of PCC (psi)
2073 h = slab thickness (in)
μ = Poisson′ s ratio

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2074 Figure 3-17. Typical Joint Layout Pattern for Runway, Parallel Taxiway and Connector

75' 150' 75' 150'

400' 400'

LEGEND:
TYPE A ISOLATION JOINT

TYPE B HINGED OR TYPE C DOWELED

CONTRACTION JOINT

TYPE C DOWELED CONTRACTION JOINT

TYPE D DUMMY CONTRACTION JOINT

TYPE E DOWELED CONSTRUCTION JOINT

EMBEDDED STEEL 0.05 PERCENT IN BOTH

DIRECTIONS WHEN LENGTH-TO-WIDTH RATIO
EXCEEDS 1.25 OR IN SLABS THAT ARE NOT
RECTANGULAR

2075
PCC JOINT DETAILS - STUB

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2076 Figure 3-18. Joint Layout PCC Pavement – 75 Foot Runway Width

15'

6 EQ SP
@ 12.5' = 75'

LEGEND:
THICKENED EDGE IF FUTURE EXTENSION IS PLANNED
TYPE B HINGED CONTRACTION JOINT
TYPE D DUMMY CONTRACTION JOINT
TYPE E DOWELED OR TYPE F BUTT CONSTRUCTION JOINT
TIED BUTT CONSTRUCTION JOINT

2077
JOINTING LAYOUT PATTERNS FOR LIGHT-LOADING RIGID PAVEMENT - 75' WIDE

2078 Notes:
2079 1. Recess sealer 3/8 inch to ½ inch (10 mm to 13 mm) for joints perpendicular to runway grooves.
2080 2. Chamfered edges are recommended when pavements are subject to snow removal equipment or high traffic
2081 volumes.

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2082 Table 3-9. Recommended Maximum Joint Spacing -

2083 Rigid Pavement1

2084 a. Without Stabilized Subbase

Slab Thickness Joint Spacing

6 inches or less (152 mm) 12.5 feet (3.8 m)
6.5-9 inches (165-229 mm) 15 feet (4.6 m)
>9 inches (>229 mm) 20 feet (6.1 m)

2085 b. With Stabilized Subbase

Slab Thickness Joint Spacing

8–10 inches (203-254 mm) 12.5 feet (3.8 m)
10.5-13 inches (267-330 mm) 15 feet (4.6 m)
13.5-16 inches (343-406 mm) 17.5 feet (5.3 m)
>16 inches (>406 mm) 20 feet (6.1 m)
2086 Notes:
2087 1. Longitudinal joint spacing shown in the tables. Transverse spacing
2088 should not exceed 1.25 the longitudinal spacing.

2089 3.13.14 Jointing Considerations for Future Pavement Expansion.

2090 When a runway or taxiway is likely to be extended, the construction of a thickened edge
2091 joint (Type A in ) should be provided at that end of the runway or pavement. At
2092 locations where there may be a need to accommodate a future connecting taxiway or
2093 apron entrance, a thickened edge should also be provided as appropriate. To avoid
2094 trapping water under a pavement maintain a constant transverse cross slope when
2095 constructing the subgrade under the pavement that supports the base (or subbase if one
2096 is present).

2097 3.13.15 Transition Between PCC and HMA.

2098 When rigid pavement abuts a flexible pavement section, a transition should be provided
2099 using a detail similar to Figure 3-19.

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2100 Figure 3-19. Transition between PCC and HMA Pavement Sections

FLEX 10' [3 M] MINIMUM 10' [3 M] MINIMUM RIGID

PAVEMENT PAVEMENT
DESIGN DESIGN

SURFACE THICKENED EDGE

T3 T2 T1 BUTT JOINT

BINDER
H
STABLIZED AGGREGATE PCC
1.25H
BASE COURSE
T T5

T4 SUBBASE
SUBBASE

B
COMPACTED SUBGRADE COMPACTED SUBGRADE

2101

Dimension Description
H Design thickness of PCC pavement
B Thickness of base
T Design thickness of flexible (HMA)
pavement
T1 Design thickness of surface course
T2 Design thickness of binder course
T3 Design thickness of base course
T4 Design thickness of subbase course
T5 (H + B) – (T1 + T2) or 2(T3),
whichever is greater

2102 3.13.16 Rigid Design Example.

2103 The design of a pavement structure is an iterative process in FAARFIELD. The user
2104 enters the pavement structure and airplane traffic to be applied to the section.
2105 FAARFIELD evaluates the minimum pavement layer requirements and adjusts the PCC
2106 thickness to give a predicted life equal to the design period (generally 20 years). This
2107 example follows the steps as outlined in paragraph 3.11.5.

2108 Step (1) From ‘Startup Window’ create new job, and add basic section(s)
2109 from sample sections to be analyized.

2110 Step (2a) For this example, assume the following starting pavement
2111 structure:

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2112 Pavement structure:

Thickness Pavement Structure

?? inches P-501 PCC Surface Course (Mr =
600psi)
5 inches P-401/P-403 Stabilized Base Course
12 inches P-209 Crushed Aggregate Base
Course
Subgrade, CBR=5 (E = 7500 psi)

2113 Step (2b) With the following airplane traffic:

2114 Airplane traffic:

Airplane Gross Weight Annual Departures

(lbs)
B737-800 174,700 3000
A321-200 opt 207,014 2500
EMB-195 STD 107,916 4500
Regional Jet – 700 72,500 3500

2115 Step (2c) The pavement structure to be analyzed is entered by clicking on

2116 the ‘STRUCTURE’ button (Figure 3-20) and modifying the
2117 existing structure to match proposed pavement section by selecting
2118 the ‘Modify Structure’ button (see Figure 3-21). Layers can then
2119 be added by selecting the ‘Add/Delete Layer’ button. Layer types
2120 can be changed by ‘clicking’ on the layer material and thickness of
2121 the layer can be adjusted by clicking on the layer thickness . If you
2122 are able to adjust the layer modulus when you click on the layer
2123 modulus a pop up box will come up and either give you the option
2124 of changing the modulus or notify you that this values is fixed by
2125 FAARFIELD. When done making adjustments select ‘End
2126 Modify’ button.
2127

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2128 Figure 3-20. Rigid Design Example Step 2

Select
‘Structure’ to
begin entering
pavement
structure

2129

2130 Figure 3-21. Rigid Design Example Step 2C Modify Structure Information

Thickness shown
in initial structure
for PCC is not
critical. As soon
Stabilized base as program
required since starts it uses a
airplane thickness
≥100,000 pounds calculated with
(45360 kg) layer-elastic
theory as a
starting point for
the finite element
Modify structure, analysis.
as needed, to
match proposed
section.
2131

2132 Step (3) Enter the Airplane window by selecting the ‘Airplane’ button at
2133 the lower left of the Structure window (Figure 3-22). Airplanes are
2134 added to the traffic mix by selecting them from the airplane library
2135 located on the left side of the Airplane screen. For each airplane
2136 selected, the following data may be adjusted: Gross Taxi Weight,
2137 Annual Departures, and percent annual growth (Figure 3-23).
2138 Airplanes are organized by group based on the airplane

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2139 manufacturer. In addition there is a group of generic airplanes.

2140 After entering all of the airplanes, return to the Structure Window
2141 by selecting the ‘Back” button.

2142 Figure 3-22. Rigid Design Example Step 3

Select to navigate
to the Airplane
Window

2143

2144 Figure 3-23. Rigid Design Example Step 3 Airplane Data

Airplane Design
List: Adjust Gross
Select airplanes
weights, departure
from Airplane
levels and %
Group
annual growth

Use back button to

return to Structure
2145 Form

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2146 Figure 3-24. Rigid Design Example Step 4 Design Structure

Perform design
analysis

2147

2148 Figure 3-25. Rigid Design Example Step 4 Pavement Structure

PCC Surface 17.15

inches

2149

2150 Step (4) Select ‘Design Structure’ button to start design analysis, see Figure
2151 3-24. FAARFIELD iterates on the thickness of PCC Surface until
2152 a CDF of 1.0 is reached. The procedure gives a thickness of 17.15
2153 inches (43 cm.), see Figure 3-25. FAARFIELD does not design
2154 the thickness of pavement layers other than the PCC slab in rigid
2155 pavement structures, but will enforce the minimum thickness
2156 requirements for all layers as shown in Table 3-4. Note the more

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2157 aircraft in the fleet mix with different gear types the longer the
2158 FAARFIELD analysis will take to complete.

2159 Step (5) If the structure to be built includes layer thickness different than
2160 those used in the initial analysis, adjust layer thickness and repeat
2161 design analysis.

2162 Step (6) FAARFIELD v 1.41 includes the ability to evaluate the depth of
2163 subgrade compaction required, after you have completed the
2164 design of the pavement structure. After completing your design,
2165 select the ‘Life/Compaction’ button, see Figure 3-26. (Note that if
2166 you have not completed a design, this button will just be labeled
2167 ‘Life’, or if you have not selected the ‘Compute Compaction
2168 Requirements’ in the option window.) The design report then
2169 includes a subgrade compaction table for Non-Cohesive and
2170 Cohesive subgrade. Check that the “compute compaction
2171 requirements” is selected on the Options Screen.

2172 Figure 3-26. Rigid Design Example Step 6 Life/Compaction

Select
‘Life/Compaction’

2173

2174 Steps (7/8) The Airport Pavement Design report (Figure 3-27) is automatically
2175 saved into the same working directory that you designated for your
2176 FAARFIELD job files or the report can be viewed from the startup
2177 window by selecting ‘Notes’ button. The design report
2178 summarizes the Pavement Structure, Airplane Traffic and the CDF
2179 contribution of each aircraft evaluated.

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2180 Figure 3-27. Airport Pavement Step 7 and 8 Design Report

2181

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2182 Figure 3-27. Airport Pavement Step 7 and 8 Design Report (continued)

2183

2184

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2185 3.14 Pre-stressed, Precast, Reinforced and Continuously Reinforced Concrete

2186 Pavement.
2187 Pre-stressed, precast, reinforced, and continuously reinforced concrete pavements have
2188 been used in airport applications to a limited extent. Use of pre-stressed, precast,
2189 reinforced, and continuously reinforced concrete airport pavements on federally funded
2190 projects will require FAA approval.

2191 3.15 Aggregate Turf Pavements.

2192 Aggregate-turf should be considered only for areas designed to serve non-jet airplanes
2193 having gross weights of 12,500 pounds (5 670 kg) or less. Some areas of airports
2194 serving light airplanes may not require hard surfacing. In these areas, the development
2195 of an aggregate-turf or turf surface may be adequate for limited operations of these light
2196 airplanes. Aggregate-turf surfaces are constructed by improving the stability of a soil
2197 with the addition of aggregate prior to development of the turf. The stability of the
2198 underlying soil is increased by the addition of granular materials prior to establishment
2199 of the turf. This provides a landing area that will not soften appreciably during wet
2200 weather and has sufficient soil to promote the growth of grass.

2201 3.15.1 Materials.

2202 Material and construction requirements are covered in Item P-217, Aggregate-Turf
2203 Pavement. Aggregate-turf construction consists of a soil seedbed layer (soil or
2204 soil/aggregate combination) over a soil aggregate base course. The soil aggregate base
2205 course meeting the requirements of P-217 consists of crushed stone, gravel or sand
2206 stabilized with soil.

2207 3.15.2 Thickness.

2208 The thickness varies with the soil type, drainage and climatic conditions. The minimum
2209 thickness of the soil aggregate can be computed by FAARFIELD using the CBR of the
2210 subgrade. The minimum thickness of the soil seedbed is determined by the thickness
2211 required to support the growth of grass.

2212 3.15.3 Aggregate Turf Pavement Example.

2213 Assume that the airplane mix consists of the following:

Airplane Gross Weight (lbs) Annual Departures

King Air B- 11,500 1200
100
Conquest 9,925 500
441
2214

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2215 3.15.3.1 The aggregate turf pavement will be constructed on a subgrade CBR = 5
2216 and FAARFIELD will be used to determine the thickness of the aggregate
2217 stabilized base course layer.

2218 3.15.3.2 A minimum thickness of 2 inches (50 mm) is assigned to the turf seedbed,
2219 although the actual thickness of soil will be determined by growing
2220 requirements. The turf seedbed is represented as an undefined layer, with
2221 a nominal E-modulus of 3,000 psi (21 MPa). The design layer (aggregate
2222 stabilized base) is represented as P-154 uncrushed aggregate. In this
2223 example, the thickness required for the aggregate stabilized base course is
2224 10.3 inches (287 mm), which will be rounded to 10 inches (254 mm)
2225 (Figure 3-28).

2226 Figure 3-28. Aggregate Turf Pavement Structure

2227

2228 3.16 Heliport Design.

2229 3.16.1 The guidance contained in this chapter is appropriate for pavements designed to serve
2230 rotary-wing airplanes. Refer to AC 150/5390-2, Heliport Design, for additional
2231 guidance on heliport gradients and heliport pavement design.

2232 3.16.2 Generally, heliports are constructed with a PCC surface. The pavement is designed
2233 considering a dynamic load equal to 150 percent of the gross helicopter weight, equally
2234 distributed between the main landing gears. See Appendix B of AC 150/5390-2 for

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2235 Helicopter Data. For the majority of helicopters, which have a maximum gross weight
2236 less than 30,000 pounds (13 610 kg), a 6-inch (150 mm) PCC slab will generally be
2237 sufficient. However, the loads of fuel or maintenance vehicles may be more demanding
2238 than the helicopter loads and may require additional pavement thickness.

2239 3.17 Passenger Loading Bridge.

2240 Design of the passenger loading bridge operating area is separate from the design of the
2241 adjacent aircraft apron. Most passenger loading bridges utilize solid tires which results
2242 in approximately 600-700 psi load on a small area, therefore the FAA recommends rigid
2243 pavement be used where the passenger loading bridge will operate. The FAA
2244 recommends that this pavement be 10 inches (254 mm) PCC reinforced with #8 bars at
2245 8 inches on center with 5 inches of stabilized base on 6-12 inches of P-209 crushed
2246 aggregate base. This pavement should be isolated from the adjacent aircraft parking
2247 apron. Drainage structures and fuel hydrants should not be located in the jet bridge
2248 operation area. The design of the adjacent aircraft parking apron should only consider
2249 the aircraft and any fueling equipment that will use the apron and not the load of the
2250 passenger loading bridge.
2251
2252

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2253 CHAPTER 4. PAVEMENT REHABILITATION

2254 4.1 General.

2255 4.1.1 Reason for Rehabilitation.

2256 Pavements may require rehabilitation for a variety of reasons, for example to correct
2257 surface conditions that affect airplane performance (roughness, surface friction, and/or
2258 drainage) or material-related distresses or to repair localized structural damage due to
2259 overloading. A pavement in good condition may require strengthening to serve heavier
2260 airplanes and/or more frequent operations than the original pavement design supported.
2261 Some types of pavement rehabilitation methods incorporate the recycling of existing
2262 pavement materials. Rehabilitation or reconstruction can make use of recycled
2263 materials since techniques and equipment are readily available to recycle old pavement
2264 materials into base and subbase materials. However, due to the variability of recycling
2265 materials and methods, the use of recycled materials, other than those meeting P219,
2266 requires an MOS in accordance with FAA Order 5100.1 on federally funded projects.

2267 4.1.2 Full Width Section.

2268 Generally pavements are rehabilitated in full width sections. Pavements that are
2269 severely distressed in the center (keel) sections, can sometimes be economically
2270 rehabilitated by reconstructing just the keel section. Structurally, reconstruction is no
2271 different than designing a new pavement structure. Refer to Chapter 3. when
2272 reconstruction of pavements is required.

2273 4.1.3 Transitions.

2274 Consider the transition to existing pavement structures and drainage when selecting the
2275 rehabilitation method. It may be necessary to remove sections of the existing pavement
2276 structure beyond the area of distressed pavement to comply with airport design
2277 gradients.

2278 4.2 Condition of Existing Pavement Structure.

2279 4.2.1 A complete condition assessment of the pavement materials and the structural integrity
2280 of the existing pavement structure is the first step in design of a rehabilitation project.
2281 The assessment of the existing pavement properties includes the thickness, condition,
2282 and strength of each layer; the subgrade soil classification; and an estimate of
2283 foundation strength (CBR or subgrade modulus (k or E)).

2284 4.2.2 The rehabilitation design procedures in this AC assume the overlay will be placed on a
2285 base pavement with significant remaining structural integrity. Severely distressed areas
2286 in the existing pavement should be studied to determine the cause of the distresses and
2287 to determine potential mitigation. For example, pavement and material distresses such
2288 as alkali-silica reactivity in existing rigid pavements or highly weathered and cracked
2289 existing flexible pavements should be mitigated or removed, as necessary, before
2290 adding an overlay. When removing distressed areas HMA by milling you must either

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2291 remove the entire layer or leave at least 2 inches of HMA. The remaining pavement
2292 structure must be able to support the milling and all other construction equipment
2293 required.

2294 4.2.3 Overlaying an existing pavement without correcting poor subsurface drainage usually
2295 results in poor overlay performance. Before overlaying, assess subsurface drainage
2296 conditions and correct any deficiencies. Corrections of subsurface drainage deficiencies
2297 may require reconstruction of the entire pavement structure.

2298 4.2.4 A valuable technique for assessing the structural condition of the existing pavement is
2299 nondestructive pavement testing (NDT) (see Appendix C). NDT can help estimate
2300 foundation strength, measure joint load transfer, and possibly detect voids beneath
2301 existing pavements. NDT can also be used to determine structural capacity, assist with
2302 calculating PCN, and assess areas of localized weakness.

2303 4.3 Material Selection Considerations.

2304 This AC includes criteria for overlay of both flexible and rigid pavements. The type of
2305 overlay material selected should take into account existing pavement type, locally
2306 available materials, and cost of materials and construction. Consideration of the total
2307 life cycle cost of the reconstructed pavement or overlay will assist in determination of
2308 the most cost effective solution. Generally the sooner preservation techniques are
2309 implemented the bigger the long term benefit. It is always more effective to extend the
2310 life of a pavement in good condition as opposed to rehabilitate a pavement in fair or
2311 poor condition. The condition of the pavement at the time of rehabilitation greatly
2312 impacts the cost of the rehabilitation. Life cycle costs should include initial
2313 construction and maintenance costs over the life of the pavement. User costs associated
2314 with the amount of time required for the pavement rehabilitation may also have a
2315 significant impact on the rehabilitation method selected.

2316 4.4 Overlay Design.

2317 4.4.1 An overlay consists of a new flexible or rigid surface course on top of an existing
2318 pavement. FAARFIELD overlay design is based on layered elastic and three-
2319 dimensional finite element methods of analysis. FAARFIELD designs the overlay
2320 thickness required to provide a 20-year (or other chosen) design life by meeting the
2321 limiting stress or strain criterion, subject to minimum thickness requirements (Table 3-3
2322 and Table 3-4). There are four types of overlay pavements: HMA overlay of existing
2323 flexible or rigid pavement, and PCC overlay of existing flexible or rigid pavement.

2324 4.5 Overlays of Existing Flexible Pavements.

2325 The design of an overlay for an existing flexible pavement is similar to designing a new
2326 pavement. A pavement engineer should characterize the existing flexible pavement,
2327 assigning the appropriate thicknesses and moduli of the existing layers. An HMA
2328 overlay requires consideration of many factors including the condition, thickness, and

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2329 properties of each layer of the existing HMA pavement structure. Milling of the HMA
2330 surface may be required to correct surface and grade deficiencies and/or remove
2331 deteriorated existing HMA material.

2332 4.5.1 FAARFIELD Design HMA Overlay of an Existing Flexible Pavement.

2333 FAARFIELD design of an HMA overlay on existing HMA is similar to the design of a
2334 new HMA pavement, except the HMA overlay is the design layer. In FAARFIELD, a
2335 trial overlay thickness is selected, and the program iterates on the overlay thickness
2336 until a CDF of 1.0 is reached at the top of the subgrade. The minimum HMA overlay of
2337 an existing flexible pavement is 2 inches (50 mm), however a thicker overlay typically
2338 performs better. The minimum structural overlay is 3 inches (75 mm). The design
2339 thickness of the overlay is the larger of the minimum thickness or the thickness required
2340 to achieve a subgrade or HMA CDF of 1, whichever controls.

2341 4.5.1.1 Flexible Overlay on Existing Flexible Pavement Example.

2342 FAARFIELD indicates a 4.57 inch overlay is needed. Depending on other
2343 factors, this may be rounded either to 4.5 inches or 5 inch. For an
2344 additional example of flexible pavement evaluation, refer to Chapter 5.
2345 and Appendix C.

2346 Given the following airplane mix:

Airplane Gross Weight (lbs) Annual Departures

B737-800 174,700 3000
A321-200 opt 207,014 2500
EMB-195 STD 107,916 4500
Regional Jet – 700 72,500 3500
A380n 1,238,998 50
A380n Belly 1,238,998 50
B777-300 ER 777,000 50

2347 And starting with the following structure:

Thickness Pavement Structure

4 inches P-401 HMA Surface Course
8 inches P-403 Stabilized Base Course
12 inches P-209 Crushed Aggregated Base
Course
10 inches P-154 Aggregate Base Course
Subgrade CBR 5.0

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2348 Figure 4-1. Flexible Overlay Structure

2349

2350 4.5.2 Nonstructural HMA Overlays.

2351 An overlay may be required to correct nonstructural problems such as restoring the
2352 crown, correcting longitudinal profile, and/or improving skid-resistance. Thickness
2353 calculations are not required in these situations since thickness is controlled by
2354 minimum overlay thickness or other design considerations. Overlay thickness should
2355 be in 0.5 inch increments starting at least 2 inches. If a portion of the existing surface is
2356 to be removed prior to the removal it is imperative to take sufficient pavement cores to
2357 determine what is the thickness of the existing surface. When removing existing HMA
2358 surface course either remove the entire course or leave sufficient surface material to
2359 maintain the integrity of the layer. Leaving less than 2 inches of surface course may
2360 result in the creation of a thin layer that is susceptible to delamination under
2361 construction traffic. On federally funded projects, overlay thickness’s less than 2 inches
2362 need FAA approval.

2363 4.5.3 Concrete Overlay of an Existing Flexible Pavement.

2364 The design of a concrete overlay on an existing flexible pavement is essentially the
2365 same as designing a new rigid pavement. The existing flexible pavement is
2366 characterized by assigning the appropriate thicknesses and moduli of the existing layers.
2367 A trial overlay thickness is selected and FAARFIELD iterates until a CDF of 1 is
2368 reached. The design thickness is the larger of the minimum PCC thickness or the
2369 overlay thickness required to achieve a CDF of 1. A pavement engineer should
2370 characterize the existing pavement layers. FAARFIELD assumes a frictionless
2371 (unbonded) interface between the concrete overlay and the existing flexible surface.
2372 The use of non-stabilized material below the rigid pavement overlay is not allowed

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2373 because it results in the creation of a sandwich pavement. The use of a ¼ inch (5 mm)
2374 or less bond breaker (choke stone), however, is not considered a sandwich pavement.
2375 The minimum allowable thickness for a concrete overlay of an existing flexible
2376 pavement is 6 inches (150 mm). Concrete overlays constructed on existing flexible
2377 pavements should meet the joint spacing requirements of paragraph 3.13.3.

2378 4.5.3.1 Rigid Overlay on Existing Flexible Pavement Example.

2379 FAARFIELD indicates a 17.47 inch overlay is needed. Round to a 17.5
2380 inch overlay (Figure 4-2).

2381 Given the following airplane mix:

Airplane Gross Weight (lbs) Annual Departures

B737-800 174,700 3000
A321-200 opt 207,014 2500
EMB-195 STD 107,916 4500
Regional Jet – 72,500 3500
700
A380n 1,238,998 50
A380n Belly 1,238,998 50
B777-300 ER 777,000 50

2382 And starting with the following pavement structure:

Thickness Pavement Structure

P501 PCC Overlay on Flex (Mr=650)
4 inches P-401 HMA Surface Course
8 inches P-403 Stabilized Base Course
12 inches P-209 Crushed Aggregated Base
Course
10 inches P-154 Aggregate Base Course
Subgrade Modulus 7,500 psi

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2383 Figure 4-2. Rigid Overlay Pavement Structure

2384

2385 4.6 Overlays of Existing Rigid Pavements.

2386 The design of overlays for an existing rigid pavement must consider the structural
2387 condition of the existing pavement. Non-destructive testing (NDT), borings, or
2388 engineering judgment can help determine the flexural strength of the existing rigid
2389 pavement. The condition of the existing rigid pavement prior to overlay is expressed in
2390 terms of the structural condition index (SCI). When SCI is equal to 100, no visible
2391 structural cracks, then you must calculate your Cumulative Damage Factor Used
2392 (CDFU). In general thicker HMA overlays perform better than thin overlays, overlay
2393 thickness on rigid pavements may need to exceed minimum thickness. Issues with
2394 reflective cracking and slippage may be exacerbated with thin HMA overlays of rigid
2395 pavements.

2396 4.6.1 Structural Condition Index (SCI).

2397 The SCI does not include conventional shrinkage cracks due to curing or other non-
2398 load-related problems. The SCI is the summation of structural components from the
2399 pavement condition index (PCI). An SCI of 80 is the FAA definition of structural
2400 failure of a rigid pavement and is consistent with 50 percent of slabs in the traffic area
2401 exhibiting a structural crack. The SCI can be computed automatically with computer
2402 programs such as MicroPAVER or FAA PAVEAIR. Additional guidance on deriving
2403 an SCI is also provided in the FAARFIELD Help feature. Guidance on PCI can be
2404 found in Chapter 5. and ASTM D 5340, Standard Test Method for Airport Pavement
2405 Condition Index Survey. For fully unbonded concrete overlay, the modulus of the base

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2406 pavement varies as a function of the SCI of the base pavement when the SCI is less than
2407 100. This computation is done automatically within FAARFIELD. The equations for
2408 the modulus reduction as a function of the SCI are given in Report No. DOT-FAA-PM-
2409 87/19, Design of Overlays for Rigid Airport Pavements.

2410 4.6.2 Cumulative Damage Factor Used (CDFU).

2411 4.6.2.1 When the SCI of the existing pavement is 100 (i.e., no visible distresses
2412 contributing to a reduction in SCI) and the pavement is not new (has
2413 received some traffic), estimate the amount of fatigue life that has been
2414 consumed up to the time of the overlay. In this case, the condition of the
2415 existing pavement is described by the cumulative damage factor used
2416 (CDFU). For aggregate base layers, assuming that traffic on the pavement
2417 has been constant over time, a good estimate of CDFU can be obtained
2418 from:
LU
CDFU  when LU  0.75 LD
0.75 LD
2419
 1 when LU  0.75 LD
2420 where:

2421 LU = number of years of operation of the existing

2422 pavement until overlay
2423 LD = structural design life of the existing pavement in
2424 years

2425 4.6.2.2 This equation was derived from the empirical relationship between traffic
2426 coverages and SCI and only applies to pavements on conventional
2427 (aggregate) base. For rigid pavements on stabilized bases, this
2428 relationship is not valid, and FAARFIELD must be used to compute the
2429 CDFU. The percent CDFU is computed and displayed when the Life
2430 button is clicked in the STRUCTURE window.

2431 4.6.2.3 When computing percent CDFU for a rigid pavement on stabilized base,
2432 FAARFIELD defaults to setting CDFU = 100, which will give the most
2433 conservative design. To calculate a CDFU other than 100:
2434 1. Set up the structure based upon what was constructed.
2435 2. Estimate the traffic that has actually been applied to the pavement
2436 and enter it into the airplane design list.
2437 3. Set “Structural Design Life” to the number of years the pavement
2438 will have been in operation up to the time of overlay.
2439 4. Run Life.

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2440 4.6.2.4 The percent CDFU will be displayed when the Life computation is
2441 completed. A computed value of percent CDFU greater than 100 indicates
2442 that, based on the estimated structural properties and traffic inputs, the
2443 FAARFIELD procedure predicts the SCI of the pavement should be less
2444 than 100. In this case, a value of 100 should be entered for percent CDFU
2445 as input data for the overlay design. However, since the computation of
2446 percent CDFU is based on estimated structure properties and traffic, the
2447 value is likely to be unreliable. An alternative procedure is to run Design
2448 Structure for the original structure with structural design life set to the
2449 actual design life, where actual design life is typically the 20-year design
2450 period. Then repeat the steps above and use the new value of percent
2451 CDFU.

2452 4.6.2.5 If the pavement has been subjected to more or heavier traffic than assumed
2453 in the Life computation, increase the percent CDFU from the computed
2454 value. Setting percent CDFU to 100 will always give the most
2455 conservative design.

2456 4.6.2.6 CDFU Example.

2457 1. The following steps illustrate the procedure for calculating CDFU:
2458 2. The existing PCC surface does not currently exhibit structural
2459 damage, i.e., SCI = 100, to determine what CDFU is:

2460 Set up the structure based on the actual section constructed.

Thickness Pavement Structure

17.5 inches P-501 PCC Surface Course (Mr=625 psi)
5 inches P-401/403 Stabilized Base Course
12 inches P-209 Crushed Aggregate Base Course
Subgrade, k = 100.5 pci equivalent to E-
modulus = 7500 psi
2461 Note: The existing pavement was designed to accommodate the following
2462 airplane mix: 3000 departures of B737-800, 2,500 departures of A321-
2463 200 opt, 4,500 departures of EMB-195 STD and 3,500 departures of RJ-
2464 700. FAARFIELD determined 17.15 inches was needed however 17.5
2465 inches was constructed.)
2466 3. Using the traffic applied to the pavement, enter it into the airplane
2467 design list.

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2468 Assume the annual traffic levels actually applied to the pavement are as follows:

Airplane Gross Weight (lbs) Annual Departures

B737-800 174,700 1500
A321-200 opt 207,014 1250
EMB-195 STD 107,916 2250
Regional Jet – 700 72,500 1750
2469
2470 4. Set the “Structural Design Life” to the number of years the pavement
2471 has been in operation. For this example, assume the taxiway has
2472 been in service for 12 years. In the Structure window, click on
2473 “Structural Design Life” and change to 12 years. A message “Non-
2474 Standard Life” will display, indicating that a life equal to other than
2475 20 years has been selected.
2476 5. Run Life. The calculated percent CDFU will appear on the Structure
2477 screen, at the lower left of the pavement section.
2478 6. For the above case, FAARFIELD calculates percent CDFU equal to
2479 11.17 (Figure 4-1). For overlay design, the value CDFU = 30
2480 percent would be used.

2481 Figure 4-3. Rigid Overlay Percent CDFU

2482

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2483 4.6.2.7 One potential source of confusion is that the value percent CDFU = 12
2484 does not mean than 12 percent of the original structural design life has
2485 been used up. Rather, this value should be interpreted as indicating that, at
2486 the time of the overlay, the pavement will have received 12 percent of the
2487 number of traffic passes predicted to result in a first full structural crack
2488 (i.e., 12 percent of the number of passes theoretically needed to bring the
2489 pavement to the point at which its SCI is less than 100 or perfect structural
2490 condition). At this point, the pavement still has significant structural life.

2491 4.7 Hot Mix Asphalt Overlays of Existing Rigid Pavements.

2492 The design process for hot mix overlays of rigid pavements considers two conditions
2493 for the existing rigid pavement to be overlaid: (1) SCI of the existing pavement less
2494 than 100 and (2) SCI equal to 100. The minimum thickness of hot mix asphalt overlay
2495 on existing rigid pavements is 3 inches (75 mm).

2496 4.8 SCI Less Than 100.

2497 The most likely situation is one in which the existing pavement is exhibiting some
2498 structural distress, i.e., the SCI is less than 100. If the SCI is less than 100, the base
2499 pavement will continue to deteriorate at the rate predicted by the rigid pavement failure
2500 model. The pavement structure is assumed to have failed when the SCI of the concrete
2501 base pavement reaches a terminal value. FAARFIELD assumes an initial overlay
2502 thickness and iterates on the overlay thickness until a 20-year life is predicted. A 20-
2503 year predicted life satisfies the design requirements.
2504 Note: The design thickness generated by FAARFIELD does not currently address
2505 reflection cracking of the hot mix asphalt overlay as a potential failure mode.

2506 4.8.1 HMA Overlay Over PCC Example.

2507 The existing concrete strength is estimated as 625 psi (4.5 MPa). Based on a visual
2508 survey, the existing pavement is assigned an SCI of 80. Frost action is negligible.
2509 Based on these conditions, the flexible pavement overlay required will be a 6.42 inch
2510 HMA overlay, which is rounded to 6.5 inches (Figure 4-4).

2511 Assume an existing taxiway pavement composed of the following section:

Thickness Pavement Structure

16.5 inches P-501 PCC Surface Course (Mr=625)
5 inches P-401/P-403 Stabilized Base Course
12 inches P-209 Crushed Aggregate Base Course
Subgrade, k = 100.5 (E = 7500 psi)

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2512 Assume the existing pavement will be strengthened to accommodate the

2513 following airplane mix:

Airplane Gross Weight Annual

(lbs) Departures
B737-800 174,700 3,000
A321-200 opt 207,014 2,500
EMB-195 STD 107,916 4,500
RegionalJet-700 72,500 3,500
A380n 1,238,998 50
A380n Bely 1,238,998 50
B777-300 ER 777,000 50

2514 Figure 4-4. Flexible Overlay on Rigid Pavement

2515

2516

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2517 4.9 SCI Equal to 100.

2518 4.9.1 An existing pavement with an SCI of 100 may require an overlay to strengthen the
2519 pavement to accept heavier airplanes. If the SCI of the base pavement is equal to 100,
2520 an additional input is required: the percent CDFU. FAARFIELD assumes the base
2521 pavement will deteriorate at different rates when the SCI is equal to 100 and after the
2522 SCI drops below 100. As with case (1), a trial overlay thickness is input, and the
2523 program iterates on that thickness until a 20-year life is predicted. The design thickness
2524 is the thickness that provides a 20-year predicted life.

2525 4.9.2 After adjusting structure to add in an HMA overlay layer, design life = 20 years, SCI
2526 =100 and CDFU = 12, the FAARFIELD analysis indicates than a 3.59 inch overlay is
2527 needed. Typically this would be rounded up to 4 inches. Traffic is what is expected
2528 over the next 20 years.

2529 Figure 4-5. HMA Overlay of Rigid - Traffic

2530

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2531 Figure 4-6. Flexible Overlay of Rigid

2532

2533 4.10 Concrete Overlays of Existing Concrete Pavements.

2534 The design of a concrete overlay of an existing rigid pavement is the most complex type
2535 of overlay design. The overlay design must consider the condition of the existing
2536 pavement, degree of bond between the overlay and existing pavement, and the
2537 deterioration of both the concrete overlay and the existing rigid pavement.
2538 FAARFIELD considers two possible degrees of bond: fully unbonded and fully bonded.
2539 Note: Rigid pavements that have significant structural distress are not candidates for an
2540 overlay. Generally, pavements with an SCI less than 80 are not acceptable candidates
2541 because they would require extensive repairs prior to the overlay.

2542 4.10.1 Fully Unbonded Concrete Overlay.

2543 You must intentionally eliminate bonding between the overlay and existing pavement
2544 for an unbonded concrete overlay of an existing rigid pavement. Typically, this is
2545 achieved by applying a thin hot mix layer to the existing rigid pavement or fabric
2546 bondbreaker. An SCI is required to describe the condition of the existing pavement. A
2547 trial overlay thickness is input and FAARFIELD iterates until a 20-year structural
2548 design life overlay thickness is achieved. The minimum thickness for a fully unbonded
2549 concrete overlay is 6 inches (150 mm)

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2550 4.10.1.1 Example - Rigid Overlay on Existing Fully Unbonded Rigid

2551 Pavement.

2552 Assume the existing pavement is to be strengthened to accommodate the

2553 following airplane mix:

Airplane Gross Weight Annual Departures

(lbs)
B747-200B 836000 850
Combi Mixed
B747-200B 836,000 850
Combi Mixed
Belly
B777-200 ER 634,500 1000
B767-200 361000 2500

2554 Assume an existing taxiway pavement composed of the following section:

Thickness Pavement Structure

14 inches P-501 PCC Surface Course (Mr =700)
12 inches P-209 Base Course
12 inches P-154 Aggregate Base Course
Subgrade, k = 172 pci (E = 15,000 psi)
2555 1. SCI is 80 for the existing PCC surface. Frost action is negligible.
2556 Assume that the PCC strength is 700 psi (4.83 MPa) for both the
2557 overlay and the existing concrete.

2558 The overlay structure computed by FAARFIELD for these conditions is:

Thickness Pavement Structure

8.88 inches PCC unbonded overlay
1.0 inches Debonding layer
14 inches PCC Surface Course
12 inches P-209 Base Course
12 inches P-154 Aggregate Subbase

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2559 2. This gives a total pavement thickness of 44.88 inches. Note that
2560 FAARFIELD does not include the debonding layer in thickness
2561 calculations.

2562 Figure 4-7. Rigid Overlay on Existing Fully Unbonded Rigid Pavement

2563

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2564 Figure 4-8. PCC Overlay of Rigid

2565

2566 3. The required overlay thickness is 8.88 inches (225 mm), which will
2567 be rounded to the nearest 0.5 inches, or 9.0 inches (228 mm) (Figure
2568 4-7).

2569 4.10.2 Bonded Concrete Overlays.

2570 4.10.2.1 On federally funded projects FAA approval is required for the use of a
2571 bonded overlay. Bonded overlays should only be considered when the
2572 existing rigid pavement is in good to excellent condition. Defects in the
2573 existing pavement are more likely to reflect through a bonded overlay than
2574 other types of concrete overlays. Good surface preparation and
2575 construction techniques are required to ensure a good bond.

2576 4.10.2.2 The new section behaves as a monolithic slab by bonding the concrete
2577 overlay to the existing rigid pavement. In FAARFIELD, a bonded overlay
2578 can be designed as a new rigid pavement, treating the existing concrete
2579 surface and the concrete overlay as a single layer. The flexural strength
2580 used in the FAARFIELD computation should be the strength of the
2581 existing concrete. The thickness of the bonded overlay required is
2582 computed by subtracting the thickness of the existing pavement from the
2583 total thickness of the required slab as computed by FAARFIELD.

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2584 4.10.3 Jointing of Concrete Overlays.

2585 4.10.3.1 Some modification to jointing criteria in paragraph 3.13.13 may be

2586 necessary because of the design and joint arrangement of the existing
2587 pavement. Unbonded concrete overlays constructed on existing rigid
2588 pavements should meet the joint spacing requirements of paragraph
2589 3.13.13.3, based on the overlay slab thickness. Joints in bonded overlays
2590 should be located within 0.5 inch (13 mm) of joints in the existing base
2591 pavement.

2592 4.10.3.2 The following may be used as a guide in the design and layout of joints in
2593 concrete overlays. Joints do not need to be the same type as in the old
2594 pavement except for some bonded overlay applications. It is not necessary
2595 to provide an isolation joint for each isolation joint in the old pavement;
2596 however, a saw cut or plane of weakness should be provided within 1 foot
2597 (0.3 m) of the existing isolation joint.
2598  The timing for sawing joints is extremely critical on concrete overlays
2599 to minimize the curling and warping stresses and prevent random
2600 cracking.
2601  Contraction joints in unbonded overlays must be placed approximately
2602 over but within 1 foot (0.3 m) of existing isolation, construction, or
2603 contraction joints. Should spacing result in slabs too long to control
2604 cracking, additional intermediate contraction joints are necessary.
2605  Overlay slabs longer or wider than 20 feet (6.1 m) should contain
2606 reinforcing steel regardless of overlay thickness. Reinforcement may
2607 be required any time that overlay joint spacing is different than the
2608 underlying existing slab joint spacing.

2609 4.10.4 Previously Overlaid Rigid Pavement.

2610 The design of an HMA overlay for a rigid pavement that already has an existing HMA
2611 overlay must consider many factors, including the condition and thickness of each layer
2612 of the existing HMA overlay. Depending on the existing HMA material condition and
2613 pavement grades, the HMA may require some or complete milling. The designer should
2614 treat the problem as if the existing HMA overlay were not present, calculate the overlay
2615 thickness required, and then adjust the calculated thickness to compensate for the
2616 existing overlay. Inconsistent results will often be produced if this procedure is not
2617 used. Use engineering judgment to determine the condition of the rigid pavement.

2618 4.10.5 Treatment of Thick HMA Overlays on Existing Rigid Pavements.

2619 For HMA overlay thickness, FAARFIELD assumes the existing rigid pavement
2620 supports load through flexural action. As the overlay thickness increases, the existing
2621 rigid pavement will tend to act more like a high quality base material. As the overlay
2622 thickness approaches the thickness of the rigid pavement, it may be more economical to
2623 treat the design as a new flexible pavement design on a high quality base material. In
2624 FAARFIELD options window one of the general options is to allow flexible

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2625 computation for Thick Overlays. If this option is selected FAARFIELD will do both
2626 computations and report out the thinner HMA overlay.

2627 4.11 Alternatives for Rehabilitation of Existing Pavement.

2628 4.11.1 An evaluation of the condition of the existing pavement will assist in the determination
2629 of what rehabilitation alternatives should be considered. For example If the condition
2630 of the existing rigid pavement is very poor (i.e., extensive structural cracking, joint
2631 faulting, “D” cracking, etc.), rubblization may not be appropriate.

2632 4.11.2 In addition to the previously discussed flexible and rigid overlays the following may
2633 also be considered:
2634

2635 4.11.2.1 Full-Depth In-Place HMA Reclamation.

2636 This technique consists of pulverizing the full pavement section and may
2637 include mixing in a stabilization agent (fly ash, cement, emulsified or
2638 foamed asphalt), leveling, and compacting the reclaimed material layers
2639 into a uniform, base layer prior to placement of HMA layer(s). The FAA
2640 is investigating the strength of FDR materials at the NAPMRC and plan to
2641 release a specification regarding FDR when this research is complete.
2642 Until the FAA develops a standard specification for FDR, on federally
2643 funded projects the use of FDR requires a MOS in accordance with FAA
2644 Order 5100.1.

2645 4.11.2.2 Rubblization of Existing PCC Pavement.

2646 Rubblization of existing PCC may be effective in mitigating reflective
2647 cracking. Using this process, the section is designed as a flexible
2648 pavement, treating the broken rigid pavement as base course. Reflective
2649 cracking is reduced or eliminated.

2650 4.11.2.2.1 Thickness Design for Rubblized Concrete Pavements.

2651 1. Rubblization of deteriorated concrete pavements is a method of
2652 pavement rehabilitation. The rubblization process eliminates the slab
2653 action by breaking the concrete slab into 1- to 3-inch (25 to 75 mm)
2654 pieces at the top and 3- to 15-inch (75 to 381 mm) pieces at the
2655 bottom. The rubblized concrete layer behaves as a tightly
2656 interlocked, high-density, non-stabilized base, which prevents the
2657 formation of reflective cracks in the overlay.
2658 2. The thickness design procedure for an overlay over a rubblized
2659 concrete base is similar to the design of a new flexible or rigid
2660 pavement design. In FAARFIELD rubblized PCC layer may be
2661 modeled as a ‘User Defined’ layer with recommended modulus
2662 values ranging from 100,000-psi to 400,000-psi. Engineering

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2663 judgment is required for the selection of an appropriate modulus

2664 value for the rubblized PCC layer.
2665 3. The following ranges are suggested for selecting a design modulus
2666 value of rubblized PCC on airfields:
2667  For slabs 6 to 8 inches thick: Moduli from 100,000 to 135,000
2668 psi
2669  For slabs 8 to 14 inches thick: Moduli from 135,000 to 235,000
2670 psi
2671  For slabs >14 inches thick: Moduli from 235,000 to 400,000 psi
2672 4. The selected value is influenced by many factors, including the slab
2673 thickness and strength of the layer being rubblized, the condition and
2674 type of subbase and subgrade materials, and rubblized particle sizes.
2675 Reference AAPTP 04-01, Development of Guidelines for
2676 Rubblization, and Engineering Brief 66, Rubblized Portland Cement
2677 Concrete Base Course, for further information.
2678 5. It is important to note that you must provide subsurface drainage for
2679 rubblized layers. In the AAPTP 04-01 report it is recommended that
2680 edge drains be installed prior to rubblization.
2681 Note: See EB 66 Rubblized PCC base course for additional guidance on
2682 rubblization.

2683 4.11.2.3 Crack and Seat.

2684 The crack and seat process involves cracking a PCC layer into pieces
2685 typically measuring 1.5 to 2 feet (0.46 m to 0.6 m) and firmly seating the
2686 pieces into the subgrade prior to overlaying with asphalt concrete. Crack
2687 and seat has generally been displaced by rubblization methods.
2688 Coordinate with FAA regarding the use of rubblization or crack and seat
2689 techniques during the design phase on federally funded projects.

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2690 4.11.2.4 Pavement Interlayers.

2691 4.11.2.4.1 The use of interlayers does not eliminate the need to fill cracks in existing
2692 pavement. Pavement Interlayers may retard reflective cracking in limited
2693 applications, but should be compared to providing additional thickness of
2694 HMA. Pavement interlayers are located immediately on top of the surface
2695 being overlayed. Interlayers may be an aggregate binder course; stress
2696 absorbing membrane interlayer (SAMI); paving fabric; a grid; or a
2697 combination.

2698 4.11.2.4.2 Pavement interlayers should not be considered when existing pavements,
2699 flexible or rigid, show evidence of excessive deflections, substantial
2700 thermal stresses, and/or poor drainage. In addition, interlayers may
2701 impede future maintenance or rehabilitation.

2702 4.11.2.4.3 Paving fabrics may provide limited waterproofing capability when
2703 overlaying full depth asphalt pavement structures. The paving fabrics
2704 provide some degree of water protection of the existing pavement
2705 subgrade. However the fabric may trap water in the upper layers of the
2706 pavement structure leading to premature surface deterioration.

2707 4.11.2.4.4 FAARFIELD does not attribute any structural benefits to pavement any
2708 type of interlayers in HMA thickness design. On federally funded projects
2709 the pavement engineer must evaluate the cost and benefits of an interlayer
2710 verses additional HMA thickness.

2711 4.12 Preparation of the Existing Pavement Surface for an Overlay.

2712 Before proceeding with construction of an overlay, correct defective areas in the
2713 existing surface, base, subbase, and subgrade. If not corrected, deficiencies in the base
2714 pavement will often be reflected in an overlay. Refer to AC 150/5370-10, Item P-101,
2715 Surface Preparation, and AC 150/5380-6, Guidelines and Procedures for Maintenance
2716 of Airport Pavements, for additional information on pavement repair methods and
2717 procedures.

2718 4.12.1 Flexible Pavements.

2719 Distresses in flexible pavements typically consist of: pavement cracking, disintegration,
2720 and distortion. Refer to AC 150/5380-6 for additional guidance on pavement distresses.

2721 4.12.1.1 Patching.

2722 Remove localized areas of distressed and failed pavement and replace with
2723 new HMA. Failures usually occur when the pavement is deficient in
2724 thickness, the subgrade consists of unstable material, or poor drainage has
2725 reduced subgrade support. To correct this condition, the subgrade material
2726 should be replaced with a select subgrade soil or proper drainage facilities
2727 installed. Following the correction of the subgrade condition, the subbase,
2728 base, and surface courses must be placed and compacted.

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2729 4.12.1.2 Milling.

2730 Surface irregularities and depressions, such as shoving, rutting, scattered
2731 areas of settlement, “birdbaths”, and bleeding should be corrected by
2732 milling and by leveling with suitable HMA mixtures. The leveling course
2733 should consist of high-quality HMA, see AC 150/5370-10 P-401 or P-403.

2734 4.12.1.3 Cracks and Joints.

2735 Repair cracks and joints in accordance with P-101, Surface Preparation.
2736 Refer to AC 150/5380-6 for additional guidance on crack and joint repair.

2737 4.12.1.4 Grooves.

2738 It is not necessary to remove existing pavement grooves prior to an asphalt
2739 or concrete overlay.

2740 4.12.1.5 Porous Friction Courses (PFC).

2741 Existing PFCs must be removed prior to any overlay.

2742 4.12.1.6 Paint and Surface Contaminants.

2743 Paint must be removed or scarified prior to an asphalt overlay to ensure
2744 bonding of the overlay to the existing pavement. Surface contaminants
2745 that will prevent bonding of the surface overlay (e.g. rubber, oil spills,
2746 etc.) must be removed prior to an asphalt overlay.

2747 4.12.2 Rigid Pavements.

2748 Narrow transverse, longitudinal, and corner cracks need no special attention unless
2749 there is a significant amount of displacement and faulting between the separate slabs. If
2750 the subgrade is stable and no pumping has occurred, the low areas can be addressed as
2751 part of the overlay and no other corrective measures are needed. If pumping has
2752 occurred at the slab ends or the slabs are subject to rocking under the movement of
2753 airplanes, subgrade support may be improved by chemical or cement grout injection to
2754 fill the voids that have developed. Grouting is a specialized technique that must be
2755 done under the direction of an experienced pavement or geotechnical engineer.

2756 4.12.2.1 Broken and Unstable Slabs.

2757 Localized replacement of broken slabs may be required before starting
2758 construction of an overlay. However, badly broken and unstable
2759 pavement slabs due to uneven bearing on the subgrade can also be broken
2760 into smaller pieces to obtain a firmer seating. Crack and seat procedures
2761 may be used when broken and unstable slabs are extensive throughout the
2762 pavement area. Refer to AAPTP 05-04, Techniques for Mitigation of
2763 Reflective Cracks, for additional information.

2764 4.12.2.2 Leveling Course.

2765 When the existing pavement is uneven due to slab distortion, faulting,
2766 settlement, or after a crack and seat procedure, an HMA leveling course
2767 may be required.

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2768 4.12.2.3 Cracks and Joints.

2769 Repair cracks and joints in accordance with P-101, Surface Preparation.
2770 Refer to AC 150/5380-6 for additional guidance on crack and joint repair.

2771 4.12.2.4 Surface Cleaning.

2772 The pavement surface should be swept clean of all dirt, dust, and foreign
2773 material after all repairs have been completed and prior to the placing of
2774 the overlay. Any excess joint-sealing material should be trimmed from
2775 rigid pavements. Paint does not require removal prior to a concrete
2776 overlay.

2777 4.12.3 Bonded Concrete Overlays.

2778 The bond between existing concrete and a concrete overlay is extremely difficult to
2779 achieve and special attention is required to ensure the bond with the existing pavement.
2780 Surface cleaning and preparation by shot peening or mechanical texturing by cold
2781 milling have been used successfully to achieve an adequate bonding surface. A bonding
2782 agent or neat cement grout must be placed on the prepared surface immediately ahead
2783 of the overlay placement to achieve a bond. FAA approval is required prior to the
2784 design of a bonded PCC overlay.

2785 4.12.4 Materials and Methods.

2786 AC 150/5370-10, Standards for Specifying Construction of Airports, specifies quality of
2787 materials and mixes, control tests, methods of construction, and workmanship for
2788 pavement materials. Use of materials other than PCC pavement (Item P-501) or HMA
2789 pavement (Item P-401) requires FAA approval.

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2790 CHAPTER 5. PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL EVALUATION

2791 5.1 Purposes of Structural Evaluation.

2792 This chapter covers the structural evaluation of pavements for all weights of airplanes.
2793 Airport pavement and structure (i.e., bridges, culverts, storm drains) evaluations are
2794 necessary to assess the ability of an existing pavement to support different types,
2795 weights, and volumes of airplane traffic and for use in the planning and design of
2796 improvements to the airport. When visual inspection indicates structural distresses, the
2797 pavement strength may not be adequate and physical testing may be required. See AC
2798 150/5380-7, Airport Pavement Management Program (PMP) for information on visual
2799 inspection and evaluation of pavement condition and pavement management.

2800 5.2 Evaluation Process.

2801 The structural evaluation of airport pavements is a methodical step-by-step process.
2802 The steps described below should be used for all pavements.

2803 5.2.1 Records Research.

2804 Perform a thorough review of construction data and history, design considerations,
2805 specifications, testing methods and results, as-built drawings, and maintenance history.
2806 Weather records and the most complete traffic history available are also part of a usable
2807 records file. Review the data in the current Pavement Management Program (PMP)
2808 developed in accordance with AC 150/5380-7.

2809 5.2.2 Site Inspection.

2810 The site should be visited and the condition of the pavements noted by visual
2811 inspection. This should include, in addition to the inspection of the pavements, an
2812 examination of the existing drainage conditions and drainage structures at the site. Note
2813 any evidence of the adverse effects of frost action, swelling soils, reactive aggregates,
2814 etc. Refer to Chapter 2. and AC 150/5320-5, Surface Drainage Design, for additional
2815 information on soil, frost, and drainage, respectively. Refer to ASTM D 5340, Standard
2816 Test Method for Airport Pavement Condition Index Surveys, on conducting a visual
2817 survey of pavements.

2818 5.2.3 Pavement Condition Index.

2819 The Pavement Condition Index (PCI) is a useful tool for evaluating airport pavements.
2820 The PCI is a numerical rating of the surface condition of a pavement and indicates
2821 functional performance with implications of structural performance. PCI values range
2822 from 100 for a pavement with no defects to 0 for a pavement with no remaining
2823 functional life. The index can serve as a common basis for describing pavement
2824 distresses and comparing pavements. ASTM D 5340 provides recommendations on
2825 conducting a PCI survey.

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2826 5.2.4 Sampling and Testing.

2827 The site inspection, records search, and reason for evaluation will determine the need
2828 for physical tests and materials analyses. A material evaluation for the design of an
2829 individual project will require more sampling and testing than an evaluation performed
2830 for a network analysis of the pavements at an airport. Sampling and testing provides
2831 information on the thickness, quality, and general condition of the existing pavement
2832 structure and materials.

2833 5.2.5 Direct Sampling.

2834 The basic evaluations consist of visual inspections with supplemental sampling and
2835 testing as needed. For a relatively new pavement constructed to FAA standards with no
2836 visible sign of wear or stress, structural capacity may be based on data as reported on
2837 FAA Form 5100-1, Airport Pavement Design (Appendix B), and the as-built sections.

2838 5.2.6 Nondestructive Testing (NDT) Using Falling Weight Deflectometer.

2839 NDT consists of observing pavement response to a controlled dynamic load, such as the
2840 Falling- Weight Deflectometer (FWD). The major advantages of NDT are the
2841 pavement is tested in place under actual conditions of moisture, density, etc.; the
2842 disruption of traffic is minimal; and the need for destructive tests is minimized. The
2843 most common NDT tools available to assist the evaluator include the FWD and Heavy
2844 Falling Weight Deflectometer (HWD). Appendix C contains additional guidance on
2845 using these tools.

2846 5.2.7 NDT – Other Methods.

2847 5.2.7.1 Ground Penetrating Radar.

2848 Ground penetrating radar is a nondestructive testing procedure that can
2849 also be used to study subsurface conditions. Ground penetrating radar
2850 depends on differences in dielectric constants to discriminate between
2851 materials. The technique is sometimes used to locate voids or foreign
2852 objects, such as abandoned fuel tanks and tree stumps, under pavements
2853 and embankments.

2854 5.2.7.2 Infrared Thermography.

2855 Infrared thermography is a nondestructive testing procedure where
2856 differences in infrared emissions are observed to determine certain
2857 physical properties of the pavement.

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2858 5.2.7.3 Evaluation Report.

2859 5.2.7.3.1 The analyses, findings, and test results should be incorporated into an
2860 evaluation report, which becomes a permanent record for future reference.
2861 Evaluation reports can be in any form, but the FAA recommends it include
2862 a drawing identifying limits of the evaluation. Analysis of information
2863 should culminate in the assignment of load carrying capacity to the
2864 pavement sections under consideration.

2865 5.2.7.3.2 The evaluation should also consider any impacts frost action may have on
2866 the pavement structure. Frost evaluations include review of soil, moisture,
2867 and weather conditions conducive to detrimental frost action. Frost action
2868 may result in reduction in the load capacity of the pavement structure.

2869 5.3 Flexible Pavements.

2870 Evaluation of existing flexible pavement structures requires, at a minimum:
2871  the determination of the thickness of the component layers and
2872  the strength of the subgrade, expressed as CBR or modulus (E).

2873 5.3.1 Layer Thicknesses.

2874 Determine layer thicknesses from borings, NDT, or as-built drawings and records.

2875 5.3.2 Subgrade CBR.

2876 5.3.2.1 Laboratory or Field CBR.

2877 Laboratory CBR tests should be performed on soaked specimens in
2878 accordance with ASTM D 1883, Standard Test Method for California
2879 Bearing Ratio (CBR) of Laboratory-Compacted Soils. Perform field
2880 CBRs in accordance with ASTM D 4429, Standard Test Method for CBR
2881 (California Bearing Ratio) of Soils in Place. Field CBR tests on existing
2882 pavements less than 3 years old may not be representative unless the
2883 subgrade moisture content has stabilized.

2884 5.3.2.2 Backcalculate Modulus from NDT.

2885 Where it is impractical to perform laboratory or field CBR tests, a back
2886 calculated subgrade elastic modulus value may be obtained from NDT test
2887 results. Appendix C gives the procedures for obtaining the back
2888 calculated modulus value. The back calculated modulus value should be
2889 input directly into FAARFIELD without manually converting to CBR.

2890 5.3.3 Layer Properties.

2891 The materials in FAARFIELD are designated by corresponding FAA specifications.
2892 For example, where an existing flexible pavement consists of an HMA surface on a
2893 high-quality crushed aggregate base meeting FAA Item P-209, the base layer should be
2894 input as P-209 Crushed Aggregate in FAARFIELD. Where the quality of materials in a

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2895 pavement structure to be evaluated differ significantly from the assumptions for FAA
2896 standard materials as given in AC 150/5370-10, it may be necessary to use the “User-
2897 defined” or “variable” layer types in FAARFIELD to input an appropriate modulus
2898 value. FAARFIELD allows an unlimited number of layers beneath the HMA surface;
2899 however, evaluation of more than 5 layers is not recommended.

2900 5.3.4 Example of Flexible Pavement Evaluation Procedures.

2901 1. After establishing evaluation parameters for the existing flexible pavement, use an
2902 evaluation process that is essentially the reverse of the design procedure.
2903 FAARFIELD can be used to determine the structural life of the existing pavement
2904 for a given traffic mix or alternatively, the pavement structure that will produce a
2905 20-year life for a given traffic mix. Required inputs are the subgrade CBR or
2906 modulus value, thicknesses of surfacing, base and subbase courses, and annual
2907 departure levels for all airplanes using the pavement.

2908 Assume an existing taxiway pavement was constructed to FAA standards and
2909 consists of the following pavement structure (Figure 5-1):

Thickness Pavement Structure

4 inches P-401 HMA Surface Course
5 inches P-401/403 Stabilized Base Course
12 inches P-209 Crushed Aggregated Base Course
10 inches P-154 Subbase Course
Subgrade, CBR = 5

2910 The taxiway will serve the following mix of airplanes:

Airplane Gross Weight (lbs) Annual Departures

B737-800 174,700 3000
A321-200 opt 207,014 2500
EMB -195 STD 107,916 4500
Regional Jet - 700 72,500 3500
2911 2. FAARFIELD will be used to determine the available structural life based on the
2912 above traffic mixture. Both subgrade CDF and HMA CDF will be checked.
2913 3. The following steps are used:
2914 a. In the Structure screen, enter the layer thickness and material type for each
2915 layer.
2916 Note: Since the pavement layers were constructed to FAA standards, the
2917 corresponding standard material types can be used for each layer.

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2918 b. Enter the above airplane list using the Airplanes screen.
2919 c. On the Options screen, ensure the “HMA CDF” option is selected.
2920 d. Click the “Life” button.

2921 Figure 5-1. Existing Taxiway Pavement Structure

2922

2923 4. This evaluation indicates an overlay is recommended to support the given traffic
2924 mix. The computed value of subgrade CDF (Sub CDF) is 23.16, which is greater
2925 than 1 indicating that the structure has insufficient thickness to protect the
2926 subgrade for the given traffic for the design life being evaluated. The predicted
2927 structural fatigue life for the given structure and traffic loading is 0.9 years. This
2928 predicted structural life is based on the subgrade failure criteria. FAARFIELD
2929 also reports the HMA CDF value is 0.57. Although this value is less than 1.0, it is
2930 relatively high, indicating the HMA surface may be at risk of fatigue cracking.
2931 The procedures in Chapter 4. should be used to design the required overlay
2932 thickness.
2933 5. The above example assumes that all layers were constructed to FAA standards.
2934 Often it is necessary to rely on NDT or other methods for layer characterization as
2935 described in paragraph 5.2.4, since it is not known what materials were used to
2936 construct the pavement section. The User-Defined layer should be used to
2937 represent structural layers that deviate significantly from standard materials.
2938 Note: Keep in mind that depending on the location of the layer being characterized,
2939 even large deviations from the standard material modulus values in FAARFIELD may
2940 have a relatively minor effect on the predicted structural life.

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2941 5.3.5 Figure 5-2 is similar to Figure 5-1, except that the HMA surface has now been replaced
2942 with a User-Defined layer with an E = 240,000 psi (1,655 MPa). In this case increasing
2943 the modulus by 20 percent only slightly increases the predicted structural life, from 0.9
2944 years to 1.1 years. Considering the variability inherent in the FAARFIELD design
2945 model, as well as the uncertainties associated with the other input data (future traffic
2946 levels, aircraft weights, subgrade CBR, etc.), this small increase in predicted life should
2947 not be considered significant.

2948 Figure 5-2. Existing Taxiway Structure with User-Defined Surface Layer

2949 “

2950 5.4 Overlay Analysis.

2951 Typically, the next step would be an evaluation of how much additional surfacing is
2952 required to support the current traffic mix (an overlay analysis). This is an iterative
2953 process that considers various surface thicknesses, including whether milling of the
2954 existing flexible surface is necessary. For example, milling 1 inch (25 mm) of the
2955 existing surface and adding 4 inches (100 mm) of P-401/403 will provide a structural
2956 fatigue life of 19.2 years (see Figure 5-3). Note the remaining existing 3 inch (75 mm)
2957 surface course and 5 inch (125 mm) stabilized base is modeled as an 8 inch (200 mm)
2958 stabilized base in this example. Information from NDT testing to characterize the
2959 existing materials could be modeled as user defined layers.

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2960 Figure 5-3. Flexible Pavement Evaluation

2961

2962 5.5 Rigid Pavements.

2963 Evaluation of rigid pavements requires, at a minimum:
2964  the thickness of the component layers,
2965  the flexural strength of the concrete, and
2966  the modulus of the subbase and subgrade.

2967 5.5.1 Layer Thicknesses.

2968 Determine thicknesses from borings, cores, or as-built records of the pavement.

2969 5.5.2 Concrete Flexural Strength.

2970 5.5.2.1 Construction records or NDT data is typically used as the source for
2971 concrete flexural strength data. Construction strength data of the concrete
2972 may require adjustment reflecting the age of the concrete. Correlations
2973 between flexural strength and other strength tests are approximate and
2974 considerable variations are likely.

2975 5.5.2.2 ASTM C 496, Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of
2976 Cylindrical Concrete Specimens, provides an approximate relationship
2977 between concrete flexural strength and tensile splitting strengths, which is
2978 given by the following formula:
2979 R = 1.02 (T) + 117 psi or 1.02 (T) + 0.81 MPa

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2980 R = flexural strength, psi (MPa)

2981 T = tensile split strength, psi (MPa)

2982 5.5.3 Subgrade Modulus.

2983 5.5.3.1 Construction records or NDT data is typically used as for subgrade
2984 modulus. A back-calculated subgrade elastic modulus value may be
2985 obtained from NDT test results. Appendix C gives the procedures for
2986 obtaining the back calculated modulus value.

2987 5.5.3.2 The modulus of subgrade reaction, k, can be determined by plate bearing
2988 tests performed on the subgrade in accordance with the procedures
2989 established in AASHTO T 222 but is more commonly obtained from NDT
2990 test procedures such as FWD or HWD.

2991 5.5.4 Back Calculated E Modulus Value or k Value in FAARFIELD.

2992 5.5.4.1 The back-calculated E modulus value or k value can be input directly into
2993 FAARFIELD. If a back-calculated k-value is used, FAARFIELD will
2994 convert it to an E-modulus using the formula given in paragraph 2.5.3.

2995 5.5.4.2 FAARFIELD materials are designated by corresponding FAA

2996 specifications. Where the quality of materials in a pavement structure to
2997 be evaluated differs significantly from the assumptions for FAA standard
2998 in AC 150/5370-10, it may be necessary to use the “undefined” or
2999 “variable” layer types in FAARFIELD to input an appropriate modulus
3000 value. In FAARFIELD, the number of structural layers above the
3001 subgrade for a rigid pavement is limited to 4, including the PCC surface.
3002 If the actual rigid pavement structure evaluated consists of more than 4
3003 distinct layers, two or more of the lower layers must be combined to
3004 reduce the total number of layers to 4 or fewer for analysis. Rigid
3005 pavement evaluation is not highly sensitive to modulus properties of lower
3006 layers above the subgrade and the life computation should not be
3007 significantly affected.

3008 5.5.5 Example of Rigid Pavement Evaluation Procedures.

3009 5.5.5.1 FAARFIELD can be used to determine the remaining structural life of the
3010 existing pavement for a given traffic mix.

3011 5.5.5.2 A taxiway was designed for a 20 year life called for the following
3012 pavement structure, 16.46 inches P501, 6 inches P304, and 12 inches P209
3013 on a 15000 psi subgrade.

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3014 For the following airplane traffic mix:

Airplane Name Gross Weight (lbs) Annual Departures

B737-800 174,700 3000
A321-200 opt 207,014 2500
EMB -195 STD 107916 4500
Regional Jet - 700 72,500 3500

3015 Field investigations based on cores taken on the taxiway have determined the in-
3016 place pavement structure consists of the following pavement structure:

Thickness Pavement Structure

17.25 inches P-501 PCC Surface Course(Mr = 685)
6 inches P-304 Cement-treated Base Course
12 inches P-209 Base Course
Subgrade, E = 7500 psi

3017 5.5.5.3 The current concrete flexural strength was estimated from compressive
3018 tests on cores as 685 psi. The subgrade was evaluated by NDT testing and
3019 found to have an E-modulus of approximately 7,500 psi. The base and
3020 subbase layers were constructed to meet FAA standards so the
3021 corresponding standard material types (P-304 Cement-Treated Base
3022 Course and P-209 Base Course) are used in the evaluation.

3023 The airplane traffic mix using the taxiway has changed, and now consists of the
3024 following traffic mix:

Airplane Gross Weight (lbs) Annual Departures

B737-800 174,700 3000
A321-200 opt 207,014 2500
EMB-195 107,916 4500
STD
Regional Jet – 72,500 3500
700
A380 1,238,998 50
B777-300 ER 777,000 50

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3025 5.5.5.4 A life evaluation of the current pavement structure indicates a remaining
3026 structural fatigue life of 14.0 years with the new traffic mix (Figure 5-3).
3027 Note this life is not directly related to number of years but rather reflects
3028 number of fatigue cycles that the pavement is expected to have prior to
3029 reaching an SCI of 80. Actual pavement performance will be impacted by
3030 any future changes in the airplane fleet mix composition and actual
3031 operating weights. The taxiway pavement should be monitored over time
3032 with regular pavement inspections.

3033 Figure 5-4. Rigid Pavement Evaluation

3034

3035 5.6 Use of Results.

3036 If the evaluation is being used for planning purposes and the existing pavement is found
3037 to be deficient relative to the design standards given in Chapter 3. , the airport owner
3038 should be notified of the deficiency. The airport owner should then develop a
3039 corrective action plan of how they plan to address the deficiency, e.g. strengthen
3040 pavement and/or limit activity and include this in the airports capital improvement plan.
3041 If the evaluation is being used as part of a design for a project to reconstruct or upgrade
3042 the facility, the procedures given in Chapter 3. or Chapter 4. should be used to design
3043 the reconstruction or overlay project. In this case, the main concern is not the load-
3044 carrying capacity but the difference between the existing pavement structure and the
3045 new pavement structure needed to support the revised forecast traffic.

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3046 5.7 Reporting Pavement Weight Bearing Strength.

3047 5.7.1 Aircraft Classification Number/Pavement Classification Number (ACN/PCN).

3048 5.7.1.1 The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has a standardized
3049 method of reporting airport pavement weight bearing strength known as
3050 Aircraft Classification Number/Pavement Classification Number
3051 (ACN/PCN). This method of reporting is based on the concept of
3052 reporting strength in terms of a standardized equivalent single wheel load.
3053 The FAA has developed a software program, COMFAA, which may be
3054 used to compute PCN. AC 150/5335-5, Standardized Method of
3055 Reporting Airport Pavement Strength – PCN, provides guidance on using
3056 the COMFAA software and on calculating and reporting PCN.

3057 5.7.1.2 Report the PCN code to the appropriate regional FAA Airports Division,
3058 either in writing or as part of the annual update to the Airport Master
3059 Record, FAA Form 5010-l.
3060

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3061 CHAPTER 6. PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR SHOULDERS

3062 6.1 Purpose.

3063 6.1.1 This chapter provides a design procedure for paved airfield shoulders. Note blast pads
3064 and stopways may be designed following these same procedures.

3065 6.1.2 Paved or surfaced shoulders provide resistance to erosion and debris generation from jet
3066 blast. Jet blast can cause erosion of unprotected soil immediately adjacent to airfield
3067 pavements. The shoulder must be capable of safely supporting the occasional passage
3068 of the most demanding airplanes as well as emergency and maintenance vehicles.

3069 6.1.3 Paved shoulders are required for runways and taxiways accommodating Airplane
3070 Design Group (ADG) IV and higher aircraft and are recommended for runways
3071 accommodating ADG-III aircraft. For shoulders adjacent to runways accommodating
3072 only ADG-I and ADG-II aircraft, the following surface types are recommended: turf,
3073 aggregate-turf, soil cement, lime or bituminous stabilized soil. Refer to AC 150/5300-
3074 13 for standards and recommendations for airport design.

3075 6.2 Shoulder Design.

3076 6.2.1 Shoulders are designed to accommodate a total of 15 fully loaded passes of the most
3077 demanding airplane in addition to anticipated traffic from airport maintenance vehicles.
3078 Minimum shoulder pavement layer thicknesses are given in Table 6-1. Shoulder
3079 pavement thicknesses are designed to allow safe operation of the airplanes on an
3080 emergency basis across the paved area without damage to the airplane. Flexible
3081 shoulder pavement sections may experience noticeable vertical movements with each
3082 passage of an airplane and may require inspection and/or limited repair after each
3083 airplane operation. Rigid shoulder pavement sections may experience cracking after
3084 each airplane operation.

3085 6.2.2 Drainage from the adjacent airfield pavement base and subbase must be considered
3086 when establishing the total thickness of the shoulder pavement section. A thicker
3087 shoulder section than structurally required and edge drains may be necessary to avoid
3088 trapping water under the airfield pavement. Typically this is accomplished by using
3089 minimum base/subbase on the outer edge and tapering back to match with the
3090 base/subbase under the adjacent runway pavement. AC 150/5320-5, Airport Drainage
3091 Design, provides additional guidance on drainage requirements.

3092 6.2.3 Shoulder pavement thickness is determined using the FAARFIELD design software.
3093 Because the pavement is not intended to carry regular aircraft traffic, a complete traffic
3094 mixture is not considered. Instead the airplane requiring the thickest pavement section is
3095 used to determine the pavement shoulder thickness. As described in the procedure
3096 below, it is not necessary to perform a separate design for each airplane in the traffic
3097 mix. Rather, several airplanes with the largest contribution to the CDF should be
3098 evaluated to determine which is the most demanding for shoulder design. Aircraft

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 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F

3099 Rescue and Firefighting (ARFF), maintenance, and snow removal vehicles that operate
3100 on the shoulder should be considered separate of the aircraft in shoulder thickness
3101 pavement design.

3102 6.2.4 The following steps are used for the shoulder design procedure:
3103 Step 1: Create a new job file in FAARFIELD with the proposed pavement
3104 section for the shoulder design. Include all desired pavement
3105 layers, e.g. surface course, base course, stabilized course, subbase
3106 course, etc. Layer thickness should meet minimum thickness
3107 requirements for shoulder design.
3108 Note: It may be necessary to use the User Defined pavement layer
3109 to represent the proposed shoulder pavement cross-section because
3110 of the minimum shoulder pavement layer thickness requirements.
3111 Step 2: Input all airplanes from the traffic mixture and set annual
3112 departures to 1,200 annual departures. From the FAARFIELD
3113 Structure screen, click the “Life” button. Return to the airplane
3114 mixture, and scroll over to the column labeled “CDF Max for
3115 Airplanes”. In most instances, the airplane with the highest CDF
3116 Max value will be the most demanding airplane and will control
3117 the shoulder pavement design. However, the top few airplanes
3118 with high CDF max values should be evaluated because the
3119 thickness of the pavement section will influence which aircraft is
3120 the most demanding.
3121 Step 3: Return to the FAARFIELD Airplane screen and clear the traffic
3122 mixture except for the most demanding airplane to be used to
3123 design the shoulder pavement thickness. Adjust operating weight
3124 as appropriate.
3125 Step 4: Change annual departures to 1 departure.
3126 Step 5: Return to the Structure screen and confirm the design period is 15
3127 years. The intent is to design a pavement for 15 total departures of
3128 the most demanding airplane or vehicle.
3129 Step 6: Confirm the composition and thickness of pavement layers and
3130 that the correct layer is designated for thickness iteration. The
3131 iteration layer will be shown with a small arrow along the left side.
3132 Step 7 Click on the “Design Structure” button to design the minimum
3133 pavement section for the individual airplane.
3134 Step 8: Repeat Steps 3-7 for all airplanes with significant CDF max
3135 contributions in the traffic mixture. The design for the shoulder
3136 pavement is the pavement section with the greatest thickness
3137 requirement.
3138 Note: A thicker shoulder section than structurally required and
3139 edge drains may be necessary to provide drainage from the

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 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F

3140 adjacent airfield pavement base and subbase to avoid trapping

3141 water under the airfield pavement.
3142 Step 9: Check shoulder pavement thickness requirements for ARFF, snow
3143 removal, and maintenance vehicles that operate at the airport.
3144 These vehicles should be checked using the number of passes
3145 (departures) that will be expected and are not limited to the 15 used
3146 when checking the most demanding aircraft.
3147 Step 10: In areas prone to frost, check frost protection requirements as
3148 discussed in paragraph 6.4.
3149 Step 11: The final shoulder thickness design will be the greatest of the
3150 thickness requirements for the most demanding airplane (Steps 3-
3151 7), non-airplane vehicle traffic, minimum layer thickness required
3152 for frost protection, or the minimum shoulder pavement layer
3153 thickness (Table 6-1).

3154 6.3 Shoulder Material Requirements.

3155 6.3.1 Asphalt Surface Course Materials.

3156 The material should be of high quality, similar to FAA Item P-401/403, and compacted
3157 to an average target density of 93 percent of maximum theoretical density. See AC
3158 150/5370-10, Item P401 and P403.

3159 6.3.2 Portland Cement Concrete Surface Course Materials.

3160 The material should be of high quality, similar to FAA Item P-501, with a minimum
3161 design flexural strength of 600 psi (4.14 MPa). See AC 150/5370-10, Item P501.

3162 6.3.3 Base Course Materials.

3163 Base course materials must be high quality materials, similar to FAA Items P-208, P-
3164 209, P-301, or P-304. See AC 150/5370-10, Item P2-208, P209, P-301 or P-304.

3165 6.3.4 Subbase Course Materials.

3166 Place subbase course material in accordance with AC 150/5370-10, Item P-154.

3167 6.3.5 Subgrade Materials.

3168 Prepare subgrade materials in accordance with AC 150/5370-10, Item P-152.

3169 6.4 Shoulders Areas Susceptible to Frost Heave.

3170 In areas prone to frost heave, it may be necessary to increase the thickness of the
3171 shoulder pavement to avoid differential frost heave. Additional thickness of the
3172 pavement beyond that necessary for structural design may be achieved with any
3173 material suitable for pavement construction. The material should possess a CBR value
3174 higher than the subgrade and have non-frost susceptible properties. Place the additional

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 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F

3175 layer immediately on the subgrade surface below all base and subbase layers. The FAA
3176 recommends limited subgrade frost protection in accordance with paragraph 3.11.17.

3177 6.5 Reporting Paved Shoulder Design.

3178 Include FAARFIELD analysis as part of the Engineer’s Design Report on federally
3179 funded projects.

3180 Table 6-1. Minimum Shoulder Pavement Layer Thickness

Layer Type FAA Specification Item Minimum Thickness, in (mm)

HMA Surface P-401, P-403 4.0 (100)
PCC Surface P-501 6.0 (150)
Aggregate Base P-209, P-208, 6.0 (150)1
Course
Subbase (if needed) P-154 4.0 (100)
3181 Note:
3182 1. Minimum thickness of aggregate base

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Appendix A

3183 APPENDIX A. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS PERTINENT TO PAVEMENT

3184 FOUNDATIONS

3185

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Appendix A

3186 Page Intentionally Blank

3187

A-2
 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F
Appendix B

3188 APPENDIX B. DESIGN OF STRUCTURES.

3189 B.1 BACKGROUND.

3190 Airport structures such as culverts and bridges are usually designed to last for the
3191 foreseeable future of the airport. Information concerning the landing gear arrangement
3192 of future heavy airplanes is speculative. It may be assumed with sufficient confidence
3193 that strengthening of pavements to accommodate future airplanes can be performed
3194 without undue problems. Strengthening of structures, however, may prove to be
3195 extremely difficult, costly, and time-consuming. Point loadings on some structures may
3196 be increased; while on overpasses, the entire airplanes weight may be imposed on a
3197 deck span, pier, or footing.

3198 B.2 RECOMMENDED DESIGN PARAMETERS.

3199 B.2.1 Structural Considerations.

3200 For many structures the design is highly dependent upon the airplane landing gear
3201 configuration. Design for the largest airplane at maximum gross weight that could use
3202 the airport over the life of the airport. Consider all loading conditions similar to the
3203 AASHTO Load Factor Resistance Design (LFRD).

3204 B.2.2 Foundation Design.

3205 B.2.2.1 Foundation design will vary with soil type and depth. No departure from
3206 accepted methodology is anticipated; except that for shallow structures,
3207 such as inlets and culverts, the concentrated loads may require heavier and
3208 wider spread footings than those presently provided by the structural
3209 standards in current use. For buried structures, such as culverts, the
3210 following guidance from AASHTO is recommended.
3211 B.2.2.2 When the depth of fill is less than 2 feet, the wheel loads will be treated as
3212 concentrate loads.
3213 B.2.2.3 When the depth of fill is 2 feet or more, wheel loads will be considered as
3214 uniformly distributed over a square with sides equal to l-3/4 times the
3215 depth of the fill. When such areas from several concentrations overlap,
3216 the total load will be uniformly distributed over the area defined by the
3217 outside limits of the individual areas, but the total width of distribution
3218 will not exceed the total width of the supporting slab.

3219 B.2.3 Loads.

3220 It should be noted that all loads discussed herein are to be considered as dead load plus
3221 live loads. The design of structures subject to direct wheel loads should also anticipate
3222 braking loads as high as 0.7 G (for no-slip brakes).

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Appendix B

3223 B.2.4 Direct Loading.

3224 B.2.4.1 Decks and covers subject to direct heavy airplane loadings such as
3225 manhole covers, inlet grates, utility tunnel roofs, bridges, etc., should be
3226 designed for the following loadings:
3227  Manhole covers for 100,000 lb. (45 000 kg) wheel loads with 250 psi
3228 (1.72 MPa) tire pressure.
3229  For spans of 2 feet (0.6 m) or less in the least direction, a uniform live
3230 load of 250 psi (1.72 MPa).
3231  For spans of 2 feet (0.6 m) or greater in the least direction, the design
3232 will be based on the number of wheels which will fit the span. Wheel
3233 loads of 50,000 to 75,000 pounds (22 700 to 34 000 kg) should be
3234 considered.
3235 B.2.4.2 Special consideration will be given to structures that will be required to
3236 support both in-line and diagonal traffic lanes, such as diagonal taxiways
3237 or apron taxi routes. If structures require expansion joints, load transfer
3238 may not be possible.
3239

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Appendix C

3240 APPENDIX C. NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) USING FALLING-WEIGHT

3241 TYPE IMPULSE LOAD DEVICES IN THE EVALUATION OF AIRPORT
3242 PAVEMENTS.

3243 C.1 General.

3244 Nondestructive testing (NDT) can make use of many types of data-collection equipment
3245 and methods of data analysis. The NDT data collected can be used to evaluate the load-
3246 carrying capacity of existing pavements; determine the material properties of in-situ
3247 pavement and subgrade layers for design of pavements; compare relative strength
3248 and/or condition within sections of a pavement system to each other; and provide
3249 structural performance data to supplement pavement condition index (PCI) survey data
3250 in an airport pavement management program (PMP).

3251 C.2 NDT Advantages.

3252 C.2.1 There are several advantages to using NDT in lieu of or as a supplement to traditional
3253 destructive tests. A primary advantage is the capability to quickly gather data at several
3254 locations while keeping a runway, taxiway, or apron operational. Without NDT,
3255 structural data must be obtained from numerous cores, borings, and excavation pits on
3256 an existing airport pavement which can be very disruptive to airport operations.

3257 C.2.2 Nondestructive tests are economical to perform and data can be collected at up to 250
3258 locations per day. Heavy- falling weight deflectometer (HWD) or falling weight
3259 deflectometer (FWD) equipment measures pavement surface response (i.e., deflections)
3260 from an applied dynamic load that simulates a moving wheel. The magnitude of the
3261 applied dynamic load can be varied so that it is similar to the load on a single wheel of
3262 the critical or design aircraft. Pavement deflections are recorded directly beneath the
3263 load plate and at typical radial offsets of 12 inches (30 cm), out to typical distances of
3264 60 inches (150 cm) to 72 inches (180 cm).

3265 C.2.3 The deflection data collected with HWD or FWD equipment can provide both
3266 qualitative and quantitative data about the strength of a pavement at the time of testing.
3267 The raw deflection data directly beneath the load plate sensor provides an indication of
3268 the strength of the entire pavement structure. Likewise, the raw deflection data from the
3269 outermost sensor provides an indication of subgrade strength.

3270 C.2.4 In addition, when deflection or stiffness profile plots are constructed with deflection
3271 data from all test locations on a pavement facility, relatively strong and weak areas
3272 become readily apparent.

3273 C.2.5 Quantitative data from HWD or FWD include material properties of each pavement and
3274 subgrade layer that engineers use with other physical properties, such as layer
3275 thicknesses and interface bonding conditions, to evaluate the structural performance of a
3276 pavement or investigate strengthening options. Most of the material property
3277 information is obtained using software programs that process and analyze raw HWD or
3278 FWD data. Once material properties, such as modulus of elasticity, E, and modulus of

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Appendix C

3279 subgrade reaction, k, are computed, the engineer can conduct structural evaluations of
3280 existing pavements, design structural improvements, and develop reconstruction
3281 pavement cross-sections using subgrade strength data.

3282 C.3 NDT Limitations.

3283 C.3.1 NDT also has some limitations. NDT is a very good methodology for assessing the
3284 structural condition of an airfield pavement; however, engineers must use other methods
3285 to evaluate the functional condition of the pavement, for example, visual condition,
3286 smoothness, and friction characteristics. The visual condition is most frequently
3287 assessed using the PCI in accordance with ASTM International (ASTM) D5340,
3288 Standard Test Method for Airport Pavement Condition Index Surveys, and
3289 AC 150/5380-6, Guidelines and Procedures for Maintenance of Airport Pavements.
3290 Once the NDT-based structural and functional conditions are known, the engineer can
3291 assign an overall pavement condition rating.

3292 C.3.2 The differentiation between structural and functional performance is important in
3293 developing requirements for pavement rehabilitation. For example, a pavement can
3294 have a low PCI due to environmental distress, yet the pavement has sufficient thickness
3295 to accommodate structural loading. The converse may also be true, where a pavement
3296 may be in good condition, but has a low structural life due to proposed heavier aircraft
3297 loading.

3298 C.3.3 In addition, while NDT may provide excellent information about structural capacity, the
3299 engineer may still require other important engineering properties of the pavement
3300 layers, such as grain-size distribution of the subgrade, to determine swelling and
3301 heaving potential. For subsurface drainage evaluation and design, grain-size distribution
3302 and permeability tests may help assess the hydraulic capacity of the base, subbase, and
3303 subgrade.

3304 C.3.4 It should also be noted that quantitative results obtained from raw NDT data are model
3305 dependent. The results depend on the structural models and software algorithms that are
3306 used by programs that process NDT data and perform a back-calculation of layer
3307 material properties.

3308 C.3.5 Because of the model dependencies of NDT software analysis tools, the engineer should
3309 exercise caution when evaluating selected pavement types, such as continuously
3310 reinforced concrete pavement, post-tensioned concrete, and pre-tensioned concrete. The
3311 structural theory and performance models for these pavement types are significantly
3312 different than traditional pavements, which include Asphalt Cement Hot Mix Asphalt
3313 (HMA), jointed plain Portland Cement Concrete (PCC), jointed reinforced PCC, HMA
3314 overlaid PCC, and PCC overlaid PCC.

3315 C.3.6 Finally, NDT conducted at different times during the year may give different results due
3316 to climatic changes. For example, tests conducted during spring thaw or after extended
3317 dry periods may provide non-representative results or inaccurate conclusions on
3318 pavement at subgrade strength.

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Appendix C

3319 C.4 NDT Process.

3320 C.4.1 NDT, using static or dynamic testing equipment, has proven useful in providing data on
3321 the structural properties of pavement and subgrade layers. The data are typically used to
3322 detect patterns of variability in pavement support conditions or to estimate the strength
3323 of pavement and subgrade layers. With this information, the engineer can design
3324 rehabilitation overlays and new/reconstructed cross-sections, or optimize a
3325 rehabilitation option that is developed from a PMS.

3326 C.4.2 This appendix focuses on nondestructive testing equipment that measures pavement
3327 surface deflections after applying a static or dynamic load to the pavement. NDT
3328 equipment that imparts dynamic loads creates surface deflections by applying a
3329 vibratory or impulse load to the pavement surface through a loading plate. For vibratory
3330 equipment, the dynamic load is typically generated hydraulically or by counter rotating
3331 masses. For impulse devices, such as the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD), the
3332 dynamic load is generated by a mass free falling onto a set of rubber springs, as shown
3333 in Figure C-1. The magnitude of the impulse load can be varied by changing the mass
3334 and/or drop height so that it is similar to that of a wheel load on the main gear of an
3335 aircraft.

3336 Figure C-1. Impulse Load Created by FWD

MASS

DROP HEIGHT SPRING CONSTANT

LOAD PLATE

3337

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Appendix C

3338 C.4.3 For both impulse and vibratory equipment, pavement response is typically measured by
3339 a series of sensors radially displaced from the loading plate, as shown in Figure C-2.
3340 For static devices, a rebound deflection from a truck or other vehicle load is measured.
3341 Typically, the rebound deflection is measured only at the location of the load and not at
3342 the other radially spaced sensors.

3343 C.5 Pavement Stiffness and Sensor Response.

3344 C.5.1 The load-response data that NDT equipment measures in the field provides valuable
3345 information on the strength of the pavement structure. Initial review of the deflection
3346 under the load plate and at the outermost sensor, sensors D1 and D7 in Figure C-2,
3347 respectively, is an indicator of pavement and subgrade stiffness. Although this
3348 information will not provide information about the strength of each pavement layer, it
3349 does provide a quick assessment of the pavement’s overall strength and relative
3350 variability of strength within a particular facility (runway, taxiway, or apron).

3351 C.5.2 Pavement stiffness is defined as the dynamic force divided by the pavement deflection
3352 at the center of the load plate. For both impulse and vibratory devices, the stiffness is
3353 defined as the load divided by the maximum deflection under the load plate. The
3354 Impulse Stiffness Modulus (ISM) and the Dynamic Stiffness Modulus (DSM) are
3355 defined as follows for impulse and vibratory NDT devices, respectively:

3356 Equation C-1. Impulse and Dynamic Stiffness Modulus

𝐿
𝐼(𝐷)𝑆𝑀 = ( )
𝑑0
3357 Where:
3358 I(D)SM = Impulse and Dynamic Stiffness Modulus (kips/in)
3359 L = Applied Load (kips)
3360 do = Maximum Deflection of Load Plate (in)

3361 C.6 Deflection Basin.

3362 C.6.1 After the load is applied to the pavement surface, the sensors shown in Figure C-2 are
3363 used to measure the deflections that produce what is commonly referred to as a
3364 deflection basin. Figure C-2 also shows the zone of load influence that is created by a
3365 FWD and the relative location of the sensors that measure the deflection basin area. The
3366 deflection basin area can then be used to obtain additional information about the
3367 individual layers in the pavement structure that cannot be obtained by using deflection
3368 data from a single sensor.

3369 C.6.2 The shape of the basin is determined by the response of the pavement to the applied
3370 load. The pavement deflection is the largest directly beneath the load and then decreases
3371 as the distance from the load increases. Generally, a weaker pavement will deflect more

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Appendix C

3372 than a stronger pavement under the same load. However, the shape of the basin is
3373 related to the strengths of all the individual layers.

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Appendix C

3374 Figure C-2. Deflection Basin and Sensor Location

NDT LOAD FORWARD LOAD PLATE

(SENSOR D1 IS LOCATED IN THE LOAD PLATE)

DEFLECTION BASIN

SENSORS
UNLOADED SURFACE
D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7

SURFACE LAYER

BASE LAYER

SUBGRADE

APPARENT STIFF LAYER

ZONE OF LOAD INFLUENCE

LOAD

-72 -60 -48 -36 -24 -12 0 12 24 36 48 60 72

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

PAVEMENT 1 PAVEMENT 2 PAVEMENT 3

8" PCC E-4,000,000 PSI 4" HMA E-500,000 PSI 4" HMA E-500,000 PSI

6" AGG E-80,000 PSI 8" AGG E-20,000 PSI 8" AGG E-80,000 PSI

SG E-12,000 PSI SG E-24,000 PSI SG E-12,000 PSI

3375

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Appendix C

3376 C.6.3 To illustrate the importance of measuring the deflection basin, Figure C-2, also shows a
3377 comparison of three pavements. Pavement 1 is PCC and pavements 2 and 3 are HMA.
3378 As expected, the PCC distributes the applied load over a larger area and has a smaller
3379 maximum deflection than the other two pavements. Although pavements 2 and 3 have
3380 the same cross- section and the same maximum deflection under the load plate, they
3381 would presumably perform differently under the same loading conditions because of the
3382 differences in base and subgrade strengths.

3383 C.6.4 In addition to each layer’s material properties, other factors can contribute to
3384 differences in the deflection basins. Underlying stiff or apparent stiff layers, the
3385 temperature of the HMA layer during testing, moisture contents in each of the layers,
3386 and PCC slab warping and curling can affect deflection basin shapes. An important
3387 component in the evaluation process, then, is analysis of the NDT data to estimate the
3388 expected structural performance of each pavement layer and subgrade.

3389 C.7 Use of NDT Data.

3390 C.7.1 There are many ways to use the NDT data to obtain pavement characteristics needed to
3391 identify the causes of pavement distresses, conduct a pavement evaluation, or perform a
3392 strengthening design. Engineers can evaluate the NDT data using qualitative and
3393 quantitative procedures. Subsequent sections present several methods that can be used
3394 to compute and evaluate such pavement characteristics as: ISM, DSM, and normalized
3395 deflections; back-calculated elastic modulus of pavement layers and subgrade;
3396 correlations to conventional characterizations (for example, California Bearing Ratio
3397 [CBR], k); crack and joint load transfer efficiency; void detection at PCC corners and
3398 joints.

3399 C.7.2 These NDT-derived pavement characteristics can then be used in the FAA’s evaluation
3400 and design procedures.

3401 C.8 NDT Equipment.

3402 Nondestructive testing equipment includes both deflection and non-deflection testing
3403 equipment. Deflection measuring equipment for nondestructive testing of airport
3404 pavements can be broadly classified as static or dynamic loading devices. Dynamic
3405 loading equipment can be further classified according to the type of forcing function
3406 used, i.e., vibratory or impulse devices. Non-deflection measuring equipment that can
3407 supplement deflection testing includes ground-penetrating radar, infrared thermography,
3408 dynamic cone penetrometer, and devices that measure surface friction, roughness, and
3409 surface waves.

3410 C.9 Deflection Measuring Equipment.

3411 There are several categories of deflection measuring equipment: static, steady state (for
3412 example, vibratory), and impulse load devices. A static device measures deflection at
3413 one point under a nonmoving load. Static tests are slow and labor intensive compared to
3414 the other devices. Vibratory devices induce a steady-state vibration to the pavement
3415 with a dynamic force generator. The dynamic force is then generated at a precomputed

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Appendix C

3416 frequency that causes the pavement to respond (deflect). The pavement deflections are
3417 typically measured with velocity transducers. Impulse load devices, such as the FWD
3418 or Heavy-Falling Weight Deflectometer (HWD), impart an impulse load to the
3419 pavement with a free-falling weight that impacts a set of rubber springs. The magnitude
3420 of the dynamic load depends on the mass of the weight and the height from which the
3421 weight is dropped. The resultant deflections are typically measured with velocity
3422 transducers, accelerometers, or linear variable differential transducers (LVDT).Table
3423 C-1 lists several ASTM standards that apply to deflection measuring equipment.
3424

3425 Table C-1. ASTM Standards for Deflection Measuring Equipment

NDT Equipment Type

ASTM
Static Vibratory Impulse
D 1195, Standard Test Method for Repetitive Static
Plate Load Tests of Soils and Flexible Pavement
●
Components, for Use in Evaluation and Design of
Airport and Highway Pavements
D 1196, Standard Test Method for Nonrepetitive
Static Plate Load Tests of Soils and Flexible
●
Pavement Components, for Use in Evaluation and
Design of Airport and Highway Pavements
D 4602, Standard Guide for Nondestructive Testing
of Pavements Using Cyclic-Loading Dynamic ●
Deflection Equipment
D 4694, Standard Test Method for Deflections with A
●
Falling-Weight-Type Impulse Load Device
D 4695, Standard Guide for General Pavement
● ● ●
Deflection Measurements
D 4748, Standard Test Method for Determining the
Thickness of Bound Pavement Layers Using Short- ●
Pulse Radar
D 5858, Standard Guide for Calculating In Situ
Equivalent Elastic Moduli of Pavement Materials ●
Using Layered Elastic Theory
E 2583, Standard Test Method for Measuring
Deflections with a Light Weight Deflectometer ●
(LWD)

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Appendix C

NDT Equipment Type

ASTM
Static Vibratory Impulse
E 2835, Standard Test Method for Measuring
Deflections using a Portable Impulse Plate Load Test ●
Device

3426 C.10 Nondeflection Measuring Equipment.

3427 The data collected from nondeflection measuring equipment often supplement NDT
3428 data or provide standalone information in pavement analysis work. Nondeflection
3429 measuring equipment includes the following.

3430 C.10.1 Friction Characteristics.

3431 Equipment is available to conduct surface friction tests on a pavement. The methods of
3432 testing and common types of friction testers for airports are addressed in AC 150/5320-
3433 12, Measurement, Construction, and Maintenance of Skid Resistant Airport Pavement
3434 Surfaces.

3435 C.10.2 Smoothness Characteristics.

3436 There are several types of equipment that are available to collect surface profile data
3437 and to determine how aircraft may respond during taxi, takeoff, and landing. AC
3438 150/5380-9, Guidelines and Procedures for Measuring Airfield Pavement Roughness,
3439 provides procedures to evaluate a surface profile in terms of roughness and the impact
3440 pavement roughness may have on aircraft.

3441 C.10.3 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP).

3442 A DCP can be used to supplement NDT data. If cores are taken through the pavement to
3443 verify the thickness of an HMA or PCC layer, the DCP can help evaluate the stiffness
3444 of the base, subbase, and subgrade. Data is recorded in terms of the number of blows
3445 per inch required to drive the cone-shaped end of the rod through each of the layers.
3446 Plots of the data provide information about the changes in layer types and layer
3447 strengths. Refer to ASTM D 6951, Standard Test Method for Use of the Dynamic Cone
3448 Penetrometer in Shallow Pavement Applications, for additional information.

3449 C.10.4 Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR).

3450 The most common uses of GPR data include measuring pavement layer thicknesses,
3451 detecting the presence of excess water in a structure, locating underground utilities, and
3452 investigating significant delamination between pavement layers. Refer to ASTM D
3453 6432, Standard Guide for Using the Surface Ground Penetrating Radar Method for
3454 Subsurface Investigation, for additional information.

3455 C.10.5 Infrared Thermography (IR).

3456 One of the most common uses of IR data is to determine if delamination has occurred
3457 between highway asphalt pavement layers.

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Appendix C

3458 C.11 Impulse Load Device.

3459 The most common type of NDT equipment in use today is the impulse load device, (i.e.,
3460 FWD or HWD). ASTM D 4694, Standard Test Method for Deflections with a Falling-
3461 Weight-Type Impulse Load Device, addresses key components of this device including
3462 instruments exposed to the elements, the force-generating device (for example, falling
3463 weight), the loading plate, the deflection sensor, the load cell, and the data processing
3464 and storage system. Typically, the HWD will be used for airport pavements.

3465 C.11.1 Load Plate Diameter.

3466 Many impulse-loading equipment manufacturers offer the option of a 12-inch (30 cm)
3467 or an 18 inch (45 cm) diameter load plate. The 12 inch (30 cm) load plate is normally
3468 used when testing materials on airports.

3469 C.11.2 Sensor Spacing and Number.

3470 The number of available sensors depends on the manufacturer and equipment model. As
3471 a result, the sensor spacing will depend on the number of available sensors and the
3472 length of the sensor bar. Although most NDT equipment allows for the sensors to be
3473 repositioned for each pavement study, it is desirable to conduct NDT work using the
3474 same configuration, regardless of the type of pavement structure.

3475 C.11.3 In general, NDT devices that have more sensors can more accurately measure the
3476 deflection basin that is produced by static or dynamic loads. Accurate measurement of
3477 the deflection basin is especially important when analyzing the deflection data to
3478 compute the elastic modulus of each pavement layer. It is also very important to ensure
3479 that the magnitude of deflection in the outermost sensor is within the manufacturer’s
3480 specifications for the sensors. The magnitude of the deflection in the outermost sensor
3481 depends primarily on the magnitude of the dynamic load, the thickness and stiffness of
3482 the pavement structure, and the depth to an underlying rock or stiff layer. The following
3483 sensor configuration is recommended:

3484 Table C-2. Recommended Sensor Configuration

Sensor Distance from Center of Load Plate, inch (cm)

Sensor Sensor Sensor Sensor Sensor Sensor Sensor

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12 24 36 48 60 72
0
(30) (60) (90) (120) (150) (180)

3485 C.11.4 Pulse Duration.

3486 For impulse-load NDT equipment, the force-pulse duration is the length of time
3487 between an initial rise in the dynamic load until it dissipates to near zero. Both the FAA
3488 and ASTM recognize a pulse duration in the range of 20 to 60 milliseconds as being

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Appendix C

3489 typical for most impulse-load devices. Likewise, rise time is the time between an initial
3490 rise in the dynamic load and its peak before it begins to dissipate. Typical rise times for
3491 impulse-load devices are in the range of 10 to 30 milliseconds.

3492 C.11.5 Load Linearity.

3493 For most pavement structures and testing conditions, traditional paving materials will
3494 behave in a linear elastic manner within the load range that the tests are conducted.

3495 C.11.6 Sensitivity Studies.

3496 C.11.6.1 Sensitivity studies at the National Airport Pavement Test Facility
3497 (NAPTF) and Denver International Airport (DIA) have shown there is
3498 little difference in the pavement response when the HWD impulse load is
3499 changed. Based on the results from the sensitivity studies, the amplitude of
3500 the impulse load is not critical provided the generated deflections are
3501 within the limits of all deflection sensors. The key factors that will
3502 determine the allowable range of impulse loads are pavement layer
3503 thicknesses and material types. Unless the pavement is a very thin PCC or
3504 HMA, HWD devices should be used for airport pavements.
3505 C.11.6.2 Generally, the impulse load should range between 20,000 pounds (90 kN)
3506 and 55,000 pounds (250 kN) on pavements serving commercial air carrier
3507 aircraft, provided the maximum reliable displacement sensor is not
3508 exceeded. For thinner GA pavements, LWD may be used.

3509 C.12 NDT Test Planning.

3510 C.12.1 Nondestructive testing combined with the analytical procedures described here can
3511 provide a direct indication of a pavement’s structural performance. Visual condition
3512 surveys, such as the PCI procedure, provide excellent information regarding the
3513 functional condition of the pavement. However, visual distress data can only provide an
3514 indirect measure of the structural condition of the pavement structure. Once the airport
3515 operator and engineer decide to include NDT in their pavement study, they should focus
3516 on the number and types of tests that will be conducted. The total number of tests will
3517 depend primarily on the area of the pavements included in the study; the types of
3518 pavement; and whether the study is a project or network-level investigation.

3519 C.12.2 Project-Level objectives include evaluation of the load-carrying capacity of existing
3520 pavements and to provide material properties of in-situ pavement layers for the design
3521 or rehabilitation of pavement structures. Network-Level objectives include collection of
3522 NDT data to supplement pavement condition index (PCI) survey data and generate
3523 Pavement Classification Numbers (PCN) for each airside facility in accordance with
3524 AC 150/5335-5, Standard Method of Reporting Airport Pavement Strength-PCN. Refer
3525 to AC 150/5380-7, Airport Pavement Management Program (PMP), for guidance on
3526 developing a PMP.

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Appendix C

3527 C.13 NDT Test Locations and Spacing.

3528 C.13.1 There are several test scenarios that may be conducted during a pavement study. For all
3529 types of pavements, the most common is a center test. For jointed PCC and HMA
3530 overlaid PCC pavements, this is a test in the center of the PCC slab. For HMA
3531 pavements, this is a test in the center of the wheel path away from any cracks that may
3532 exist. The center test serves primarily to collect deflection data that form a deflection
3533 basin that can be used to estimate the strength of the pavement and subgrade layers.

3534 C.13.2 For PCC and HMA overlaid PCC pavements, there are several tests that will help
3535 characterize the structure. These tests focus on the fact that most PCC pavements have
3536 joints and most HMA overlaid PCC pavements have surface cracks that have reflected
3537 up from PCC joints. NDT at various locations on the joints provides data regarding
3538 pavement response to aircraft loads and changes in climatic conditions.

3539 C.13.3 Testing at longitudinal and transverse joints shows how much of an aircraft’s main gear
3540 is transferred from the loaded slab to the unloaded slab. As the amount of load transfer
3541 is increased to the unloaded slab, the flexural stress in the loaded slab decreases and the
3542 pavement life is extended. The amount of load transfer depends on many factors,
3543 including pavement temperature, the use of dowel bars, and the use of a stabilized base
3544 beneath the PCC surface layer.

3545 C.13.4 The corner is another common test location. This is an area where a loss of support
3546 beneath the PCC slab typically due to curling occurs more often than other areas in the
3547 slab. Conduct corner tests so the load plate is within 6 inches (15 cm) of the transverse
3548 and longitudinal joints. NDT in areas with lack of slab support could result in structural
3549 damage to the slab.

3550 C.13.5 Often, concrete midslab, joint, and corner tests are performed on the same slab to
3551 evaluate the relative stiffness at different locations. If concrete slabs have corner breaks
3552 there is a possibility that voids exist.

3553 C.13.6 The location and testing interval for each pavement facility should be sufficient to
3554 characterize the material properties. Center slab test locations and spacing should
3555 generally be in the wheel paths, spaced between 100 feet and 400 feet along the runway
3556 length. Additional testing for load transfer of PCC should include testing at transverse
3557 and longitudinal joints. For PCN surveys, NDT data should be collected randomly
3558 within the keel section of the runway. For both HMA and PCC pavements, NDT should
3559 not be conducted near cracks unless one of the test objectives is to measure load transfer
3560 efficiency across the crack. For HMA pavements, NDT passes should be made so that
3561 deflection data are at least 1.5 feet (0.5 m) to 3 feet (1 m) away from longitudinal
3562 construction joints. The total number of tests for each facility should be evenly
3563 distributed over the area tested with each adjacent NDT pass typically staggered to
3564 obtain comprehensive coverage. For testing of airside access roads, perimeter roads, and
3565 other landside pavement, refer to ASTM D 4695, Standard Guide for General
3566 Pavement Deflection Measurements.

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Appendix C

3567 C.14 Climate and Weather Affects.

3568 Climate and weather will affect NDT results. The engineer should select a test period
3569 that best represents the pavement conditions for a majority of the year. For PCC
3570 pavements, conduct NDT at a time when the temperature is relatively constant between
3571 the day and night.

3572 C.15 Mobilization.

3573 Before mobilizing to the field site, the NDT operator must verify with airport
3574 management that a construction safety phasing plan has been prepared in accordance
3575 with AC 150/5370-2, Operational Safety on Airports During Construction, and that
3576 NOTAMs will be issued.

3577 C.16 Data Analysis.

3578 Figure C-3 provides an overview of the NDT data analysis process. There are several
3579 characteristics that are used to evaluate the structural condition of an existing pavement
3580 structure. The most common use of deflection data is to measure the strength of the
3581 structure as a whole and determine the individual layer properties within the structure.
3582 Because most PCC pavements are built using expansion, contraction, and construction
3583 joints, several additional characteristics are used to evaluate the condition of the
3584 concrete pavements. These discontinuities in the PCC create opportunities for the joint
3585 to deteriorate and transfer less load to the adjacent slab, lead to higher deflections at
3586 slab corners that may create voids beneath the slab, and provide opportunities for
3587 excessive moisture accumulation at the joints that may accelerate PCC material
3588 durability problems.

3589 Figure C-3. NDT Data Analysis and Design Flowchart

3590

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Appendix C

3591 C.17 Process Raw Deflection Data.

3592 C.17.1 The boundary limits of pavement sections within a facility should have already been
3593 defined in an airport pavement management program (PMP) or through a review of the
3594 construction history. In a PMP, a section is defined as an area of pavement that is
3595 expected to perform uniformly because of aircraft traffic levels, pavement age, or
3596 pavement cross-section. Deflection data can be used to define or refine the limits of all
3597 sections within a pavement facility.

3598 C.17.2 The data file may contain several types of deflection data, such as PCC center, slab
3599 joint, and slab corner tests. The deflection data should be extracted from the file and
3600 organized by type and location of NDT tests. The preliminary analysis of the center
3601 deflection data is routinely conducted by plotting either the ISM or normalized
3602 deflections along the length of an apron, taxiway, or runway.

3603 C.17.3 The Impulse Stiffness Modulus (ISM) and the Dynamic Stiffness Modulus (DSM) are
3604 calculated as shown in Equation C-1.

3605 C.17.4 Raw data deflections may be normalized by adjusting measured deflections to a critical
3606 airplane standard load.

3607 Equation C-2. Normalized Deflection

𝐿𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑑0𝑛 = ( )𝑑
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 0
3608 Where:
3609 d0n = Normalized deflection
3610 Lnorm = Normalized load
3611 Lapplied = Applied load
3612 d0 = Measured deflection at selected sensor location

3613 C.17.5 When reviewing the profile plots of ISM values or normalized deflections, the engineer
3614 should look for patterns of uniformity and points of change identifying sections. The
3615 ISM values or normalized deflections under the load plate provide an indication of the
3616 overall strength of the entire pavement structure (i.e., pavement layers and subgrade) at
3617 each NDT test location. For a given impulse load (for example, 40,000 pounds (180
3618 kN)), increasing ISM values or decreasing normalized deflections indicate increasing
3619 pavement strength. Example profile plots of ISM and normalized deflects are as
3620 illustrated in in Figure C-4 and Figure C-5 respectively.
3621

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Appendix C

3622 Figure C-4. ISM Plot Identifying Pavement Section Limits

7,000
SECTION 2 SECTION 3 SECTION 4
5" [125 mm] 5 IN [125 mm] HMA 5 IN [125 mm] HMA
HMA 28 IN [700 mm] AGGREGATE BASE 16" [400 mm] AGGREGATE BASE
6,000 15" [375 mm]
STAB BASE

5,000

4,000
ISM, (k/m)

3,000

2,000
SECTION 1
8 IN [200 mm]
HMA
12 IN [300 mm]
1,000 STAB BASE
6 IN [150 mm]
STAB SUBGR

0 500 1,500 2,500 3,500 4,500 5,500 6,500 7,500 8,500

[150] [455] [760] [1060] [1370] [1675] [1980] [2285] [2590]
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
[300] [600] [900] [1200] [1520] [1825] [2130] [2435]
STATION, STA FT [M]

NOTE: GREEN BAR INDICATES THE AVERAGE ISM VALUE UNDER THE LOAD PLATE FOR EACH SECTION.

3623

3624 Figure C-5. Normalized Deflection Plot Identifying Pavement Section Limits

35
SECTION 2 SECTION 3 SECTION 4
5" [125 mm] 5 IN [125 mm] HMA 5 IN [125 mm] HMA
SECTION 1 HMA 28 IN [700 mm] AGGREGATE BASE 16" [400 mm] AGGREGATE BASE
30 8 IN [200 mm] 15" [375 mm]
HMA STAB BASE
12 IN [300 mm]
STAB BASE
25 6 IN [150 mm]
STAB SUBGR
20-kip NORMALIZED D1, (mils)

20

15

10

0 500 1,500 2,500 3,500 4,500 5,500 6,500 7,500 8,500

[150] [455] [760] [1060] [1370] [1675] [1980] [2285] [2590]
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
[300] [600] [900] [1200] [1520] [1825] [2130] [2435]
STATION, STA FT [M]

NOTE: GREEN BAR INDICATES THE AVERAGE NORMALIZED DEFLECTION

VALUE UNDER THE LOAD PLATE FOR EACH SECTION.
3625

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 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F
Appendix C

3626 C.17.6 Figure C-4 illustrates how the ISM profile plots were used to identify four different
3627 pavement sections within this pavement facility. It is clear from this figure that section
3628 1 is the strongest of all four sections since its average ISM value is significantly higher
3629 than all other sections. Although the mean ISM values for sections 2, 3, and 4 are
3630 similar, ISM variability is much higher in section 3.

3631 C.17.7 Likewise, section 2 may be the weakest of the sections because the HMA layer is less
3632 than 5 inches (13 cm) thick or the stabilized base may be very weak. Profile plots can
3633 identify locations where additional coring may be needed to provide information on
3634 layer thickness and strength.

3635 C.17.8 Figure D-5 shows that normalized deflection profile plots can also be used to identify
3636 the limits of pavement sections within a particular facility. As these profile plots show,
3637 stronger pavement sections have lower normalized deflections. The engineer can use
3638 either normalized deflections or ISM values to identify section limits. ISM values are
3639 used more frequently and provide information independent of force.

3640 C.17.9 Deflection data can also be used to identify variations in subgrade strength beneath a
3641 pavement. An NDT sensor that is located a precomputed distance from the center of the
3642 load plate may provide a good estimate of the subgrade strength. The American
3643 Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1993 design
3644 procedures provide guidance for the distance the sensor should be from the load plate to
3645 reflect the subgrade strength (for example, outside of the stress bulb at the subgrade-
3646 pavement interface).

3647 C.17.10 Using the deflection test data separated by pavement sections and NDT test type, the
3648 following may be determined; pavement layer strengths and material durability can be
3649 determined from center deflection data; joint condition and material durability can be
3650 determined from joint and crack deflection data; and support conditions and material
3651 durability can be determined from the PCC slab corner deflection data.

3652 C.18 Software Tools.

3653 Engineers have many choices regarding software tools for NDT analysis. Back-
3654 calculation methods used for determination of layer properties should be consistent with
3655 the procedure used for structural evaluation and design. Although engineers have
3656 several choices regarding FAA software tools, they should select programs that have the
3657 same theoretical basis for a study. Stated differently, the back-calculation methods used
3658 should be consistent with the forward computational procedure that will be used for
3659 structural evaluation and design. FAA software tools such as FAARFIELD, COMFAA,
3660 and BAKFAA, are available at
3661 http://www.faa.gov/airports/engineering/design_software/.

3662 C.19 Back-Calculation Analysis.

3663 C.19.1 The engineer can use deflection basin data from flexible pavements and rigid center
3664 NDT tests to compute the strength of pavement layers. The process used to conduct this
3665 analysis is referred to as back-calculation because the engineer normally does the

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Appendix C

3666 opposite of traditional pavement design. Rather than determining the thickness of each
3667 pavement layer based on assumed layer strengths, back-calculation typically involves
3668 solving for pavement layer strengths based on assumed uniform layer thicknesses.
3669 Throughout the remainder of this section, layer strength is referred to in terms of
3670 Young’s modulus of elasticity or simply the elastic modulus.

3671 C.19.2 The types of loads that are applied through the use of NDT equipment fall into two
3672 general categories: static loads and dynamic loads. Dynamic loads include vibratory and
3673 impulse load NDT devices. For both static and dynamic loads, the pavement can
3674 respond linearly or nonlinearly to the applied loads.

3675 C.19.3 Back-calculation analysis work that falls in the static-linear category is typically
3676 conducted using two procedures. The first category allows the engineer to use closed-
3677 form procedures that directly compute the elastic modulus of each layer by using layer
3678 thicknesses and deflections from one or more sensors. The second category uses an
3679 iterative mechanistic process to solve for the elastic modulus by using layer thicknesses
3680 and deflections from at least four sensors.

3681 C.19.4 Before conducting an analysis, the engineer should review the deflection tests that have
3682 been separated by pavement facility and section for back-calculation. Regardless of the
3683 software tool that will be used in the analysis, linear-elastic theory requires that
3684 pavement deflections decrease as the distance from the NDT load plate increases. In
3685 addition, for typical NDT sensor configurations, the deflections should gradually
3686 decrease from the load plate to the outermost sensor.

3687 C.19.5 Deflection basin anomalies could occur for several reasons, including the presence of a
3688 crack near the load plate, a nonfunctioning sensor, sensor and NDT equipment
3689 configuration error, sensors not properly calibrated, voids, loss of support, temperature
3690 curling or moisture warping of PCC slab, or several other reasons. The engineer should
3691 review the deflection data and remove data that have the following anomalies.
3692  Type I Deflection Basin. In this scenario, the deflections at one or more of the
3693 outer sensors are greater than the deflection under the load plate. This type of
3694 anomaly will produce the largest error during back-calculation analysis.
3695  Type II Deflection Basin. Another less obvious anomaly is an unusually large
3696 decrease in deflection between two adjacent sensors. While elastic layer theory
3697 requires deflections to decrease as the distance from the load plate increases, the
3698 amount of decrease should be gradual and relatively consistent between all sensors.
3699  Type III Deflection Basin. Similar to Type I, the deflection at the outermost sensor
3700 of two adjacent sensors is greater than the deflection at the sensor that is closest to
3701 the load plate.

3702 C.19.6 For PCC pavement analysis, HMA overlays are considered to be thin if they are less
3703 than 4 inches (10 cm) thick and the PCC layer thickness is less than 10 inches (25 cm).
3704 The HMA overlay is also considered to be thin if it is less than 6 inches (15 cm) thick
3705 and the PCC layer is greater than 10 inches (25 cm) thick.

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Appendix C

3706 C.19.7 If the PCC structure does not contain a stabilized base, HMA overlay, or PCC overlay,
3707 the back-calculated dynamic effective modulus is the PCC modulus of elasticity.
3708 However, the back-calculated dynamic k-value must be adjusted to obtain a static k-
3709 value that is the basis for conventional FAA evaluation and design programs that use a
3710 k-value.

3711 C.19.8 National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 372, Support
3712 Under Portland Cement Concrete Pavements, reported that the static k-value is equal to
3713 one-half of the dynamic k-value. The static-k value is the value that would be obtained
3714 by conducting plate bearing tests as described in AASHTO T 222.

3715 C.19.9 If the PCC structure contains a stabilized base, thin HMA overlay, or PCC overlay, the
3716 back-calculated dynamic effective modulus may be used to compute two modulus
3717 values. Possible modulus scenarios are as follows: bonded or unbonded PCC overlay
3718 and PCC layer, thin HMA overlay and PCC layer, PCC layer and lean concrete or
3719 cement-treated base, or PCC layer and HMA stabilized base.

3720 C.19.10 The results that are obtained through iterative back-calculation are influenced by many
3721 factors, such as Number of Layers, Layer Thicknesses, Layer Interface Condition,
3722 HMA Layer Temperature, environmental conditions, Adjacent Layer Modulus Ratios,
3723 Underlying Stiff Layer, Pavement Cracks, Sensor Errors, Non-uniform load plate
3724 contact, Pulse Duration, Frequency Duration, and Material Property Variability.
3725 Because so many factors impact the error level and results and, because there is no one
3726 unique solution, iterative elastic-layer back-calculation requires engineering judgment.

3727 C.20 Rigid Pavement Issues.

3728 While it is important to know the strength of each layer in a pavement evaluation or
3729 design study, PCC pavements often require additional testing and evaluation of
3730 characteristics that are important for rigid pavements. These characteristics include
3731 joint and crack conditions, support conditions, and material durability.
3732 C.20.1 PCC Joint Analysis.
3733 C.20.1.1 The analysis of PCC joints or cracks is important because the amount of
load that is transferred from one PCC slab to the adjacent slab can
3734 significantly impact the structural capacity of the pavement. NDT tests are
3735 conducted at joints and cracks to estimate what percentage of load is
3736 transferred from the loaded slab to the unloaded slab. As the amount of
3737 load transferred to the unloaded slab increases, the flexural stress in the
3738 loaded slab decreases and the pavement life is extended.
3739
3740 C.20.1.2 The amount of airplane load transfer depends on many factors, including
gear configuration, tire contact area, pavement temperature, use of dowel
3741 bars, and use of a stabilized base beneath the PCC surface layer.
3742
3743 C.20.1.3 Deflection load transfer efficiency (LTE∆) is most frequently defined as
shown in Equation C-3. If the LTE∆ is being calculated for an HMA
3744
3745

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 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F
Appendix C

3746 overlaid PCC at the joint reflective crack, compression of the HMA
3747 overlay may result in an inaccurate assessment of the load transfer.

3748 Equation C-3. Load Transfer Efficiency.

∆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑_𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏
𝐿𝑇𝐸∆ = ( ) 100%
∆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑_𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏
3749 Where:
3750 LTEΔ = Deflection load transfer efficiency, in percent
3751 Δunloaded_slab = Deflection on loaded slab, normally under load plate, in
3752 mils
3753 Δloaded_slab = Deflection on adjacent unloaded slab, in mils
3754 Once LTE∆ values are computed, they must be related to the stress
3755 load transfer efficiency (LTE) to understand how load transfer
3756 will impact the structural capacity of a pavement section. This is
3757 necessary because the FAA design and evaluation procedures in AC
3758 150/5320-6 assumes the amount of load transfer is sufficient to reduce the
3759 free edge flexural stress in a PCC slab by 25 percent. Since the
3760 relationship between LTE∆ and LTE  is not linear, additional analysis
3761 work is required to compute if the stress load transfer efficiency is 25
3762 percent. Equation C-4 shows how LTE  is defined.

3763 Equation C-4. Stress Load Transfer Efficiency

𝜎𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑_𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏
𝐿𝑇𝐸𝜎 = ( ) 100%
𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑_𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏
3764 Where:
3765 LTEσ = Stress load transfer efficiency, in percent
3766 σunloaded_slab = Stress on loaded slab, in psi
3767 σloaded_slab = Stress on adjacent unloaded slab, in psi

3768 C.20.2 PCC Void Analysis.

3769 C.20.2.1 In addition to joint load transfer, another important characteristic of a PCC
3770 pavement is the slab support conditions. One of the assumptions made
3771 during PCC back-calculation is that the entire slab is in full contact with
3772 the foundation. The presence of surface distresses such as corner breaks,
3773 joint faulting, and slab cracking, indicates that a loss of support may exist
3774 in the pavement section. As with a joint condition analysis, the focus of
3775 the void analysis is near joints or slab corners.

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Appendix C

3776 C.20.2.2 A loss of support may exist because erosion may have occurred in the
3777 base, subbase, or subgrade; settlement beneath the PCC layer; or due to
3778 temperature curling or moisture warping.

3779 C.20.3 PCC Durability Analysis.

3780 C.20.3.1 The back-calculation analysis procedures assume that the PCC layer is
3781 homogenous and the results are based on center slab deflections and the
3782 condition of the slab in the interior. PCC pavements can experience
3783 durability problems as a result of poor mix designs, poor construction,
3784 reactive and nondurable aggregates, wet climates, and high numbers of
3785 freeze-thaw cycles. In general, durability problems are most severe along
3786 PCC joints and at slab corners because moisture levels are the highest at
3787 these locations.
3788 C.20.3.2 Surface conditions may not be a good indicator of the severity several
3789 inches below the PCC surface and NDT deflection data may be very
3790 useful in assessing the severity of durability-related problems. This is
3791 especially true if a PCC pavement with durability problems has been
3792 overlaid with HMA. Often, the severity of the durability distresses
3793 increases after an HMA overlay has been constructed because more
3794 moisture is present at the HMA and PCC interface.
3795 C.20.3.3 The extent of the durability problem can be assessed by evaluating the
3796 ISM (or DSM) obtained from the center of the slab and comparing it to the
3797 ISM (or DSM) at a transverse or longitudinal joint or at the slab corner.
3798 The ISMratio will not be equal to one for a perfect slab because slab
3799 deflections are highest at the slab corner and lowest at the slab center. If a
3800 joint load transfer or loss of support analysis has been conducted, the same
3801 raw deflection data can be used to compute the ISMratio.

3802 Equation C-5. Impulse Stiffness Modulus Ratio.

𝐼𝑆𝑀𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏_𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐼𝑆𝑀𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝐾 ( )
𝐼𝑆𝑀𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏_𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟
3803 or
𝐼𝑆𝑀𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏_𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐼𝑆𝑀𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝐾 ( )
𝐼𝑆𝑀𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏_𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

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Appendix C

3804 Where:
3805 ISMratio = Impulse stiffness modulus ratio
3806 ISMslab center = Impulse stiffness modulus at slab center, in pounds/inch
3807 ISMslab corner = Impulse stiffness modulus at slab corner, in pounds/inch
3808 ISMslab joint = Impulse stiffness modulus at slab joint, in pounds/inch
3809 C.20.3.4 An ISMratio greater than 3 may indicate that the PCC durability at the slab
3810 corner or joint is poor. If it is between 3 and 1.5, the durability is
3811 questionable. Finally, if the ratio is less than 1.5, the PCC is probably in
3812 good condition. These ranges are based on the assumption that the
3813 durability at the PCC interior is excellent. This assumption can be verified
3814 by reviewing the modulus values obtained from back-calculation analysis
3815 of the PCC layer.
3816 C.20.3.5 Use of the ISMratio for HMA overlaid PCC pavements has the advantage of
3817 eliminating the “HMA compression” effect that occurs during NDT.
3818 Assuming that the HMA layer is the same thickness throughout the PCC
3819 slab and that its condition (for example, stiffness and extent of shrinkage
3820 cracks) is relatively constant throughout the slab, there should be
3821 approximately the same amount of HMA compression at the slab center,
3822 corner, and joint. The net effect is that the ISMratio will primarily reflect
3823 the durability of the PCC layer.

3824 C.21 NDT Based Evaluation and Design Inputs.

3825 C.21.1 This section provides guidance on use of inputs developed from NDT data for structural
3826 evaluation and design in accordance with ACs 150/5320-6 and 150/5335-5. These
3827 inputs are used for pavement evaluation and design including; layer thickness, layer
3828 elastic moduli, CBR values, subgrade elastic moduli, and k-values. The engineer should
3829 know what evaluation or design program they will use when conducting back-
3830 calculation analyses.

3831 C.21.2 For a more conservative evaluation or design approach, AC 150/5320-6 recommends
3832 that in general, the mean minus one standard deviation may be used for establishing
3833 evaluation and design inputs. If the coefficient of variation is large, i.e., greater than 20
3834 percent, outliers should be removed to compute the mean minus one standard deviation.
3835 If outliers are not removed, this approach leads to the use of a pavement characteristic
3836 value (for example, ISM or elastic modulus) that is less than 85 percent of all section
3837 values for a normally distributed population. If the outliers are removed and the use of a
3838 mean minus one standard deviation continues to lead to unreasonable low input values,
3839 the engineer should consider division of the existing pavement section into two or more
3840 subsections.

3841 C.21.3 Use of Back-Calculated HMA and PCC Surface Moduli.

3842 The allowable range of modulus values in FAARFIELD are given in Table 3-2. The
3843 engineer should verify that the material layer data falls within these ranges. If the

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 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F
Appendix C

3844 material layer data does not fall within the limits given, appropriate adjustments, either
3845 up or down must be made for the material layer. Do not go above the upper limit for the
3846 material. If the material layer data falls below the lower value, the engineer must adjust
3847 the layer type to reflect the lower value.

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 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F
Appendix E

3848 APPENDIX D. REINFORCED ISOLATION JOINT DESIGN EXAMPLE

3849 D.1 Reinforced Isolation Joint.

3850 A reinforced isolation joint (Type A-1) can be used as an alternative to a thickened edge
3851 joint for PCC slabs that are greater than or equal to 9 inch. Sufficient steel
3852 reinforcement should be provided at the bottom of the slab for the reinforced concrete
3853 section to resist the maximum bending moment caused by the critical aircraft loading
3854 the free edge of the slab, assuming no load transfer, and application of the load factor
3855 (1.7 for live-load). The amount of steel provided must be supported by structural
3856 calculations. An equal amount of steel reinforcement must be placed at the top of the
3857 slab to resist negative moments that may arise at the slab corners. Any additional
3858 embedded steel used for crack control should conform to the requirements of paragraph
3859 3.13.12.2. Where a reinforced isolation joint intersects another joint, the reinforcing
3860 steel should not be terminated abruptly, nor should it continue through the intersecting
3861 joint. At each intersecting joint, both top and bottom reinforcing bars should be bent 90
3862 degrees in the horizontal plane and continue at least one bar development length (ld) or
3863 12 bar diameters (12 db) beyond a point located a distance 49 inches (1.25 m) from the
3864 face of the isolation joint, as shown in Figure D-1. In all cases, a minimum of 3 inches
3865 (75 mm) clear cover shall be maintained on all reinforcing bars.
3866

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 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F
Appendix E

3867 Figure D-1. Type A-1 Joint Detail

3868

3869

D-2
 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F
Appendix E

3870 D.2 Design Example Reinforced Isolation Joint (Type A-1).

3871 D.2.1 A new rigid pavement will be constructed for the following mix of airplanes: DC10-10,
3872 B747-200B Combi Mixed, and B777-200ER. An isolation joint will be provided at the
3873 location of planned future expansion. Because of the potential for trapped water, a
3874
f
reinforced isolation joint is selected. Assume that the concrete compressive strength c
3875 = 4,000 psi (27.6 MPa). Using FAARFIELD, the PCC design thickness for a 20-year
3876 life and Mr of thickness was determined to be 15.0 inches (381 mm). The maximum
3877 stress to be used for the joint design is determined using FAARFIELD as follows:
3878 1. In the Options window, under “General Options,” check the “Out Files” box.
3879 2. Run a “Life” computation for the design section, using the design traffic mix. It
3880 is not necessary to run separate computations for each airplane.
3881 3. For each airplane, obtain the computed PCC slab horizontal (tensile) edge stress
3882 from the output file NikePCC.out, in the FAARFIELD working directory. Note
3883 that two stresses are reported for each airplane in the mix, the “Edge” stress and
3884 the “Interior” Stress. (The stress marked “PCC SLAB HOR STRESS” is simply
3885 the larger of the two values.) Disregard the “Interior” stress. Also note that stress
3886 values are in psi.
3887 4. For the maximum “Edge” stress found in step 3, calculate the free edge stress by
3888 dividing the PCC slab horizontal stress by 0.75. (Dividing by 0.75 is necessary
3889 because the FAARFIELD edge stress has already been reduced by 25 percent to
3890 account for assumed joint load transfer.)

3891 D.2.2 For this design example, the maximum PCC horizontal edge stress from the output file
3892 NikePCC.out was found to be 356.87 psi, for the B747-200B. Therefore, the maximum
3893 (working) free edge stress for the concrete section design is calculated as 356.87/0.75 =
3894 475.83 psi.

3895 D.2.3 The reinforced concrete section will be designed using the ultimate strength method.
3896 The dead load will be neglected.
3897 1. Assuming a live load factor of 1.7, calculate the ultimate bending moment Mu:
 15.0 in.3  12 in. 
475.83 psi   
 edge  I g  12 
M u  1.7   1.7 
3898 c 7.5 in. =364,775 lb.-in. = 30.4 kip-ft.

D-3
 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F
Appendix E

3899 where:
3900  edge = the maximum free edge stress based on FAARFIELD (step
3901 4 above),
3902 Ig = the gross moment of inertia calculated for a 1-foot strip of
3903 the concrete slab, and
3904 c = the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber,
3905 assumed to be one-half of the slab thickness.
3906

3907 2. Assume the bottom edge reinforcement will consist of No. 6 bars spaced at 6
3908 inches at the bottom of the slab, as shown in figure 3-8. Neglecting the
3909 contribution of the top (compressive) steel to the moment resistance, calculate the
3910 flexural design strength using the following equation:
  f y 
M n  As f y d 1  0.59  
  f c 
3911
3912 where:
3913 ϕ = stress reduction factor (= 0.90 for flexure without axial
3914 loading)
3915 As = steel area = 2 x 0.44 = 0.88 in2 for 1-ft. width
3916 fy = steel yield stress (assume fy= 60,000 psi)
3917 f c = concrete compressive strength
3918 d = depth to steel centroid
As
3919 ρ= steel ratio 
bd

3920 b = section width = 12 in.

3921

3922 3. For the minimum 3 in. (76 mm) clear cover on No. 6 bars, d = 11.63 in. (295
3923 mm). Using the above values, ϕMn is calculated as 43.5 kip-ft. Since Mu < ϕMn,
3924 the design is adequate for flexure.
3925 4. A check should also be performed for minimum and maximum steel ratio. The
3926 minimum steel ratio is given by:
200
 min 
fy
3927

D-4
 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F
Appendix E

3928 where fy is in psi. From the above values, obtain ρmin = 0.0033.
3929 The calculated steel ratio 0.0063 > 0.0033, hence the minimum steel ratio
3930 criterion is satisfied.
3931

3932 5. The maximum steel ratio is determined from the equation:

 f c 87000 
 max  0.75   b  0.75  0.85  1   0.0213
 f y 87000  f y 
3933
3934 where:
3935 ρb = the balanced steel ratio,
3936 β1 = 0.85 (for f c = 4000 psi) and
3937 fy is in psi.
3938

3939 6. Since the calculated steel ratio ρ = 0.0060 < 0.0213, the maximum steel ratio
3940 criterion is also satisfied. For the final design, provide five (5) no. 6 bars spaced
3941 at 6 inches (152 mm) on centers.
3942
3943

D-5
 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F
Appendix E

3944 APPENDIX E. RELATED READING MATERIAL

3945 E.1.1 The following advisory circulars are available for download on the FAA website
3946 (http://www.faa.gov/airports/resources/advisory_circulars):
3947 1. AC 150/5300-9, Predesign, Prebid, and Preconstruction Conferences for Airport
3948 Grant Projects.
3949 2. AC 150/5300-13, Airport Design.
3950 3. AC 150/5320-5, Surface Drainage Design.
3951 4. AC 150/5320-12, Measurement, Construction and Maintenance of Skid
3952 Resistance Airport Pavement Surfaces.
3953 5. AC 150/5320-17, Airfield Pavement Surface Evaluation and Rating Manual.
3954 6. AC 150/5335-5, Standardized Method of Reporting Airport Pavement Strength-
3955 PCN.
3956 7. AC 150/5340-30, Design and Installation Details for Airport Visual Aids.
3957 8. AC 150/5370-10, Standard for Specifying Construction of Airports.
3958 9. AC 150/5370-11, Use of Nondestructive Testing Devices in the Evaluation of
3959 Airport Pavement.
3960 10. AC 150/5370-14, Hot Mix Asphalt Paving Handbook.
3961 11. AC 150/5380-6, Guidelines and Procedures for Maintenance of Airport
3962 Pavements.
3963 12. AC 150/5380-7, Airport Pavement Management Program (PMP).

3964 E.1.2 The following order is available for download on the FAA website
3965 (http://www.faa.gov/airports/resources/publications/orders/)
3966
3967 1. Order 5100.38, Airport Improvement Program Handbook.
3968 2. Order 5300.7, Standard Naming Convention for Aircraft Landing Gear
3969 Configurations.

3970 E.1.3 Copies of the following technical reports may be obtained from the National Technical
3971 Information Service (http://www.ntis.gov):
3972 1. DOT/FAA/AR-04/46, Operational Life of Airport Pavements, by Garg, Guo, and
3973 McQueen, December 2004.
3974 2. FAA-RD-73-169, Review of Soil Classification Systems Applicable to Airport
3975 Pavement Design, by Yoder, May 1974; AD-783-190.
3976 3. FAA-RD-73-198, Vol. 1, Comparative Performance of Structural Layers in
3977 Pavement Systems. Volume I. Design, Construction, and Behavior under Traffic

E-1
 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F
Appendix E

3978 of Pavement Test Sections, by Burns, Rone, Brabston, and Ulery, June 1974; AD-
3979 0785-024.
3980 1. FAA-RD-73-198, Vol. 3, Comparative Performance of Structural Layers in
3981 Pavement Systems, Volume III: Design and Construction of MESL, by Hammitt,
3982 December 1974; ADA-005-893.
3983 2. FAA-RD-74-030, Design of Civil Airfield Pavement for Seasonal Frost and
3984 Permafrost Conditions, by Berg, October 1974; ADA-006-284.
3985 3. FAA-RD-74-033, Vol. 3, Continuously Reinforced Concrete Airfield Pavement.
3986 Volume III. Design Manual for Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement, by
3987 Treybig, McCullough, and Hudson, May 1974; AD-0780-512.
3988 4. FAA-RD-74-036, Field Survey and Analysis of Aircraft Distribution on Airport
3989 Pavements, by Ho Sang, February 1975; ADA-011-488.
3990 5. FAA-RD-74-039, Pavement Response to Aircraft Dynamic Loads. Volume II.
3991 Presentation and Analysis of Data, by Ledbetter, September 1975, ADA-022-806.
3992 6. FAA-RD-74-199, Development of a Structural Design Procedure for Flexible
3993 Airport Pavements, by Barker, and Brabston, September 1975; ADA-019-205.
3994 7. FAA-RD-75-110, Vol. 2, Methodology for Determining, Isolating, and
3995 Correcting Runway Roughness, by Seeman, and Nielsen, June 1977; ADA-044-
3996 328.
3997 8. FAA-RD-76-066, Design and Construction of Airport Pavements on Expansive
3998 Soils, by McKeen, June 1976; ADA-028-094.
3999 9. FAA-RD-76-179, Structural Design of Pavements for Light Aircraft, by Ladd,
4000 Parker, and Pereira, December 1976; ADA-041-300.
4001 10. FAA-RD-77-81, Development of a Structural Design Procedure for Rigid Airport
4002 Pavements, by Parker, Barker, Gunkel, and Odom, April 1979; ADA-069-548.
4003 11. FAA-RD-81-078, Economic Analysis of Airport Pavement Rehabilitation
4004 Alternatives – An Engineering Manual, by Epps, and Wootan, October 1981;
4005 ADA-112-550.
4006 12. FAA-PM-84/14, Performance of Airport Pavements under High Traffic
4007 Intensities.
4008 13. DOT/FAA/PM-85115, Validation of Procedures for Pavement Design on
4009 Expansive Soils, by McKeen, July 1985; ADA-160-739.
4010 14. FAA-PM-87/19, Design of Overlays for Rigid Airport Pavements, by Rollings,
4011 April 1988, ADA-194-331.

4012 E.1.4 Copies of ASTM standards may be obtained from the ASTM International, 100 Barr
4013 Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, 19428-2959 or from
4014 the ASTM International website: http://www.astm.org/Standard/standards-and-
4015 publications.html.

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 5/31/2016 DRAFT AC 150/5320-6F
Appendix E

4016 E.1.5 Copies of Unified Facility Criteria (UFC) may be obtained from the National Institute
4017 of Building Sciences Whole Building Design Guide website: https://www.wbdg.org/.

4018 E.1.6 Copies of Asphalt Institute publications are available from Asphalt Institute, 2696
4019 Research Park Drive, Lexington, KY 40511-8480 or their website:
4020 http://www.asphaltinstitute.org/.

4021 E.1.7 Miscellaneous.

4022 1. Soil Cement Construction Handbook, Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old
4023 Orchard Road, Skokie, Illinois 60077, 1995. (www.cement.org)
4024 2. Pavement Management for Airports, Roads and Parking Lots, M.Y. Shahin,2005
4025 3. FHWA-HI-95-038, Geosynthetic Design and Construction Guidelines, 1995.
4026 (Development of Guidelines for Rubblization, Airfield Asphalt Pavement
4027 Technology Program (AAPTP) Report 04-01, by Buncher, M. (Principal
4028 Investigator), Fitts, G., Scullion, T., and McQueen, R., Draft Report, November
4029 2007. (http://www.aaptp.us/reports.html)
4030 4. Best Practices for Airport Concrete Pavement Construction, EB102, American
4031 Concrete Pavement Association, 9450 Bryn Mawr, STE 150, Rosemont, IL
4032 60018Basic Asphalt Recycling Manual, Asphalt Recycling and Reclaimation
4033 Association, #3 Church Circle, PMB 250, Annapolis, Maryland 21401
4034

E-3
4035 Advisory Circular Feedback

4036 If you find an error in this AC, have recommendations for improving it, or have suggestions for
4037 new items/subjects to be added, you may let us know by (1) mailing this form to:

4038 Federal Aviation Administration

4039 Airport Engineering Division (AAS-100)
4040 800 Independence Avenue SW
4041 Washington, DC 20591
4042 or (2) faxing it to the attention of Manager, Airport Engineering Division (AAS-100),
4043 (202) 267-8663.

Subject: AC 150/5320-6F, Airport Pavement Design and Date: ____________________

Evaluation

4044 Please check all appropriate line items:

4045 ☐ An error (procedural or typographical) has been noted in paragraph ________________ on

4046 page __________________.

4047 ☐ Recommend paragraph ______________ on page ______________ be changed as follows:

4048 _________________________________________________________________________
4049 _________________________________________________________________________
4050 _________________________________________________________________________

4051 ☐ In a future change to this AC, please cover the following subject:
4052 (Briefly describe what you want added.)

4053 _________________________________________________________________________
4054 _________________________________________________________________________
4055 _________________________________________________________________________

4056 ☐ Other comments:

4057 _________________________________________________________________________
4058 _________________________________________________________________________
4059 _________________________________________________________________________

4060 ☐ I would like to discuss the above. Please contact me at (phone number, email address).

4061 Submitted by: ________________________________ Date: ________________________